C Programming Language

Quick Reference
V1.3

June 2009
Information contained in this publication regarding device applications and the like is intended through suggestion only and may be superseded by updates. It is your responsibility to ensure that your application meets with your specifications. No representation or warranty is given and no liability is assumed by Cytron Technologies Incorporated with respect to the accuracy or use of such information or infringement of patents or other intellectual property rights arising from such use or otherwise. Use of Cytron Technologiess products as critical components in life support systems is not authorized except with express written approval by Cytron Technologies. No licenses are conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under any intellectual property rights.

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Index
1. Introduction 2. Standard Method to Start a. b. c. d. e. f. C Comments Include Header File Configuration Bits Include Libraries, Functions declaration and Global variables Function Name Function Body 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11

3. Radix Format 4. Identifiers, Variables and Keywords a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Identifiers Variable Keywords Data Type Declaring Variable Array String

5. Operators a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Arithmetic Operators Assignment Operators Relational Operators Logical Operators Bitwise Operators Shift Operators Memory Addressing Operators

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h. i.

Other Operators Operator Precedence

11 12 13 13 13 14 15 16 19 20 21 22 23 24 27 36

6. Statements a. b. c. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. 7. Function 8. Creating Project using MPLAB + HI-TECH C PRO Compiler 9. Starting a PIC Program Expression Statements Compound Statements Control Statements if Statement switch Statement for Statement while Statement do-while Statement break Statement continue Statement

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1. Introduction This reference guide is intended to quickly introduce user to C language syntax with the aim to easily start programming microcontroller (PIC) during code development. 1st question, Why C language? Because C offers unmatched power and flexibility in programming microcontrollers.

2. Standard Method to Start There is no 100% correct ways to write c program, anyway there are guide lines to follow. Let see what a C file contains.

a. Comments b. Include header file c. Configuration bits d. Include libraries, function declaration, global variable e. Function name Begin of Block f. Function body

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a. C Comments /* Put your comments here. This is actually the format of C comments. It may takes multiple lines, as long as it is end with */ OR // Put your comments after //, this only allow one line. // If you need multiple lines you will need // in front of each line. // This is C++ format of putting comments.

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b. Include Header File #include<htc.h> is to called the proper header file. It enables the compiler to include file which define standard keyword for PIC based on model. It also includes certain functions contained in the external file htc.h. As the file placed before the program proper, it is called a header file (with the file extension .h).

c. Configuration Bits A macro that writes a value into the special register that controls the core executing operations of the microcontroller. It start with two _ and followed with CONFIG(configuration bits); If the configuration bits are not specified correctly, the PIC MCUs might not run the application code properly

d. Include Libraries, Functions declaration and Global variables This section can be leaved blank depend on program writer. However, if there is necessary to include other header file, libraries, to declare functions prototype and global variables, it should be placed here.

e. Function Name All C programs are written in terms of functions. It is the basic building block in C programming. C program must have at least the function main( ). The void means the main( ) function doesn't return any value when it exit (finish running)..

f. Function Body Every function, including main( ), must have a body enclosed in braces { }.The function body (also called block) can be of any size. The curly braces are to signify the block of codes belonging to main( ). Do take note that there MUST NOT be a semicolon after the closing brace.

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3. Radix Format Radix format is the way a value is being presented in C language There are four methods to present value: Radix Binary Octal Format Comments 0bnumber or 0Bnumber MPASM binary is in format Bnumber. 0number or \number Inadvertently putting a 0 in front of a decimal number will convert it to octal for the compiler, potentially resulting in errors that are very hard to find. MPASM default is hexadecimal

Decimal Hexadecimal

number

0xnumber or 0Xnumber MPASM also enables Xnumber.

4. Identifiers, Variables and Keywords a. Identifiers Identifiers are simply names or labels given to program elements such as variables, functions, arrays. A valid identifier has the rules of:

Identifier
First Character _ (underscore) A to Z a to z Remaining Characters _ (underscore) A to Z a to z 0 to 9

Remember! Is case sensitive, Temp not the same as temp.

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b. Variable A variable is a valid identifier that represents one or more memory locations used to hold

program data. It must be declared before uses. Data type must be assigned to a variable.

c. Keywords Keywords also called reserved words, have standard, predefined meanings and must be used only for their intended purpose. asm class do far huge long protected sizeof typedef volatile auto const double float if near public static union while break continue else for inline new register struct unsigned case default enum friend int operator return switch virtual char delete extern goto interrupt private short this void

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d. Data Type Data Type is type assigned to variable to determine the size and how the variable being interpreted. Fundamental Type Type Description char single character int integer float single precision floating point number double double precision floating point number Modified Integer Types Qualifiers: unsigned, signed, short and long Qualified Type unsigned char char, signed char unsigned short int short int, signed short int unsigned int int, signed int unsigned long int long int, signed long int unsigned long long int long long int, signed long long int

Bits 8 16 32 64

Min 0 -128 0 -32768 0 -32768 0 -231 0 -263

Max 255 127 65535 32767 65535 32767 232-1 231-1 264-1 263-1

Bits 8 8 16 16 16 16 32 32 64 64

Modified Floating Point Types Absolute Absolute Qualified Type Min Max Bits -44.85 38.53 float ~10 ~10 32 double1 ~10-44.85 ~1038.53 32 -323.3 308.3 long double ~10 ~10 64 1. HI-TECH C PRO is either using IEEE-754 Format or modified (Truncated) 24-bit Format

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e. Declaring Variable Standard Syntax type identifier1, identifier2,.., identifiern; Other method One declaration on a line type identifier; One declaration on a line with an initial value type identifier InitialValue; Multiple declarations of same type of a line type identifier1, identifier2, identifier3; Multiple declarations of same type of a line with initial values type identifier1= Value1, identifier2 = Value2; Example: unsigned int x; unsigned y = 12; int a, b, c; long int myVar = 0x12345678; long z; char first = 'a', second, third = 'c'; float big_number = 6.02e+23;

f. Array Arrays are variables that can store many items of the same data type. The individual items known as elements, are stored sequentially and are uniquely identified by the array index (sometimes called a subscript). The index is zero based. Standard Syntax type arrayName[size]; size refer to the number of elements and it must be a constant integer. Declaration with initialization type arrayName[size] = {item1, . , itemn}; The items must all match the type of the array. Example: int a[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

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Using Array: Standard Syntax arrayName[index] index may be a variable or a constant The first element in the array has an index of 0 Example1: int i, a[10];

//An array that can hold 10 integers

for(i = 0; i < 10; i++) { a[i] = 0; //Initialize all array elements to 0 } a[4] = 42; //Set fifth element to 42 Example2: unsigned char count[5] = {1,2,3,4,5}; element count[0] count[1] count[2] count[3] count[4] Value 1 2 3 4 5

g. String Strings are arrays of char whose last element is a null character \0 with an ASCII of 0. C has no native string data type, so strings must always be treated as character arrays. Strings: - Are enclosed in double quotes string. - Are terminated by a null character \0. - Must be manipulated as arrays of characters (treated element by element). - May be initialized with a string literal. Declaration with initialization char arrayName[] = Cytron Technologies; Element size is not required. Size automatically determined by length of string. NULL character \0 is automatically appended. Example: char str1[] = Cytron"; // 7 chars Cytron\0" //Alternative string declaration size required char str3[4] = {'P', 'I', 'C', '\0'};

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Following show the ASCII table:

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5. Operators Most C Compiler recognizes following operators: - Arithmetic Operators - Assignment Operators - Relational Operators - Logical Operators - Bitwise Operators - Shift Operators - Memory Addressing Operators - Other Operators a. Arithmetic Operators Operator Operation Example Product * Multiplication x * y Product of x and y / x / y division Quotient of x and y Remainder of x divided by % x % y Modulo y + x + y Addition Sum of x and y Subtraction x - y Difference of x and y + + x Positive Value of x - y Negative Negative value of y ++ ++ x Increment increase x by 1 -Decrement -- x decrease x by 1

Remarks Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Unary Unary Unary Unary

b. Assignment Operators Operator Operation = Assignment += Compound Assignment -= Compound Assignment *= Compound Assignment /= Compound Assignment %= Compound Assignment &= Compound Assignment ^= Compound Assignment |= Compound Assignment <<= Compound Assignment >>= Compound Assignment

Example x = y x += y x -= y x *= y x /= y x %= y x &= y x ^= y x |= y x <<= y x >>= y

Result Assign x the value of y x=x+y x=x-y x=x*y x=x/y x=x%y x=x&y x=x^y x=x|y x = x << y x = x >> y

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c. Relational Operators Operator Operation < Less than <= Less than or equal to > Greater than Greater than or equal >= to == Equal to != Not equal to

Example x < y x <= y x > y x >= y x == y x != y

Result (FASLE = 0, TRUE0) 1 if x less than y, else 0 1 if x less than or equal to y, else 0 1 if x greater than y, else 0 1 is x greater than or equal to y, else 0 1 is x equal to y, else 0 1 is x not equal to y, else 0

d. Logical Operators Operator Operation && Logical AND || Logical OR ! Logical NOT

Example x && y x || y !x

Result (FASLE = 0, TRUE0) 1 if both x 0 and y 0, else 0 1 if both x = 0 and y = 0, else 1 1 if x = 0, else 0

e. Bitwise Operators The operation is carried out on each bit of the first operand with each corresponding bit of the second operand. Operator Operation Example Result (for each bit position) 1 if 1 in both x and y & x & y Bitwise AND 0, if 0 is x or y or both 1, if 1 in x or y or both | x | y Bitwise OR 0, if 0 in both x and y 1, is 1 in x or y but not both ^ x ^ y Bitwise XOR 0, if 0 or 1 in both x and y 1, if 0 in x ~ ~x Bitwise NOT 0, if 1 in x

f. Shift Operators Operator Operation << Shift Left >> Shift Right

Example x << y x >> y

Result Shift x by y bits to the left Shift x by y bits to the right

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g. Memory Addressing Operators Operator Operation & Address of * Indirection [ ] Subscripting . ->

Example Result &x Pointer to x *p The object of function that p points to x[y] The yth element of array x The member named y in the structure Struct/Union Member x.y or union x Struct/Union Member p->y The member named y in the structure by Reference or union that p points to

h. Other Operators Operator ( ) sizeof (type) ?: , Operation Function call Size of an object or type in bytes Explicit type cast Conditional expression Sequential evaluation Example foo(x) sizeof x (short) x x ? y : z x, y Result Passes control to the function with the specified arguments the number of bytes x occupies in memory Converts the value of c to the specified type The value of y if x is true, else value of z Evaluates x then y, else result is value of y

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i. Operator Precedence Which operator will be evaluated first? Operator Description ( ) Parenthesized Expression [ ] Array Subscript . Structure Member -> Structure Pointer + Unary + and - (Positive and Negative Signs) ++ -- Increment and Decrement ! ~ Logical NOT and Bitwise Complement * Deference (Pointer) & Address of sizeof Size of Expression or Type (type) Explicit Typecast * / % Multiply, Divide, and Modulus + Add and Subtract << >> Shift Left and Shift Right < <= Less Than and Less Than or Equal To > >= Greater Than and Greater Than or Equal To == != Equal To and Not Equal to & Bitwise AND ^ Bitwise XOR | Bitwise OR && Logical AND || Logical OR ? : Conditional Operator = Assignment += -= Addition and Subtraction Assignments /= *= Division and Multiplication Assignments %= Modules Assignment <<= >>= Shift Left and Shift Right Assignments &= |= Bitwise AND and OR Assignments ^= Bitwise XOR Assignments , Comma Operator

Associativity Left-to-Right

Right-to-Left

Left-to-Right

Right-to-Left

Left-to-Right

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6. Statements Statements can be roughly divided into: - Expression Statements - Compound Statements - Control Statements

a. Expression Statements An expression followed by a semi-colon. It caused the expression to be evaluated. Example: i = 0; i++; a = 5 + i; y = (m * x) + b; printf("Slope = %f", m); ;

b. Compound Statements A group of individual statements enclosed within a pair of curly braces { and }. It does not end with a semicolon after }. It is also called Block Statements. Example: { float start, finish; start = 0.0; finish = 400.0; distance = finish start; time = 55.2; speed = distance / time; printf("Speed = %f m/s", speed); }

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c. Control Statements Used for loops, branches and logical tests. Often require other statements embedded within them. Before exploring more in to Control Statements, we must understand Boolean expressions. Boolean expressions return integers: - 0 if expression evaluates as FALSE - Non-zero if expression evaluates as TRUE (usually returns 1, but this is not guaranteed) Example: int main(void) { int x = 5, y, z; y = (x > 4); z = (x > 6); while (1); }

y = 1 (TRUE) z = 0 (FALSE)

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i. if Statement Standard Syntax if (expression) statement expression is evaluated for Boolean TRUE (0) or FALSE (=0), if TRUE, then statement is executed. Flow diagram of if statement

START START
expression 0

TRUE
expression expression statement statement

expression = 0 FALSE
END END

Example: { int x = 5; if (x) { printf("x = %d\n", x); } while (1); } if statement may has several combination of: a. Nested if statement b. if-else statement c. if-else if statement

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ii. switch Statement Standard Syntax switch (expression) { case const-expr1: statements1 . . . case const-exprn: statementsn default: statementsn+1 } expression is evaluated and tested for a match with the const-expr in each case clause. The statements in the matching case are executed.

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Flow diagram of default switch statement

Const-expr1= Const-expr1= expression? expression?

statement1 statement1

Notice that each statement falls through to the next This is the default behavior of the switch statement

Const-expr2= Const-expr2= expression? expression?

statement2 statement2

Const-exprn= Const-exprn= expression? expression?

statementn statementn

statementn+1 statementn+1

END END

Flow diagram of modified switch Statement

Const-expr1= Const-expr1= expression? expression?

statement1 statement1 break; break;

Const-expr2= Const-expr2= expression? expression?

statement2 statement2 break; break;

Const-exprn= Const-exprn= expression? expression?

statementn statementn break; break;

Adding a break statement to each statement block will eliminate fall through, allowing only one case clause's statement block to be executed

statementn+1 statementn+1

END END

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Example: switch(channel) { case 2: printf("WBBM Chicago\n"); break; case 3: printf("DVD Player\n"); break; case 4: printf("WTMJ Milwaukee\n"); break; case 5: printf("WMAQ Chicago\n"); break; case 6: printf("WITI Milwaukee\n"); break; case 7: printf("WLS Chicago\n"); break; case 9: printf("WGN Chicago\n"); break; case 10: printf("WMVS Milwaukee\n"); break; case 11: printf("WTTW Chicago\n"); break; case 12: printf("WISN Milwaukee\n"); break; default: printf("No Signal Available\n"); }

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iii. for Statement Also being called as for loop. Standard Syntax for (expression1; expression2; expression3) statement expression1 initializes a loop count variable once at start of loop (e.g. I = 0). expression2 is the test condition: the loop will continue while this is true (e.g. I <= 10). expression3 is executed at the end of each iteration (loop): usually to modify the loop count variable (e.g. i++).

Flow diagram of for Statement

START START
Initialize loop variable
expression1 expression1 expression3 expression3

i = 0
TRUE Test loop variable for exit condition expression2? expression ?
2

Modify loop variable

i++

statement statement

i < n
FALSE

END END
Example: int i; for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) { printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i); } Expected result: Loop iteration 0 Loop iteration 1 Loop iteration 2 Loop iteration 3 Loop iteration 4

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iv. while Statement Often called while loop. Standard Syntax while (expression) statement If expression is TRUE, statement will be executed and then expression will be re-evaluated to determine whether or not to execute statement again. It is possible that statement will never be executed if expression is FALSE when it is first evaluated.

Flow diagram of while Statement

expression? expression?

statement statement

END END

Example: int i = 0; Loop counter initialized outside of the loop

while (i < 5) Condition checked at start of { loop iterations printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i++); } Loop counter incremented manually inside loop Expected result: Loop iteration 0 Loop iteration 1 Loop iteration 2 Loop iteration 3 Loop iteration 4

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v. do-while Statement Always called do-while loop Standard Syntax do statement while (expression); statement is executed and then expression is evaluated to determine whether or not to execute statement again. statement will always execute at least once, even if the expression is FALSE when the loop starts.

Flow diagram of do-while Statement

expression? expression?

END END

Example: int i = 0; do { Loop counter initialized outside of loop Loop counter incremented manually inside loop

printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i++); } while (i < 5); Condition checked at end of loop iterations Expected result: Loop iteration 0 Loop iteration 1 Loop iteration 2 Loop iteration 3 Loop iteration 4 Loop iteration 5

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vi. break Statement Standard Syntax break; - Causes immediate termination of a loop even if the exit condition hasnt been met. - Exits from a switch statement so that execution doesnt fall through the next case clause. Flow diagram of break Statement
START START

TRUE
expression? expression? statement statement break break statement statement

FALSE
END END

Example: int i = 0; Exit from the loop when I = 5. Iteration 6-9 will not be executed.

while (i < 10) { i++; if (i == 5) break; printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i); } Expected result: Loop iteration 1 Loop iteration 2 Loop iteration 3 Loop iteration 4

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vii. continue Statement Standard Syntax continue; - Causes program to jump back to the beginning of a loop without completing the current iteration. Flow diagram of break Statement
START START

TRUE
expression? expression? statement statement continue continue

FALSE
END END

statement statement

Example: int i = 0;

while (i < 6) { i++; if (i == 2) continue; printf("Loop iteration #%d\n", i); } Expected result: Loop iteration 1 Loop iteration 3 Loop iteration 4 Loop iteration 5

Skip remaining iteration when i=2. Iteration 2 will not be completed.

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7. Functions Functions are self contained program segments designed to perform a specific, well defined task. - All C programs have one or more functions. - The main( ) function is the minimum function needed. - Functions can accept parameters from the code that calls them. - Functions usually return a single value. - Functions help to organize a program into logical, manageable segments. Program Structure in C programming

main() { ... eat(); ... drink(); ... }

eat() { ... return; } drink() { ... be_merry(); return; }

be_merry() { ... return; }

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Standard Syntax of function definition Syntax

Data type of return expression Name

Parameter List (optional)

type identifier(type1 arg1,,typen argn) { declarations Body statements return expression; }

Return Value (optional)

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Function Prototypes - Like variables, a function must be declared before it may be used. - Declaration must occur before main( ) or other functions that use it. - Declaration may take two forms: o The entire function definition o Just a function prototype the function definition itself may then be placed anywhere in the program Example: int a = 5, b = 10, c; int maximum(int x, int y); int main(void) { c = maximum(a, b) ; printf("The max is %d\n", c) } int maximum(int x, int y) { return ((x >= y) ? x : y); } Function is defined after it is used in main ( ) Function is declared with prototype before use in main ( )

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8. Creating Project using MPLAB + HI-TECH C PRO Compiler To start MPLAB IDE and open project for PIC16F series, please follow the step below: 1. Double click on the icon installed on the desktop after installation or select Start>Programs>Microchip> MPLAB IDE v8.20a>MPLAB IDE. A screen will display the MPLAB IDE logo followed by the MPLAB IDE desktop as in diagram below.

2. The next step is to create a project using the Project Wizard. A project is the way the files are organized to be compiled and assembled. We Choose Project>Project Wizard.

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3. From the Welcome dialog, click on Next to proceed.

4. The next dialog (Step One) allows you to select the device. In this example, PIC16F877A was selected from the drop down menu. Click Next>.

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5. The next step of the Project Wizard is sets up the language tools that are used with this project. Select HI-TECH Universal Toolsuite in the Active Toolsuite list box. Then select HI-TECH ANSI C Compiler in the Toolsuite Contents box. When you are finished, click Next.

6. Step three of the project wizard allows user to create new project file.

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7. For an example, a folder named Project was first created at Desktop.

8. Then open the folder, project. Project named project can be created by typing the project name in the column for File name, and click Save.

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9. Diagram below shown the Project project had been created and the directory. Click Next>.

10. Step four of the project wizard allow user to add existing file to the project, however, for this example, no files will be added. Please click Next> to proceed.

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11. A summary will be shown at the end of project wizard, all the project parameters are shown. Please click Finish to exit from project wizard.

12. After pressing the Finish button, review the Project Window on the MPLAB IDE desktop. It should look like the diagram below. If the Project Window is not open, please select View>Project.

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13. In this example, sample source code for Cytron DIY project, PR23 will be added to this project. The sample source code can be downloaded at http://www.cytron.com.my/PR23.asp . Diagram below show the sample source code, PR23.c being copied and pasted in the folder, project.

14. To add file in Source Files, right click on the Source Files, then click on Add Files, diagram below shown the example for add file to Source Files

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15. After clicking on Add Files, a window pop out, do make sure the Files of type is All Source Files(*.asm;*.c), then browse to the folder Project to add in PR23.c. User can select the file, PR23.c, and click open to add the file.

16. Diagram below shown PR23.c added to the project.

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17. After added the source file, user can open PR23.c file in this workspace and try to compile it. Diagram below shown opened PR23.c file. To compile, user can go Project>Build or the build icon (in red circle) on menu bar as shown in diagram below.

18. After build success, a message Build successful! will appear in output window like shown in diagram below.

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9. Starting a PIC Program There are basic steps to start a program for PIC microcontroller a. Create a project. b. Create a C file. c. Place some comments on top of C file. d. Include necessary header file. e. Write configuration bit. f. Function prototype declaration, global variables. g. Start main function, void main (). h. 1st thing after PIC reset, it will come to main function and look at first program line. Thus program write must initialize the PIC Input, Output, Analog input, UART, and also other peripherals which going to be used in later program. i. Also please ensure the initial stage of output is not activated after reset.

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