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Comments
C-style comments (multi-lines)
/* this comment is so long that it needs two lines */

Java (basic concepts)

Comments on a single line

// comment on one line

Version 3 - March 2009

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Code blocks and Scope

Java code blocks are the same as in C language Each block is enclosed by braces { } and starts a new scope for the variables Variables can be declared both at the beginning and in the middle of block code
for (int i=0; i<10; i++){ int x = 12; ... int y; ... }
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Control statements
Same as C
if-else, switch, while, do-while, for, break, continue

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Boolean
Java has an explicit type (boolean) to represent logic values (true, false) Conditional constructs evaluate boolean conditions
Note well - Its not possible to evaluate this condition int x = 7; if(x){} //NO Use relational operators if (x != 0)

Passing parameters
Parameters are always passed by value ...they can be primitive types or object references Note well: only the object reference is copied not the value of the object

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Constants
The final modifier
final float PI = 3.14; PI = 16.0; // ERROR, no changes final int SIZE; // ERROR, init missing

Elements in a OO program
Structural elements (types) (compile time) Class Primitive type Dynamic elements (data) (run time) Reference Variable

Use uppercases (coding conventions)

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Classes and primitive types

descriptor Class class Exam {}

Primitive type
Defined in the language:
int, double, boolean

type primitive int, char, float Variable of type primitive int i;

Instance declaration:

Variable of type reference instance Exam e; e = new Exam();

Declares instance name 0 Declares the type Allocates memory space for the reference

int i;

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Class
Defined by developer (eg, Exam) or by the Java environment (eg, String) the following declaration Exam e;
e null

allocates memory space for the reference (pointer) and sometimes it initializes it with null by default Allocation and initialization of the object value are made later by its constructor e = new Exam();
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Primitive types

e 0Xffe1

Object Exam

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Primitive types
Have a unique dimension and encoding
Representation is platform-independent

Constants
Constants of type int, float, char, strings follow C syntax
123 256789L 0.12375e+3 a % 0xff34 123.75 prova\n \n prova

type
boolean char byte short int long float double void
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Dimension
1 16 8 16 32 64 32 64 bit bits bits bits bits bits bits bits

Unicode Signed integer 2C Signed integer 2C Signed integer 2C Signed integer 2C IEEE 754 sp IEEE 754 dp

Encoding

Boolean constants (do not exist in C) are

true, false

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Operators (integer and floating-point)

Operators follow C syntax:
arithmetical + - * / % relational == != > < >= <= bitwise (int) & | ^ << >> ~ Assignment = += -= *= /= %= &= |= ^= Increment ++ --

Logical operators
Logical operators follows C syntax:
&& || ! ^

Note well: Logical operators work ONLY on booleans

Type int is NOT considered a boolean value like in C Relational operators work with boolean values

Chars are considered like integers (e.g. switch)

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Class
Object descriptor It consists of attributes and methods

Classes

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Class - definition
class Car { Name String color; Car String brand; Attributes boolean turnedOn; color void turnOn() { brand turnedOn = true; turnedOn } turnOn Methods void paint (String newCol) { paint color = newCol; printState } void printState () { System.out.println(Car + brand + + color); System.out.println(the engine is +(turnedOn:on:off)); } }
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Methods
Methods are the messages that an object can accept
turnOn paint printState

Method may have parameters

paint(Red)

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Overloading
In a Class there may be different methods with class Car { the same name String color; But they have a void paint(){ different signature color = white; A signature is made } by: void paint(int i){} Method name void paint(String Ordered list of newCol){ parameters types color = newCol; the method whose } parameters types list } matches, is then executed
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Overloading
public class Foo{ public void doIt(int x, long c){ System.out.println("a"); } public void doIt(long x, int c){ System.out.println("b"); } public static void main(String args[]){ Foo f = new Foo(); f.doIt( 5 ,(long)7 ); // a f.doIt( (long)5 , 7 ); // b } }

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Objects
An object is identified by:
Its class, which defines its structure (attributes and methods) Its state (attributes values) An internal unique identifier

Objects
class Car { String color; void paint(){ color = white; } void paint(String newCol) { color = newCol; } } Car a1, a2; a1 = new Car(); a1.paint(green); a2 = new Car();
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Zero, one or more reference can point to the same object

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Objects and references

Car a1, a2; // a1 and a2 are uninitialized a1 = new Car(); a1.paint(yellow);// Car yellow generated, // a1 is a reference pointing to yellow a2 = a1; //now two references point to yellow a2 = null; // a reference points to yellow a1 = null;// no more references point to yellow // Object exists but it is no more reachable // then it will be freed by // the garbage collector

Objects Creation
Creation of an object is made with the keyword new It returns a reference to the piece of memory containing the created object
Motorcycle m = new Motorcycle();

Note Well: a reference IS NOT an object

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The keyword new

Creates a new instance of the specific Class, and it allocates the necessary memory in the heap Calls the constructor method of the object (a method without return type and with the same name of the Class) Returns a reference to the new object created Constructor can have parameters
String s = new String(ABC);
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Heap
It is a part of the memory used by an executing program to store data dynamically created at runtime C: malloc, calloc and free
Instances of types in static memory or in heap

Java: new
Instances (Objects) are always in the heap

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Constructor
Constructor method contains operations (initialization of attributes etc.) we want to execute on each object as soon as it is created Attributes are always initialized
Attributes are initialized with default values

Constructors with overloading

class Window { String title; String color; Window() { // creates a window with no title and no color } Window(String t) { // creates a window with title but no color ... title = t; } Window(String t, String c) { // creates a window with title and color... title = t; color = c; }}
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If a Constructor is not declared, a default one (with no parameters) is defined Overloading of constructors is often used

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Destruction of objects
It is no longer a programmer concern See section on Memory management Before the object is really destroyed if exists method finalize is invoked: public void finalize()

Methods invocation
A method is invoked using dotted notation
objectReference.Method(parameters)

Example:
Car a = new Car(); a.turnOn(); a.paint(Blue);

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Caveat
If a method is invoked within another method of the same object
DO NOT need to use dotted notation
class Book { int pages; void readPage(int n) { } void readAll() { for (int i=0; i<pages; i++) readPage(i); } }

Caveat (contd)
In such cases this is implied this is a reference to the current object
class Book { int pages; void readPage(int n){} void readAll() { for() readPage(i); void readAll() { } for() } this.readPage(i); }
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Access to attributes
Dotted notation
objectReference.attribute Reference is used like a normal variable
Car a = new Car(); a.color = Blue; //whats wrong here? boolean x = a.turnedOn;

Access to attributes
Methods accessing attributes of the same object do not need using object reference
class Car { String color; void paint(){ color = green; // color refers to current obj } }

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this
It can be useful in methods to distinguish object attributes from local variables
this represents a reference to the current object

Combining dotted notations

Dotted notations can be combined System.out.println(Hello world!);
System is a Class in package java.lang Out is a (static) attribute of System referencing an object of type PrintStream (representing the standard output) Println() is a method of PrintStream which prints a text line on the screen

class Car{ String color; ... void paint (String color) { this.color = color; } }
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Operations on references
Only the relational operators == and != are defined
Note well: the equality condition is evaluated on the values of the references and NOT on the values of the objects ! The relational operators tell you whether the references points to the same object in memory

Strings

Dotted notation is applicable to object references There is NO pointer arithmetic

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String
No primitive type to represent string String literal is a quoted text C
char s[] = literal Equivalence between string and char arrays

Operator +
It is used to concatenate 2 strings
This string + is made by two strings

Works also with other types (automatically converted to string)

System.out.println(pi = + 3.14); System.out.println(x = + x);

Java
char[] != String String class in java.lang library

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String
int length()
returns string length

String
String valueOf(int)
Converts int in a String available for all primitive types

boolean equals(String s)
compares the values of 2 strings
String s1, s2; s1 = new String(First string); s2 = new String(First string); System.out.println(s1); System.out.println(Length of s1 = + s1.length()); if (s1.equals(s2)) // true if (s1 == s2) // false
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String toUpperCase() String toLowerCase() String concat(String str) - like + int compareTo(String str)
Compare w.r.t alphabetical order <0 if this < str ==0 if this == str >0 if this > str

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String
String subString(int startIndex)
String s = Human; s.subString(2) returns man

StringBuffer
insert append delete reverse

String subString(int start, int end)

Char start included, end excluded String s = Greatest; s.subString(0,5) returns Great

int indexOf(String str)

Returns the index of the first occurrence of str

int lastIndexOf(String str)

The same as before but search starts from the end
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Character
Utility methods on the kind of char
isLetter(), isDigit(), isSpaceChar()

Utility methods for conversions

toUpper(), toLower()

Scope and encapsulation

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Example
Laundry machine, design1
commands:
time, temperature, amount of soap

Example (contd)
Washing machine, design3
command:
Wash!

Different values depending if you wash cotton or wool, .

insert clothes, and the washing machine automatically select the correct program

Laundry machine, design2

commands:
key C for cotton, W for wool, Key D for knitted robes

Hence, there are different solutions with different level of granularity / abstraction
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Motivation
Modularity = cut-down inter-components interaction Info hiding = identifying and delegating responsibilities to components
components = Classes interaction = read/write attributes interaction = calling a method

Scope and Syntax

private (applied to attribute or method)
attribute/method visible by instances of the same class

public
attribute / method visible everywhere

protected
attribute / method visible by instance of the same class and sub-classes

Heuristics
attributes invisible outside the Class Visible methods are the ones that can be invoked from outside the Class

Forth type (later)

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Info hiding
class Car { public String color; } Car a = new Car(); a.color = white; // ok class Car { private String color; public void paint(String color) {this.color = color;} } Car a = new Car(); better a.color = white; // error a.paint(green); // ok
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Info hiding
class Car{ private String color; public void paint(); no }
yes

class B { public void f1(){ ... }; }

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Access
Method in the same class Private (attribute/ method) Public yes Method of another class no

Getters and setters

Methods used to read/write a private attribute Allow to better control in a single point each write access to a private field
public String getColor() { return color; } public void setColor(String newColor) { color = newColor; }
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yes

yes

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Example without getter/setter

public class Student {
public public public public String first; String last; int id; Student(){}

Example without getter/setter

class StudentExample { public static void main(String[] args) { // defines a student and her exams // lists all students exams Student s=new Student(Alice",Green",1234); Exam e = new Exam(30); e.student = s; // print vote System.out.println(e.grade); // print student System.out.println(e.student.last); } }
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} public class Exam {

public int grade; public Student student; public Exam(){}

}
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Example with getter/setter

class StudentExample { public static void main(String[] args) { Student s = new Student(Alice, Green, 1234); Exam e = new Exam(30); e.setStudent(s); // prints its values and asks students to // print their data e.print(); } }
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Example with getter/setter

public class Student { private String first; private String last; private int id; public String toString() { return first + " " + last + " " + id; } }
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Example with getter/setter

public class Exam { private int grade; private Student student; public void print() { System.out.println(Student + student.toString() + got + grade); } public void setStudent(Student s) { this.student =s; } }
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Array

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Array
An array is an ordered sequence of variables of the same type which are accessed through an index Can contain both primitive types or object references (but no object values) Array dimension can be defined at run-time, during object creation (cannot change afterwards)
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Array declaration
An array reference can be declared with one of these equivalent syntaxes
int[] a; int a[];

In Java an array is an Object and it is stored in the heap Array declaration allocates memory space for a reference, whose default value is null
a null
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Array creation
Using the new operator
int[] a; a = new int[10]; String[] s = new String[5];

Example - primitive types

int[] a;
a null heap

or using static initialization, filling the array with values

int[] primes = {2,3,5,7,11,13}; Person[] p = { new Person(John), new Person(Susan) };

a = new int[6];

heap
0 0 0 0 0 0

int[] primes = {2,3,5,7,11,13};

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primes

heap
2 3 5 7 11 13 67

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Example - object references

String[] s = new String[6]; s[1] = new String(abcd); Person[] p = {new Person(John) , new Person(Susan)};
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Operations on arrays
Elements are selected with brackets [ ] (C-like)
But Java makes bounds checking

heap
null null null null null null

heap
null null null null null

abcd

Array length (number of elements) is given by attribute length

for (int i=0; i < a.length; i++) a[i] = i;

heap
John Susan

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Operations on arrays
An array reference is not a pointer to the first element of the array It is a pointer to the array object

For each
New loop construct:
for( Type var : set_expression ) Notation very compact set_expression can be
either an array a class implementing Iterable

Arithmetic on pointers does not exist in Java

The compiler can generate automatically loop with correct indexes Thus less error prone
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For each - example

Example:
for(String arg: args){ //... } is equivalent to for(int i=0; i<args.length;++i){ String arg= args[i]; //... }
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Homework
Create an object representing an ordered list of integer numbers (at most 100) print()
prints current list

add(int) and add(int[])

Adds the new number(s) to the list

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Multidimensional array
Implemented as array of arrays
Person[][] table = new Person[2][3]; table[0][2] = new Person(Mary);

Rows and columns

As rows are not stored in adjacent positions in memory they can be easily exchanged
double[][] balance = new double[5][6]; ... double[] temp = balance[i]; balance[i] = balance[j]; balance[j] = temp;

table

heap
null null null null null

table[0][2]

Mary

table[0]

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Rows with different length

A matrix (bidimen-sional array) is indeed an array of arrays
int[][] triangle = new int[3][]
triangle
null null null

Tartaglias triangle
Write an application printing out the following Tartaglias triangle 1 1 1 1 2 1 4=3+1 1 3 3 1 1 4 6 4 1 1 5 10 10 5 1 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
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heap

for (int i=0; i< triangle.length; i++) triangle[i] = new int[i+1];

triangle
0 0 0 0
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0 0

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Motivation
Class is a better element of modularization than a procedure But it is still little For the sake of organization, Java provides the package feature

Package

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Package
A package is a logic set of class definitions These classes are made of several files, all stored in the same directory Each package defines a new scope (i.e., it puts bounds to visibility of names) Its then possible to use same class names in different package without name-conflicts

Package name
A package is identified by a name with a hierarchic structure (fully qualified name)
E.g. java.lang (String, System, )

Conventions to create unique names

Internet name in reverse order it.polito.myPackage

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Example
java.awt
Window Button Menu

Creation and usage

Creation:
Package statement at the beginning of each class file
package packageName;

Usage:
Import statement at the beginning of class file (where needed) Import
import packageName.className; import java.awt.*; Import all
classes but not the sub packages single class (class name is in scope)

java.awt.event (sub-package)
MouseEvent KeyEvent

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Access to a class in a package

Referring to a method/class of a package
int i = myPackage.Console.readInt()

Package and scope

Scope rules also apply to packages The interface of a package is the set of public classes contained in the package Hints
Consider a package as an entity of modularization Minimize the number of classes, attributes, methods visible outside the package

If two packages define a class with the same name, they cannot be both imported If you need both classes you have to use one of them with its fully-qualified name:
import java.sql.Date; Date d1; // java.sql.Date java.util.Date d2 = new java.util.Date();
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Package visibility
Package P class A { public int a1; private int a2; public void f1(){} }
yes no

Visibility w/ multiple packages

public class A { }
Public methods/attributes of A are visible outside the package
class B { public int a3; private int a4; }

class B { }
No method/attribute of B is visible outside the package

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Multiple packages
Package P class A { public int a1; private int a2; public void f1(){} } class B { public int a3; private int a4; }

Multiple packages
Package P public class A { public int a1; private int a2; public void f1(){} } class B { public int a3; private int a4; }

no

no

yes

no

Package Q class C { public void f2(){} }

Package Q class C { public void f2(){} }

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Access rules
Method in the same class Private attribute/ method Yes Method of other Method of other class in the same class in other package package No Yes Yes No No No

Package attribute / Yes method Public attribute / method on package class Public attribute / method on public class Yes

Static attributes and methods

Yes

Yes

Yes

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Class variables
Represent properties which are common to all instances of an object But they exist even when no object has been instantiated They are defined with the static modifier Access: ClassName.attribute
class Car { static int numberOfWheels = 4; } int y = Car.numberOfWheels;
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Static methods
Static methods are not related to any instance They are defined with the static modifier Access: ClassName.method()
class HelloWorld { public static void main (String args[]) { System.out.println(Hello World!); } } double y = Math.cos(x); // static method
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Enum
Defines an enumerative type
public enum Suits { SPADES, HEARTS, DIAMONDS, CLUBS } Suits card = Suits.HEARTS;

Enum
Enum can be declared outside or inside a class, but NOT within a method Enums are not Strings or ints, but more like a kind of class but constructor cant be invoked directly, conceptually like this:
class Suits { public static final Suits HEARTS= new Suits (HEARTS,0); public static final Suits DIAMONDS= new Suits (DIAMONDS,1); public static final Suits CLUBS= new Suits (CLUBS, 2); public static final Suits SPADES= new Suits (SPADES, 3); public Suits (String enumName, int index) {} }
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Variables of enum types can assume only one of the enumerated values They allow much more strict static checking compared to integer constants (used e.g. in C)

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Motivation Wrapper classes for built-in types

In an ideal OO world, there are only classes and objects For the sake of efficiency, Java use primitive types (int, float, etc.) Wrapper classes are object versions of the primitive types They define conversion operations between different types
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Wrapper Classes
Defined in java.lang package Primitive type
boolean char byte short int long float double void
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Conversions
Wrapper Class
Boolean Character Byte Short Integer Long Float Double Void
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Integer

intValue()

new Integer(i)

toString()

Integer.valueOf(s) new Integer(33)

iint

String

Integer.parseInt(33) String.valueOf(33) +

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Example
Integer obj = new Integer(88); String s = obj.toString(); int i = obj.intValue();

Autoboxing
In Java 5 an automatic conversion between primitive types and wrapper classes (autoboxing) is performed.
Integer i= new Integer(2); int j; j = i + 5; //instead of: j = i.intValue()+5; i = j + 2; //instead of: i = new Integer(j+2);
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int j = Integer.parseInt(99); int k = (new Integer(99)).intValue();

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Variable arguments
It is possible to pass a variable number of arguments to a method using the varargs notation method( Object ... args ) The compiler assembles an Object array that can be used to scan the passed parameters

Variable arguments - example

static void plst(String pre, Object...args){ System.out.print(pre); for(Object o:args){ if(o!=args[0]) System.out.print(", "); System.out.print(o); } System.out.println(); } public static void main(String[] args) { plst("List:","A",'b',123, ciao); }

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Memory types
Depending on the kind of elements they include: Static memory
elements living for all the execution of a program (class definitions, static variables)

Memory management

Heap (dynamic memory)

elements created at run-time (with new)

Stack
elements created in a code block (local variables and method parameters)
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Objects are stored in the heap

heap
Object

Types of variables
Instance variables (or fields or attributes)
Stored within objects (in the heap)

code

reference
State

Local Variables
Stored in the Stack

Static Variables
Stored in static memory

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Instance Variables
Declared within a Class (attributes)
Class Window { boolean visible;
Window1 visible Window2 visible

Local Variables
Declared within a method or a code block Stored in the stack Created at the beginning of the code block where they are declared Automatically destroyed at the end of the code block
Class Window { void resize () { int i; for (i=0; i<5; i++) { } } // here i is destroyed

heap

There is a different copy in each instance of the Class Create/initialized whenever a new instance of a Class is created
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Static Variables
Declared in classes or methods with static modifier

Static variables in memory

Static area

Class ColorWindow { static String color;

ColorWindow

heap
ColorWindow1 ColorWindow2

color

Only ONE copy is stored in static memory

associated to a Class => also called Class variables

Created/initialized during Class-loading in memory

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Object destruction
Its not made explicitely but it is made by the JVM when there are no more references to the object
Programmer must not worry about objects destruction

Garbage collector
Is a component of the JVM that has to clean heap memory from dead objects After a period of time it analyzes references and objects in memory ...and then it deallocates objects with no active references

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