Chapter 5 Semiconductors

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Homework
Problem to be quizzed on Week of Nov. 8
5.1, 5.2, 5.3,5.4, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.12 5.13. Worked examples: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Silicon is the most important semiconductor in today s electronics

|SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

200 mm and 300 mm Si wafers.

|SOURCE: Courtesy of MEMC, Electronic Materials, Inc.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

GaAs ingots and wafers. GaAs is used in high speed electronic devices, and optoelectronics.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) A simplified two-dimensional illustration of a Si atom with four hybrid orbitals hyb. Each orbital has one electron. (b) A simplified two-dimensional view of a region of the Si crystal showing covalent bonds. (c) The energy band diagram at absolute zero of temperature.
Fig 5.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

A two-dimensional pictorial view of the Si crystal showing covalent bonds as two lines where each line is a valence electron.
Fig 5.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron-Hole Pair, EHP

(a) A photon with an energy greater than Eg can excite an electron from the VB to the CB. (b) When a photon breaks a Si-Si bond, a free electron and a hole in the Si-Si bond is created.
Fig 5.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Thermal vibrations of atoms can break bonds and thereby create electron-hole pairs.
Fig 5.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

A pictorial illustration of a hole in the valence band wandering around the crystal due to the tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds.
Fig 5.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.1.3 Conduction in Semiconductor

J = ende +epdp
vde = eEx and

5.1

vdh = hEx

e= e/me where e is mean time between scattering events.

= ene + eph

5.5

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

When an electric field is applied, electrons in the CB and holes in the VB can drift and contribute to the conductivity. (a) A simplified illustration of drift in Ex. (b) Applied field bends the energy bands since the electrostatic PE of the electron is eV(x) and V(x) decreases in the direction of Ex, whereas PE increases. Fig 5.6
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron and Hole Drift Velocities vde = eEx and vdh = hEx

vde = drift velocity of the electrons, e = electron drift mobility, Ex = applied electric field, vdh = drift velocity of the holes, h = hole drift mobility

Conductivity of a Semiconductor

= ene + eph

= conductivity, e = electronic charge, n = electron concentration in the CB, e = electron drift mobility, p = hole concentration in the VB, h = hole drift mobility

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) Energy band diagram. (b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume). (c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state). (d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume). The area under nE(E) versus E is the electron concentration. Fig 5.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Ch. 4
If you multiply g(E) by f(E) and integrate you get # of electrons per unit energy per unit volume, nE.
Top of band Top of band

n=

"

n E dE =
3/2 # e 1/2

" g(E) f (E)dE

o

8" 2m n= h3

E - EF 1 + exp( ) kT

dE

4.21

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

For Semiconductors
If you multiply g(E) by f(E) you get # of electrons per unit energy per unit volume, nE.
Top of band Top of band

n=
Ec + "

"

n E dE =

" g(E) f (E)dE

o

n = # gCB (E) f (E) dE

Ec

For Semiconductors
Assuming Ec EF >> kT then Fermi-Dirac degenerates to Boltzmann distribution, or:

E - EF f (E) = exp - ( ) kT
Assume DOS, g(E), is that of free electrons (see next slide), then

#m & g(E) = 8" 2 % ( $h '

* 3/2 e 2

(E ) E c )

1/ 2

#m & n = 8" 2 % ( $h '

* 3/2 ) e 2 Ec

E - EF ) dE * (E - E c ) exp - ( kT
1/2

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

To find integral, One important approx was made: We only worried about shape of g(E) near the band edge. This allows us to use Eq. 4.10 for an electron in a 3-D well.
Fig 5.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron Concentration in CB

# (E c " E F ) & n = N c exp %" ( $ ' kT

5.6

n = electron concentration in the CB, Nc = effective density of states at the CB edge, Ec = conduction band edge, EF = Fermi energy, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature

Effective Density of States at CB Edge

# 2"m * kT & 3 / 2 e N c = 2% ( 2 $ h '

5.7

Nc = effective density of states at the CB edge, me* = effective mass of the electron in the CB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature, h = Planck s constant
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Hole Concentration in VB

# (E F " E v ) & p = N v exp %" ( $ ' kT

5.8

p = hole concentration in the VB, Nv = effective density of states at the VB edge, EF = Fermi energy, Ev = valence band edge, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature

Effective Density of States at VB Edge

# 2"m kT & N v = 2% ( $ h '

* h 2

3/2

5.9

Nv = effective density of states at the VB edge, mh* = effective mass of a hole in the VB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature, h = Planck s constant

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Mass Action Law

# Eg & np = N c N v exp% " ( $ kT '

5.10

If you have thermal equilibrium, then 5.10 is always true for most semiconductors. For intrinsic semiconductor, n = p and

# Eg & 2 np = n i = N c N v exp% " ( $ kT '

ni = intrinsic concentration

5.11

Only depends on T

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Useful Exercise
Derive Eqs. 5.6 and 5.8. Derive Eq. 5.10.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

" (E ! E ) % v p = N v exp $! F ' kT & #

5.8

# Eg & np = n = N c N v exp% " ( $ kT '

2 i
ni = intrinsic concentration

5.11

For an intrinsic SC, n = p = ni. ! So if you equate the 2 equations and take ln

# Nc & 1 1 E Fi = E v + E g " kT ln% ( 2 2 $ Nv '

5.12

Fermi Energy in Intrinsic Semiconductors

# Nc & 1 1 E Fi = E v + E g " kT ln% ( 2 2 $ Nv '

# 2" N v = 2% $ h
* m h kT 2

5.12
5.7

& ( '

3/2

5.9

# 2"m * kT & 3 / 2 e N c = 2% ( 2 $ h '

# m* & 1 3 e E Fi = E v + E g " kT ln% * ( 2 4 $ mh ' !

If Nc = Nv or m*e m*h, then

5.13

1 EFi = Ev + Eg 2

me* = electron effective mass (CB), mh* = hole effective mass (VB)

Intrinsic

n-type

p-type

In all cases, np = ni2

If me* = mh* then

# m* & 1 3 e E Fi = E v + E g " kT ln% * ( 2 4 $ mh '

Fig 5.8

1 = Ev + Eg 2

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

For or an intrinsic SC, Eg falls in the middle of the band gap. For a n-type SC, n > p and Ef is closer to Ec For a p-type SC, p > n and Ef is closer to Ev.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Average energy of electrons in CB

E CB

1 = " Egcb (E) f (E)dE n CB

E CB

3 = E c + kT 2

5.14

Average Electron Energy in CB

E CB

3 = E c + kT 2

5.14

E CB = average energy of electrons in the CB,

Ec = conduction band edge.

(3/2)kT is also the average kinetic energy per atom in a monatomic gas (kinetic molecular theory) in which the gas atoms move around freely and randomly inside a container.

The electron in the CB behaves as if it were free with a mean kinetic energy that is (3/2)kT and effective mass me*.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

n-type SC

Arsenic-doped Si crystal. The four valence electrons of As allow it to bond just like Si, but the fifth electron is left orbiting the As site. The energy required to release the free fifth electron into the CB is very small.
Fig 5.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped with 1 ppm As. There are donor energy levels just Fig below Ec around As+ sites. 5.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

N-type Conductivity

#n2& " = eN d e + e% i ( h ) eN d e %N ( $ d'

5.16

" = eN d e

5.16

e = electronic charge Nd = donor atom concentration in the crystal e = electron drift mobility, ni = intrinsic concentration, h = hole drift mobility

Occupation Probability at a Donor

1 fd (Ed ) = 1 # (Ed " EF ) & 1+ exp% ( 2 $ kT '

5.17

fd(Ed ) = probability of finding an electron in a state with energy Ed at a donor Ed = energy level of donor comes from the fact that donor can only take one electron
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Boron-doped Si crystal. B has only three valence electrons. When it substitutes for a Si atom, one of its bonds has an electron missing and therefore a hole, as shown in (a). The hole orbits around the B- site by the tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds, as shown in (b). Eventually, thermally vibrating Si atoms provide enough energy to free the hole from the B- site into the VB, as shown.
Fig 5.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Energy band diagram for a p-type Si doped with 1 ppm B. There are acceptor energy levels Ea just above Ev around B- sites. These acceptor levels accept electrons from the VB and therefore create holes in the VB. Fig 5.12
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

P-type Conductivity
#n2& " = eN a h + e% i ( e ) eN a h %N ( $ a'

" = eN a h
e = electronic charge Na = acceptor atom concentration in the crystal h = hole drift mobility, ni = intrinsic concentration, e = electron drift mobility

For donors it is energy below CB For acceptors it is energy above VB

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Band Bending
Energy band of n-type SC connected to a voltage Energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor connected to a voltage supply of V volts. The whole energy diagram tilts because the electron now also has an electrostatic potential energy.

Fig 5.13

Compensation Doping
More donors than acceptors
2 i

N d N a >> ni
2 i

n = Nd Na

n n p= = n Nd Na

More acceptors than donors

2 i

N a N d >> ni
2 i

p = Na Nd

n n n= = p Na Nd

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Binding energy of electron in H-atom

* mee 4 Eb = "E1 = 2 2 8# o h

= 13.6 eV

!
* * mee 4 me 1 Si Eb = 2 2 2 = 13.6 eV( )( 2 ) me "r 8" o" r h

5.15

* me 1 Si For Si " r = 11.9 and = so Eb # 0.032eV me 3

5.3 Temperature Dependence of Conductivity 3 Regimes: a) kT < Ed b) kT Ed c) kT >> Ed

(a) Below Ts, the e-1 conc. is controlled by the ionization of the donors. (b) Between Ts and Ti, the e-1 conc. = concentration of donors since they would all have ionized. (c) At high T, thermally generated electrons from the VB exceed the # # of e-1 from ionized donors and the SC behaves as if intrinsic.
Fig 5.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.3.1 Carrier Concentration

Low Temperature Regime:

1 #E 1/ 2 n = ( N c N d ) exp(" ) 2 2kT
Compare to intrinsic case:

5.19

n = (N c N v )

1/ 2

exp("

Eg 2kT

5.20

n = (N c N v )1/ 2 exp("

Eg 2kT

n = Nd (# of donor atoms/m3)
) 5.20

1 #E n = ( N c N d )1/ 2 exp(" ) 2 2kT

5.19

The temperature dependence of the electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor.

Fig 5.15

The temperature dependence of the intrinsic concentration

Fig 5.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.3.2 Drift Mobility and Impurity Dependence

e" = * me
1 "= Sv th N S

5.21
5.22

! S is the cross-section area of the scatters, vth = mean speed of electrons, aka as thermal velocity Ns is number of scatters per unit volume.
!

S = "a

1 * 2 3 me v th = kT 2 2

Lattice Vibration Scattering Limited Mobility

1 "L = 2 (#a )v th N S

1 -3/2 $ $ T 1/2 (T)(T )

"L # T

-3/2

5.23

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Scattering of electrons by an ionized impurity.

e | PE | = ( ) 4"# o# r r
It is only when KE PE that electron will get scattered. So

e 3/2kT =| PE(rc ) | = ( ) 4"# o# r rc

e rc = 6"# o# r kT
2

"e 4 2 -2 S = "rc = 2 $ T (6"# o# r kT)

Ionized Impurity Scattering Limited Mobility

"L =

1 Sv th N I

1 T # # -2 1/2 NI (T )(T )N I
3/2

3/2

T I " NI

5.24

I = ionized impurity scattering limited mobility

Effective or Overall Mobility

1 1 1 = + e I L

5.25

e = effective drift mobility I = ionized impurity scattering limited mobility L = lattice vibration scattering limited mobility

!
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Lets look at experimental results. Note LOG-LOG In English: At the lowest T, increasing the T increases the vth of electrons so as to not be affected by impurities. BUT , further increases in T causes the atoms to vibrate more and scatter more. So mobility decreases again.

Log-log plot of drift mobility versus temperature for n-type Ge and n-type Si samples. Various donor concentrations for Si are shown. Nd are in cm-3. The upper right inset is the simple theory for lattice limited mobility, whereas the lower left inset is the simple theory for impurity scattering limited mobility.

More LOG-LOG experimental results Increasing the dopant concentration is NOT good for mobility!

The variation of the drift mobility with dopant concentration in Si for electrons and holes at 300 K.
Fig 5.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.3.3 Conductivity Temperature Dependence OR Putting it all together n x

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

MISI

Schematic illustration of the T dependence of electrical conductivity for a doped (n-type) semiconductor.
Fig 5.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

In Plain English: For n-type extrinsic SC At very low temperatures the conductivity is quite low because there are few electrons in the CB. Impurity atoms are holding on to their electrons. At intermediate temperatures, all the dopant atoms donate their electrons to CB and conductivity saturates. At very high temperatures, the conductivity is very high because Si-Si bonds are being broken. Mobilities depend on dopant concentration. For low dopant concentrations mobility is only affected by phonons. When dopant concentrations are high they can trap electrons at lower temperatures. The trapping probability, however, deceases with increasing T. All these conclusions apply to p-type SC as well.

Degenerate Semiconductors

You dope the heck out of the SC and end up with an impurity band. Then Boltzmann statistics no longer valid. SC acts as a metal, with T.
(a) Degenerate n-type SC. Large number of donors form a band that overlaps the CB. (b) Degenerate p-type semiconductor.
Fig 5.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Summary and Conclusions

Intrinsic SC are very poor conductors of electricity because the density of charge carriers is very small. n = p. Doping can dramatically alter the conductivity. Depending on dopant valency, you get either n-type or p-type SC. If SC is in thermal equilibrium in the dark

np = ni = NC NV exp(-

Eg kT

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Summary
For n and p SC, there are 3 regimes of conductivity
low T = very few carriers, Intermediate T, saturation; n = Nd and p = Na Mobility goes down with increased doping, because dopant attracts the charge carrier slowing it down. Like in metals, increasing T, decreases mobility due to scattering by lattice vibrations

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.4 Recombination and Minority Carrier Injection

From here on is not included in course. But of you ever get into device physics, it is of crucial importance.

Important concept
What goes up must come down. Thus at equilibrium, rate of generation of electronhole pairs must equal rate of recombination of electron-hole pairs!

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.4.1 Direct and Indirect Recombination

Direct Recombination: The states in the VB that can satisfy momentum conservation, viz. kVB = kCB are near the top of the VB and the recombination can occur in a direct fashion. e.g. GaAs, but NOT Si or Ge.

Direct recombination in GaAs. kcb = kvb so that momentum conservation is satisfied. Fig 5.22

Recombination center: impurity atom or defect. Electron is captured by RC till a hole shows up and then they combine!

Trapping: permanent removal of e from CB

Recombination and trapping. (a) Recombination in Si via a recombination center which has a localized energy level at Er in the bandgap, usually near the middle. (b) Trapping and detrapping of electrons by trapping centers. A trapping center has a localized energy level in the band gap.
Fig 5.23
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.4.2 Minority Carrier Lifetime

For a n-type semiconductor, n >> p. nno = majority carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium in the dark pno = minority carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium in the dark Thermal equilibrium implies: What does ni depend on????

nnop no = n 2 i

nn = instantaneous majority carrier concentration pn = instantaneous minority carrier concentration ! nn = nn nno = excess majority carrier concentration pn = pp pno = excess minority carrier concentration Same applies for holes

5.4.2 Minority Carrier Lifetime

nn = nn nno OR: nn = nno + nn pp = pn pno OR: pp = pno + pn

Low-level photoinjection into an n-type semiconductor in which nn > n0

Fig 5.24
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Photo-excitation generates equal number of electrons and holes pn = nn

dnn d"n n = dt dt

and

dpn d"pn = dt dt

Assume you dope a n-type SC with 5x1016 cm-3 Weak illumination 10% change in n. nn = pn = 0.1 nno nn = pn = 0.5x1016 pn = pno +pn = 2x103 + 0.5x1016 = 0.5x1016
Low-level injection in an n-type semiconductor does not significantly affect nn but drastically affects the minority carrier concentration pn.
Fig 5.25
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Illumination of an n-type semiconductor results in excess electron and hole concentrations. After the illumination, the recombination process restores equilibrium; the excess electrons and holes simply recombine.
Fig 5.26
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Excess Minority Carrier Concentration

d"pn "pn = Gph # dt $h

t = time Gph = rate of photogeneration

5.27

pn = excess hole (minority carrier) concentration in n-type

h = minority carrier lifetime (mean recombination time)

GENERAL EQUATION. ONLY ASSUMPTION IS WEAK INJECTION, pn < nno

A t t = 0, we turn on light and at t = toff we turn it off.

d"pn "pn = Gph # 5.27 dt $h #pn t ln[Gph " ] =+ C1 $h $h

Since at t = 0, pn = 0, C1 = ln Gph

t "pn (t) = # h Gph [1$ exp($ ) = 0 < t < t off #h

5.28

Now turn light off

Shows in book that:

t' "pn (t') = # h Gph exp($ ) for > t off #h

5.29

Thus one would expect exponential increase and decrease when you turn light on and off.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Illumination is switched on at time t = 0 and then off at t= toff. The excess minority carrier concentration pn(t) rises exponentially to its steady-state value with a time constant h. From toff, the excess minority carrier concentration decays exponentially to its equilibrium value.
Fig 5.27

A semiconductor slab of length L, width W, and depth D is illuminated with light of Wavelength . Iph is the steady-state photocurrent.
Fig 5.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Change in Conductivity due to Illumination

I "ph = h# where "ph =# of photons/m s
2

I = intensity of light = J/m2 s

"A#ph Gph = AD

" I$ = hcD

# of EHP/m s
= quantum efficiency = # of EHP produced per photon

d"n "n = Gph # = 0 dt $

"n = #Gph

#$I% = hcD

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

"n = #Gph

#$I% = hcD

"# = e e "n + e h "p = e"n ( h + e )

! e$%I& ( e + h ) "# = hcD

Fig 5.27

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

5.5 Diffusion and Conduction Equations and Random Motion

Definition of Particle Flux

#N "= A#t
= particle flux, N = number of particles crossing A in a time interval t, A = area, t = time interval

Definition of Current Density

J = Q"
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

J = electric current density, Q = charge of the particle, = particle flux

(a) Arbitrary electron concentration n (x, t) profile in a semiconductor. There is a net diffusion (flux) of electrons from higher to lower concentrations. (b) Expanded view of two adjacent sections at x0. There are more electrons crossing x0 coming From the left (x0-) than coming from the right (x0+)
Fig 5.29
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fick s First Law

dn "e = #De dx
e = electron flux, De = diffusion coefficient of electrons, dn/dx = electron concentration gradient

Electron Diffusion Current Density

J D,e

dn = " e#e = eDe dx

JD, e = electric current density due to electron diffusion, e = electron flux, e = electronic charge, De = diffusion coefficient of electrons, dn/dx = electron concentration gradient

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Arbitrary hole concentration p (x, t) profile in a semiconductor. There is a net diffusion (flux) of holes from higher to lower concentrations. There are more holes crossing x0 coming from the left (x0-) than coming from the right (x0+).
Fig 5.30
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

When there is an electric field and also a concentration gradient, charge carriers move both by diffusion and drift.
Fig 5.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Hole Diffusion Current Density

J D,h

dp = e"h = #eDh dx

JD, h = electric current density due to hole diffusion, e = electronic charge, h = hole flux, Dh = diffusion coefficient of holes, dp/dx = hole concentration gradient

Total Electron Current Due to Drift and Diffusion

dn J e = en eE x + eDe dx

5.37

Je = electron current due to drift and diffusion, n = electron concentration, e = electron drift mobility, Ex = electric field in the x direction, De = diffusion coefficient of electrons, dn/dx = electron concentration gradient

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Total Hole Current Due to Drift and Diffusion

dp J h = ep hE x " eDh dx

5.38

Jh = hole current due to drift and diffusion, p = hole concentration, h = hole drift mobility, Ex = electric field in the x direction, Dh = diffusion coefficient of holes, dp/dx = hole concentration gradient

Einstein Relation

De kT = e e

Dh kT = h e

De = diffusion coefficient of electrons, e = electron drift, Dh = diffusion coefficient of the holes, h = hole drift mobility ! !
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Nonuniform doping profile results in electron diffusion toward the less concentrated regions. This exposes positively charged donors and sets up a built-in field Ex. In the steady state, the diffusion of electrons toward the right is balanced by their drift toward the left.
Fig 5.32
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Built-In Potential and Concentration

kT # n 2 & V2 " V1 = ln% ( e $ n1 '

V2 = potential at point 2, V1 = potential at point 1, n2 = electron concentration at point 2, n1 = electron concentration at point 1

! Built-In Field in Nonunforim Doping

kT Ex = be

Ex = electric field in the x direction, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature, b = characteristic of the exponential doping profile, e = electronic charge .
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Consider an elemental volume A x in which the hole concentration is p(x, t)

Fig 5.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Continuity Equation for Holes

"pn 1 $ "J h ' pn # pno =# & + Gph )# "t e % "x ( *h

pn = hole concentration in an n-type semiconductor, pno = equilibrium minority carrier (hole concentration in an n-type semiconductor) concentration, Jh = hole current due to drift and diffusion, h = hole recombination time (lifetime), Gph = photogeneration rate at x at time t, x = position, t = time

Continuity Equation with Uniform Photogeneration

"#pn #pn =$ + Gph "t %h

pn = pn - pno is the excess hole concentration
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Steady-State Continuity Equation for Holes

1 # "J h & pn ) pno % (=) e $ "x ' *h

Jh = hole current due to drift and diffusion, pn = hole concentration in an n-type semiconductor, pno = equilibrium minority carrier (hole concentration in an n-type semiconductor) concentration, h = hole recombination time (lifetime)

! Steady-State Continuity Equation with E = 0

d "pn "pn = 2 2 dx Lh
pn = pn - pno is the excess hole concentration, Lh = diffusion length of the holes
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) Steady state excess carrier concentration profiles in an n-type semiconductor that is continuously illuminated at one end. (b) Majority and minority carrier current components in open circuit. Total current is zero.

Fig 5.34
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Minority Carrier Concentration, Long Bar

$ x' "pn (x) = "pn (0)exp& # ) % Lh (

pn = pn - pno is the excess hole concentration, Lh = diffusion length of the holes

Steady State Hole Diffusion Current

! % x( dpn (x) AeDh Ih " ID,h = #AeDh = $pn (0)exp' # * dx Lh & Lh )

Ih = hole current, ID, h = hole diffusion current, A = cross-sectional area, Dh = diffusion coefficient of holes, pn(x) = hole concentration in an n-type semiconductor as a function of position x, Lh = diffusion length of holes, pn = pn pno is the excess hole concentration
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Majority Carrier Concentration, Long Bar

$ x' "n n (x) = "n n (0)exp& # ) % Le (

nn(x) = the excess electron concentration, x = position, Le = diffusion length of the electrons

Electron Diffusion Current

ID,e

$ x' dn n (x) AeDe = AeDe =" #n n (0)exp& " ) dx Le % Le (

ID, e = electron diffusion current, De = diffusion coefficient of electrons, nn(x) = electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor as a function of position x, Le = diffusion length of the electrons, nn = the excess electron concentration

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Summary
Degenerate SC behave like metals and

np " ni

Direct and indirect recombination Recombination vs trapping Minority carrier lifetime, . Relaxation of ! system scales as the exp (-t/). Electrons and holes drift due to the combined effects of concentration and potential gradients.

Electron Drift Current: Use the Open Circuit Condition

I drift ,e + I D ,e + I D ,h = 0
Idrift, e = electron drift current, ID, e = electron diffusion current, ID, h = hole diffusion current,

Electric Field

Idrift,e E = Aen no e
E = electric field, Idrift, e = electron drift current, nno = equilibrium majority carrier (electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor) concentration, e = electron drift mobility
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Optical absorption generates electron-hole pairs. Energetic electrons must lose their excess energy to lattice vibrations until their average energy is (3/2)kT in the CB.
Fig 5.35
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Absorption of photons within a small elemental volume of width !x

Fig 5.36
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Definition of Optical Absorption Coefficient

$I " =# I$x
= absorption coefficient, I = light intensity, I = change in the light intensity in a small elemental volume of thickness x at x

Beer-Lambert Law

I(x) = Io exp("#x)
I(x) = light intensity at x, Io = initial light intensity, = absorption coefficient, x = distance from the surface (location) where I = Io. Note: Light propagates along x.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The absorption coefficient depends on the photon energy h and hence on the wavelength. Density of states increases from band edges and usually exhibits peaks and troughs. Generally

increases with the photon energy greater than Eg because more energetic photons can excite electrons from populated regions of the VB to numerous available states deep in the CB.
Fig 5.37
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Piezoresistivity and its applications. (a) Stress m along the current (longitudinal) direction changes the resistivity by . (b) Stresses L and T cause a resistivity change. (c) A force applied to a cantilever bends it. A piezoresistor at the support end (where the stress is large) measures the stress, which is proportional to the force.
Fig 5.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(d) A pressure sensor has four piezoresistor R1, R2, R3, R4 embedded in a diaphragm. The pressures bends the diaphragm, which generates stresses that are sensed by the four piezoresistors.

Fig 5.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Formation of a Schottky junction between a metal and an n-type semiconductor when m > n.
Fig 5.39
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Schottky Junction: Metal to n-Type Semiconductor Built-in potential Vo

eVo = m = n
Work function of the metal Work function of the semiconductor

Barrier height B from the metal to the semiconductor

B = m = eVo + (Ec EFn)

Work function of metal Distance of Fermi level from CB in the semiconductor Built-in potential

Electron affinity of the semiconductors

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The Schotkky Junction

Fig 5.40
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Schottky Junction

eV J = J o exp kT

J = current density Jo = constant that depends on the metal and the semiconductor e.g. B, Vo, and also on the surface properties V = voltage, e = electronic charge k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The principle of the Schottky junction solar cell.

Fig 5.41
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Reverse biased Schottky photodiodes are frequently used as fast photodetectors.

Fig 5.42
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

When a metal with a smaller workfunction than an n-type semiconductor are put into contact, The resulting junction is an ohmic contact in the sense that it does not limit the current flow.
Fig 5.43
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) Current from an n-type semiconductor to the metal results in heat absorption at the junction. (b) Current from the metal to an n-type semiconductor results in heat release at the junction.
Fig 5.44
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

When a dc current is passed through a semiconductor to which metal contacts have been made, one junction absorbs heat and cools (the cold junction) and the other releases heat and warms (the hot junction).

Fig 5.45
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Cross section of a typical thermoelectric cooler.

Fig 5.46
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Typical structure of a commercial thermoelectric cooler.

Fig 5.47
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The electron PE, V(x), inside the crystal is periodic with the same periodicity as that of the Crystal, a. Far away outside the crystal, by choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
Fig 5.48
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor such as GaAs. The E-k curve consists of many discrete points each point corresponding to a possible state, wavefunction k(x) that is allowed to exist in the crystal. The points are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a continuous curve. In the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points (k(x) solutions).
Fig 5.49
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is therefore a direct band gap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect band gap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center. Fig 5.50
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) In the absence of a field, over a long time, average of all k values is zero, there is no net momentum in any one direction. (b) In the presence of a field E in the x direction, the electron accelerates in the +x direction increasing its k value along x until it is scattered to a random k value. Over a long time, average of all k values is along the +x direction. Thus the electron drifts along +x.
Fig 5.51
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron s group velocity

1 dE vg = ! dk
vg = group velocity, E = electron energy, k = electron s wavevector

External force and acceleration

Fext

! = 2 a "d E % $ 2' # dk &

2

Fext = externally applied force, a = acceleration

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Effective Mass

" d2E % * 2 me = ! $ 2 ' # dk &

(1

me* = effective mass of the electron inside the crystal Effective mass depends on the curvature of the E-k curve. Sharp (large) curvature gives a small effective mass Broad (small) curvature gives a large effective mass
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) In a full valence band there is no net contribution to the current. There are equal numbers of electrons (e.g. at b and b') with opposite momenta. (b) If there is an empty state (hole) at b at the top of the band then the electron at b' contributes to the current. Fig 5.52
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Schematic representation of the density of states g(E) vs. energy E for an amorphous semiconductor and the associated electron wavefunctions for an electron in the extended and localized states.
Fig 5.53
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The GaAs crystal structure in two dimensions. Average number of valence electrons per atom is four. Each Ga atom covalently bonds with four neighboring As atoms and vice versa.
Fig 5.54
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

In the presence of a temperature gradient, there is an internal field and a voltage difference. The Seebeck coefficient is defined as dV/dT, the potential difference per unit temperature difference.
Fig 5.55
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)