Sensor Characteristic
Sensor Characteristic
g g g g
Transducers, sensors and measurements Calibration, interfering and modifying inputs Static sensor characteristics Dynamic sensor characteristics
g Sensor
n A device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus
g This is a broader concept that includes the extension of our perception capabilities to acquire information about physical quantities
Sensor
Input transducer
Processor
Actuator
Output transducer
Measurements
g A simple instrument model
Physical measurement variable Signal variable
Measurand
Sensor
Display
Measurement M
PHYSICAL PROCESS
n In the example above the signal is passed to a display, where a measurement can be taken
g Measurement
n The process of comparing an unknown quantity with a standard of the same quantity (measuring length) or standards of two or more related quantities (measuring velocity)
Intelligent Sensor Systems Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna Wright State University 3
Calibration
g The relationship between the physical measurement variable (X) and the signal variable (S)
n A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a number of KNOWN physical inputs and recording the response of the system
Additional inputs
g Interfering inputs (Y)
n Those that the sensor to respond as the linear superposition with the measurand variable X
g Linear superposition assumption: S(aX+bY)=aS(X)+bS(Y)
Modifying input Z Physical variable X Signal variable
Measurand
Interfering input Y
Sensor
Z=Z1 Z=Z2
g Dynamic characteristics
n The properties of the system transient response to an input
g Zero order systems g First order systems g Second order systems
g Discrimination is the minimal change of the input necessary to produce a detectable change at the output
n Discrimination is also known as RESOLUTION n When the increment is from zero, it is called THRESHOLD
Precision
g The capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions
n Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value
g Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements
n Reproducibility
g The precision of a set of measurements BUT
n n n n
taken over a long time interval or Performed by different operators or with different instruments or in different laboratories
Example
g Shooting darts
n Discrimination
g The size of the hole produced by a dart
n Systematic errors can be corrected with COMPENSATION methods (i.e., feedback, filtering)
g Random errors
n Also called NOISE: a signal that carries no information n True random errors (white noise) follow a Gaussian distribution n Sources of randomness:
g Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height of a rough surface) g Environmental noise (i.e., background noise picked by a microphone) g Transmission noise (i.e., 60Hz hum)
11
g Sensitivity
n The slope of the calibration curve y=f(x)
g An ideal sensor will have a large and constant sensitivity
g Linearity
n The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line (i.e., theoretical behavior, least-squares fit)
g Monotonicity
n A monotonic curve is one in which the dependent variable always increases or decreases as the independent variable increases
g Hystheresis
n The difference between two output values that correspond to the same input depending on the trajectory followed by the sensor (i.e., magnetization in ferromagnetic materials)
g Backslash: hystheresis caused by looseness in a mechanical joint
12
Dynamic characteristics
g The sensor response to a variable input is different from that exhibited when the input signals are constant (the latter is described by the static characteristics) g The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of energy-storing elements
n Inertial: masses, inductances n Capacitances: electrical, thermal
g Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the sensor to a family of variable input waveforms:
n Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal, white noise
Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude time A 1
1/A
time
time
time
time
13
Dynamic models
g The dynamic response of the sensor is (typically) assumed to be linear
n Therefore, it can be modeled by a constant-coefficient linear differential equation dk y(t) d2 y(t) dy(t) +L a 2 + a1 + a0 y(t) = x(t) ak 2 k dt dt dt n In practice, these models are confined to zero, first and second order. Higher order models are rarely applied
g These dynamic models are typically analyzed with the Laplace transform, which converts the differential equation into a polynomial expression
n Think of the Laplace domain as an extension of the Fourier transform
g Fourier analysis is restricted to sinusoidal signals
n x(t) = sin(t) = e-jt
14
g The fundamental relationship is the one that concerns the transformation of differentiation
d L y(t) = sY(s) - f (0 ) dt
15
(a s
k
G(s) =
g The position of the poles of G(s) -zeros of the denominator- in the s-plane determines the dynamic behavior of the sensor such as
n Oscillating components n Exponential decays n Instability
Intelligent Sensor Systems Ricardo Gutierrez-Osuna Wright State University 16
t) t
2t
1t
-1
sin(
t)
t
+j1
sin(
t)
e
-1
1t
17
Zero-order sensors
g Input and output are related by an equation of the type
VCC
X Y
18
First-order sensors
g Inputs and outputs related by a first-order differential equation
n Ramp response
g y(t) = Akt - Aku(t) + Ake-t/
n Frequency response
g Better described by the amplitude and phase shift plots
19
From [PAW91]
g Ramp response
20
g Derivation
n Heat flow through the glass ( F W)/R n Temperature of the thermometer rises as n Taking the Laplace transform
dt
W RC
21
Second-order sensors
g Inputs and outputs are related by a second-order differential equation
s+
2 n
n Where
1 , a0
a1 , 2 a0a1
a0 a2
g k is the static gain g is known as the damping coefficient g n is known as the natural frequency
22
g Response parameters
n n n n
Rise time (tr) Peak overshoot (Mp) Time to peak (tp) Settling time (ts)
From [PAW91]
23
From [PAW91]
24
g Spring-mass-dampen accelerometer
n The armature suffers an acceleration
g We will assume that this acceleration is orthogonal to the direction of gravity
M
K B
x0
n x0 is the displacement of the mass M with respect to the armature n The equilibrium equation is:
&& x
& M(&&i &&0 ) = Kx 0 + Bx 0 x x Ms2 Xi (s) = X0 (s) K + Bs + Ms2 X0 (s) M K/M = s 2 Xi (s) K s 2 + s(B/M) + K/M
25
References
[PAW91] [Web99] [Tay97] [Fdn97] [BW96] R. Pallas-Areny and J. G. Webster, 1991, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, Wiley, New York J. G. Webster, 1999, The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, CRC/IEEE Press , Boca Raton, FL. H. R. Taylor, 1997, Data Acquisition for Sensor Systems, Chapman and Hall, London, UK. J. Fraden, 1997, Handbook of Modern Sensors. Physics, Designs and Applications, AIP, Woodbury, NY J. Brignell and N. White, 1996, Intelligent Sensor Systems, 2nd Ed., IOP, Bristol, UK
26