EE 336 Lab Report # 3

Linearity, Proportionality, and Superposition

Magdalena Simic Ravi B Gondaliya

Performed on February 2, 2012 Submitted on February 9, 2012

Iman A. Hashemi Section 02

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Daytona Beach, FL 32114

I. Abstract One objective of this experiment is to become familiar with linear components and multiple voltage sources and their behaviors when combined in circuits. Another objective is to demonstrate the concept of super-position and the benefits of applying this principle when analyzing complicated circuits. In order to analyze this principle, the concept of proportionality, both direct and inverse proportionality need to be explored. Within exploring proportionality, the proportionality constant (K) can be found. A fundamental circuit containing a power source and equal valued resistors was first assembled to prove linearity and determine its proportionality constant through the measurement of current and voltage. A second complex circuit was then assembled and analyzed to show the principle of superposition by removing one power source at a time and measuring current and voltage at specified nodes. The data measured in each circuit was analyzed and used to prove the intended theories. Overall, the experiment successfully demonstrated the fundamental analysis of the linearity, proportionality and super-position. II. Introduction When analyzing circuits, considering the linearity and proportionality between two characteristics (resistance, voltage, current, etc.) simplifies the relationships within the circuit. Because of this, it is essential to be able to derive linear and proportional relationships between circuit characteristics as well as understand their purpose. Ohms Law can be used to express the linear relationship between voltage and current for linear devices such as resistors. Ohms Law states: V=IR Where, V= voltage I= current R = resistance If this equation is rearranged to follow the standard linear equation of a line form (y = mx + b), where (m) is the slope of the line, we obtain: Resistors like other linear devices are considered Ohmic devices, meaning their voltage and current change proportionally to each other. By plotting I (current) versus V (voltage), we obtain the following graphical representation of the linearity:

Figure 1: Graph Representing the Proportionality of Linear Devices between Input and Output

The concept of proportionality is similar to linearity, except for a crucial difference with the slope. Proportionality focuses on effect of one component on the other when changes are made within the circuit. There are two types of proportionality. The first, directly proportional is applied for instances where the increase/decrease in one quantity results to a direct increase/decrease in another quantity. The second case, inversely proportional applies to cases where an increase/decrease in one quantity results in the opposite effect on another quantity, in other words a decrease/increase. With proportionality it is important to understand that there is a rate at which quantities relate to one another. This rate variable, called proportionality constant, is denoted by K. With the introduction of this constant, the two types of proportionality can be written mathematically by:

Another tool that is used in circuit analysis is the principal of superposition. This principal simplifies more complex circuits by combining multiple voltage sources, current sources, or a combination of the two. This is done by analyzing one voltage source or current source at a time by zeroing out the others. To zero out a voltage source, an open circuit is used in substitution, whereas a current source is replaced by a short circuit. The total voltage is then determined to be the summation of the two sources (or difference depending on their orientation within the circuit). The superposition principal in mathematical form states that the output for a circuit F(x), with a linear combination of signals ax1 (t) + bx2 (t), applied to it, F(x) is equal to the linear combination of the outputs due to the signals x1(t) and x2(t) applied separately. In equation form: F (ax1 + bx2) = aFx1+bFx2 Since circuits containing linear components follow the superposition principal, calculations are often simpler, more precise and easier to accomplish by hand or using simple tools such as calculators. III. Procedure __________ CIRCUIT 1

Figure 2: Circuit 1 Configuration for Experiment 1. Circuit 1 pictured in Figure 2 was assembled.

2. The DMM was used to measure the actual resistance of all five resistors and the values were recorded. 3. The power supply was varied from 0 V to +20.0 V in increments of 2 Volts and the corresponding Vout values were recorded. 4. The corresponding proportionality constant K was calculated. 5. Data was plotted to produce a graphical representation of K. _________ _ CIRCUIT 2A

Figure 3: Circuit 2 Part A Configuration for Experiment

Figure 4: Circuit 2 Part B Configuration for Experiment

Figure 5: Circuit 2 Part C Configuration for Experiment

1. Circuit 2 Part A pictured in Figure 3 was assembled. 2. A 10 k potentiometer was used to set up the 6.2 k resistor. 3. The DMM was used to measure the actual resistance of the resistors and the values were recorded. 4. The voltage across the 6.2 k resistor was measured, recorded and labeled as Vout. 5. The current through the 6.2 k (potentiometer) resistor was measured, recorded and labeled as I1. 6. The15 V battery source was removed and replaced with a wire, thus short circuiting it. This created Circuit 2 Part B as seen in Figure 4. 7. The voltage across the 6.2 k resistor was measured, recorded and labeled as Vout (1). 8. The current through the 6.2 k (potentiometer) resistor was measured, recorded and

labeled as I2. 9. The15 V battery source was reconnected and the 5 V battery source was removed and replaced with a wire, thus short circuiting it. This created Circuit 2 Part C as seen in Figure 5. 10. The voltage across the 6.2 k resistor was measured, recorded and labeled as Vout (2). 11. The current through the 6.2 k (potentiometer) resistor was measured, recorded and labeled as I3. 12. The data collected from steps 1 through 11 were tabulated and analyzed to verify superposition.

Figure 6: Circuit 2 Part D Configuration for Experiment 13. Circuit 2 Part D pictured in Figure 6 was assembled by switching the polarity of the 15 V battery source. 14. Steps 1 through 12 were then repeated for this circuit. 15. The circuit was reconnected with the original polarity (Figure 3) and the effects of voltage increase were explored 16. The voltage of the 5V battery was increased by increments of 1V from 5V to 10V and the corresponding output voltage was recorded. 17. The voltage of the 15V battery was increased by increments of 1V from 15V to 20V and the corresponding output voltage was recorded. 18. The data from steps 16 and 17 were analyzed to see which battery had a greater effect on the circuit output voltage. IV. Result Analysis and Discussion

In this experiment, various voltage source configurations were used to understand how to analyze more complex circuits. The first circuit that was examined involved five resistors and one voltage source. The actual resistances of each resistor were measured and can be seen in Table 1: Table 1: Theoretical and Measured Values for Resistors in Circuit 1 Theoretical Measured Percent Resistor Resistance (k) Resistance (k) Difference
1 2 3 4 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

Since our percent difference is zero, we believe that we may have made an error when using the DMM, as far as the number of decimal places we had recorded. For percent difference the following equation was used:

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Table 2: Measured Voltages and Calculated K from Circuit 1

Vinput (V) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Average Voutput (V) 0.267 0.517 0.791 1.041 1.295 1.548 1.804 2.030 2.260 2.540 K 0.134 0.129 0.132 0.130 0.130 0.129 0.129 0.127 0.126 0.127 0.129 % Error to Average 3.37% 0.08% 2.08% 0.75% 0.27% 0.12% 0.23% 1.76% 2.78% 1.66% 1.31%

In Table 2 we have the measured values for the output voltage at R5. Once the output voltages were found, the proportionality constant K between input and output voltages, could be found using the following equation:

Along with calculating the K for each voltage increment, an overall average K value was found for all ten increments. Each individual K was then compared to the average value of K to find a

percent error as well as an average percent error. Another method to finding the average K value is by graphing Voutput versus Vinput.

V (out) / V (in)
3.000 Output Voltage (V) 2.500 2.000 1.500 1.000 0.500 0.000 0 5 10 15 20 25 Input Voltage (V) y = 0.1275x
V (out) / V (in)

Figure 7: Graph of Voutput versus Vinput As you can see from the slope of the line, the average value of K when graphed is 0.128 which has a percent difference of only 0.77% from the average value we found through mathematical methods. The second circuit that was analyzed in this experiment uses two voltage sources and three resistors. Again the actual resistances of the resistors were determined for Circuit 2. The resultant values can be seen in Table 4.3. Table 3: Theoretical and Measured Resistance for Circuit 2 Resistors, Along With Percent Difference Theoretical Measured Percent Resistor Resistance (k) Resistance (k) Difference 1 3.9 3.9 0.00% 2 4.7 4.9 4.08% 3 6.2 6.2 0.00% Table 4: Total Theoretical and Measured Voltage and Voltages with Only One Source in the Circuit for Circuit 2 Parts B through D
Circuit 2 (B & C) (D) 15 V
Polarity Switched

Voltage 1 (V) 2.09 2.06

Voltage 2 (V) -4.82 4.83

Voltage Total (Theoretical) (V) -2.73 6.89

Voltage Actual (V) -2.88 7.27

% Error 5.21% 5.23%

To understand the principal of super-position, the output voltage was measured with both sources in the circuit, then two more times, each time short circuiting one of the sources. The measured values can be seen in Table 4. In theory, the total voltage with both sources connected should be equal to the individual voltage contribution from each battery. This was verified through the use of the following equation:

Although these values differ slightly, it is within a tolerable amount such that the cause of error is likely due to an inconsistency when performing the experiment. Table 5: Total Theoretical and Measured Voltage and Voltages with Only One Source in the Circuit for Circuit 2 Parts B through D
Circuit 2 (B & C) (D) 15 V
Polarity Switched

I2 (mA) -0.331 -0.477

I3 (mA) 0.766 -0.757

I1(Theoretical) (mA) 0.435 -1.234

I1(Actual) (mA) 0.460 -1.133

% Error 5.43% 8.91%

Similarly, the principal of superposition can be applied to the current measured with both sources, and each source individually. The theoretical current for both circuit configurations was calculated using the following equation:

The results seen in Table 5 show that with slight percent error, the measured and theoretical values for current are similar, thus validating the use of the superposition principal. Again, the variance of the values is most likely the result of an experimental error. Next, to identify which power supply contributes the most to the output voltage, a mathematical proof was executed on the second Circuit 2: Figure 3 of this experiment. This was done by removing each source individually and replacing them with a short circuit and varying the input voltage for the remaining circuit. The analysis was performed at 5 volts and 15 volts, with each power supply being increased at an incremental value of 1 volt.

The first step is to calculate the equivalent resistance for the circuit. The following sample calculations were performed for the 15V battery, at a value of 15V. Equivalent resistance can be calculated using the following equation:

With equivalent resistance found, the current from the source can be calculated using the equation:

Then, the current across the potentiometer can be solved using the Current Divider Rule:

Finally, to find the Voutput: 6.20 k

This process was repeated for each power source, to analyze which voltage source has the largest contribution to the output voltage. This data can be seen in Table 6.

Table 6: Voltage Comparison from Both Sources Obtained Mathematically

Voltage Source Input Voltage 5 6 7 5 volt battery 8 9 10 15 16 17 15 volt battery 18 19 20 I(6.2 k) 0.718 0.862 1.005 1.149 1.293 1.436 1.850 1.973 2.097 2.220 2.343 2.467 Voutput 4.45 5.34 6.23 7.12 8.01 8.91 11.47 12.24 13.00 13.76 14.53 15.29

When the incremental differences between the 5V source and the 15V source were analyzed, the 5V battery was found to contribute 0.89V per voltage increment, whereas the 15V source contributed only 0.76 volts. This was expected, since the equivalent resistance that the voltage passed through from the 5V battery source is less than the 15V source. V. Conclusion

The lab demonstrated and taught many fundamental aspects of linearity, proportionality, and superposition. These concepts will be essential in the further pursuit of circuit analysis and construction. Superposition will be especially useful when analyzing complex circuits that contain multiple power sources. However, throughout this experiment, there were some minor inaccuracies between theoretical and measured values. We concluded that these inaccuracies can be contributed to either component affects, such as the resistance present in the breadboard and wires, the efficiency of the devices itself, or to improper equipment handling on our part. A correct handling technique and using more efficient components might reduce inaccuracies in the experiment in the future. VI. Statement

This experiment was efficient in demonstrating the superposition principal. The teaching assistant provided all the necessary assistance when asked.