Controller (control theory)

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In control theory, a controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational conditions of a given dynamical system. The operational conditions are typically referred to as output variables of the system which can be affected by adjusting certain input variables. For example, the heating system of a house can be equipped with a thermostat (controller) for sensing air temperature (output variable) which can turn on or off a furnace or heater when the air temperature becomes too low or too high. In this example, the thermostat is the controller and directs the activities of the heater. The heater is the processor that warms the air inside the house to the desired temperature (setpoint). The air temperature reading inside the house is the feedback. And finally, the house is theenvironment in which the heating system operates. The notion of controllers can be extended to more complex systems. In the natural world, individual organisms also appear to be equipped with controllers that assure the homeostasis necessary for survival of each individual. Both human-made and natural systems exhibit collective behaviors amongst individuals in which the controllers seek some form of equilibrium.

Transducer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about transducers in physics. For transducers in computer science, see Finite state transducer

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments.

[edit] Applications

Transducers are used in electronic communications systems to convert signals of various physical forms to electronic signals, and vice versa.

Electromagnetic: o Antenna converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and vice versa o Cathode ray tube (CRT) converts electrical signals into visual form o Fluorescent lamp, light bulb converts electrical power into visible light o Magnetic cartridge converts motion into electrical form o Photodetector or photoresistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) converts changes in light levels into resistance changes o Tape head converts changing magnetic fields into electrical form o Hall effect sensor converts a magnetic field level into electrical form only Electrochemical: o pH probes o Electro-galvanic fuel cell o Hydrogen sensor Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called actuators): o Electroactive polymers o Galvanometer o Microelectromechanical systems o Rotary motor, linear motor o Vibration powered generator o Potentiometer when used for measuring position o Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauge o Accelerometer o Strain gauge o String potentiometer o Air flow sensor o Tactile sensor Electroacoustic: o Loudspeaker, earphone converts electrical signals into sound (amplified signal magnetic field motion air pressure)

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Microphone converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure motion of conductor/coil magnetic field signal) Pickup (music technology) converts motion of metal strings into an electrical signal (magnetism electricity (signal)) Tactile transducer converts electrical signal into vibration ( signal vibration) Piezoelectric crystal converts solid-state electrical modulations into an electrical signal (vibration electrical current signal) Geophone converts a ground movement (displacement) into voltage (vibrations motion of conductor/coil magnetic field signal) Gramophone pickup (air pressure motion magnetic field signal) Hydrophone converts changes in water pressure into an electrical form Sonar transponder (water pressure motion of conductor/coil magnetic field signal)

Photoelectric: o Laser diode, light-emitting diode converts electrical power into forms of light o Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier tube converts changing light levels into electrical form Electrostatic: o Electrometer Thermoelectric: o Resistance temperature detector (RTD) o Thermocouple o Peltier cooler o Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor) Radioacoustic: o GeigerMller tube used for measuring radioactivity o Receiver (radio)

Transducers are electric or electronic devices that transform energy from one manifestation into another. The term transducer is commonly used in two senses; the sensor, used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another (usually an electrical or digital signal), and an actuator may be described as opposite to a sensor-it converts electrical signal into generally nonelectrical energy. An example of a transducer is a loudspeaker which converts an electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and, subsequently, into acoustic waves.

Types of Transducers
Electromagnetic Transducers:

Antenna converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and vice versa. Cathode ray tube (CRT) converts electrical signals into visual form Fluorescent lamp, light bulb converts electrical power into visible light Magnetic cartridge converts motion into electrical form Pick up (music technology) converts motion into electrical form Photodetector or Photoresistor (LDR) converts changes in light levels into resistance changes Tape head converts changing magnetic fields into electrical form Hall effect sensor converts a magnetic field level into electrical form only.

Electrochemical Transducers:

pH probes Electro-galvanic fuel cell

Electromechanical (actuators) Transducers:

Electroacoustic Transducers:

Geophone convert a ground movement (displacement) into voltage Gramophone pick-up Hydrophone converts changes in water pressure into an electrical form Loudspeaker, earphone converts changes in electrical signals into acoustic form Microphone converts changes in air pressure into an electrical signal Piezoelectric crystal converts pressure changes into electrical form (and electrical signals into acoustic/mechanical form) Sonar transponder Tactile transducer

Photoelectric Transducers:

Laser diode, light-emitting diode convert electrical power into forms of light Photodiode converts changing light levels into electrical form

Photo Resistor converts changing light levels into electrical form Phototransistor converts changing light levels into electrical form Photomultiplier tube converts changing light levels into electrical form

Electrostatic Transducers:

Electrometer

Thermoelectric Transducers:

RTD Resistance Temperature Detector Thermocouple Peltier cooler Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)

Radioacoustic Transducers:

Geiger-Muller tube used for measuring radioactivity. Receiver (radio)