Development of Floating Vehicles and Structures Major developments in Marine Field Early years logs, wooden boats, ore

e propelled boats and sailing boats inland water as well as sea Building of boats was by traditional skills and innovations were mainly in the form of the boat That is why the art of shipbuilding (and ship design) was called Naval Architecture. 1780 to 1810 Steam engines in ships birth of Marine Engineering as a professional skill. Sail is replaced by coal for energy. 1800s Use of paddles and screw propellers on ships. 1837 to 1858 1 K Brunnel built GREAT EASTERN, GREAT WESTERN and GREAT BRITAIN 1820 to 1880 iron ships and composit ships 1880 onwards steel ships 1900 onwards oil replaces coal as ship energy source. 1920 onwards welding in ship construction 1892 Invention of diesel engine 1912 onwards use of diesel engine in ships 1954 First nuclear ship Nautilus 1906 First hydrofoil 1955 First jack up drilling unit built 1959 First practical hovercraft 1958 First time carriage of LNG by sea 1919 to 1938 Ship types begin to appear cargo liners, tramps, ore carriers, tankers. Full flowering of passenger liners. 1945 to 1955 post war replacement. Modest technical advance. Large number of cheap ships cargo built, eg. FREEDOM class vessels. 1955 to 1965 Ship size and speed increase advent of modern scientific design practices. 1965 to 1973 Golden age of shipping container ships, ro-ro, car carriers, chemical and gas carriers. Ships increase in size economy of scale VLCC and ULCC built. Demise of passenger transport by sea. Scientific procedures advance structural design, new production techniques etc. 1973 to 1982 Rise in oil price, large tankers fade away. Improvement in diesel engines for better fuel efficiency, slow steaming of vessels 1970 onwards offshore oil exploration and extraction in commercial scale offshore platforms of various kinds are designed and built a new of Ocean engineering appears on the academic scene. Ocean is seen as a store house of resources. Extraction of minerals living resources and energy research in these areas start. 1990 to 2000 Sea as the Common Heritage of Mankind Law of the Sea promulgated.

Present trends in Technology

Safety Pollution prevention Computers and IT Cargo handling Efficiency Fuel Alternatives and Efficiency Structural Efficiency Manning standards and levels Scientific analysis CFD, FEM etc. Management practices ISO, ISM, TQM etc Dismantling

Sizes of Cargo Ships

Mini Bulkcarriers: < 10000t dwt Small Handy Size carriers, 20000 to 28000 t dwt Handy Size carriers 28000 to 40000 t dwt Handymax carriers 40000 to 50000 t dwt SeawayMax the largest size that can travel the St. Lawrence Seaway(B <= 23.16m) Aframax tankers: 75000 to 115000t dwt Suezmax: Largest Vessel passing through Suez Canal upto 150000t dwt Panamax: Largest Vessel passing through Panama Canal (B <= 32.2 m) 65000 to 80000t dwt Malaccamax: Strait depth 25m - VLCCs Capesize: Vessels navigating across Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn (bigger than Suezmax and Panamax) 80000 to 120000t dwt VLCC (very large crude carrier) super tankers of 150000 to 320000t dwt ULCC (ultra large crude carrier) super tankers of 320000 to 550000t dwt VLBC (very large bulk carrier) upto 200000t dwt carrying capacity

CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE VEHICLES & STRUCTURES

Marine Vehicles and Structures Inland Waterways Propelled (Barges, Tugs, passenger boats, Fishing Boats etc.) Non-Propelled (Barges, Dredgers etc.) Pleasure (Restaurants, tourist boats paddles, oars, motor boats, planing boats, house boats) Sea going Transport Industrial Vessels (owner operated) Fishing Vessels Supply Vessels Ships for industrial houses General Cargo Break Bulk General Cargo/ Multipurpose vessels Cargo liners Unitised Container ships Barge carriers RORO vessels Passenger Vessels Ferries Cruise Ships Passenger ships Fast Transport Vessels Dry Bulk Bulk Carriers Ore Carriers Combination Carriers (OBO etc.) Liquid Bulk Crude oil carriers Product Tankers Chemical Tankers Cryogenic Vessels (LPG/ LNG/ Ammonia) Non-Transport Service Vessels Tugs Dredgers Supply Vessels Ice Breakers Research Vessels Military Vessels

Offensive Defensive Submarines and Submersibles Support Vessels Industrial Oil Exploration and Production platforms Oil Storage and Offloading Oil Transportation (Tankers, LNG, Pipe lines) Ocean Mining Ocean energy Floating Airport Others Tourism and sports Planing/ Hydrofoil vessels SES/ Hovercraft Hybrid vessels Yatches Floating Tourism Facilities

General Cargo ships Characteristics Number has gone down with increase in specialised ships such as continer ships and RORO ships. Liners - sophisticated ships with high speed of upto 20 knots Tramps cheap ships of workhorse type calling at medium and small ports Multi deck ships more floor space for cargo Hold sizes and hatch sizes for variety cargo such as containers and large steel products. Hatch width < B/2 for single hatch ships or , 0.75B for twin or triple hatch ships. Cargo handling by cranes/ derricks vertically with atleast one heavy lift crane Standard Designs Mariner Class, Freedom Class and Fortune Class Stowage Factors of general cargo
Commodity Alcohol Caraway Seed Cement Hides (wet) Hides (dry) Structural Steel Beams Packing Drums Bags Sacks Bundles Bales Piece 0.67 Stowage Factor m /metric Ton (ft3/Long Ton)
3

1.89 1.50 4.18 1.23 5.57 (24)

(68) (54) (150) (44) (200)

STANDARD CONTAINER SIZES

metric

Imperial

Metric

imperial

metric

length external dimensions width height length interior dimensions width height width door aperture height volume maximum gross mass empty weight net load

20 4 8 0 8 6 19 4 13/16 7 8 19/32 7 9 57/64 7 8 1/8 7 5 3/4 1,169 ft

6.198 m 2.438 m 2.591 m 5.898 m 2.352 m 2.385 m 2.343 m 2.280 m 33.1 m

40 0 8 0 8 6

12.192m 2.438 m 2.591 m

45 0 8 0 9 6 44 4 7 8 19/32 8 9 15/16 7 8 1/8

13.716m 2.438 m 2.896 m 13.556 m 2.352 m 2.698 m 2.343 m 2.585 m 86.1 m

39 5 45/64 12.032 m 7 8 19/32 7 9 57/64 7 8 1/8 7 5 3/4 2,385 ft 2.352 m 2.385 m 2.343 m

2.280 m 85 49/64 67.5 m 3,040 ft

52,910 lb 24,000kg 5,140 lb 2,330 kg

67,200 lb 30,480kg 8,820 lb 4,000 kg

67,200 lb 30,480 kg 10,580 lb 56,620 lb 4,800 kg 25,680 kg

47,770 lb 21,670kg

58,380 lb 26,480kg

Container Ships Standard size TEU and FEU

Door to door transport/ Intermodal transport Liner Service fixed ports with scheduled service Freight rate is high container conferences for freight stabilisation Fine form High speed ships Hub ports and large container ship movement between hub ports Container ship sizes have gone upto Feeder service ships having 250 tp 1200 TEU capacity over small distance Theoretical size Suezmax: 14000 TEU, 137000 dwt, 400m x 50m x 15m(T), 85MW, 25.5 knots Malaccamax: 18000 TEU, 300000 dwt, 470m x 60m x 16m(T), 100MW, 25.5 knots Container stacking Arrangements: Locking with each other Lashing to double bottom, deck or bulkheads Cell guides Cellular Container Ships Open Hatch Container Ships Stability (high CG) Motion (High acceleration for top containers) High Torsional Stress (Box Girders) Cargo Handling (geared/ gearless) No Ballast Voyage

Ten Biggest Container Ship Classes, listed by TEU capacity

Built

Name

Sister Length Maxium Beam o.a. TEU ships

GT

Owners

Flag

2006 Emma Mrsk 4

397.7 m 56.4 m 14,500

151,687 Maersk Line

Denmark

2005 Gudrun Mrsk 5

367.3 m 42.8 m 10,150

97,933 Maersk Line

Denmark

2006

Xin Los Angeles

336.7 m 45.6 m 9,600 [2]

107,200 CSCL

Hong Kong

2006

Cosco Guangzhou

350 m

42.8 m 9,450[3]

99,833 Cosco

Greece

2006

CMA CGM Medea

350 m

42.8 m 9,415[4]

99,500 CMA CGM

France

2003 Axel Mrsk

352.6 m 42.8 m 9,310

93,496 Maersk Line

Denmark

2006 NYK Vega

338.2 m 45.6 m 9,200

97,825

Nippon Yusen Panama Kaisha

2005 MSC Pamela

336.7 m 45.6 m 9,178

90,500 MSC

Liberia

2006

MSC Madeleine

348.5 m 42.8 m 9,100

107,551 MSC

Liberia

2006

Hannover Bridge

336 m

45.8 m 9,040 Barge Carriers

89,000 K Line

Japan

Intermodal Transportation sea and river Standard Barges SEABEE Barges LASH Barges BACAT Barges

Very Heavy Cargo Handling Gear SEABEE ship has a barge elevator 31.8x23m to lift two barges, one on top of the other, total capacity being 2000t operated by hydraulic power pack, winches, sheaves, wire ropes etc., the total equipment weighing 540 t. LASH vessels have either gantry cranes of 500t or 300t, or elevating platform of SEABEE vessels. BACAT vessels have gantry crane/ elevator of 300 to 400t capacity

Ferries and Passenger Vessels High capacity cargo, large volume required for carrying passengers Costly cargo with high freight Liner service scheduled service

Number of Superstructure decks extending from fore end to aft end High CG Much better habitability, manoeuvrability and stability required High breadth, low draught, fine form, high speed Facilities depending on passenger standard Shot distance ferries with no sleeping accommodation or minimum sleeping accommodation, lower decks may be car dedks operated as roro vessels withstern/ bow ramps Long distance luxury liners with a number of recreational facilities Long distance cheap travel for pilgrimage or main land to island travel dormitory to deluxe accommodation with limited commom spaces High performance vehicles to move passengers over short distances quickly Catamaran fast ferries Planing Vessels mono hull and catamarans Hydrofoil Boats surface piercing or fully submerged SES and Hovercrafts Hybrid vessels combining planning, foil and/ or aerostatic pressure Use of Wing in Ground Effect (WIG) to move fast

RORO Vessels Bow doors with internal ramp Transom/ stern doors serving as ramps Side ports Internal ramps, elevators to move cargo to other decks

Equipment to lower/ raise and swivel ramps include wire ropes/ chains, winches and sheaves Ramps become heavy based on weight of vehicles moved on them Use passenger ferries (cars), Cargo ships (horizontal loading) and RORO vessels (containers on trailers) Liner scheduled service, high freight rate High volume required High speed, fine form, large breadth, low draught vessels with high manoeuvrability to reduce port turn around time Due to horizontal movement of vehicles, transverse WT partitioning is compromised. So Stability in damaged condition is a critical design requirement

Dry Bulk Cargo Ships Characteristics Volume / weight based design deadweight carrier Single deck

Bottom sloping tanks for easy cargo handling Angle of repose and grain shifting top side tanks / shifting boards Alternate hold loading BM and SF Problem Heavy bulk carriage ore carrier with high double bottom Multiple cargo carriers - OBOs Slow speed vessels full form, stern flow wake control Automatic/ Otherwise Loading / Unloading Size has gone on increasing Panamax, Suezmax, Aframax and VLBC

Typical Bulk Cargoes

Commodity ton/m3 Stowage factor, ft3/long ton Stowage factor, m3/long ton Specific gravity,

Iron ore Coal Grain heavy Grain light Bauxite Phosphate/rock General

12-15 42-48 42-56 55-60 28-35 33-34 24-29

0.34 0.42 1.2-1.36 1.2-1.42 1.56-1.7 0.79-0.99 0.91-0.96 0.69-0.82

3-2.42 0.85-0.75 0.85-0.72 0.65-0.6 1.29-1.03 1.12-1.06 1.47-1.24

Crude Oil Tankers and Product Tankers Before 1970s Tanker Characteristics: Single Hull simple construction ship Cheap Cargo, deadweight oriented, Type A Freeboard Safe ship both from damaged stability and structural point of view

Tanker size went on increasing from 1950 onwards In 60s we had VLCCs and ULCCs designed, built and operated Golden age of shipping new analysis techniques evolved and used in design FEM and flow methods Early 1970s Arab-Israel War OPEC formed and Very high increase in oil price Oil trade and hence Tanker market collapsed VLCCs and ULCCs operation stopped and building contracts cancelled Collapse of European shipbuilding Existing VLCCs and ULCCs utilised for oils storage at sea/ port Oil price went on increasing over 70s and 80s Tanker size reduced drastically Simulteneously Tanker Disasters and Pollution of Coast lines Led to Marpol in 1978 and modifications later on Equipment for monitoring bilge oil content and oil removal from water Design guide lines for oil and BW tanks Oil cargo in Protective Locations Presently Tankers of moderate size going upto about 150000 t dwt Single deck, deadweight carrier Complete Double Hull BW and cargo/ oil saggregation Equipment for pollution control, sludge control and fire control Stability is important in fully loaded condition Slow full form ships Large space allocated to BW and so, impossible to achieve Type A freeboard Wake and stern flow Cargo Handling by Cargo and Stripping pumps and pipelines on board Product and chemical tankers to have compartments marked for each product and Each product must have separate handling system

Tanker Arrangements

Liquified Gas Carriers LNG, LPG, Ammonia etc. Carried either at (i) Normal temperature and high pressure or (ii) Cryogenic temperature at normal pressure (this is more common)

Cargo carried in special tanks (i) Membrane Tanks (integral with the ship hull) (ii) Spherical tanks Tanks inner wall is of non-corrosive material to withstand cargo imposed conditions (normally stainless steel) High Technology Vessels Tanks, pipelines etc are heavily insulated Care to be taken to see that joints etc. do not crack due to uneven expansion Care to be taken to ensure no leakage of cryogenic material on normal steel structure Boil-off gases can main engine use it? Fire fighting nitrogen shielding