Chemistry Notes For Class 12th CBSE

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1
XII
Chemistry
Ch. 1: The Solid State
Points to remember

1. Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which the constituting particles are
arranged very closely. The constituent particles can be atoms,
molecules or ions.

2. Properties of solids:
a. They have definite mass, volume and shape.
b. Intermolecular distances are short and hence the intermolecular
forces are strong.
c. Their constituent particles have fixed positions and can only
oscillate about their mean positions.
d. They are incompressible and rigid.

3. Classification of on the basis of the arrangement of constituent
particles:
a. Crystalline solids: The arrangement of constituent particles is a
regular orderly arrangement. Example: iron, copper, diamond,
graphite
b. Amorphous solids: The arrangement of constituent particles is an
irregular arrangement. Example: Glass, plastics, rubber

4. Properties of crystalline solids:
a. They have a definite characteristic geometrical shape
b. They have a long range order.
c. They have a sharp melting point.
d. They are anisotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties show
different values when measured along different directions in the
same crystal.
e. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they split into two pieces and
the newly generated surfaces are plain and smooth.
f. They have a definite and characteristic heat of fusion
g. They are called true solids

5. Polymorphic forms or polymorphs: The different crystalline forms of a
substance are known as polymorphic forms or polymorphs. For
example: graphite and diamond.

6. Types of crystalline solids:

Type of
Solid
Constitue
nt
Particles
Bonding/
Attractive
Forces
Example
s
Physical
nature
Electrical
conducti
vity
Melting
point
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Chemistry Class 12th
CBSE Revision Notes scribd.com/Kanishk_Web
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Molecul
ar
solids

1. Non
polar
Molecules

Dispersion
or London
forces

Ar, CCl
4
,
H
2
, I
2
,
CO
2

Soft

Insulator

Very
low
2.
Polar
Dipole-
dipole
interaction
s
HCl,
solid
SO
2
,
solid
NH
3

Soft Insulator Low
3.
Hydrog
en
bonded
Hydrogen
bonding

H
2
O
(ice)
Hard Insulator Low
Ionic
solids
Ions Coulombic
or
electrostat
ic
NaCl,
MgO,
ZnS,
CaF
2

Hard but
brittle
Insulator
s in solid
state but
conducto
rs
in molten
state and
in
aqueous
solutions
High
Metallic
solids
Positive
ions in a
sea of
delocalise
d
electrons
Metallic
bonding
Fe, Cu,
Ag, Mg
Hard but
malleabl
e and
ductile
Conducto
rs
in solid
state as
well as in
molten
state

Fairly
high
Covale
nt or
networ
k solids
Atoms Covalent
bonding
SiO
2
(qu
artz),
SiC, C
(diamon
d),
AlN

C(graphi
te)
Hard

Soft
Insulator
s

Conducto
r
(exceptio
n)
Very
high

7. Characteristics of amorphous solids:
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a. They have an irregular shape.
b. They have a short range order.
c. They gradually soften over a range of temperature
d. They are isotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties are the same
in all directions.
e. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut into two pieces with
irregular surfaces.
f. They do not have definite heat of fusion
g. They are called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. This is because
they have a tendency to flow, though very slowly.

8. Crystal lattice: A regular ordered arrangement of constituent particles
in three dimensions is called crystal lattice.

9. Lattice points or lattice sites: The fixed positions on which the
constituent particles are present are called lattice points or lattice
sites. A group of lattice points which when repeated over and over
again in 3 dimensions give the complete crystal lattice.

10. Unit cell: The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit in
space lattice which when repeated over and over again generates the
complete crystal lattice. The crystal can consist of an infinite number
of unit cells.

11. Parameters which characterize a unit cell:
a. Dimensions of the unit cell along the three edges, a, b and c:
These edges may or may not be mutually perpendicular.
b. Inclination of the edges to each other: This is denoted by the
angle between the edges , , and respectively. is the angle
between the edges b and c, is the angle between the edges a
and c, and is the angle between a and b.

12.Seven crystal systems:
a. Cubic: = = = 90 , a = b = c
b. Tetragonal: = = = 90 ; a = b c
c. Orthorhombic: = = = 90; a b c
d. Monoclinic: = = 90, 90; a b c
e. Hexagonal: = = 90, =120; a = b c
f. Rhombohedral or trigonal: = = 90; a = b = c
g. Triclinic: 90; a b c

13.Types of unit cells:
a. Primitive or simple unit cells have constituent particles only at
its corners.
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b. Centred unit cells are those unit cells in which one or more
constituent particles are present at positions in addition to those
present at the corners.
The centred unit cells are of three types:
i. Face centred unit cell: A face centred unit cell consists of
one constituent particle present at the centre of each face
in addition to those present at the corners.
ii. Body centred unit cell: A body centred unit cell consists of
a one constituent particle is present at its body centre in
addition to those present at the corners.
iii. End centred unit cell: An end centred unit cells consists of
one constituent particle present at the centre of any two
opposite faces in addition to those present at the corners.

14.Number of particles at different lattice positions:
a. Corner: If an atom is present at any one corner, it is shared by
eight unit cells. So, only one eighth of an atom actually belongs
to the unit cell.
b. Face centre: If an atom is present at the centre of the face, it is
shared by two unit cells. So, only half of the atom actually
belongs to the unit cell.
c. Body centre: If an atom is present at the body centre, it is not
shared by any other unit cell. So, that one atom completely
belongs to the same unit cell.
d. End centre: If an atom is present at the edge centre, it is shared
by four unit cells. So, only one fourth of an atom belongs to the
unit cell.

15.Number of atoms in different unit cells:
a. Primitive unit cell: 1 atom
b. Face centred unit cell: 3 atoms
c. Body centred unit cell: 2 atoms

16.Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of a
particle.

17.Close packed structures:
a. Close packing in one dimension: Each sphere is in contact with
two of its neighbours. Coordination number is two.
b. Close packing in two dimensions: It is generated by stacking
the rows of close packed spheres in two ways:
i. Square close packing: When the spheres of the second row are
placed exactly above those of the first row. This way the
spheres are aligned horizontally as well as vertically. The
arrangement is AAA type. Coordination number is 4.
ii. Hexagonal close packing: When the spheres of the second row
are placed above the first one in a staggered manner in such a
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way that its spheres fit in the depression of the first row. The
arrangement is ABAB type. Coordination number is 6.
c. Close packing in three dimensions: They can be obtained by
stacking the two dimensional layers one above the other. It can
be obtained in two ways:
i. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional square
close packed layers: Here, The spheres of the upper layer are
placed exactly over the first layer such the spheres of the layers
are perfectly aligned horizontally and vertically. It has a AAAA..
type pattern. The lattice is simple cubic lattice.
ii. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional
hexagonal close packed layers: There are two steps involved as:
i. Placing the second layer over the first layer: if a two
dimensional layer is considered as A, the second layer
which is placed above the first layer in such a way that
the spheres of the second layer (considered as B) are
placed in the depressions of the first layer. This gives rise
to two types of voids: tetrahedral voids and octahedral
voids.
ii. Placing the third layer over the third layer: There are two
possibilities:
a. Covering the tetrahedral voids: Here, tetrahedral voids
of the second layer may be covered by the spheres of
the third layer. It gives rise to ABABAB type pattern.
The three dimensional structure is called hexagonal
close packed structure. Coordination number is 12.
Example: Mg, Zn
b. Covering the octahedral voids: Here, octahedral voids
of the second layer may be covered by the spheres of
the third layer. It gives rise to ABCABCABC type
pattern. The three dimensional structure is called cubic
close packed structure or face centred cubic structure.
Coordination number is12. Example: Cu, Ag

18.Types of voids:
a. Tetrahedral voids: This type of void is formed at the centre
when four spheres are joined in the form of a tetrahedron.
b. Octahedral void: This type of void is surrounded by six spheres.

19.In hcp or ccp arrangement, octahedral and tetrahedral voids are
present. The number of octahedral voids present in a lattice is equal to
the number of close packed particles. The number of tetrahedral voids
is twice the number of octahedral voids.
Example: If the number of close packed particles = n
Number of particles present in octahedral voids = n
Number of particles present in tetrahedral voids = 2n

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20.Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space occupied by
constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
Volumeoccupiedbyspheres
Packingefficiency= x100%
Total volumeof unit cell

a. Packing efficiency for face centred unit cell =74%
b. Packing efficiency for body centred cubic unit cell =68%
c. Packing efficiency for simple cubic unit cell =52.4%

21. Radius ratio in an octahedral void: For an atom to occupy an
octahedral void, its radius must be 0.414 times the radius of the
sphere.

r
=0.414
R

22. Radius ratio for tetrahedral void: For an atom to occupy a tetrahedral
void, its radius must be 0.225 times the radius of the sphere.

r
=0.225
R

23.Density of a unit cell is same as the density of the substance.

24.Relationship between radius of constituent particle (r) and edge
length(a):
a. Simple cubic unit cell: a= 2r
b. Face centred unit cell: a 2 2 r
c. Body centred unit cell:
4r
a =
3

25.Volume of a unit cell = (edge length)
3
= a
3

a. Simple cubic unit cell: Volume= (2r)
3

b. Face centred unit cell:
3
Volume (2 2 r)
c. Body centred unit cell:
3
4r
Volume =( )
3

26.Number of atoms in a unit cell (z):
a. Simple cubic unit cell: z = 1
b. Face centred unit cell: z = 4
c. Body centred unit cell: z = 2

27.Density of unit cell:

3
A
zM
Density of unit cell=
a .N

28.Crystal defects are basically irregularities in the arrangement of
constituent particles.
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29.Defects are of two types:
a. Point defects - Point defects are the irregularities or deviations
from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in a
crystalline substance.
b. Line defects - Line defects are the irregularities or deviations
from ideal arrangement in entire rows of lattice points.

30.Point defects are of three types:
a. Stoichiometric or intrinsic or thermodynamic defects: These are
the point defects that do not disturb the stoichiometry of the
solid.
b. Non stoichiometric defects: These are the point defects that
disturb the stoichiometry of the solid.
c. Impurity defects: These are the defects in ionic solids due to the
presence of impurities present in them.

31.Stoichiometric defects for non- ionic solids are of two types:
Vacancy defect Interstitial defect
A crystal is said to have vacancy
defect when some of the lattice
sites are vacant.
A crystal is said to have
interstitial defect when some
constituent particles (atoms or
molecules) occupy an interstitial
site.
This results in decrease in
density of the substance.
This results in increase in
density of the substance.

32. Stoichiometric defects for ionic solids are of two types:

Schottky defect Frenkel or dislocation defect
In this defect equal number of
cations and anions are missing.

In this defect, the smaller ion
(usually cation) is dislocated from
its normal site to an interstitial
site.

It is basically a vacancy defect
in ionic solids.
It creates a vacancy defect at its
original site and an interstitial
defect at its new location.
It decreases the density of a
solid
It does not change the density of
the solid
Schottky defect is shown by
ionic substances in which the
cation and anion are of almost
similar sizes.

Frenkel defect is shown by ionic
substance in which there is a
large difference in the size of
ions.
For example: NaCl, KCl, CsCl
and AgBr
For example: ZnS, AgCl, AgBr
and AgI

33. Non-stoichiometric defects are of two types:
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a. Metal excess This type of defect is due to excess of metal
cations. These may be due to:
i. Anionic vacancies: A compound may have an extra metal
ion if the negative ion is absent from its lattice site. This
empty lattice site is called a hole. To maintain electrical
neutrality this site is occupied by an electron. The hole
occupied by an electron is called f-centre or Farbenzenter
centre . F- centre is responsible for the colour of the
compound.
ii. Presence of extra cations: A compound is said to have
extra cations if a cation is present in the interstitial site.
An electron is present in the interstitial site to maintain
the electrical neutrality.
b. Metal deficiency: This defect arises because of absence of metal
ions from its lattice sites. The electrical neutrality is maintained
by an adjacent ion having a higher positive charge.

34. Solids can also be classified into three types based on their electrical
conductivities:
a. Conductors-The solids with conductivities ranging between 10
4

to 10
7
ohm
1
m
1
are called conductors.
b. Insulators - These are the solids with very low conductivities
ranging between 10
20
to 10
10
ohm
1
m
1
.
a. Semi- conductors - These are the solids with conductivities in
the intermediate range from 10
6
to 10
4
ohm
1
m
1
.

35. Band theory A metal is characterized by a band structure. The
highest filled band is called valence band and the lowest
unoccupied band is called conduction band. The gap between
the two bands is called forbidden band.
a. In case of conductors, the valence band and conduction band
overlap
b. In case of insulators, the forbidden gap is very large and the
electrons are unable to excite to the conduction band.
c. In case of semiconductors, forbidden gap is small. Therefore,
some electrons may jump to conduction band and show some
conductivity. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases
with rise in temperature, since more electrons can jump to the
conduction band.

36. Types of semiconductors:
a. Intrinsic: These are those semiconductors in which the forbidden
gap is small. Only some electrons may jump to conduction band
and show some conductivity. They have very low electrical
conductivity. Example: Silicon, germanium
b. Extrinsic: When an appropriate impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Their electrical conductivity is high.
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37.Doping: The process of adding an appropriate amount of suitable
impurity to increase the conductivity of semiconductors.

38.Types of extrinsic semi conductors:

n-type semiconductors p type semiconductors

They are formed when silicon is
doped with electron rich impurity
like group 15 elements.
They are formed when silicon is
doped with electron deficient
impurity like group 13 elements.
The increase in conductivity is
due to the negatively charged
electrons.

The increase in conductivity is
due to the positively charged
holes.

39. Diode: It is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors
and is used as a rectifier.

40.Transistors: They are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of
semiconductor between two layers of the other type of
semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are used to
detect or amplify radio or audio signals.

41.12- 16 compounds These compounds are formed by the
combination of group 12 and group 16 compounds. They possess
an average valency of 4. Example: ZnS, CdS, CdSe and HgTe

42. 13- 15 compounds These compounds are formed by the
combination of group 13 and group 15 compounds. They possess
an average valency of 4. Example: InSb, AlP and GaAs

43. Every substance has some magnetic properties associated with
it. The origin of these properties lies in the electrons. Each
electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Its magnetic
moment originates from two types of motions (i) its orbital
motion around the nucleus and (ii) its spin around its own axis.

44.On the basis of their magnetic properties, substances can be
classified into five categories:
a. Paramagnetic: These are those substances which are weakly
attracted by the magnetic field. It is due to presence of one
or more unpaired electrons.
b. Diamagnetic: Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by
a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is shown by those substances
in which all the electrons are paired and there are no
unpaired electrons.
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c. Ferromagnetic: These are those substances which are
attracted very strongly by a magnetic field.
d. Antiferromagnetic: They have equal number of parallel and
anti parallel magnetic dipoles resulting in a zero net dipole
moment.
e. Ferrimagnetic: They have unequal number of parallel and anti
parallel magnetic dipoles resulting in a net dipole moment.

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Class XII
Chemistry
Ch. 2: Solutions

Top formulae
1. Mass percentage of a component
=
Mass of component in solution
100
Toal mass of solution

2.
Volume of component
Volume percentage of a component = 100
Total volume of solution

3. Mole fraction of a component (x)
=
Number of moles of component
Total number of moles of all components

4.
6
Number of parts of component
ppm 10
Total number of parts of all components of solution

5.
Number of moles of solute
Molarity
Volumeof solution in litres

6.
Number of moles of solute
Molality
Mass of solvent in kilograms

7.
Number of gram equivalent of solute
Normality
Volumeof solution in litres

8.
o
1 1
2
o
1
p p
x
p

9.
0
b b
T T T
b 2
b
2 1
K 1000 w
T
M w

10.
0
f f
T T T
f 2
f
2 1
K 1000 w
T
M w

11. = CRT
12.
2
2
w RT
M =
V

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13.
Normal molar mass

i
Abnormal molar mass
Observedcolligative property
Calculatedcolligative property
Totalnumber of molesof particlesafter association/dissociation
Totalnumber of molesof particlesbeforeassociation/dissociation

14.

o
1 1 2
o
1
1
n
.
n
p p
i
p

15.

b 2
b
2 1
K 1000 w
T .
M w
i
16.

f 2
f
2 1
K 1000 w
T .
M w
i
17.
2
n RT
.
V
i

Key Learnings

1. Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two
components.
2. Binary solution: A solution having two components is called a binary
solution. Components of a binary solution are solute and solvent.
a. When the solvent is in solid state, solution is called solid solution.
b. When the solvent is in liquid state, solution is called liquid solution.
c. When the solvent is in gaseous state, solution is called gaseous
solution.
3. Concentration is the amount of solute in given amount of solution.
4. Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100
mL of solution.
5. Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.
6. Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
7. Normality is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre
of solution.
8. Solubility is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified
amount of solvent at a specified temperature.
9. A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution.
10. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an endothermic
process, solubility increases with increase in temperature.
11. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an exothermic
process, solubility decreases with increase in temperature.
12. Henrys Law: The law states at a constant temperature the solubility of
gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of gas. Henrys
law can also be stated as the partial pressure of gas in vapour phase is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution.
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P = K
H
x
13. When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the
vapour pressure of solution is less than that of pure solvent.
14. According to Raoults law for a solution of volatile liquids the partial
vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction.
p
1
= p
o
1
x
1
;

p
2
= p
o
2
x
2

Using Daltons law of partial pressure the total pressure of solution is
calculated.
o o o
total 1 2 1 2
p =p +(p -p )x
15. On comparison of Raoult law and Henrys law, it is observed that the
partial pressure of volatile component or gas is directly proportional to
its mole fraction in solution. In case of Henrys Law the proportionality
constant is K
H
and it is different from p
1
0
which is partial pressure of
pure component. Raoults Law becomes a special case of Henrys Law
when K
H
becomes equal to p
1
0
in Henrys law.
16. Liquid liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal
solutions on basis of Raoults Law.
Ideal solutions Non- ideal solutions
The solutions that obey Raoults
Law over the entire range of
concentrations are known as ideal
solutions.

When a solution does not obey
Raoults Law over the entire range
of concentration, then it is called
non-ideal solution.
mix
H=0 and
mix
V=0
mix
H 0 and
mix
V 0
The intermolecular attractive
forces between solute molecules
and solvent molecules are nearly
equal to those present between
solute and solvent molecules i.e.
A-A and B-B interactions are
nearly equal to those between A-B
forces between solute molecules
and solvent molecules are not
equal to those present between
solute and solvent molecules i.e.
A-A and B-B interactions are not
equal to those between A-B

17. Non- ideal solutions are of two types:
Non ideal solution showing
positive deviation
Non ideal solution showing
negative deviation
The vapour pressure of a solution
is higher than that predicted by
Raoults Law
The vapour pressure of a solution
is lower than that predicted by
Raoults Law
forces between solute-solvent
molecules are weaker than those
between solute-solute and
solvent-solvent molecules i.e.
A-B < A-A and B-B interactions
forces between solute-solvent
molecules are stronger than those
between solute-solute and
solvent-solvent molecules i.e.
A-B > A-A and B-B interactions

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18. Azeotropes are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid
and vapour phase and boil at constant temperature. Liquids forming
azeotrope cannot be separated by fractional distillation.
19. There are two types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope
and maximum boiling azeotrope.
20. The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoults
law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
21. The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoults law
form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
22. Properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute
particles but not on the nature of solute are called colligative
properties.
23. There are four colligative properties:
a. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
b. Eleveation of boiling point
c. Depression of freezing point
d. Osmotic pressure
24. Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Difference in the vapour
pressure of pure solvent (
o
1
p ) and solution (
1
p ) represents lowering in
vapour pressure (
o
1
p -
1
p ). Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by
vapour pressure of pure solvent is called relative lowering of vapour
pressure (
o
1 1
o
1
p p
p
).
Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole
fraction of solute. Hence it is a colligative property.

o
1 1
2
o
1
p p
x
p

25. Elevation of boiling point: The difference in boiling points of solution
(
b
T ) and pure solvent (
0
b
T ) is called elevation in boiling point

0
b b
T T T .
For a dilute solution elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to
molal concentration of the solute in solution. Hence it is a colligative
property.

b 2
b
2 1
K 1000 w
T
M w

26. Depression of freezing point: The lowering of vapour pressure of
solution causes a lowering of freezing point compared to that of pure
solvent.The difference in freezing point of the pure solvent (
0
f
T ) and
solution (
f
T ) is called the depression in freezing point.
0
f f
T T T
For a dilute solution depression in freezing point is a colligative
property because it is directly proportional to molal concentration of
solute.
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f 2
f
2 1
K 1000 w
T
M w

27. Osmosis: The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a
semi permeable membrane from pure solvent to solution is called
osmosis.
28. Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure that must be applied to
solution to prevent the passage of solvent into solution through a semi
permeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number
of solute particles and not on their identity.
For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure ( ) is directly proportional to
the molarity (C) of the solution i.e. CRT
29. Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of
solute using the equation
2
2
w RT
M =
V

30. Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature
are called isotonic solution.
31. If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is called
hypertonic solution.
32. If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is called
hypotonic solution.
33. Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semi
permeable membrane from the solution to the pure solvent by applying
excess pressure on the solution side is called reverse osmosis.
34. Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes.
35. Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or normal
molar mass is called as abnormal molar mass.
36. vant Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or
association .
Normal molar mass

i
Abnormal molar mass
Observedcolligative property
Calculatedcolligative property
Totalnumber of molesof particlesafter association/dissociation
Totalnumber of molesof particlesbeforeassociation/dissociation

Value of i is less than unity in case solute undergo association
Value of i is greater than unity in case solute undergo dissociation
37. Inclusion of vant Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative
properties as:

o
1 1 2
o
1
1
n
.
n
p p
i
p

b 2
b
2 1
K 1000 w
T .
M w
i

f 2
f
2 1
K 1000 w
T .
M w
i
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2
n RT
.
V
i
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Class XII
Chemistry
Ch:3 Electrochemistry
Key Learnings
1. Oxidation is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined as
a gain of electrons.
2. In a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reaction takes place
simultaneously.
3. Direct redox reaction: In a direct redox reaction, both oxidation and
reduction reactions take place in the same vessel. Chemical energy is
converted to heat energy in a direct redox reaction.
4. Indirect redox reaction: In indirect redox reactions, oxidation and
reduction take place in different vessels. In an indirect redox reaction,
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
5. In an indirect redox reaction, the device which converts chemical
energy into electrical energy is known as an electrochemical cell.
6. In an electrochemical cell:
a. The half cell in which oxidation takes place is known as
oxidation half cell
b. The half cell in which reduction takes place is known as
reduction half cell.
c. Oxidation takes place at anode which is negatively charged and
reduction takes place at cathode which is positively charged.
d. Transfer of electrons takes place from anode to cathode while
electric current flows in the opposite direction.
e. An electrode is made by dipping the metal plate into the
electrolytic solution of its soluble salt.
f. A salt bridge is a U shaped tube containing an inert electrolyte
in agar-agar and gelatine.
7. A salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality and allows the flow of
electric current by completing the electrical circuit.
8. Representation of an electrochemical cell:
a. Anode is written on the left while the cathode is written on the
right.
b. Anode represents the oxidation half cell and is written as:
Metal/Metal ion (Concentration)
c. Cathode represents the reduction half cell and is written as:
Metal ion (Concentration)/Metal
d. Salt bridge is indicated by placing double vertical lines between the
anode and the cathode
e. Electrode potential is the potential difference that develops
between the electrode and its electrolyte. The separation of charges
at the equilibrium state results in the potential difference between
the metal and the solution of its ions. It is the measure of tendency
of an electrode in the half cell to lose or gain electrons.
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9. When the concentration of all the species involved in a half cell is
unity, then the electrode potential is known as standard electrode
potential. It is denoted as E
.
10. According to the present convention, standard reduction
potentials are now called standard electrode potential.
11. There are 2 types of electrode potentials: Oxidation potential
and reduction potential.
12. Oxidation potential is the tendency of an electrode to lose
electrons or get oxidized.
13. Reduction potential is the tendency of an electrode to gain
electrons or get reduced.
14. Oxidation potential is the reverse of reduction potential.
15. The electrode having a higher reduction potential has a higher
tendency to gain electrons. So, it acts as a cathode.
16. The electrode having a lower reduction potential acts as an
anode.
17. The standard electrode potential of an electrode cannot be
measured in isolation.
18. According to convention, the Standard Hydrogen Electrode is
taken as a reference electrode and it is assigned a zero potential at all
temperatures.
19. Standard calomel electrode can also be used as a reference
electrode.
20. Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum wire sealed
in a glass tube and carrying a platinum foil at one end. The electrode is
placed in a beaker containing an aqueous solution of an acid having 1
Molar concentration of hydrogen ions. Hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure is
continuously bubbled through the solution at 298 K. The oxidation or
reduction takes place at the Platinum foil. The standard hydrogen
electrode can act as both anode and cathode.
If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as an anode:
H
2
(g) 2H
+
(aq) + 2e
-

If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as a cathode:
2H
+
(aq) + 2e
-
H
2
(g)
21. In the electrochemical series, various elements are arranged as
per their standard reduction potential values.
22. A substance with higher reduction potential value means that it
has a higher tendency to get reduced. So, it acts as a good oxidising
agent.
23. A substance with lower reduction potential value means that it
has a higher tendency to get oxidised. So, it acts as a good reducing
agent.
24. The electrode with higher reduction potential acts as a cathode
while the electrode with a lower reduction potential acts as an anode.

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25. The potential difference between the 2 electrodes of a galvanic
cell is called cell potential and is measured in Volts.
26. The cell potential is the difference between the reduction
potential of cathode and anode.
E
cell
= E
cathode
E
anode

Cell potential is called the electromotive force of the cell (EMF) when no
current is drawn through the cell.
27. Nernst studied the variation of electrode potential of an
electrode with temperature and concentration of electrolyte.
28. Nernst formulated a relationship between standard electrode
potential E

and

electrode potential E.
E = E

-
n+
2.303RT 1
log
nF [M ]

E = E

-
n+
0.059 1
log
n [M ]
(At 298 K)
29. Electrode potential increases with increase in the concentration
of the electrolyte and decrease in temperature.
30. Nernst equation when applied to a cell:
E
cell
= E
cell
-
2.303RT [Anode ion]
log
nF [Cathode ion]

This helps in calculating the cell potential
31. At equilibrium, cell potential E
cell
becomes zero
32. Relationship between equilibrium constant K
c
and standard cell
potential E

cell
:
E

cell
=

c
0.059
logK
n
(At 298 K)
33. Work done by an electrochemical cell is equal to the decrease in Gibbs
energy
G
= -nFE

cell
34. The substances which allow the passage of electricity through
them are known as conductors.

35. Every conducting material offers some obstruction to the flow of
electricity which is called resistance. It is denoted by R and is measured in
ohm.
36. The resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length
l and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.
R =
l
A

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is called specific resistance or resistivity. Its SI unit is ohm metre.
37. The inverse of resistance is known as conductance, G

1
G=
R

Unit of conductance is ohm
-1
or mho. It is also expressed in Siemens
denoted by S.
38. The inverse of resistivity is known as conductivity. It is
represented by the symbol k. The SI unit of conductivity is Sm
-1
. But it is
also expressed in Scm
-1

1 1
= ( )
R
l
A
=
= G
l
A

So, conductivity = Conductance Cell constant
39. For measuring the resistance of an ionic solution, there are 2
problems:
a) Firstly, passing direct current changes the composition of the solution
b) Secondly, a solution cannot be connected to the bridge like a metallic
wire or a solid conductor.
44. This can be resolved by using a source of alternating current and the
second problem is resolved by using a specially designed vessel called
conductivity cell.
45. A conductivity cell consists of 2 Pt electrodes coated with Pt black.
They have area of cross section A and are separated by a distance l.
Resistance of such a column of solution is given by the equation:
R =
l
A
=
1
k
l
A

l
A
is called cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G
*
46. Molar conductivity of a solution is defined as the conducting power of
all the ions produced by dissolving 1 mole of an electrolyte in solution.
Molar conductivity A
m
=
1000
M
k

Where = Conductivity and M is the molarity
Unit of Molar conductivity is Scm
2
mol
-1

47. Equivalent conductivity is the conductivity of all the ions produced by
dissolving one gram equivalent of an electrolyte in solution.

Equivalent conductivity A
e =
1000
N
k

Unit of equivalent conductivity is S cm
2
(g equiv)
-1

48. Kohlrauschs Law of independent migration of ions: According to this
law, molar conductivity of an electrolyte, at infinite dilution, can be
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5
expressed as the sum of individual contributions from its individual ions.
If the limiting molar conductivity of the cations is denoted by
o
+
and
that of the anions by
o
then the limiting molar conductivity of

electrolyte is:
0 0 0
m
v
+ +
. = +

Where v
+
and v
-
are the number of cations and anions per formula of
electrolyte
49. Degree of dissociation: It is ratio of molar conductivity at a specific
concentration c to the molar conductivity at infinite dilution. It is
denoted by o.
c
m
0
m
.
=
.

50.
2
a
c
K
1
=
where K
a
is acid dissociation constant , c is concentration
of electrolyte, is degree of ionization.
51. Faraday constant: It is equal to charge on 1 mol of electrons. It is
equal to 96487 C mol
-1
or approximately equal to 96500 C mol
-1
.
52. Faradays first law of electrolysis: The amount of substance
deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to quantity of
electricity passed.
53. Faradays second law of electrolysis: If same charge is passed through
different electrolytes, the mass of substance deposited will be
proportional to their equivalent weights.
54. Products of electrolysis: The products of electrolysis depend upon the
nature of electrolyte being electrolyzed and the nature of electrodes. If
electrode is inert like platinum or gold, they do not take part in
chemical reaction i.e. they neither lose nor gain electrons. If the
electrodes are reactive then they will take part in chemical reaction and
products will be different as compared to inert electrodes.
The products of electrolysis also depend upon the electrode potentials
of oxidizing and reducing species. Some of the electrochemical
processes although feasible but slow in their rates at lower voltage,
these do not take place. They require extra voltage, i.e. over voltage at
which these processes will take place. The products of electrolysis also
differ in molten state and aqueous solution of electrolyte.
55. Primary cells. A primary cell is a cell in which electrical energy is
produced by the reaction occurring in the cell, e.g. Daniell cell, dry cell,
mercury cell. It cannot be recharged.
56. Dry Cell:
At anode : Zn(s) Zn
2+
(aq) + 2e
-

At cathode : MnO
2
(s) + NH
4
+
(aq) +e
-

MnO(OH) + NH
3

The net reaction:
Zn + NH
4
+
(aq) + MnO
2
(s) Zn
2+
+ MnO (OH) + NH
3

57. Mercury Cell. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.
At anode : Zn (Hg) + 2OH
-
ZnO(s) + H
2
O + 2e
-

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At cathode : HgO(s) +H
2
O + 2e
-
Hg(l) + 2OH
-
The net reaction :
Zn (Hg) + HgO(s) ZnO(s) + Hg(l)
58. Secondary cells. Those cells which are used for storing electricity, e.g.,
lead storage battery, nickel cadmium cell. They can be recharged.
59. Lead storage battery:
Anode : Pb(s) + SO
4
2-
(aq) PbSO
4
(s) + 2e
-
Cathode: PbO
2
(s) + SO
4
2-
(aq) + 4 H
+
(aq) + 2e
-
PbSO
4
(s)+ 2H
2
O (l)
The overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:
Pb(s) + PbO
2
(s) + 2H
2
SO
4
(aq) 2PbSO
4
(s) + 2H
2
O(l)
On recharging the battery, the reaction is reversed.
60. Nickel cadmium cell: It is another type of secondary cell which has
longer life than lead storage cell but more expensive to manufacture.
The overall reaction during discharge is
Cd(s) + 2 Ni(OH)
3
(s) CdO(s) + 2Ni(OH)
2
(s) + H
2
O(l)
61. Fuel cells:
At anode : 2 H
2
(g) + 4OH
-
(aq) 4H
2
O(l) + 4e
-
At cathode : O
2
(g) + 2H
2
O(l) + 4e
-
4 OH
-
(aq)
Overall reaction:
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O(l)
62. Corrosion:
Oxidation : Fe(s) Fe
2+
(aq) + 2e
-
Reduction : O
2
(g) + 4H
+
(aq) + 4e
-
2H
2
O(l)
Atmosphere oxidation:
2Fe
2+
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l) + O
2
(g) Fe
2
O
3
(s) 4H
+
(aq)
63. Galvanization. It is a process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect
it from rusting.
64. Cathodic protection: Instead of coating more reactive metal on iron,
the use of such metal is made as sacrificial anode.
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7
Top Formulae

1. E
cell
= E
cathode
E
anode

2. E = E

-
n+
0.059 1
log
n [M ]
(At 298 K)
3. E
cell
= E
cell
-
2.303RT [Anode ion]
log
nF [Cathode ion]

4. E
cell
=

c
0.059
logK
n
(At 298 K)
5. G
= -nFE
cell

6. R =
l
A
=
1
k
l
A

7.
1
G=
R

8. Conductivity = Conductance Cell constant
9.
1 1
= ( )
R
l
A
= = G
l
A

10. Cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G
*

11.
k
A
m
Specific conductance
= =
Molarity C

k
A
m
x1000
=
C

Remember:
unit of
m
in above formula

is Scm
2
mol
-1
12.
c
m
0
m
.
=
.

13.
2
a
c
K
1
=

14. m ZIt =
15.
3 1 2
1 2 3
w w w
...
E E E
= = =

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Class XII
Chemistry
Ch. 4: Chemical Kinetics
Chapter Notes
Key learnings:
1. Chemical kinetics: The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of
reaction rates and their mechanisms is called chemical kinetics.
2. Rate of reaction: It is defined as the change in concentration of
reactant (or product) in unit time. Unit of rate of reaction is mol L
-1
s
-1
.
3. Average rate: The rate of reaction measured over a long time interval
is called average rate of reaction. It is equal to x/t.
4. Instantaneous rate: It is the rate of reaction when the average rate is
taken over a particular moment of time. It is equal to dx/dt.
5. Rate law or rate equation: It is the expression which relates the rate of
reaction with concentration of the reactants. The constant of
proportionality k is known as rate constant.
6. Rate constant: When the concentration of reactants is unity, then the
rate of reaction is known as rate constant. It is also called specific
reaction rate.
7. Molecularity of a reaction: Total number of atoms, ions or molecules of
the reactants involved in the reaction is termed as its molecularity. It
is always in whole number. It is never more than three. It cannot be
zero.
8. Order of a reaction: The sum of the exponents (power) of the
concentration of reactants in the rate law is termed as order of the
reaction. It can be in fraction. It can be zero also.
9. Half- life of a reaction: The time taken for a reaction, when half of the
starting material has reacted is called half- life of a reaction. For first
order reaction
1
2
0.693
t
k
= , where k is rate constant.
It is independent of initial concentration for first order reaction.
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10. Pseudo first order reaction: The reaction which is bimolecular but order
is one is called pseudo first order reaction. This happens when one of
the reactants is in large excess. E.g., acidic hydrolysis of ester (ethyl
acetate).
H
3 2 5 2 3 2 5
CH COOC H H O CH COOH C H OH
+
+ +
11. Activation energy (E
a
): It is extra energy which must be possessed by
reactant molecules so that collision between reactant molecules is
effective and leads to the formation of product molecules.
12. Arrhenius equation of reaction rate: It gives the relation between rate
of reaction and temperature.
k =
E /RT
a
Ae

where k = rate constant, A = frequency factor,
E
a
= energy of activation
R = gas constant, T = temperature in Kelvin,
ln k = ln A - E
a
/RT
log k = log A -
a
E
2.303RT

13. Mechanism of reaction: The sequence of elementary processes leading
to the overall stoichiometry of a chemical reaction is known as
mechanism of a reaction.
14. Activated complex: It is defined as unstable intermediate formed
between reacting molecules. It is highly unstable and readily changes
into product.
15. Rate determining step: The slowest step in the reaction mechanism is
called rate determining step.
16. The number of collisions per second per unit volume of the reaction
mixture is known as collision frequency (Z).

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Top Formulae:

1. Instantaneous rate =
dx
dt
, where dx is small change in conc. and dt
is the smallest interval of time.
2. Average rate =
x
t
A
A
, where x A is change in concentration and t A is
large interval of time.
3. A + B C + D
Rate of disappearance of
=
d[A]
A
dt
, where d[A] is small change in
conc. of A and dt is small interval of time
Rate of disappearance of B
d[B]
dt
= ,
Rate of appearance of C
d[C]
dt
+
=
Rate of appearance of D
d[D]
dt
+
=
Rate
d[A] d[B] d[C] d[D]
dt dt dt dt

= = = =
Unit of rate of reaction = mol L
-1
s-
1

4. Order of reaction:

If rate law expression for a reaction is

Rate = k [A]
x
[B]
y

Order of reaction = x + y

Remember: Order cannot be determined with a given balanced
chemical equation. It can be experimentally determined.
5. Integrated rate law for zero order reaction:
R P
0
dx
k[R]
dt
=
Unit of k is mol L
-1
s
-1

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o
[R ] [R]
k
t
-
=
If we plot a graph between concentration of R vs time, the graph is a
straight line with slope equal to -k and intercept is equal to [R
o
]
6. Half- life reaction for a for zero order reaction:
t

0
[R ]
2k
=
7. Rate law for I
st
order reaction:
R P

o
[R ] 2.303
k log
t [R]
=
where k is rate constant or specific reaction rate, [R
o
] is initial molar
conc., [R] is final molar conc. after timet
If we plot a graph between ln[R] with time, we get a straight line
whose slope k = and intercept ln[R
o
]
2.303 a
k log
t a x
=

where a is initial conc. in mol L
-1
, x mol L
-1
have reacted in time t
final conc., after time t is (a x)
8. Half- Life for a first order reaction is:
0.693
t
k
=
9. Formula to calculate rate constant for first order gas phase reaction
of the type
A(g) B(g) + C(g)

i
i t
2.303 p
k = log
t (2p-p )

Where:
p
i
is initial pressure of A
p
t
is total pressure of gaseous mixture containing A , B, C
Remember:
p
t
= p
A
+ p
B
+ p
C

10. Arrhenius equation:

a
-E /RT
k=Ae
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11.
a 2 2 1
1 1 2
E k T T
log
k 2.303 R T T
| |
=
|
\ .

12.
=
a
E
RT
AB
Rate PZ .e
Where:
Z
AB
represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B

a
E
RT
e represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to or
greater than E
a

P is called the probability or steric factor
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Class XII
Chemistry
Ch 5: Surface Chemistry
Chapter Notes
Top Concepts / Key learnings:
1. Adsorption: The accumulation of molecular species at the surface
rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed as adsorption.
2. Adsorbate: The substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of
another substance is called adsorbate.
3. Adsorbent: The substance present in bulk, on the surface of which
adsorption is taking place is called adsorbent.
4. Desorption: The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a
surface on which it is adsorbed is called desorption.
5. Absorption: It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly
distributed all over the surface.
6. Difference between adsorption and absorption:
Absorption Adsorption
(i) It is the phenomenon in which a
substance is uniformly distributed
throughout the bulk of the solid.
(i) The accumulation of molecular
species at the surface rather than
in the bulk of a solid or liquid is
termed as adsorption.
(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon.
(ii) It is a surface phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration is uniform
throughout the bulk of solid.
(iii) The concentration of
adsorbate increases only at the
surface of the adsorbent.

7. Sorption: When adsorption and absorption take place simultaneously,
it is called sorption.
8. Enthalpy or heat of adsorption: Adsorption generally occurs with
release in energy, i.e., it is exothermic in nature. The enthalpy change
for the adsorption of one mole of an adsorbate on the surface of
adsorbent is called enthalpy or heat of adsorption.
9. Types of adsorption:
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a. Physical adsorption or physisorption: If the adsorbate is held on
a surface of adsorbent by weak van der Waals forces, the
adsorption is called physical adsorption or physisorption.
b. Chemical adsorption or chemisorption: If the forces holding the
adsorbate are as strong as in chemical bonds, the adsorption
process is known as chemical adsorption of chemisorption.
10. Difference between Physical and chemical adsorption:
Physical adsorption
(Physisorption)
Chemical adsorption
(Chemisorption)
(i) It is non-specific (i) It is highly specific
(ii) It is reversible (ii) It is irreversible
(iii) The amount of gas depends upon
nature of gas, i.e., easily liquefiable
gases like NH
3
, CO
2
, gas adsorbed to
greater extent than H
2
and He.
Higher the critical temperature of
gas, more will be the extent of
adsorption.
(iii) The amount of gas adsorbed is not
related to critical temperature of the
gas.
(iv) The extent of adsorption
increases with increase in surface
area, e.g. porous and finely divided
metals are good adsorbents.
(iv) It also increases with increase in
surface area.
(v) There are weak van der Waals
forces of attraction between
adsorbate and adsorbent.
(v) There is strong force of attraction
similar to chemical bond.
(vi) It has low enthalpy of adsorption
(20 40 kJ mol
-1
)
(vi) It has enthalpy heat of adsorption
(180 240 kJ mol
-1
)
(vii) Low temperature is favourable. (vii) High temperature is favourable.
(viii) No appreciable activation
energy is needed.
(viii) High activation energy is
sometimes needed.
(ix) It forms multimolecular layers. (ix) It forms unimolecuar layers.

11. Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids:
a. Nature of adsorbate: Physical adsorption is non-specific in
nature and therefore every gas gets adsorbed on the surface of
any solid to a lesser or greater extent. However, easily
liquefiable gases like NH
3
. HCl, CO
2
, etc. which have higher
critical temperatures are absorbed to greater extent whereas H
2
,
O
2
, N
2
etc. are adsorbed to lesser extent. The chemical
adsorption being highly specific, therefore, a gas gets adsorbed
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on specific solid only if it enters into chemical combination with
it.
b. Nature of adsorbent: Activated carbon, metal oxides like
aluminum oxide, silica gel and clay are commonly used
adsorbents. They have their specific adsorption properties
depending upon pores.
c. Specific area of the adsorbent: The greater the specific area,
more will be the extent of adsorption. That is why porous or
finely divided forms of adsorbents adsorb larger quantities of
adsorbate. The pores should be large enough to allow the gas
molecules to enter.
d. Pressure of the gas: Physical adsorption increases with increase
in pressure.
12. Adsorption isotherm: The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by
the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed
by means of a curve is termed as adsorption isotherm.
13. Freundlich Adsorption isotherm: The relationship between
x
m
and
pressure of the gas at constant temperature is called adsorption
isotherm and is given by
1/n
x
kP (n 1)
m

Where x- mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent and
the gas at a particular temperature
k and n depends upon the nature of gas and the solid

x
m
first increases with increase in pressure at low pressure but becomes
independent of pressure at high pressure.

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Taking logarithm on both sides, we get,
log
x
m
= log k +
1
n
logP
If we plot a graph between log
x
m
and log P, we get a straight line.

The slope of the line is
1
n
and intercept will be equal to log k.
14. Catalyst: Substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and
themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the
reaction are known as catalysts and the phenomenon is known as
catalysis.
15. Promoters: Those substances which increase the activity of catalyst
are called promoters. Example: Mo is promoter whereas Fe is catalyst
in Habers Process.
N
2
(g) + 3H
2
(g)
Fe(s)
Mo(s)

2NH
3
(g)
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16. Catalytic poisons (Inhibitors): The substances which decrease the
activity of catalyst are called catalytic poisons or inhibitors e.g.,
arsenic acts as catalytic poison in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by
contact process.
17. Types of catalysis:
a. Homogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants
are in the same phase, this kind of catalytic process is known as
homogeneous catalysis.
b. Heterogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants
are in different phases, the catalytic process is said to be
heterogeneous catalysis.
18. Activity of catalyst: The ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a
chemical reaction is called activity of a catalyst.
19. Selectivity of catalyst: It is the ability of catalyst to direct a reaction to
yield a particular product (excluding others).
For example:
CO and H
2
react to form different products in presence of different
catalysts as follows:
a)
Ni
2 4 2
CO(g) 3H (g) CH (g) H O(g)
b)
Cu/ZnO Cr O
2 3
2 3
CO(g) 2H (g) CH OH(g)

c)
Cu
2
CO(g) H (g) HCHO(g)
20. Shape selective catalysis: The catalysis which depends upon the
pore structure of the catalyst and molecular size of reactant and
product molecules is called shape- selective catalysis. E.g. Zeolites are
shape selective catalysts due to their honey- comb structure.
21. Enzymes: Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which
are produced by living plants and animals. They are actually protein
molecules of high molecular mass. They are biochemical catalysts
22. Steps of enzyme catalysis:
(i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex
E + S

ES

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ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product
E S
E + P
23.Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:
i) They are highly efficient. One molecule of an enzyme can transform
10
6
molecules of reactants per minute.
ii) They are highly specific in nature, e.g., urease catalysis hydrolysis
of urea only.
iii) They are active at optimum temperature (298 310 K). The rate of
enzyme catalysed reaction becomes maximum at a definite
temperature called the optimum temperature.
iv) They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum pH.
v) Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes
which can be called as promoters.
vi) Activators are generally metal ions Na
+
, Co
2+
and Cu
2+
etc. They
weakly bind to enzyme and increase its activity.
vii) Influence of inhibitors (poison): Enzymes can also be inhibited
or poisoned by the presence of certain substances.

24. Distinction between true solution, colloids and Suspension.
True solution Colloids Suspension
It is homogeneous It appears to be
homogeneous but is
actually heterogeneous
It is heterogeneous
The diameter of the
particles is less than 1
nm
The diameter of the
particles is 1 nm to
1000 nm
The diameter of the
particles are larger that
1000 nm
It passes through filter
paper
It passes through
ordinary filter paper but
not through ultra-filters
It does not pass through
filter paper
Its particles cannot be
seen under a
microscope
Its particles can be seen
by a powerful
microscope due to
scattering of light
Its particles can be seen
even with naked eye

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25. Colloids: A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is
dispersed as very fine particles in another substance called dispersed
medium.
26. Dispersed phase: The substance which is dispersed as very fine
particles is called dispersed phase.
27. Dispersion medium: The substance present in larger quantity is called
dispersion medium.
28. Classification of colloids on the basis of the physical state of dispersed
phase and dispersion medium:

29. Classification of colloids on the basis of nature of interaction between
dispersed phase and dispersion medium :
Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols
These colloids are liquid hating. These colloids are liquid loving.
In these colloids the particles of
dispersed phase have no affinity
for the dispersion medium.
In these colloids, the particles of
dispersed phase have great
affinity for the dispersion medium.
They are not stable. They are stable.
They can be prepared by mixing
substances directly.
They cannot be prepared by
mixing substances directly. They
are prepared only by special
methods
Dispersed
phase
Dispersion
medium
Name Examples
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Solid Liquid Sol Paints
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gem tones
Liquid Solid Gel Jellies, cheese
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, cloud
Gas Solid Solid sol
Pumice stone, foam
rubber
Gas Liquid Foam
Whipped cream,
froth
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They need stabilizing agents for
their preservation.
They do not need stabilizing
agents for their preservation.
They are irreversible sols. They are reversible sols.

30. Classification of colloids on the basis of types of particles of the
dispersed phase:
a. Multimolecular colloids: The colloids in which the colloidal
particles consist of aggregates of atoms or small molecules. The
diameter of the colloidal particle formed is less than 1 nm.
b. Macromolecular colloids: These are the colloids in which the
dispersed particles are themselves large molecules (usually
polymers). Since these molecules have dimensions comparable
to those of colloids particles, their dispersions are called
macromolecular colloids, e.g., proteins, starch and cellulose
form macromolecular colloids.
c. Associated colloids (Micelles): Those colloids which behave as
normal, strong electrolytes at low concentrations, but show
colloidal properties at higher concentrations due to the
formation of aggregated particles of colloidal dimensions. Such
substances are also referred to as associated colloids.
31. Kraft Temperature (T
k
): Micelles are formed only above a certain
temperature called Kraft temperature.
32. Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC): Micelles are formed only above a
particular concentration called critical micelle concentration.
33. Soaps: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids e.g.,
sodium stearate CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
COO
-
Na
+

34. Methods of preparation of colloids:
a. Chemical methods: Colloids can be prepared by chemical
reactions leading to the formation of molecules. These
molecules aggregate leading to formation of sols.
b. Electrical disintegration or Bredigs Arc method: In this method,
electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed
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in the dispersion medium. The intense heat produced vaporizes
the metal which then condenses to form particles of colloidal
size.
c. Peptization: Peptization may be defined as the process of
converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with
dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of
electrolyte. The electrolyte used for this purpose is called
peptizing agent.
35.Purification of colloids:
a. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from
a colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable
membrane.
b. Electro dialysis. The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be
made faster by applying an electric field if the dissolved
substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an electrolyte.
c. Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the process of separating the
colloidal particles from the solvent and soluble solutes present in
the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are
permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles.
d. Ultracentrifugation: In this process, the colloidal solution is
taken in a tube which is placed in ultracentrifuge. On rotating
the tube at very high speed, the colloidal particles settle down
at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in solution.
The settled particles are mixed with dispersion medium to
regenerate the sol.
36.Properties of colloids:
a. Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the
wavelength of light scattered by the colloidal particles which in
turn depends upon the nature and size of particles. The colour
also depends upon the manner in which light is received by the
observer.
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b. Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig zag path.
This type of motion is due to colliding molecules of dispersion
medium constantly with colloidal particles.
c. Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties
(osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in
freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order
as compared to values shown by true solutions at the same
concentrations.
d. Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal
particles is called Tyndall effect. The bright cone of light is called
the Tyndall cone.
e. Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an
electric charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the
particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either positive
or negative.
Positively charged colloids Negatively charged colloids
Hydrated metallic oxides such as
Fe
2
O
3
.xH
2
O, Cr
2
O
3
.xH
2
O, Al
2
O
3
.xH
2
O
Metallic sulphides like As
2
S
3
, Sb
2
S
3

sols
Basic dye stuff like malachite green,
methylene blue sols
Acid dye stuff like eosin, methyl
orange, Congo red sols
Haemoglobin (blood)
Starch sol, gum, gelatin, clay,
charcoal, egg albumin, etc.

f. Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles
acquire negative or positive charge by selective adsorption of
one of the ions, it attracts counter ions from the medium
forming a second layer. The combination of these two layers of
opposite charges around colloidal particles is called Helmholtz
electrical double layer.
g. Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential
difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of
opposite charges is called electrokinetic potential or zeta
potential.
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h. Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an
applied electric potential is called electrophoresis.
i. Coagulation or precipitation: The process of settling of colloidal
particles as precipitate is called coagulation.
Hardy Schulze rules:
i) Oppositely charged ions are effective for coagulation.
ii) The coagulating power of electrolyte increases with
increase in charge on the ions used for coagulation, e.g.
Al
3+
> Ba
2+
> Na
+
for negatively charged colloids.
[Fe (CN)
6
]
4-
> PO
4
3-
> SO
4
2-
> Cl
-
for positively charged colloids
37.Types of emulsions:
a. Water dispersed in oil: When water is the dispersed phase and oil is
the dispersion medium. E.g. butter
b. Oil dispersed in water: When oil is the dispersed phase and water is
the dispersion medium. E.g. milk
38.Emulsification: The process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an
emulsifier.
39.Emulsifying agent: The substances which are added to stabilize the
emulsions are called emulsifying agents or emulsifiers. E.g. soaps,
gum
40. Demulsification: The process of breaking an emulsion into its
constituent liquids is called demulsification by freezing, boiling,
centrifugation or some chemical methods.
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Class XII
Chemistry
Ch 6: General Principles & Processes
Of Isolation of Elements
Top concepts:
1. Minerals: The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earths
crust which are obtained by mining are known as minerals. Metals may
or may not be extracted profitably from them.
2. Ores: The rocky materials which contain sufficient quantity of mineral
so that the metal can be extracted profitably or economically are
known as ores.
3. Gangue: The earthy or undesirable materials present in ore are known
as gangue.
4. Metallurgy: The entire scientific and technological process used for
isolation of the metal from its ores is known as metallurgy.
5. Chief Ores and Methods of Extraction of Some Common Metals:
Metals Occurrence Extraction Method Remark
Sodium Rock salt: NaCl
Feldspar:Na
3
AlSi
3
O
8

Electrolysis of fused
NaCl or NaCl/ CaCl
2

Sodium is highly
reactive, it reacts with
water
Copper Copper pyrites:CuFeS
2

Malachite:CuCO
3
.Cu(OH)
2
Cuprite: Cu
2
O
Copper glance: Cu
2
S
Roasting of sulphide
partially and reduction
2Cu
2
O + Cu
2
S 6 Cu
+SO
2

It is self reduction in a
specially designed
converter. Sulphuric
acid leaching is also
employed.
Aluminium Bauxite: AlO
x
(OH)
3-2x
where 0<x<1
Cryolite: Na
3
AlF
6

Kaolinite: [Al
2
(OH)
4
Si
2
O
5
]
Electrolysis of Al
2
O
3

dissolved in molten
cryolite or in Na
3
AlCl
6

A good source of
electricity is needed in
the extraction of Al
Zinc Zinc blende or Sphalerite:
ZnS
Zincite: ZnO
Calamine: ZnCO
3

Roasting and then
reduction with C
The metal may be
purified by fractional
distillation.
Lead Galena: PbS Roasting of the sulphide
ore and then reduction
of the oxide
Sulphide ore is
concentrated by froth
floatation process
Silver Argentite: Ag
2
S

Sodium cyanide leaching
of the sulphide ore and
finally replacement of Ag
by Zn
It involves complex
formation and
displacement
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Gold Native, small amounts in
many ores such as those of
copper and silver
Cyanide leaching, same
as in case of silver
Gold reacts with cyanide
to form complex
Iron Haematite: Fe
2
O
3

Magnetite: Fe
3
O
4

Siderite: FeCO
3

Iron pyrites: FeS
2

Reduction with the help
of CO and coke in blast
furnace.

Limestone is added as
flux which removes SiO
2

as calcium silicate (slag)
floats over molten iron
and prevents its
oxidation. Temperatures
approaching 2170 K is
required.

6. Steps of metallurgy:
a. Concentration of ore
b. Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide
c. Reduction of oxide to metal
d. Refining of metal
7. Concentration of ore: The process of removal unwanted materials like
sand, clay, rocks etc from the ore is known as concentration, ore
dressing or benefaction. It involves several steps which depend upon
physical properties of metal compound and impurity (gangue). The
type of metal, available facilities and environmental factors are also
taken into consideration.
8. Hydraulic washing (or gravity separation): It is based on difference in
densities of ore and gangue particles. Ore is washed with a stream of
water under pressure so that lighter impurities are washed away
whereas heavy ores are left behind.
9. Magnetic separation: This method is based on the difference in
magnetic and non magnetic properties of two components of ore
(pure and impure). This method is used to remove tungsten ore
particles from cassiterite (SnO
2
). It is also used to concentrate
magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
), chromite (FeCr
2
O
4
) and pyrolusite (MnO
2
) from
unwanted gangue.
10. Froth Floatation Process: The principle of froth floatation process is
that sulphide ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil, whereas
the gangue particles are wetted by the water. Collectors are added to
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enhance the non-wettability of the mineral particles. Examples are
pine oil, fatty acids and xanthates are added to it. Froth stabilizers are
added to stabilize the froth. Examples are cresols, aniline. If two
sulphide ores are present, it is possible to separate the two sulphide
ores by adjusting proportion of oil to water or by adding depressants.
For example- In the case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the
depressant used is NaCN. It selectively prevents ZnS from coming to
froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.
11. Leaching (Chemical separation): It is a process in which ore is treated
with suitable solvent which dissolves the ore but not the impurities.
12. Purification of Bauxite by Leaching: Baeyers process:
Step 1:
Al
2
O
3
(s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H
2
O (l) 2Na[Al(OH)
4
](aq)
Step 2:

2 2 3 2 3
4
2Na[Al OH ](aq) CO g Al O .xH O(s) 2NaHCO (aq)
Step 3:

Heat at1470K
2 3 2 2 3 2
Al O .xH O(s) Al O s xH O(g)
13. Concentration of Gold and Silver Ores by Leaching:
- -
2 2 2
- 2-
2 4
4M(s) 8CN (aq) 2H O(aq) O (g) 4[M(CN) ] (aq) + 4OH (aq)
2[M(CN) ] (aq) Zn(s) [Zn(CN) ] (aq) 2M(s)
Where :
[M Agor Au]

14. Conversion of ore into oxide: It is easier to reduce oxide than sulphide
or carbonate ore. Therefore, the given ore should be converted into
oxide by suitable method:
Roasting Calcination
It is a process in which ore is
heated in a regular supply of air
at a temperature below melting
point of the metal so as to
convert the given ore into oxide
It is a process of heating ore in
limited supply of air so as to
convert carbonate ores into
oxides.
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ore.
Sulphide ores are converted into
oxide by roasting
Carbonate ores are converted into
oxide by roasting
It is also used to remove
impurities as volatile oxides
It is also used to remove moisture
and volatile impurities
E.g.: 2ZnS+ 3O
2
2ZnO + 2SO
2

E.g.: CaCO
3

heat
2
CaO CO

15. Reduction of oxide to metal: The process of converting metal oxide
into metal is called reduction. It needs a suitable reducing agent
depending upon the reactivity or reducing power of metal. The
common reducing agents used are carbon or carbon monoxide or any
other metals like Al, Mg etc.
16. Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy: Some basic concepts of
thermodynamics help in understanding the conditions of temperature
and selecting suitable reducing agent in metallurgical processes:
a. Gibbs free energy change at any temperature is given by G =
H TS where G is free energy change, H is enthalpy
change and S is entropy change.
b. The relationship between G
and K is G
= 2.303 RT log K
where K is equilibrium constant. R = 8.314 JK
-
mol
-1
, T is
temperature in Kelvin.
c. A negative G means +ve value of K i.e., products are formed
more than the reactants. The reaction will proceed in forward
direction.
d. If S is +ve, on increasing temperature the value of TS
increases so that TS > H and G will become negative.

17. Coupled reactions: If reactants and products of two reactions are
put together in a system and the net G of two possible reactions
is ve the overall reaction will take place. These reactions are
called coupled reactions.
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18. Ellingham diagrams: The plots between
f
G
of formation of oxides
of elements vs. temperature are called Ellingham diagrams. It
provides a sound idea about selecting a reducing agent in reduction
of oxides. Such diagrams help in predicting the feasibility of a
thermal reduction of an ore. G must be negative at a given
temperature for a reaction to be feasible.
19. Limitations of Ellingham Diagrams: It does not take kinetics of
reduction into consideration, i.e., how fast reduction will take place
cannot be determined.
20. Reduction of iron oxide in blast furnace: Reduction of oxides takes
place in different zones.
At 500 800 K (lower temperature range in blast furnace)
3Fe
2
O
3
+ CO 2Fe
3
O
4
+ CO
2

Fe
3
O
4
+ 4CO 3Fe + 4CO
2

Fe
2
O
3
+ CO 2FeO + CO
2

At 900 1500 K (higher temperature range in blast furnace)
C + CO
2
2CO
FeO + CO Fe + CO
2

Limestone decomposes to CaO and CO
2

CaCO
3

heat
2
CaO CO
Silica (impurity) reacts with CaO to form calcium silicate which
forms slag. It floats over molten iron and prevents oxidation of
iron.
CaO + SiO
2
CaSiO
3
Calcium silicate
(Slag)
21. Types of iron:
a. Pig iron: The iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron. It is
impure from of iron contains 4% carbon and small amount of S,.P,
Si and Mn. It can be casted into variety of shapes.
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b. Cast iron: It is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke
using hot air blast. It contains about 3% of carbon content. It is
extremely hard and brittle.
c. Wrought iron: It is the purest form of commercial iron. It is also
called malleable iron.
It is prepared by oxidative refining of pig iron in reverberatory
furnace lined with haematite which oxidises carbon to carbon
monoxide.
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3C 2Fe + 3CO
The substance which reacts with impurity to form slag is called flux
e.g. limestone is flux.
S + O
2
SO
2

4P + 5O
2
2P
2
O
5

Si + O
2
SiO
2

CaO + SiO
2
CaSiO
3
(slag)
3CaO + P
2
O
5
Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
(slag)
The metal is removed and freed from slag by passing through rollers.
22. Electrolytic Reduction (Hall Heroult Process): Purified bauxite ore is
mixed with cryolite (Na
3
AlF
6
) or CaF
2
which lowers its melting point
and increases electrical conductivity. Molten mixture is electrolysed
using a number of graphite rods as anode and carbon lining as
cathode.
The graphite anode is useful for reduction of metal oxide to metal.
2Al
2
O
3
+ 3C 4Al + 3CO
2

Al
2
O
3

electrolysis
2Al 3O

At cathode: Al
+
(melt) + 3e
-
Al (l)
At anode: C(s) + O
-
(melt) CO (g) + 2e
-

C(s) + 2O
-
(melt) CO
2
(g) + 4e
-

Graphite rods get burnt forming CO and CO
2
. The aluminium thus
obtained is refined electrolytically using impure Al as anode, pure Al as
cathode and molten cryolite as electrolyte.

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At anode: Al Al
+
+ 3e
-
(Impure)
At cathode: Al
+
+ 3e
-
Al (pure)
23. Electrolysis of molten NaCl:
NaCl Na
+
+ Cl
-

(Molten)
At cathode: Na
+
+ e
-
Na
At anode: 2Cl
-
Cl
2
+ 2e
-

Thus sodium metal is obtained at cathode and Cl
2
(g) is liberated at
anode.
24. Refining: It is the process of converting an impure metal into pure
metal depending upon the nature of metal.
25. Distillation: It is the process used to purify those metals which have
low boiling points, e.g., zinc, mercury, sodium, potassium. Impure
metal is heated so as to convert it into vapours which changes into
pure metal on condensation and is obtained as distillate.
26. Liquation: Those metals which have impurities whose melting points
are higher than metal can be purified by this method. In this method,
Sn metal can be purified. Tin containing iron as impurities heated on
the top of sloping furnace. Tin melts and flows down the sloping
surface where iron is left behind and pure tin is obtained.
27. Electrolytic refining: In this method, impure metal is taken as anode,
pure metal is taken as cathode, and a soluble salt of metal is used as
electrolyte. When electric current is passed, impure metal forms metal
ions which are discharged at cathode forming pure metal.
At anode: M M
+
+ ne
-
(Impure)
At cathode: M
+
+ ne
-
M
(Pure)
28. Zone refining: It is based on the principle that impurities are more
soluble in the melt than in the solid state of the metal.
The impure metal is heated with the help of circular heaters at one end
of the rod of impure metal. The molten zone moves forward along with
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the heater with impurities and reaches the other end and is discarded.
Pure metal crystallizes out of the melt.
The process is repeated several times and heater is moved in the same
direction. It is used for purifying semiconductors like B, Ge, Si, Ga and
In.
29. Vapour phase refining: Nickel is purified by Monds process. Nickel,
when heated in stream of carbon monoxide forms volatile Ni(CO)
4

which on further subjecting to higher temperature decomposes to give
pure metal.
Ni + 4 CO

330 350K
4
Ni CO
Ni + 4 CO
Impure Pure

30. van- Arkel method: It is used to get ultra pure metals. Zr and Ti are
purified by this process. Zr or Ti are heated in iodine vapours at about
870 K to form volatile ZrI
4
or TiI
4
which are heated over tungsten
filament at 1800K to give pure Zr or Ti.
Ti + 2I
2

4 2
TiI Ti 2I
Impure Pure
Zr + 2I
2

4 2
ZrI Zr 2I
Impure Pure
31. Chromatographic method: It is based on the principle of separation or
purification by chromatography which is based on differential
adsorption on an adsorbent. In column chromatography, Al
2
O
3
is used
as adsorbent. The mixture to be separated is taken in suitable solvent
and applied on the column. They are then eluted out with suitable
solvent (eluant). The weakly adsorbed component is eluted first. This
method is suitable for such elements which are available only in
minute quantities and the impurities are not very much different in
their chemical behaviour from the element to be purified.
450 470K
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Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter 7:
The p-Block Elements
Top concepts:
1. p-Block elements: Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the
periodic table are called p-block elements.
2. General electronic configuration of p-block elements: The p-
block elements are characterized by the ns
2
np
1-6
valence shell
electronic configuration.
3. Representative elements: Elements belonging to the s and p-blocks
in the periodic table are called the representative elements or main
group elements.
4. Inert pair effect: The tendency of ns
2
electron pair to participate in
bond formation decreases with the increase in atomic size. Within a
group the higher oxidation state becomes less stable with respect to
the lower oxidation state as the atomic number increases. This trend is
called inert pair effect. In other words, the energy required to unpair
the electrons is more than energy released in the formation of two
additional bonds.
5. Nitrogen family: The elements of group 15 nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi) belong
to configuration is ns
2
np
3
.
6. Oxygen family: Group 16 of periodic table consists of five elements
oxygen (O), sulphur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te) and polonium
(Po). Their general electronic configuration is ns
2
np
4
.
7. The halogen family: Group 17 elements, fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl),
bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At), belong to halogen family.
Their general electronic configuration is ns
2
np
5
.
8. Group 18 elements: Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton
(Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) are Group 18 elements. They are
also called noble gases. Their general electronic configuration is ns
2
np
6

except helium which has electronic configuration 1s
2
. They are called
noble gases because they show very low chemical reactivity.

GROUP 15 ELEMENTS
9. Atomic and ionic radii: Covalent and ionic radii increase down the
group. There is appreciable increase in covalent radii from N to P.
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There is small increase from As to Bi due to presence of completely
filled d or f orbitals in heavy elements.
10. Ionisation energy: It goes on decreasing down the group due to
increase in atomic size. Group 15 elements have higher ionisation
energy than group 14 elements due to smaller size of group 15
elements. Group 15 elements have higher ionization energy than
group 16 elements because they have stable electronic configuration
i.e., half filled p-orbitals.
11. Allotropy: All elements of Group 15 except nitrogen show allotropy.
12. Catenation: Nitrogen shows catenation to some extent due to triple
bond but phosphorus shows catenation to maximum extent. The
tendency to show catenation decreases down the group.
13. Oxidation states: The common oxidation states are +3, +5, 3. The
tendency to show 3 oxidation state decreases down the group due to
decrease in electronegativity which is due to increase in atomic size.
The stability of +5 oxidation state decreases whereas stability of +3
oxidation state increases due to inert pair effect.
Nitrogen shows oxidation states from 3 to +5.
Nitrogen and phosphorus with oxidation states from +1 to +4 undergo
oxidation as well as reduction in acidic medium. This process is called
disproportionation.
3 HNO
2
HNO
3
+ H
2
O + 2 NO
14. Reactivity towards hydrogen: All group 15 elements from
trihydrides, MH
3
. Hybridisation - sp
3

The stability of hydrides decrease down the group due to decrease in
bond dissociation energy down the group.
NH
3
>

PH
3
> AsH
3
> SbH
3
> BiH
3

Boiling point: PH
3
< AsH
3
< NH
3
< SbH
3
< BiH
3

Boiling point increases with increase in size due to increase in van der
Waals forces. Boiling point of NH
3
is more because of hydrogen
bonding.
Bond angle: NH
3
(107.8) > PH
3
(99.5) > AsH
3
(91.8) SbH
3

(91.3) > BiH
3
(90)
Electronegativity of N is highest. Therefore, the lone pairs will be
towards nitrogen and hence more repulsion between bond pairs.
Therefore bond angle is the highest. After nitrogen, the
electronegativity decreases down the group.
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3
Basicity decreases as NH
3
> PH
3
> AsH
3
> SbH
3
< BiH
3
.
This is because the lone pair of electrons are concentrated more on
nitrogen and hence the basicity will be maximum in the case of NH
3
. It
will decrease down the group as the electronegativity decreases down
the group.
The reducing power of hydrides increases down the group due to
decrease in bond dissociation energy down the group.
15. Reactivity towards oxygen: All group 15 elements from trioxides
(M
2
O
3
) and pentoxides (M
2
O
5
).
Acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the
group. This is because the size of nitrogen is very small. It has a
strong positive field in a very small area. Therefore, it attracts the
electrons of waters O-H bond to itself and release H
+
ions easily. As
we move down the group, the atomic size increases and hence the
acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the
group.
16. Reactivity towards halogen: Group 15 elements form trihalides and
pentahalides.
Trihalides covalent compounds and become ionic down the group.
sp
3
hybridisation , pyramidal shape
Pentahalides - sp
3
d hybridisation, TBP shape
They are lewis acids because of the presence of vacant d orbitals.
PCl
5
+ Cl
-
[PCl
6
]
-
PCl
5
is ionic in solid state and exist as

[PCl
4
]
+
[PCl
6
]
-
In PCl
5
, there are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds.

The
axial bonds are longer than equatorial bonds because of greater
repulsion from equatorial bonds.
Nitrogen does not form pentahalides due to absence of d- orbitals.
17. Reactivity towards metals: All elements react with metals to form
binary compounds in 3 oxidation state.
18. Anomalous behaviour of nitrogen: The behaviour of nitrogen
differs from rest of the elements.
Reason:
i. It has a small size.
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4
ii. It does not have d orbitals
iii. It has high electronegativity
iv. It has high ionization enthalpy
19. Dinitrogen:
Preparation:
heat
4 2 2 2
NH Cl(aq) NaNO (aq) N (g) 2H O(l) NaCl(aq) + + +
( )
heat
4 2 7 2 2 2 3
2
NH Cr O N 4H O Cr O + +
( )
heat
3 2
2
Ba N Ba 3 N +
Properties:
It is a colouless, odourless, tasteless and non toxic gas. It is
chemically un-reactive at ordinary temperature due to triple bond in
N N which has high bond dissociation energy.
20. Ammonia: Ammonia molecule is trigonal pyramidal with nitrogen
atom at the apex. It has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair. N is sp
3

hybridised.
Preparation:
Habers process:
o 1
2 2 3 f
5
2 2 3
N (g) 3H (g) 2 NH (g) H 46.1 kJ mol
Pr essure 200x10 Pa
Temperature 773 K
Catalyst is FeO with small amounts of K O and Al O
+ A =
=
=

21. Nitric Acid:
a. Ostwald Process:
Pt /Rhgauge
3 2 2
500 K,9bar
4NH 5O 4NO 6H O ......(i) + +
2 2
2NO O 2NO ......(ii) +

2 2 3
3NO (g) H O(l) 2HNO (aq) NO(g) ......(iii) + +

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5
NO thus formed is recycled and the aqueous HNO
3
can be
concentrated by distillation upto ~ 68% by mass. Further
concentration to 98% can be achieved by dehydration with
concentrated H
2
SO
4
.
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent in the concentrated as well as in
the dilute state.
22. Phosphorus:
a. It shows the property of catenation to maximum extent due to
most stable P P bond.
b. It has many allotropes, the important ones are :
i. White phosphorus
ii. Red phosphorus
iii. Black phosphorus

White phosphorus Red phosphorus

Black phosphorus

Discrete tetrahedral
P
4
molecules
Polymeric structure
consisting of chains of P
4

units linked together
Exists in two forms - o
black P and | black P
Very reactive Less reactive than white P Very less reactive
Glows in dark Does not glow in dark -
Translucent waxy
solid
Has an iron grey luster Has an opaque
monoclinic or
rhombohedral crystals
Soluble in CS
2
but
insoluble in water
Insoluble in water as well as
CS
2

-
It has low ignition
temperature,
therefore, kept under
water

- -

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6
Preparation:

23. Phosphine:
Preparation:
i.
( )
3 2 2 2 3
Ca P 6H O 3Ca(OH) 2PH
calcium calcium
water phosphine
phosphide hydroxide
+ +
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .

( )
3 2 2 3
Ca P 6HCl 3CaCl 2PH
phosphine
+ +

ii.
( )
4 2 2 2 3
P 3NaOH 3H O 3NaH PO PH
sodium
phosphine
hypophosphite
+ + +
| |
|
\ .

Phosphine is highly poisonous, colourless gas and has a smell of rotten
fish.
24. Chlorides of Phosphorous:
PCl
3
PCl
5

Colourless oily liquid Yellowish white powder
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7
4 2 3
P 6Cl 4PCl +
4 2 3 2 2 2
P 8SOCl 4PCl 4SO 2S Cl + + +

4 2 5
P 10Cl 4PCl +
4 2 2 5 2
P 10SO Cl 4PCl 10SO + +

Is hydrolysed in the presence of
moisture
3 2 3 3
PCl 3HO HPO 3HCl + +

5 2 3
3 2 3 4
PCl H O POCl 2HCl
POCl 3 H O H PO 3HCl
+ +
+ +

3 CH
3
COOH + PCl
3
3 CH
3
COCl +
H
3
PO
3
3 CH
3
COOH + PCl
5
CH
3
COCl +
POCl
3
+ HCl
3 C
2
H
5
OH + PCl
3
3 C
2
H
5
Cl + H
3
PO
3
C
2
H
5
OH + PCl
5
C
2
H
5
Cl + POCl
3
+
HCl
Pyramidal shape, sp
3
hybridisation TBP geometry, sp
3
d hybridisation
- 2Ag + PCl
5
2 AgCl + PCl
3

Sn + 2 PCl
5
SnCl
4
+ 2 PCl
3

GROUP 16 ELEMENTS

25. Oxidation states: They show -2, +2, +4, +6 oxidation states.
Oxygen does not show +6 oxidation state due to absence of d
orbitals. Po does not show +6 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.
The stability of -2 oxidation state decreases down the group due to
increase in atomic size and decrease in electronegativity.
Oxygen shows -2 oxidation state in general except in OF
2
and O
2
F
2
The stability of +6 oxidation state decreases and +4 oxidation state
increases due to inert pair effect.
26. Ionisation enthalpy: Ionisation enthalpy of elements of group 16 is
lower than group 15 due to half filled p-orbitals in group 15 which are
more stable. However, ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.
27. Electron gain enthalpy: Oxygen has less negative electron gain
enthalpy than S because of small size of O.
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8
From S to Po electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative to Po
because of increase in atomic size.
28. Melting and boiling point: It increases with increase in atomic
number. Oxygen has much lower melting and boiling points than
sulphur because oxygen is diatomic (O
2
) and sulphur is octatomic (S
8
).
29. Reactivity with hydrogen:
All group 16 elements form hydrides.
Bent shape

Acidic nature: H
2
O < H
2
S < H
2
Se < H
2
Te
This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.
Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.
Thermal stability: H
2
O < H
2
S < H
2
Se < H
2
Te < H
2
Po
Reducing character: H
2
O < H
2
S < H
2
Se < H
2
Te < H
2
Po
30. Reactivity with oxygen: EO
2
and EO
3

Reducing character of dioxides decreases down the group because
oxygen has a strong positive field which attracts the hydroxyl group
and removal of H
+
becomes easy.
Acidity also decreases down the group.
SO
2
is a gas whereas SeO
2
is solid. This is because SeO
2
has a chain
polymeric structure whereas SO
2
forms discrete units.

31. Reactivity with halogens: EX
2
EX
4
and EX
6

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9
The stability of halides decreases in the order F
-
> Cl
-
> Br
-
> I
-
. This
is because E-X bond length increases with increase in size.
Among hexa halides, fluorides are the most stable because of steric
reasons.
Dihalides are sp
3
hybridised, are tetrahedral in shape.
Hexafluorides are only stable halides which are gaseous and have
sp
3
d
2
hybridisation and octahedral structure.
H
2
O is a liquid while H
2
S is a gas. This is because strong hydrogen
bonding is present in water. This is due to small size and high
electronegativity of O.

32. Oxygen:
Preparation:
heat
3 2
MnO
2
finely divided metals
2 2 2 2
2KClO 2KCl 3O
2H O ( ) 2H O(l) O (g)
+
+ aq

heat
2 2
2
3 4 2
2 2
2Ag O( ) 4Ag( ) O ( )
2HgO( ) 2Hg(l) O (g)
2Pb O ( ) 6PbO( ) O ( )
(Red lead)
2PbO ( ) 2PbO( ) O ( )
A
A
A
+
+
+
+
s s g
s
s s g
s s g

33. Oxides:
The compounds of oxygen and other elements are called oxides.
Types of oxides:
a. Acidic oxides: Non- metallic oxides are usually acidic in nature.
2 2 2 3
SO H O H SO (sulphurous acid) +
b. Basic oxides: Metallic oxides are mostly basic in nature. Basic
oxides dissolve in water forming bases e.g.,
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10
2 2
2 2
2 2
Na O H O 2NaOH
K O H O 2KOH
CaO H O Ca(OH)
+
+
+

c. Amphoteric oxides: They show characteristics of both acidic as
well as basic oxides.

2 3 3 2
2 3 2 3 6
Al O 6HCl( ) 2AlCl ( ) 3H O
Al O 6NaOH( ) 3H O( ) 2Na [Al(OH) ]( )
+ +
+ +
aq aq
aq l aq

d. Neutral oxides: These oxides are neither acidic nor basic.
Example: Co, NO and N
2
O

34. Ozone:
Preparation:
i. It is prepared by passing silent electric discharge through pure
and dry oxygen 10 15 % oxygen is coverted to ozone.
1
2 3
3O ( ) 2O ( ); H 142 kJ mol
A = + g g
Structure of Ozone: Ozone has angular structure. Both O = O bonds
are of equal bond length due to resonance.
35. Sulphur:
Sulphur exhibits allotropy:
a. Yellow Rhombic (o - sulphur):
b. Monoclinic (|- sulphur):
369 K
Sulphur Sulphur o |

At 369 K both forms are stable. It is called transition temperature.
Both of them have S
8
molecules. The ring is puckered and has a crown
shape.
Another allotrope of sulphur cyclo S
6
ring adopts a chair form.
S
2
is formed at high temperature (~ 1000 K). It is paramagnetic
because of 2 unpaired electrons present in anti bonding t* orbitals like
O
2

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11
36. Sulphuric acid:
Preparation: By contact process
8 2 2
1
S O SO
8
+
V O
1
2 5
2 2 3
2bar
720K
2SO ( ) O ( ) 2SO ( ) H 196.6kJ mol
Exothermic reaction and therfore low temperature and high pressure
are favourable
u
+ A = g g g

3 2 4 2 2 7
SO (g) H SO H S O (Oleum) +
2 2 7 2 2 4
H S O H O 2 H SO
(96 98%)
+

It is dibasic acid or diprotic acid.
It is a strong dehydrating agent.
It is a moderately strong oxidizing agent.

GROUP 17 ELEMENTS
37. Atomic and ionic radii: Halogens have the smallest atomic radii in
their respective periods because of maximum effective nuclear charge.
38. Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy
because of small size as compared to other groups.
39. Electron gain enthalpy: Halogens have maximum negative electron
gain enthalpy because these elements have only one electron less than
stable noble gas configuration.
Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group because
atomic size increases down the group.
40. Eelctronegativity: These elements are highly electronegative and
electronegativity decreases down the group. They have high effective
nuclear charge.
41. Bond dissociation enthalpy:
Bond dissociation enthalpy follows the order Cl
2
> Br
2
> F
2
> I
2

This is because as the size increases bond length increases.
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12
Bond dissociation enthalpy of Cl
2
is more than F
2
because there are
large electronic repulsions of lone pairs present in F
2
.
42. Colour: All halogens are coloured because of absorption of radiations
in visible region which results in the excitation of outer electrons to
higher energy levels.
43. Oxidising power: All halogens are strong oxidisinga gents because
they have a strong tendency to accept electrons.
Order of oxidizing power is F
2
> Cl
2
> Br
2
> I
2

44. Reactivity with H
2
:
Acidic strength: HF < HCl < HBr < HI
Stability: HF > HCl > HBr > HI
This is because of decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy.
Boiling point: HCl < HBr < HI < HF
HF has strong intermolecular H bonding
As the size increases van der Waals forces increases and hence boiling
point increases.
% Ionic character: HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Dipole moment: HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Electronegativity decreases down the group.
Reducing power: HF < HCl < HBr < HI
45. Reactivity with metals: Halogens react with metals to form halides.
Ionic character: MF > MCl > MBr > MI
Halides in higher oxidation state will be more covalent than the one in
the lower oxidation state.
46. Interhalogen compounds: Reactivity of halogens towards other
halogens:
Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms of general formula
X X
n
are called interhalogen compounds where n = 1, 3, 5, or 7
These are covalent compounds.
All these are covalent compounds.
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13
Interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens because X-
X is a more polar bond than X-X bond.
All are diamagnetic.
Their melting point is little higher than halogens.
XX (CIF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr, IF) (Linear shape)
XX
3
(CIF
3
, BrF
3
, IF
3
, ICl
3
) (Bent T- shape)
XX
5
CIF
5
, BrF
5
, IF
5
, (square pyramidal shape)
XX
7
IF
7
(Pentagonal bipyramidal shape)
47. Oxoacids of halogens:
Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF (Fluoric (I) acid or hypofluorous
acid) due to high electronegativity.
Acid strength: HOCl < HClO
2
< HClO
3
< HClO
4

Reason: HClO
4
H
+
+ ClO
4
-

most stable
Acid strength: HOF > HOCl > HOBr > HOI
This is because Fluorine is most electronegative.

GROUP 18 ELEMENTS:
48. Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy
because of completely filled orbitals.
Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group because of increase in
size.
49. Atomic radii: Increases down the group because number of shells
increases down the group.
50. Electron gain enthalpy: They have large electron gain enthalpy
because of stable electronic configuration.
51. Melting and boiling point: Low melting and boiling point because
only weak dispersion forces are present.
52. XeF
2
is linear, XeF
4
is square planar and XeF
6
is distorted octahedral.
KrF
2
is known but no true compound of He Ne and Ar are known.
53. Compounds of Xe and F:
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14
673 K, 1bar
2 2
Xe F XeF +
873 K
2 4
7bar
Xe 2F XeF +
573 K
2 6
60 70 bar
Xe 3F XeF
+
4 2 2 6 2
XeF O F XeF O + +
XeF
2
, XeF
4
and XeF
6
are powerful fluorinating agents.
54. Compounds of Xe and O:
4 2 3 2
6 2 3
6XeF 12H O 4Xe 2XeO 24HF 3O
XeF 3 H O XeO 6HF
+ + + +
+ +

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1
Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter 8
The d and f-Block Elements
Top Concepts
1. d -Block elements: The elements lying in the middle of periodic table
belonging to groups 3 to 12 are known as d block elements. Their
general electronic configuration is (n 1)d
1-10
ns
1-2
where (n 1)
stands for penultimate (last but one) shell.

2. Transition element: A transition element is defined as the one which
has incompletely filled d orbitals in its ground state or in any one of its
oxidation states.

3. Zinc, cadmium, mercury are not regarded as transition metals due to
completely filled d orbital.

4. f-Block elements: The elements constituting the f -block are those in
which the 4 f and 5 f orbitals are progressively filled in the latter two
long periods.

5. Lanthanoids: The 14 elements immediately following lanthanum, i.e.,
Cerium (58) to Lutetium (71) are called lanthanoids. They belong to
first inner transition series. Lanthanum (57) has similar properties.
Therefore, it is studied along with lanthanoids.

6. Actinoids: The 14 elements immediately following actinium (89), with
atomic numbers 90 (Thorium) to 103 (Lawrencium) are called
actinoids. They belong to second inner transition series. Actinium (89)
has similar properties. Therefore, it is studied along with actinoids.

7. Four transition series:

a. 3d transition series. The transition elements with atomic
number 21(Sc) to 30(Zn) and having incomplete 3d orbitals is
called the first transition series.
b. 4d transition series. It consists of elements with atomic
number 39(Y) to 48 (Cd) and having incomplete 4d orbitals. It is
called second transition series.
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2
c. 5d transition series. It consists of elements with atomic
number 57(La), 72(Hf) to 80(Hg) having incomplete 5d orbitals.
It is called third transition series.
d. 6d transition series. It consists of elements with atomic
number 89(Ac), 104(Rf) to 112(Uub) having incomplete 6d
orbitals. It is called fourth transition series.
8. General Characteristics of transition elements:
a. Metallic character: All transition elements are metallic in nature,
i.e. they have strong metallic bonds. This is because of presence
of unpaired electrons. This gives rise to properties like high
density, high enthalpies of atomization, and high melting and
boiling points.
b. Atomic radii: The atomic radii decrease from Sc to Cr because
the effective nuclear charge increases. The atomic size of Fe,
Co, Ni is almost same because the attraction due to increase in
nuclear charge is cancelled by the repulsion because of increase
in shielding effect. Cu and Zn have bigger size because the
shielding effect increases and electron electron repulsions
repulsion increases.
c. Lanthanoid Contraction: The steady decrease in the atomic and
ionic radii of the transition metals as the atomic number
increases. This is because of filling of 4f orbitals before the 5d
orbitals. This contraction is size is quite regular. This is called
lanthanoid contraction. It is because of lanthanoid contraction
that the atomic radii of the second row of transition elements
are almost similar to those of the third row of transition
elements.
d. Ionisation enthalpy: There is slight and irregular variation in
ionization energies of transition metals due to irregular variation
of atomic size. The I.E. of 5d transition series is higher than 3d
and 4d transition series because of Lanthanoid Contraction.
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3
e. Oxidation state: Transition metals show variable oxidation
states due to tendency of (n-1)d as well as ns electrons to take
part in bond formation.
f. Magnetic properties: Most of transition metals are paramagnetic
in nature due to presence of unpaired electrons. It increase s
from Sc to Cr and then decreases because number of unpaired
and then decrease because number of unpaired electrons
increases from Sc to Cr and then decreases.
g. Catalytic properties: Most of transition metals are used as
catalyst because of (i) presence of incomplete or empty d
orbitals, (ii) large surface area, (iii) varuable oxidation state,
(iv) ability to form complexes, e.g., Fe, Ni, V
2
O
3
, Pt, Mo, Co and
used as catalyst.
h. Formation of coloured compounds: They form coloured ions due
to presence of incompletely filled d orbitals and unpaired
electrons, they can undergo d d transition by absorbing colour
from visible region and radiating complementary colour.
i. Formation of complexes: Transition metals form complexes due
to (i) presence of vacant d orbitals of suitable energy (ii)
smaller size (iii) higher charge on cations.
j. Interstitial compounds: Transition metals have voids or
interstitials in which C, H, N, B etc. can fit into resulting in
formation of interstitial compounds. They are non
stoichiometric, i.e., their composition is not fixed, e.g., steel.
They are harder and less malleable and ductile.
k. Alloys formation: They form alloys due to similar ionic size.
Metals can replace each other in crystal lattice, e.g., brass,
bronze, steel etc.

9. Preparation of Potassium dichromate (K
2
Cr
2
O
7
):
It is prepared by fusion of chromate ore (FeCr
2
O
4
) with sodium carbonate in
excess of air.
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4
4FeCr
2
O
4
+ 8Na
2
CO
3
+ 7O
2
8Na
2
CrO
4
+ 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 8CO
2

2Na
2
CrO
4
+ H
2
SO
4
Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ H
2
O + Na
2
SO
4

Sodium Sodium
chromate dichromate
Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 2KCl K
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 2NaCl

10. Effect of pH on chromate and dichromate ions: The chromates and
dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution depending upon pH of
the solution. The oxidation state of chromium in chromate and dichromate is
the same.
2 CrO
4
2-
+ 2H
+
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ H
2
O
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 2 OH- 2 CrO
4
2-
+ H
2
O
11. Potassium dichromate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic
medium.
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+14 H
+
+ 6e
-
2 Cr
3+
+ 7 H
2
O

12. Preparation of Potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
):
a. Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO
4
with alkali metal
hydroxide (KOH) in presence of O
2
or oxidising agent like KNO
3
. It produces
dark green K
2
MnO
4
which undergoes oxidation as well as reduction in neutral
or acidic solution to give permanganate.
2 2 2 4 2
2
4 4 2 2
2MnO 4KOH O 2K MnO 2H O
4H 3MnO 2MnO MnO 2H O

Or
Commercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO
2

followed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl).

fused with KOH 2
2 4
in the presence of O or KNO
2 3
manganate ions
MnO MnO

electrolytic oxidation in alkaline medium 2
4 4
Green P urple
MnO MnO

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(ii) In laboratory, Mn
+
salt can be oxidized by peroxodisulphate ion
to permanganate ion.
2+ 2- 2
2 8 2 4 4
2Mn + 5S O +8H O 2MnO 10SO 16H

13. Potassium permanganate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic,
neutral or faintly basic medium.
In acidic medium.
MnO
4
-
+ 8 H
+
+ 5 e
-
Mn
2+
+ 4 H
2
O
In neutral or faintly basic medium,
MnO
4
-
+ 3 e
-
+ 2 H
2
O MnO
2
+ 4OH
-

14. Properties of Lanthanoids and Actinoids.

Lanthanoids Actinoids
+3 oxidation state is most common
along with +2 and +4
Actiniods also show higher oxidation
states such as +4, +5, +6 and +7.

They are more reactive
Except Promethium, they are non
radioactive.
They are radioactive

The magnetic properties of
lanthanoids are less complex than
actinoids.
The magnetic properties of the
actinoids are more complex than
those of the lanthanoids

15. Mischmetall - It is a well known alloy which consists of a lanthanoid metal
(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al. A good deal of
mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint.
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1
Class XII:
Chemistry
Chapter 9:
Coordination Compounds

1. Difference between coordination compound and double bond:

Coordination compound Double salt
A coordination compound contains a
central metal atom or ion surrounded
by number of oppositely charged ions
or neutral molecules. These ions or
molecules re bonded to the metal
atom or ion by a coordinate bond.
When two salts in stoichiometric ratio
are crystallised together from their
saturated solution they are called
double salts
Example: K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
] Example:FeSO
4
.(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
.6H
2
O
(Mohrs salt)
They do not dissociate into simple
ions when dissolved in water.
They dissociate into simple ions when
dissolved in water.

2. Coordination entity: A coordination entity constitutes a central metal
atom or ion bonded to a fixed number of ions or molecules. Example:
in K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
], [Fe(CN)
6
]
4-
represents coordination entity.
3. Central atom or ion: In a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which
a fixed number of ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical
arrangement around it, is called the central atom or ion. E.g.: in
K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
], Fe
+
is the central metal ion.
4. Ligands: A molecule, ion or group that is bonded to the metal atom or
ion in a complex or coordination compound by a coordinate bond is
called ligand. It may be neutral, positively or negatively charged.
Example: H
2
O, CN
-
, NO
+
etc.
5. Donor atom: An atom of the ligand attached directly to the metal is
called the donor atom. For example: in the complex K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
],
carbon is a donor atom.
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6. Coordination number: The coordination number (CN) of a metal ion
in a complex can be defined as the number of ligand donor atoms to
which the metal is directly bonded. For example: in the complex
K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
], the coordination number of Fe is 6.
7. Coordination sphere: The central atom/ion and the ligands attached
to it are enclosed in square bracket and is collectively termed as the
coordination sphere. For example: in the complex K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
],
[Fe(CN)
6
]
4-
is the coordination sphere.
8. Counter ions: The ions present outside the coordination sphere are
called counter ions. For example: in the complex K
4
[Fe(CN)
6
], K
+
is the
counter ion.
9. Coordination polyhedron: The spatial arrangement of the ligand
atoms which are directly attached to the central atom/ ion defines a
coordination polyhedron about the central atom. The most common
coordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.
For example: [PtCl
4
]
2-
is square planar, Ni(CO)
4
is tetrahedral while
[Cu(NH
3
)
6
]
3+
is octahedral.
10. Charge on the complex ion: The charge on the complex ion is equal
to the algebraic sum of the charges on all the ligands coordinated to
the central metal ion.
11. Denticity: The number of ligating (linking) atoms present in ligand is
called denticity.
12. Unidentate ligands: The ligands whose only one donor atom is
bonded to metal atom are called unidentate ligands. Example: H
2
O,
NH
3
, CO, CN
-

13. Didentate ligands: The ligands which contain two donor atoms or
ions through which they are bonded to the metal ion. For example:
ethylene diamine (H
2
NCH
2
CH
2
NH
2
) has two nitrogen atoms, oxalate ion
|
COO
COO
| |
|
|
\ .
has two oxygen atoms which can bind with the metal atom.
14. Polydentate ligand: When several donor atoms are present in a
single ligand, the ligand is called polydentate ligand. For example: in
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3
N(CH
2
CH
2
NH
2
)
3
, the ligand is said to be polydentate.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA
4
) is an important hexadentate
ligand. It can bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a
central metal ion.
15. Chelate: An inorganic metal complex in which there is a close ring of
atoms caused by attachment of a ligand to a metal atom at two points.
An example is the complex ion formed between ethylene diamine and
cupric ion, [Cu(NH
2
CH
2
NH
2
)
2
]
2+
.
16. Ambidentate ligand: Ligands which can ligate (link) through two
different atoms present in it are called ambidentate ligand. Example:
NO
2
-
,and SCN
-
. NO
2
-
can link through N as well as O while SCN
-
can
link through S as well as N atom.
17. Werners coordination theory: Werner was able to explain the
nature of bonding in complexes. The postulates of Werners theory
are:
a. Metal shows two different kinds of valencies: primary valence
and secondary valence.
Primary valence Secondary valence
This valence is normally ionisable. This valence is non ionisable.
It is equal to positive charge on
central metal atom.
The secondary valency equals the
number of ligand atoms coordinated
to the metal. It is also called
coordination number of the metal.
These valencies are satisfied by
negatively charged ions.
It is commonly satisfied by neutral
and negatively charged, sometimes
by positively charged ligands.
Example: in CrCl
3
, the primary
valency is three. It is equal to
oxidation state of central metal ion.

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4
b. The ions/ groups bound by secondary linkages to the metal
have characteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to
different coordination numbers.
c. The most common geometrical shapes in coordination
compounds are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.
18. Oxidation number of central atom: The oxidation number of the
central atom in a complex is defined as the charge it would carry if all
the ligands are removed along with the electron pairs that are shared
with the central atom.
19. Homoleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is
coordinate bonded to only one kind of donor atoms. For example:
[Co(NH
3
)
6
]
3+

20. Heteroleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is
coordinate bonded to more than one kind of donor atoms. For
example: [CoCl
2
(NH
3
)
4
]
+
, [Co(NH
3
)
5
Br]
2+

21. Isomers. Two or more compounds which have same chemical formula
but different arrangement of atoms are called isomers.
22. Types of isomerism:
a. Structural isomerism
i. Linkage isomerism
ii. Solvate isomerism or hydrate isomerism
iii. Ionisation isomerism
iv. Coordination isomerism
b. Stereoisomerism
i. Geometrical isomerism
ii. Optical isomerism
23. Structural isomerism: This type of isomerism arises due to the
difference in structures of coordination compounds. Structural
isomerism, or constitutional isomerism, is a form of isomerism in
which molecules with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded
together in different orders.
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5
a. Ionisation isomerism: This form of isomerism arises when the
counter ion in a complex salt is itself a potential ligand and can
displace a ligand which can then become the counter ion. Example:
[Co(NH
3
)
5
Br] SO
4
and [Co(NH
3
)
5
SO
4
] Br
b. Solvate isomerism: It is isomerism in which solvent is involved as
ligand. If solvent is water it is called hydrate isomerism, e.g.,
[Cr(H
2
O)
6
]Cl
3
and [CrCl
2
(H
2
O)
4
] Cl
2
. 2H
2
O
c. Linkage isomerism: Linkage isomerism arises in a coordination
compound containing ambidentate ligand. In the isomerism, a
ligand can form linkage with metal through different atoms.
Example: [Co(NH
3
)
5
ONO]Cl
2
and [Co(NH
3
)
5
NO
2
]Cl
2

d. Coordination isomerism: This type of isomerism arises from the
interchange of ligands between cationic and anionic entities of
different metal ions present in a complex. Example:
[Co(NH
3
)
6
][Cr(C
2
O
4
)
3
] and [Cr(NH
3
)
6
][Co(C
2
O
4
)
3
]
24. Stereoisomerism: This type of isomerism arises because of different
spatial arrangement.
a. Geometrical isomerism: It arises in heteroleptic complexes
due to different possible geometrical arrangements of ligands.
b. Optical isomerism: Optical isomers are those isomers which
are non superimposable mirror images.
25. Valence bond theory:
According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of
ligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation
to yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral,
tetrahedral, and square planar.
These hybridised orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can
donate electron pairs for bonding.

Coordination number Type of hybridisation Distribution of hybrid
orbitals in space
4 sp
3
tetrahedral
4 dsp
2
Square planar
5 sp
3
d Trigonal bipyramidal
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6
6 sp
3
d
2
(nd orbitals are
involved outer orbital
complex or high spin or
spin free complex)
Octahedral
6 d
2
sp
3
((n-1) d orbitals are
involved inner orbital or
low spin or spin paired
complex)
Octahedral

26. Magnetic properties of coordination compounds: A coordination
compound is paramagnetic in nature if it has unpaired electrons and
diamagnetic if all the electrons in the coordination compound are
paired.
Magnetic moment
( ) n n 2 = + where n is number of unpaired
electrons.
27. Crystal Field Theory: It assumes the ligands to be point charges and
there is electrostatic force of attraction between ligands and metal
atom or ion. It is theoretical assumption.
28. Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination complexes:

29. Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination complexes:
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7

30. For the same metal, the same ligands and metal-ligand distances, the
difference in energy between e
g
and t
2g
level is

t 0
4
9
A = A
31. Metal carbonyls. Metal carbonyls are homoleptic complexes in which
carbon monoxide (CO) acts as the ligand. For example: Ni(CO)
4

The metal carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both and o t
characters. The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls possess both s
and p character. The MC bond is formed by the donation of lone
pair of electrons from the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of the
metal. The MC t bond is formed by the donation of a pair of electrons
from a filled d orbital of metal into the vacant antibonding t* orbital of
carbon monoxide. The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic
effect which strengthens the bond between CO and the metal.
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Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter 10
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
1. Nature of C-X bond in alkyl halides: X is more electronegative than
carbon. So, the C-X bond is polarized with C having a partial positive
charge and X having a partial negative charge
2. Preparation of haloalkanes:

3. Preparation of haloarenes:
a. By elecrophilic substitution reaction:
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b. Sandmeyers reaction:

c. Gattermann reaction:

d.

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e. Balz Schiemann reaction:

4. Physical properties of haloalkanes:
a. Solubility. Although haloalkanes are polar in nature, yet they are
practically very slightly soluble in water. In order for a
haloalkane to dissolve in water, energy is required to overcome
the attractions between the haloalkane molecules and break the
hydrogen bonds between water molecules. However
Haloalkanes are not able to form hydrogen bonds with water
and therefore, less energy is released when new attractions are
set up between the haloalkane and the water molecules because
these are not as strong as the original hydrogen bonds in water
molecules. As a result, solubility of haloalkanes in water is low.
b. Density:
Simple fluoro and chloroalkanes are lighter than water
while bromides and polychloro devrivatives are heavier
than water.
With the increase in number of carbon atoms, the
densities go on increasing.
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4
With the increase in number of halogen atoms, the
densities go on increasing.
The densities increase in the order:
Fluoride < chloride < bromide < iodide
The density also increases with increasing number and
atomic mass of the halogen.
c. Method and Boiling points:
Molecules of organic halogen compounds are generally polar.
Due to the polarity as well as higher molecular mass as
compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the intermolecular
forces of attraction (dipole dipole and van der Waals)
between the molecules are stronger in halogen derivatives of
alkanes. As a result melting and boiling points of chlorides,
bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those of
the parent hydrocarbon of comparable molecular mass.
Amongst themselves, the following trends are observed:
o For the same alkyl group the boiling points of alkyl
chlorides, bromides and iodides follow the order RI > RBr
> RCl > RF where R is an alkyl group. This is because
with the increase in the size of the halogen, the
magnitude of van der Waals force increase.
o In general, the boiling points of chloro, bromo and iodo
compounds increase with increase in the number of
halogen atoms.
o For the same halogen atom, the boiling points of
haloalkanes increase with increase in the size of alkyl
groups.
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5
o For isomeric alkyl halides, the boiling points decrease with
branching. This is because branching of the chain makes
the molecule more compact and, therefore, decrease the
surface area. Due to decrease in surface area, the
magnitude of van der Waals forces of attraction decreases
and consequently, the boiling points of the branched
chain compound is less than those of the straight chain
compounds.

5. Physical Properties of Haloarenes:
a. These are generally colourless liquids or crystalline solids.
b. These are heavier than water.
c. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes:
Melting and boiling points of haloarenes are nearly the same
as those of alkyl halides containing the same number of
carbon atoms.
The boiling points of monohalogen derivatives of benzene are
in the order: iodo > bromo > chloro > fluoro
For the same halogen atom, the melting and boiling points
increase as the size of the aryl group increases.
The melting point of para isomer is quite higher than that of
ortho or meta isomers. This is due to the fast that is has
symmetrical structure and there fore, its molecules can
easily pack loosely in the crystal lattice. As a result
intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger and
therefore, greater energy is required to break its lattice and
it melts at higher temperature.

5. Chemical properties of haloalkanes:
a. Nucleophilic substitution reaction:

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Mechanism:

R X + aq. KOH R-OH + KX
R X + NH
3
R- NH
2
+ HX
R X + KCN R-CN + KX
R X + AgCN R-NC + KX

b. Elimination reaction: Dehydrohalogentaion( - elimination):
When a haloalkane with -hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic solution of
potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen atom from -carbon
and a halogen atom from the -carbon atom. As a result, an alkene is formed
as a product.
Zaitsev rule (also pronounced as Saytzeff) is followed.It states that In
dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that alkene which
has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the doubly bonded
carbon atoms.

c. Reaction with metals:
Reaction with Magnesium: Grignards reagent is formed:

dryether
R X Mg RMgX
Wurtz reaction:
R-X + 2 Na + X-R R-R + 2 NaX
S
N
I S
N
II
Rate =k [RX]

Rate =k [RX] [Nu]
Two step reaction One step reaction
Inversion of configuration Racemic mixture
Second order reaction First order reaction

Order :
CH
3
X < 1
o
< 2
o
< 3
o
Order :
CH
3
X > 1
o
> 2
o
> 3
o
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6. Chemical properties of haloarenes:
Dows process:

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Fittig reaction:
Ar-X + 2 Na + X-Ar Ar-Ar + 2 NaX

Wurtz fittig reaction:
R-X + 2 Na + X-Ar R-Ar + 2 NaX

7. Some important reactions for conversions:

From Grignards reagent:
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dryether
2
ll
R X Mg RMgX
RMgX CO RCOOH
RMgX HCHO Pr imary alcohol
RMgX RCHO Secondaryalcohol
O
RMgX RCR Tertairyalcohol

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Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter: Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers

Top concepts:
1. Structure of alcohols, phenols and ethers:

2. Preparation of alcohols:

3. Preparation of phenols:
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4. Physical properties of alcohols and phenols:
a. Boiling points:
Boiling points of alcohols and phenols are higher in
comparison to other classes of compounds, namely
hydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of
comparable molecular masses. This is because the OH
group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular
hydrogen bonding.

The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with
increase in the number of carbon atoms. This is because of
increase in van der Waals forces with increase in surface
area.
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In alcohols, the boiling points decrease with increase of
branching in carbon chain. This is because of decrease in van
der Waals forces with decrease in surface area.
b. Solubility:
Solubility of alcohols and phenols are soluble in water due to
their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

The solubility of alcohols decreases with increase in size of
alkyl/aryl (hydrophobic) groups.

5. Chemical properties of alcohols:
a. Reactions involving cleavage of OH bond: Alcohols react as
nucleophiles:
b. Reactions involving cleavage of carbon oxygen (CO) bond in
Alcohols: Protonated alcohols react as electrophiles:
c. Dehydration
d. Oxidation

6. Reactions of alcohols and phenols involving cleavage of OH
bond:
a. Reaction with metals:

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b. Esterification:

7. Reactions of alcohols involving cleavage of carbon oxygen
(CO) bond:

a. Reaction with hydrogen halides:
conc.HCl ZnCl
2
Lucas reagent 2
ROH + HX RX + H O

b. Reaction with phosphorus trihalides:
3 ROH + PX
3
3 R-X + H
3
PO
3
(X = Cl, Br)

c. Dehydration:

d. Oxidation:
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5
Cu,573K
or
CrO
3
or
PCC
Cu,573K
or
CrO
3
Cu,573K
or
KMnO
4
Acidified potassium permanganate
Pr imaryalcohol Aldehyde
Secondary alcohol Ketone
Tertiaryalcohol Alkene
Alcohol Carboxylic acid

8. Chemical properties of phenols:

9. Acidic nature:
a. Phenol > H
2
O > Primary alcohol > Secondary alcohol > Tertiary
alcohol
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The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of OH bond.

Alkyl group is an electron-releasing group (CH
3
, C
2
H
5
) or it has electron
releasing inductive effect (+I effect).
Due to +I effect of alkyl groups, the electron density on oxygen increases.
This decreases the polarity of O-H bond.
And hence the acid strength decreases.

b. Phenol is more acidic than alcohol because:

In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp
2
hybridised
carbon of benzene ring which acts as an electron withdrawing group.
Whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to the alkyl group
which have electron releasing inductive effect.
In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp
2
hybridised
carbon of benzene ring. Whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is
attached to the sp
3
hybridised carbon of the alkyl group. The sp
2

hybridised carbon has higher electronegativity than sp
3
hybridised
carbon. Thus, the polarity of OH bond of phenols is higher than those
of alcohols. Hence, the ionisation of phenols id higher than that of
alcohols.
The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:

In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen while in
phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised.

The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more
stable and favours the ionisation of phenol. Although there is also
charge delocalisation in phenol, its resonance structures have charge
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7
separation due to which the phenol molecule is less stable than
phenoxide ion.

c. In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing groups such
as nitro group enhances the acidic strength of phenol. On the other hand,
electron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, decreases the
acid strength.
It is because electron withdrawing groups lead to effective delocalisation of
negative charge in phenoxide ion.

10. How to distinguish between some important pair of organic
compounds:

a. Phenol and alcohol:
Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl
3
gives purple colour whereas alcohols do
not give purple colour.

6 C
6
H
5
OH + Fe
3+
[Fe(OC
6
H
5
)
6
]
3-
+ 6 H
+

Purple

colour

b. Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol:
Lucas reagent test:
conc.HCl ZnCl
2
Lucas reagent 2
ROH + HCl RCl + H O

If it is a primary alcohol, no turbidity appears at room temperature. Turbidity
appears only on heating.
If it is a secondary alcohol, turbidity appears in 5 minutes.
If it is a tertiary alcohol, turbidity appears immediately.

c. Methanol and ethanol:
Iodoform test:
Ethanol when reacted with (I
2
and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of
iodoform since it has the presence of CH
3
-CH (OH)- group.

C
2
H
5
OH +4I
2
+ 6NaOH CHI
3
+ 5NaI + 5H
2
O + HCOONa
Yellow ppt.

CH
3
OH + I
2
+ NaOH NO YELLOW PPT

11. Preparation of ethers:
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12. Physical properties of ethers:
a. Miscibility:
Miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of the
same molecular mass. This is due to the fact that just like alcohols,
oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water
molecule.

b. Boiling points:
Ethers have much lower boiling points than alcohols. This is due to
the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols. Hydrogen bonding is
absent in ethers.

13. Chemical properties of ethers:
a. Cleavage of CO bond in ethers:

R-O-R + HX R-X + ROH
Excess

The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:
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HI > HBr > HCl
Alkyl halide formed is always the lower alkyl group.
But if a tertiary alkyl group is present, the alkyl halide is always
tertiary.
In case of phenolic ethers, the cleavage occurs with the formation of
phenol and alkyl halide.

b. Electrophilic substitution reaction in aromatic ethers:

14. Some important reactions for conversions:

a. Conversion 1:
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b. Conversion 2:

3. From Grignards reagent:

ROH R'MgX R'H Mg(X)OH

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Chapter: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids

Top concepts

Aldehydes:
1. Definition: Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group
is attached to one hydrogen atom and one alkyl or aryl group.

2. General formula:

R can be an alkyl or aryl group

3. Preparation of aldehydes:

1. By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of primary alcohols in presence of
oxidizing agent like
2 2 7 2 4
K Cr O / H SO ,
4
KMnO ,
3
CrO gives aldehydes

2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: Vapours of primary alcohol when passed
heated copper at 573 K forms aldehyde

3. By hydration of alkynes: Ethyne on hydration with
4 2 4
HgSO / dil H SO at
333 K forms acetaldehyde

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4. By Rosenmund reduction: Hydrogenation of acyl chloride over palladium
on barium sulphate gives aldehyde

5.By reduction of nitriles:
(a)Stephen Reaction: Reduction of nitriles in presence of stannous chloride in
presence of HCl gives imine which on hydrolysis gives corresponding
aldehyde.

(b) Nitriles are selectively reduced by DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride)
to aldehydes

6. By reduction of ester: Esters are reduced to aldehydes in presence of
DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride)

8. From Hydrocarbons:

(i)By oxidation of methyl benzene:

(a) Etard Reaction: Chromyl chloride (
2 2
CrO Cl ) oxidizes methyl group to a
chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde

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(b)Use of chromium oxide(CrO
3
): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted
to benzylidene in presence of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.

(ii)By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis: Side chain halogenation
of toluene gives benzal chloride which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde

(iii) Gatterman Koch reaction: Benzene or its derivatives on treatment with
carbon monoxide and HCl in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or
cuprous chloride (CuCl) gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehydes

Ketones:
1. Definition: Ketones are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is
attached to two alkyl group or aryl group or both alkyl and aryl group

2. General formula:

R, R may be alkyl or aryl

3. Preparation of ketones:
1. By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of secondary alcohols in presence of
oxidizing agent like
2 2 7 2 4
K Cr O / H SO ,
4
KMnO ,
3
CrO gives ketones

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2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: When the vapours of a secondary alcohol
are passed over heated copper at 573 K, dehydrogenation takes place and a
ketone is formed

3. By hydration of alkynes:
Hydration of alkynes other than acetylene yields ketone. For example
propyne on hydration with
4 2 4
HgSO / dil H SO at 333 K forms propanone.

4. From acyl chloride: Acyl chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium
(prepared by reaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent) gives
ketone

5. From nitriles: Nitriles on treatment with Grignard reagent followed by
hydrolysis gives ketones

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6. By Friedel Crafts acylation reaction: Benzene or substituted benzene on
treatment with acid chloride in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride
forms ketone

7.Preparation of aldehydes and ketones by ozonolysis of alkenes:

Reactions of aldehydes and ketones:
Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition
reactions due to steric and electronic reasons (or inductive effect).

Electronic Effect: Relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones in
nucleophilic addition reactions is due the positive charge on carbonyl carbon.
Greater positive charge means greater reactivity. Electron releasing power of
two alkyl groups in ketones is more than one in aldehyde. Therefore positive
charge is reduced in ketones as compared to aldehydes. Thus ketones are
less reactive than aldehydes.

Stearic Effect: As the number and size of alkyl group increase, the hindrance
to the attack of nucleophile also increases and reactivity decreases. In
aldehydes there is one alkyl group and one hydrogen atom, whereas in
ketones there are two alkyl groups (same or different).

1. Nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones:

(a)Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form cyanohydrins:

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(b)Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite (NaHSO
3
) to form bisulphate addition
compound:

(c)Addition of Grignard reagent (RMgX) to form alcohol

(d)Addition of alcohol:
(i) Aldehydes on addition of monohydric alcohol in presence of dry HCl forms
hemiacetal and acetal

(ii)Ketones do not react with monohydric alcohols. Ketones react with
ethylene glycol under similar conditions to form cyclic products known as
ethylene glycol ketals

(e)Addition of ammonia and its derivatives:

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2. Reduction of aldehydes and ketones:
(a) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones on catalytic hydrogenation
in presence of Ni, Pt or Pd by using lithium aluminium hydride (
4
LiAlH ) or
sodium borohydride (
4
NaBH ) forms primary and secondary alcohols
respectively

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(b) Reduction to hydrocarbons:
(i) Clemmensen reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is
reduced to CH
2
group on treatment with zinc amalgam and concentrated
hydrochloric acid

(ii) Wolff-Kishner reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is
reduced to CH
2
group on treatment with hydrazine followed by heating with
sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene
glycol

3. Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones:
(i) Aldehydes are oxidized to acids in presence of mild oxidising agents HNO
3
,
K
2
Cr
2
O
7,
KMnO
4

(ii) Ketones are generally oxidized under drastic conditions i.e. with powerful
oxidising agents like conc. HNO
3
, KMnO
4
/ H
2
SO
4
, K
2
Cr
2
O
7
/ H
2
SO
4
at
elevated temperature

Important Note: In case of unsymmetrical ketones cleavage occurs in such a
way that keto group stays with smaller alkyl group. This is known as Popoffs
rule.

(iii)Haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl
group linked to the carbonyl carbon atom i.e. methyl ketones are oxidised by
sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having
one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is
converted to haloform.

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4. Reactions of aldehydes and ketones due to -hydrogen:
(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one -
hydrogen undergo a self condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as
catalyst to form -hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or -hydroxy ketones (ketol),
respectively.

(ii) Cross aldol condensation: Aldol condensation between two different
aldehydes and ketones is called aldol condensation. If both of them contain
-hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products.

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5. Canizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an -hydrogen atom
undergo self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on
treatment with concentrated alkali to form alcohol and salt of acid.

Test to distinguish aldehydes and ketones
1) Tollens test: When an aldehyde is heated with Tollens reagent it forms
silver mirror. Tollens reagent is ammoniacal solution of AgNO
3

Ketones do not form silver mirror and hence do not give this test

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2) Fehlings test: When an aldehyde is heated with Fehlings reagent it forms
reddish brown precipitates of cuprous oxide.

Fehlings reagent: Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of CuSO
4
) + Fehling
solution B (alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate)

Ketones do not give this test

Carboxylic Acids:
1. Definition: Carboxylic acids are the compounds containing the carboxyl
functional group (-COOH)

2. General Formula

3. Preparation of carboxylic acid:
(i) From alcohols: Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids
with common oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
) in
neutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K
2
Cr
2
O
7
) and
chromium trioxide (CrO
3
) in acidic media.

(ii) From aldehydes: Oxidation of aldehydes in presence of mild oxidizing
agents like Tollens reagent (ammoniacal solution of AgNO
3
) or Fehling
reagent (Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of CuSO
4
) + Fehling solution B
(aqueous solution of sodium potassium tartarate)) forms carboxylic acids

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(iii)From alkylbenzenes: Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by
vigorous oxidation of alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline
potassium permanganate.

(iv)From alkenes: Suitably substituted alkenes are oxidised to carboxylic
acids on oxidation with acidic potassium permanganate or acidic potassium
dichromate
4
4
KMnO /H
KMnO /H
1 1
R CH CH R 2R COOH
R CH CH R R COOH R COOH

(v)From Nitriles: Nitriles on hydrolysis in presence of dilute acids or bases
forms amide which on further hydrolysis gives carboxylic acid.

(vi) From Grignard reagent: Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry
ice) to form salts of carboxylic acids which on hydrolysis forms carboxylic
acids

(vii) From acyl halides and anhydrides: Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with
water give carboxylic acids .On basic hydrolysis carboxylate ions are formed
which on further acidification forms corresponding carboxylic acids.
Anhydrides on hydrolysis forms corresponding acid(s)
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(viii)From esters: Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids
while basic hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give
corresponding carboxylic acids.

4. Physical properties of carboxylic acids:
(i)Solubility: As the size of alky group increases solubility of carboxylic acid
decreases because non-polar part of the acid increases

(ii)Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and
even alcohols of comparable molecular masses. This is due to extensive
association of carboxylic acid molecules through intermolecular hydrogen
bonding

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5. Acidity of carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols.
Strength of acid depends on extent of ionization which in turn depends on
stability of anion formed.
(i)Effect of electron donating substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:
Electron donating substituent decreases stability of carboxylate ion by
intensifying the negative charge and hence decreases acidity of carboxylic
acids.

(ii)Effect of electron withdrawing substituent on the acidity of carboxylic
acids: Electron withdrawing group increases stability of carboxylate ion by
delocalizing negative charge and hence increases acidity of carboxylic acid

The effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is

Ph < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO
2
< CF
3

(a)Effect of number of electron withdrawing groups: As the number of
electron withdrawing groups increases I effect increases, increasing the acid
strength
(b)Effect of position of electron withdrawing group: As the distance between
electron withdrawing group and carboxylic group increases, electron
withdrawing influence decreases.

6. Reaction of carboxylic acids:
(a) Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond: Carboxylic acids on heating
with mineral acids such as H
2
SO
4
or with P
2
O
5
give corresponding anhydride
(i) Anhydride formation:

(ii) Esterification: Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols in the presence
of a mineral acid such as concentrated H
2
SO
4
or HCl gas as a catalyst

(iii) Carboxylic acids react with PCl
5
, PCl
3
and SOCl
2
to form acyl chlorides

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(iv) Reaction with ammonia (NH
3
): Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to
give ammonium salt which on further heating at high temperature gives
amides.

(b) Reactions involving COOH group:
(i)Reduction: Carboxylic acids are reduced to alcohols in presence of LiAlH
4
or
B
2
H
6 .

(ii)Decarboxylation : Sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids on
heating with soda lime (NaOH + CaO in ratio of 3:1) gives hydrocarbons
which contain one carbon less than the parent acid.

(c)Reactions involving substitution reaction in hydrocarbon part:
(i) Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction: Carboxylic acids having an -hydrogen
are halogenated at the -position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in
the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give -halocarboxylic
acids)

(ii)Ring substitution in aromatic acids: Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo
electrophilic substitution reactions. Carboxyl group in benzoic acid is electron
withdrawing group and is meta directing.

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Chapter: Amines

Top concepts

1. Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all
three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group

2. Classification of amines:

3. Preparation of amines:
(i)By reduction of nitro compounds:
Nitro compounds can be catalytically reduced by passing hydrogen gas in
presence of Raney Ni, finely divided Pt or Pd as catalyst at room
temperature.
Ni, Pt or Pd
2 2 2 2
Ni, Pt or Pd
2 2 2 2
R NO 3H R NH 2H O
Ar NO 3H Ar NH 2H O

Nitro compounds can also be reduced with active metals such as Fe, Sn, Zn
etc. with conc. HCl

Sn / HCl
or Fe / HCl 2 2 2 2
Sn / HCl
or Fe / HCl 2 2 2 2
R NO 3H R NH 2H O
Ar NO 3H Ar NH 2H O

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(ii)By Hoffmanns method (Ammonolysis of alkyl halides): Reaction of alkyl
halides with an ethanolic solution of ammonia in a sealed tube at 373 K
forms a mixture of primary, secondary and tertiary amine and finally
quarternary ammonium salt. Process of cleavage of C-X bond by ammonia is
called ammonolysis.

The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment with a
strong base:
NaOH
3 3 2 2
o
NaOH
2 2 2 2 2
o
NaOH
2 3 3 2
o
NH RX RNH X RNH H O Na X
(1 amine)
RNH RX R NH X R NH H O Na X
(2 amine)
R NH RX R NH X R N H O Na X
(3 amine)

Order of reactivity of halides is: RI> RBr> RCl
Larger the size of halogen atom easier is the cleavage of R-X bond

Limitations of Hoffmanns method:
Method gives mixture of amines which are difficult to separate in a laboratory

Methods to get only one product by Hoffmanns method:
(i)When ammonia is taken in excess primary amine is formed as main
product
(ii)When alkyl halide is used in excess quarternary ammonium salt is formed
as main product

Important Note: Method is not suitable for preparation of aryl amines
because aryl amines are relatively less reactive than alkyl halides towards
nucleophilic substitution reactions

(iii) By reduction of nitriles: Nitriles can be reduced to amines using
2 4 2 5
H / Ni , LiAlH or Na(Hg) / C H OH

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(iii)By reduction of amides: Amides are reduced to corresponding amines by
4
LiAlH

(iv) By Gabriel phthalimide synthesis: Gabriel synthesis is used for the
preparation of primary amines. Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic
potassium hydroxide forms potassium salt of phthalimide which on heating
with alkyl halide followed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding
primary amine

Important Note: Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this
method because aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with
potassium phthalimide

(v) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: Primary amines can be
prepared from amides by treatment with Br
2
and KOH. Amine contains one
carbon atom less than the parent amide

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4. Physical properties of amines:

(i)Solubility: Lower aliphatic amine is soluble in water because they can form
hydrogen bonding with water. Solubility decreases with increases in molar
mass of amines due to increase in size of hydrophobic group

(ii)Boiling points: Among the isomeric amines primary and secondary amines
have high boiling point because they can form hydrogen bonding. Tertiary
amine cannot form hydrogen bonding due to the absence of hydrogen
atom available for hydrogen bond formation. Hence order of boiling of
isomeric amines is Primary>Secondary> Tertiary

5. Chemical properties of amines:
(a)Basic character of amines:
Amines have an unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen atom due to which
they behave as Lewis base. Basic character of amines can be better
understood in terms of their
b
K and
b
pK values

Greater
b
K value or smaller
b
pK indicates base is strong
(b)Comparison of basic strength of aliphatic amines and ammonia:
Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl
groups leading to high electron density on the nitrogen atom

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(c) Comparison of basic strength of primary, secondary and tertiary amines
(i)The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous phase follows the expected
order on the basis of +I effect: tertiary amine > secondary amine > primary
amine > NH
3
(ii)In aqueous solution it is observed that tertiary amines are less basic than
either primary or secondary amines. This can be explained on basis of
following factors:

(a) Solvation effect: Greater is the stability of the substituted ammonium
cation formed, stronger is the corresponding amine as a base. Tertiary
ammonium ion is less hydrated than secondary ammonium ion which is less
hydrated than primary amine. Thus tertiary amines have fewer tendencies to
form ammonium ion and consequently are least basic.

On the basis of solvation effect order of basicity of aliphatic amines should be
primary amine>secondary amine>tertiary amine.

(b) Steric factor: As the crowding of alkyl group increases from primary to
tertiary amine hinderance to hydrogen bonding increases which eventually
decreases the basic strength. Thus there is a subtle interplay of the inductive
effect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which decides
the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state.

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When the alkyl group is small like CH
3
there is no steric hindrance to
hydrogen bonding. In this case order of basicity in aqueous medium is

When alkyl group is ethyl group order of basicity in aqueous medium is

(c)Comparison of basic strength of aryl amines and alkanamines:
Generally aryl amines are considerably less basic than alkyl amines .Taking
an example of aniline and ethylamine it is observed that ethyl amine is more
basic than aniline. In aniline NH
2
group is directly attached to benzene
ring. Hence unshared pair of electron on nitrogen is less available for
protonation because of resonance. Below mentioned are resonating
structures of aniline.

In the above resonating structures there is a positive charge on nitrogen
atom making the lone pair less available for protonation. Hence aniline is less
basic than ethyl amine which has no resonating structures. Less basicity of
aniline can also be explained by comparing the relative stability of aniline and
anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton. Greater the number of
resonating structures, greater is the stability of that species.

Aniline is resonance hybrid of five resonating structures whereas anilinium
ion has only two resonating structures.

Thus aniline has less tendency to accept a proton to form anilinium ion.

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(d)Effect of substituent on basic character of amines:
Electron donating or electron releasing group/groups (EDG) increases basic
strength.
Electron withdrawing (EWG) decreases basic strength

6. Reactions of amines:
(a) Acylation Reaction: Aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines
(which contain replaceable hydrogen atoms) react with acid chlorides,
anhydrides and esters to form substituted amide. Process of introducing an
acyl group (R-CO-) into the molecule is called acylation. The reaction is
carried out in the presence of a stronger base than the amine, like pyridine,
which removes HCl formed and shifts the equilibrium to the product side

Base
2
Base
2
Base
2 2
R NH RCOCl RNHCOR HCl
Acid Substituted
chloride amide
O O
|| ||
R' NH R C O C R R' NHCOR RCOOH
Acid Substituted
anhydride amide
R NH RCOCl R NCOR HCl

Important Note: Since tertiary amine do not contain replaceable hydrogen
atom they do not undergo acylation reaction

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(b) Carbylamine reaction: Only aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on
heating with chloroform and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides
or carbylamines

Important Note: Secondary and tertiary amines do not give the above test

(c)Reaction of primary amine with nitrous acid:

(i)Primary aliphatic amine on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO
2
) forms
aliphatic diazonium salt which being unstable decomposes to form alcohol
and evolve nitrogen

(ii)Primary aromatic amines on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO
2
) in cold
(273-278 K) forms diazonium salt

(d)Reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride: Hinsbergs reagent-
Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C
6
H
5
SO
2
Cl) reacts with primary and secondary
amines to form sulphonamides

The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide formed by primary
amine is strongly acidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing
sulphonyl group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali.

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Since sulphonamide formed by secondary amine does not contain any
hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, so it is not acidic. Hence it is
insoluble in alkali.

7. Ring substitution in aromatic amine: Aniline is more reactive than benzene
and undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction preferably at ortho and para
position.
(i) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room temperature to
give a white precipitate of 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline

Important Note: In order to stop reaction at monosubstitution activating
effect of NH
2
group is reduced by acetylation. This prevents di and tri
substituted products. Acetyl group is removed by hydrolysis.

(ii) Nitration:
(a)Under strongly acidic medium aniline gets protonated to form anilinium
ion, which is deactivating group and is meta directing. Hence minitroaniline is
also formed in 47 % along with ortho and para products.

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Important Note: Aromatic amines cannot be nitrated directly because
HNO
3
being a strong oxidising agent oxidises it forming black mass

(b) Nitration by protecting the NH
2
group by acetylation reaction with acetic
anhydride:

(iii) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with conc. H
2
SO
4
to form anilinium
hydrogensulphate which on heating with sulphuric acid at 453-473K produces
p-aminobenzene sulphonic acid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the
major product

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8. Reactions of benzene diazonium chloride:
(a) Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen

(b) Reactions involving retention of diazo group, coupling reactions:
Diazonium ion acts as an electrophile because there is a positive charge on
terminal nitrogen. Therefore benzene diazonium chloride couples with
electron rich compounds like phenol and aniline to give azo compounds. Azo
compounds contain N=N- bond and reaction is coupling reaction.

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Chapter : Biomolecules

Top Concepts:

1. Definition of carbohydrates: Polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones or compounds which give these on hydrolysis.
2. Classification of carbohydrates:
a. Monosaccharides
- Simplest carbohydrates
- Cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds
- E.g. Glucose, mannose
b. Oligosaccharides
- Carbohydrates which give 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
- E.g. Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
c. Polysaccharides
- Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide
units.
- E.g. Cellulose, starch
3. Anomers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration only
around C
1
atom are called anomers. E.g. o-D-glucopyranose and |-D-
glucopyranose
4. Epimers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration
around any other C atom other than C
1
atom are called epimers. E.g. D-
glucose and D- mannose are C
2
epimers.

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5. Preparation of glucose (also called dextrose, grape sugar):
a. From sucrose:
H
12 22 11 2 6 12 6 6 12 6
C H O H O C H O C H O
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
+
+ +

b. From starch:
( )
+
+
H
6 10 5 n 2 393K;2 3atm 6 12 6
C H O nH O nC H O
Sucrose Glucose
or
cellulose

6. Structure elucidation of glucose:

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|
HNO
3
4
|
COOH
Glucose (CHOH) Thi s indicates the presenceof
COOH primary alcoholic group in glucose
Saccharic acid

|
5(CH CO) O
3 2
ZnCl
3 4 3
| 2
2 3
CHO
Glucose (CHOCOCH ) 5 CH COOH Shows the presence
CH OCOCH of 5 OHgroups
Penta acetyl glucose
+

Unusual reactions of glucose: (Presence of ring structure)

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Glucose does not give Schiffs test and does not react with sodium bisulphite
and NH
3
.
Pentaacetyl glucose does not react with hydroxyl amine. This shows the
absence of CHO group and hence the presence of ring structure.

7. Cyclic structure of glucose:

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8. Cyclic structure of fructose:

9. Reaction of Glucose with Phenyl hydrazine: Formation of Osazone:

Glucose and fructose gives the same osazone because the reaction takes
place at C
1
and C
2
only.

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10. Lobry De Bruyn Van Ekenstein Rearrangement:
2
| | | ||
NaOH NaOH
| | | |
3 3 3 3
| | | |
2 2 2 2
CHO CH OH CHO H C OH
H C OH C O HO C H C OH
(CHOH) (CHOH) (CHOH) (CHOH)
CH OH CH OH CH OH CH OH
D-Glucose D-Fructose D-Mannose ene diol

=

- Same results are obtained when fructose or mannose is reacted with an
alkali.
- It is because of form of ene - diol intermediate.
- It explains why fructose acts as a reducing sugar.

11. Mutarotation: The spontaneous change in specific rotation of an
optically active compound is called mutarotation. E.g. o-D-glucose (m.p. =
146C) with specific rotation [o]
D
= +111 and |-D-glucose (m.p. = 150C)
with specific rotation [o]
D
=+19.2 When either form is dissolved in water &
allowed to stand, the specific rotation of the solution changes slowly and
reaches or constant value of +52.5.
o-D-glucose

open chain form

|-D-glucose
sp. rot = 111 sp. rot = +52.5 sp. rot = +19

12. Haworth projection: Representation for ring structure:
6 membered ring is called pyranose ring.
5 membered ring is called furanose ring.
How to write the projection: Groups projected to the right in the Fischer
projection are written below the plane and those to the left are written above
the plane.
Haworth projection of Glucose:
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Haworth projection for Fructose:

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13. Glycosidic linkage: The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water
molecule when two monosaccharides are joined together through oxygen
atom is called glycosidic linkage.
14. Sucrose (invert sugar): Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it
gives dextrorotatory & laevorotatory and the mixture is laevorotatory.
C
12
H
22
O
11
+ H
2
O
H
+
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ C
6
H
12
O
6

Sucrose D glucose D fructose
[o]
D
= + 66.5 [o]
D
= +52.5 [o]
D
= -92.4

Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the two monosaccharide units are
held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of o-glucose and C2 of |-
fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in
glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Haworth Projection of Sucrose:
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15. Maltose: Maltose is composed of two o-D-glucose units in which C1 of
one glucose is linked to C4 of another glucose unit. The free aldehyde group
can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing
properties so it is a reducing sugar.
Maltose: Maltose
H O
2
Glucose + Glucose

C1 o C1 o

Haworth projection of maltose:

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16. Lactose (Milk sugar): It is composed of -D-galactose and
-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of
glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
Lactose
H O
2
Glucose + Glucose
C4

C1

Haworth projection of lactose:

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17. Starch: It is a polymer of o-glucose and consists of two components
Amylose and Amylopectin.

Amylose Amylopectin
Water soluble component Water insoluble component
It is a long unbranched chain polymer It is a branched chain polymer
Contains 200 1000 o-D-(+)-
glucose units held by o - glycosidic
linkages involving C1 C4 glycosidic
linkage
It is a branched chain polymer of o-
D-glucose units in which chain is
formed by C1C4 glycosidic linkage
whereas branching occurs by C1C6
glycosidic linkage.
Constitutes about 15-20% of starch Constitutes about 80- 85% of starch

18. Amino acids:

|
2
R CH COOH
NH

Where R Any side chain
Most naturally occurring amino acids have L Config.
COOH
H
2
NH
R
[D]
2
COOH
H N H
R
[L]

19. Essential amino acids: Those amino acids which cannot be synthesised
in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known as essential amino
acids. Example: Valine, Leucine

20. Non- essential amino acids: The amino acids, which can be
synthesised in the body, are known as non-essential amino acids. Example:
Glycine, Alanine

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21. Zwitter ion form of amino acids: Amino acids behave like salts rather
than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence
of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups in the same
molecule.
In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group
can accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is
neutral but contains both positive and negative charges.
In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as they react
both with acids and bases.
OH OH
| | |
H H
3 3 2
R CH COOH R CH COO R CH COO
NH NH NH
zwitter ion

+ +
+ +

22. Isoelectronic point: The pH at which the dipolar ion exists as neutral
ion and does not migrate to either electrode cathode or anode is called
isoelectronic point.
23. Proteins: Proteins are the polymers of o -amino acids and they are
connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage. A polypeptide
with more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher
than 10,000u is called a protein.

24. Peptide linkage: Peptide linkage is an amide linkage formed by
condensation reaction between COOH group of one amino acid and NH
2

group of another amino acid.

25. Primary structure of proteins: The sequence of amino acids is said to
be the primary structure of a protein.
26. Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long
polypeptide chain can exist. Two different types of structures:
a. o Helix:
- Given by Linus Pauling in 1951
- It exists when R- group is large.
- Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H
bonded to C = O of adjacent turn of the helix.
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- Also known as 3.6
13
helix since each turn of the helix has
approximately 3.6 amino acids and a 13 membered ring is formed by
H bonding.
- C = O and N H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.
- Ramchandran angles (u and +) - u angle which C
o
makes with N H
and + angle which C
o
makes with C = O.
b. | pleated sheet:
- Exists when R group is small.
- In this conformation all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly
maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held
together by hydrogen bonds.
27. Tertiary structure of proteins: It represents the overall folding of the
polypeptide chain i.e., further folding of the 2 structure.
Types of bonding which stablise the 3 structure
i. Disulphide bridge (-S S-)
ii. H bonding (C = O H N)
iii. Salt bridge (COO

+
NH
3
)
iv. Hydrophobic interactions
v. van der Waals forces
Two shapes are possible:

Fibrous proteins Globular proteins
When the polypeptide chains run
parallel and are held together by
hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then
fibre like structure is formed.
This structure results when the
chains of polypeptides coil around to
give a spherical shape.
Such proteins are generally insoluble
in water
These are usually soluble in water.
Examples: keratin (present in hair,
wool, silk) and myosin (present in
muscles), etc
Examples: Insulin and albumins

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28. Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the proteins are composed
of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial
arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure of proteins.
29. Denaturation of proteins:
The loss of biological activity of proteins when a protein in its native form, is
subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical change
like change in pH. This is called denaturation of protein. Example:
coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk

30. Nucleoside:
Base + sugar

31. Nucleotide:
Base + sugar + phosphate group

32. Nucleic acids (or polynucletides): Long chain polymers of
nucleotides. Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkage between 5 and
3 C atoms of a pentose sugar.
33. Two types of nucleic acids:

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
It has a double stranded o-helix
structure in which two strands are
coiled spirally in opposite directions.
It has a single stranded o-helix
structure.
Sugar present is |D2-deoxyribose Sugar present is |Dribose
Bases:
Purine bases: Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G)
Pyrimidine bases : Thymine (T) and
Bases:
Purine bases: Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G)
Pyrimidine bases: Uracil (U) and
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cytosine (C) cytosine (C)
It occurs mainly in the nucleus of the
cell.
It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of
the cell.
It is responsible for transmission for
heredity character.
It helps in protein synthesis.

34. Double helix structure of DNA:
- It is composed of 2 right handed helical polynucleotide chains coiled
spirally in opposite directions around the same central axis.
- Two strands are anti-parallel i.e. their phosphodiester linkage runs in
opposite directions.
- Bases are stacked inside the helix in planes to the helical axis.
- Two strands are held together by H bonds (A = T, G C).
- The two strands are complementary to each other because the
hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine
forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen
bonds with guanine.
- Diameter of double helix is 2 nm.
- Double helix repeats at intervals of 3.4 nm. (One complete turn)
- Total amount of purine (A + G) = Total amount of pyramidine (C + T)

35. Vitamins: Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small
amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of
optimum growth and health of the organism.

36. Classification of vitamins: Vitamins are classified into two groups
depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins
These vitamins are soluble in fat and
oils but insoluble in water.
These vitamins are soluble in water.
They are stored in liver and adipose
(fat storing) tissues
Water soluble vitamins must
be supplied regularly in diet because
they are readily excreted in urine and
cannot be stored (except vitamin
B12) in our body.
Example: Vitamin A, D, E and K Example: Vitamin C, B group
vitamins

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37. Important vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:

Name of vitamin Source Deficiency diseases
Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots,
butter and milk
e r o p h t h a l m i a
(hardening of cornea of
eye)
Night blindness
Vitamin B
1

(Thiamine)
Yeast, milk, green
vegetables and cereals
Beri beri (loss of
appetite,
retarded growth)
Vitamin B
2

(Riboflavin)
Milk, egg white, liver,
kidney
Cheilosis (fissuring at
corners of mouth and
lips), digestive disorders
and burning sensation
of the skin.
Vitamin B
6

(Pyridoxine)
Yeast, milk, egg yolk,
cereals and grams
Convulsions
Vitamin B
12
Meat, fish, egg and
curd
Pernicious anaemia
(RBC deficient in
haemoglobin)
Vitamin C
(Ascorbic acid)
Citrus fruits, amla and
green leafy vegetables
Scurvy (bleeding gums)
Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight,
fish and egg yolk
Rickets (bone
deformities
in children) and
osteomalacia
(soft bones and
joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E Vegetable oils like
wheat
germ oil, sunflower oil,
etc.
Increased fragility of
RBCs and muscular
weakness
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting
time

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Chapter : Polymers

Top concepts

1. Polymers are high molecular mass substance consisting of large number of
repeating structural units. As polymers are single, giant molecules i.e. big size
molecules, they are also called macromolecules

2. Simple molecules which combine to form polymers are called monomers
3. Process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called
polymerization

4. Classification of Polymers
No. Classification
based on
Types Examples

1.

Source of
availability
1. Natural polymers: Polymers obtained
from nature,mostly plants and animals
Cellulose, starch, etc.

2. Synthetic polymers: Polymers prepared
in laboratory
Teflon,
Nylon 6,6 ,
Synthetic rubber (Buna -
S) etc.
3. Semi synthetic polymers: Polymers
derived from naturally occurring
polymers by carrying out chemical
modifications
Rayon (cellulose
acetate),
cellulose nitrate, etc.
2. Structure of
polymer
1. Linear polymers: Polymer consist of
long and straight chains
High density polythene,
polyvinyl chloride, etc.
2.Branched chain polymers: Polymers
contains linear chains having some
branches

Low density polythene
3.Cross linked or network polymers:
Polymers in which monomer units are
cross linked together to form a 3
dimensional network polymers

Bakelite, melamine, etc.
3. Mode of
polymerisation
1.Addition polymers
:Polymers are
formed by the
repeated addition of
monomers with
double and triple
bonds
1.Homopolymers:
Polymers formed by
the polymerisation
of a single
monomeric species

Polythene,
Polystyrene
2.Copolymers:
Polymers formed by
addition
polymerisation of
two different

Buna-S,
Buna -N
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monomers
Condensation polymers: Polymers formed
by repeated condensation reaction
between two different bi-functional or tri-
functional monomeric units with
elimination of simple molecules

Nylon 6, 6,
Nylon 6
4. Molecular forces 1. Elastomers: Polymer chains are held
together by weakest intermolecular
forces. Polymers are rubber like solids
with elastic properties
Buna S,
Buna N,
Neoprene
2. Fibre: Polymers have strong
intermolecular force like hydrogen
bonding. Fibres are the thread forming
solids which possess high tensile strength
and high modulus
Nylon 6, 6,
Polyesters
3. Thermoplastic polymers: Polymers are
held by intermolecular forces which are in
between those of elastomers and fibres.
These polymers are capable of repeated
softening on heating and hardening on
cooling
Polythene,
Polystyrene

4. Thermosetting polymers: Polymers are
cross linked or heavily branched
molecules, which on heating undergo
extensive cross linking in moulds and
eventually undergoes a permanent
Bakelite,
Urea-formaldelyde resins

5. Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation: Most common
mechanism for addition polymerisation reactions is free radical mechanism
Steps involved are:

Step 1: Chain initiating step: Organic peroxides undergo homolytic fission to
form free radicals which acts as initiator. Initiator adds to C-C double bond of
an alkene molecule to form a new free radical

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Step 2: Chain propagating step: Free radicals formed by homolytic cleavage
adds to a double bond of monomer to form a larger free radical. Radical
formed adds to another alkene molecule to form a larger free radical. This
process continues until the radical is destroyed. These steps are called
propagation steps.

Step 3: Chain terminating step: For termination of the long chain, free
radicals combine in different ways to form polythene. One mode of
termination of chain is shown as under:

Addition polymerisation is called chain growth polymerisation because it
takes place through stages leading to increase in chain length and each stage
produces reactive intermediates for use in next stage of the growth of chain

6 .Important Addition Polymers:
No. Name of polymer Polymerisation Reaction & Uses

1 Low density
polythene (LDP)

Uses: It is used in the insulation of electricity carrying
wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles, toys and
flexible pipes
2 High density
polythene(HDP)

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Uses: It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins,
bottles, pipes, etc.
3 Polytetrafluoroethene
(Teflon)

Uses: It is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also
used for non stick surface coated utensils

4 Polyacrylonitrile

Uses: It is used as a substitute for wool in making
commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan

7. Condensation Polymerisation or Step Growth polymerization:
Polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation reaction between
two bi-functional monomers. In condensation reactions, the product of each
step is again a bi-functional species and the sequence of condensation goes
on. Since, each step produces a distinct functionalised species and is
independent of each other, this process is also called as step growth
polymerisation.

8 .Important Condensation Polymers:
1. Polyamides: Polymers possess amide linkage (-CONH-) in chain. These
polymers are popularly known as nylons.
Examples:
(a) Nylon 6, 6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of
hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure and at
high temperature.

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Uses: Nylon 6, 6 is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile
industry

(b) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high
temperature

Uses: Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes

(2) Polyesters: These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids
and diols
Example: Terylene or Dacron

Terylene or Dacron: It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-
antimony trioxide catalyst

Uses: Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending with
cotton and wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in safety
helmets, etc.

3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)

Bakelite: These are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with
formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst. The initial
product could be a linear product Novolac used in paints.
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Novolac on heating with formaldehyde forms Bakelite

Uses: It is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches
and handles of various utensils

4. Melamine formaldehyde polymer: Melamine formaldehyde polymer is
formed by the condensation polymerisation of melamine and
formaldehyde

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Uses: It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery

9. Rubber
(i) Natural rubber: Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-
1, 3-butadiene) and is also called as cis - 1, 4 - polyisoprene.

Vulcanisation of rubber: Process of heating a mixture of raw rubber with
sulphur and an appropriate additive in a temperature range between 373 K
to 415 K to improve upon physical properties like elasticity, strength etc.

(ii) Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of 1, 3 -
butadiene derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its derivatives
with another unsaturated monomer

Examples of synthetic rubber:
No. Name of
polymer
Polymerisation Reaction and uses
1 Neoprene or
polychloropre
ne

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Uses: It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and
hoses

2 Buna N

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Uses: It is used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc. because it is
resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic solvents

3 Buna S

10. Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers which are degraded by
microorganisms within a suitable period so that biodegradable polymers and
their degraded products do not cause any serious affects on environment

Examples of biodegradable polymer:
1. Poly --hydroxybutyrate co--hydroxy valerate (PHBV): It is obtained
by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 - hydroxypentanoic
acid
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Uses: PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in
controlled release of drugs

2. Nylon 2nylon 6: It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine
(H
2
NCH
2
COOH) and amino caproic acid (H
2
N (CH
2
)
5
COOH)

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11. Some commercially important polymers along with their structures and
uses
Name of
Polymer
Monomer Structure Uses
Polypropene Propene

Manufacture of
ropes, toys, pipes,
fibres, etc.
Polystyrene Styrene

As insulator,
wrapping
material,
manufacture
of toys, radio and
television cabinets
Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)
Vinyl chloride

Manufacture of rain
coats, hand bags,
vinyl flooring, water
pipes
Glyptal (a) Ethylene
glycol
Manufacture
of
(b) Phthalic
acid

Manufacture of
paints and lacquers

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Chapter : Chemistry in Everyday Life

Top concepts

1. Drugs are low molecular mass ( 100-500 u) substances which interact
with targets in the body and produce a biological response
2. Medicines are chemicals that are useful in diagnosis, prevention and
treatment of diseases

3. Desirable or beneficial effect of a drug like treatment of symptoms and
cure of a disease on a living body is known as therapeutic effect

4. Proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are
called enzymes

5. Functions of enzymes:

(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for a chemical
reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a suitable
position, so that it can be attacked by the reagent effectively

(ii) The second function of an enzyme is to provide functional groups that will
attack the substrate and carry out chemical reaction

6. Main role of drugs is to either increase or decrease role of enzyme
catalysed reactions. Inhibition of enzymes is a common role of drug action.
Enzyme inhibitor is drug which inhibits catalytic activity of enzymes or blocks
the binding site of the enzyme and eventually prevents the binding of
substrate with enzyme. Drug can inhibit attachment of substrate on active
site of enzymes in following ways.

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(a) Competitive Inhibition: Competitive Inhibitors are the drugs that compete
with the natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of enzymes

(b) Non-Competitive Inhibition: Some drugs do not bind to the enzymes
active site, instead bind to a different site of enzyme called allosteric site.
This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site changes the shape of the active site
in such a way that substrate cannot recognise it. If the bond formed between
an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be broken
easily, then the enzyme is blocked permanently. The body then degrades the
enzyme-inhibitor complex and synthesizes the new enzyme

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7. Receptors as Drug Targets:
Proteins which are vital for communication system in the body are called
receptors. In the body, message between two neurons and that between
neurons to muscles is communicated through chemical messengers. They
are received at the binding sites of receptor proteins. To accommodate a
messenger, shape of the receptor site changes which brings about the
transfer of message into the cell. Chemical messenger gives message to the
cell without entering the cell

Receptors show selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other
because their binding sites have different shape, structure and amino acid
composition.
Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called
antagonists. These are useful when blocking of message is required. Drugs
that mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptor are called
agonists. These are useful when there is lack of natural chemical messenger.

8. Therapeutic action of different classes of drugs
(i) Antacid: Chemical substances which neutralize excess acid in the gastric
juices and give relief from acid indigestion, acidity, heart burns and gastric
ulcers
Examples: Eno, gelusil, digene etc.

(ii) Antihistamines: Chemical substances which diminish or abolish the effects
of histamine released in body and hence prevent allergic reactions
Examples: Brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane)

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(iii) Neurologically Active Drugs: Drugs which have a neurological effect i.e.
affects the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor

(a) Tranquilizers: Chemical substances used for the treatment of stress and
mild or severe mental diseases
Examples: Derivatives of barbituric acids like veronal, amytal, nembutal,
luminal, seconal

(b) Analgesics: Chemical substances used to relieve pain without causing any
disturbances in the nervous system like impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion, incoordination or paralysis etc.

Classification of Analgesics:
Non-narcotic
analgesics:

Narcotic analgesics:
They are non-addictive
drugs
When administered in
medicinal doses, these
drugs relieve pain and
produce sleep
Examples: Aspirin,
Ibuprofen, Naproxen,
Dichlofenac Sodium
Examples: Morphine
and its derivatives

(iv) Antimicrobials: Drugs that tends to destroy/prevent development or
inhibit the pathogenic action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial
drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites
(antiparasitic drugs) selectively

Types of antimicrobial drugs

(a) Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by microorganisms that kill or
prevent the growth of other microbes

Classification of antibiotics on basis of mode of control of microbial diseases:
Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
Drugs that kills organisms in body Drugs that inhibits growth of
organisms
Examples:
Penicillin, Aminoglycosides,
Ofloxacin
Examples:
Erythromycin, Tetracycline,
Chloramphenicol

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Classification of antibiotics on basis of its spectrum of action:
Broad spectrum antibiotics Narrow spectrum
antibiotics
Limited spectrum
antibiotics
Antibiotics which kill or
inhibit a wide range of
Gram-positive and Gram-
negative bacteria
Antibiotics which are
effective mainly
against Gram-positive
or Gram-negative
bacteria
Antibiotics effective
against a single
organism or disease
Examples:
Ampicillin and Amoxycillin
Examples:
Penicillin G

(b) Antiseptics: Chemical substances that kill or prevent growth of
microorganisms and can be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds
etc.
Examples: Soframicine, dettol

(c) Disinfectants: Chemical substances that kill microorganisms but cannot
be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds etc.
Examples: Chlorine (Cl
2
), bithional, iodoform etc.

(v) Antifertility Drugs: Chemical substances used to prevent conception or
fertilization
Examples: Norethindrone, ethynylestradiol (novestrol)

9. Food additives are the substances added to food to preserve its flavour or
improve its taste and appearance
Different types of food additives:
No. Name of food additive Examples
1 Artificial Sweetening Agents: Chemical
compounds which gives sweetening effect to
the food and enhance its flavour
Aspartame, Sucrolose
and Alitame
2 Food preservatives: Chemical substances
which are added to food material to prevent
their spoilage due to microbial growth
Sugar, Salts, Sodium
benzoate
3 Food colours: Substances added to food to
increase the acceptability and attractiveness
of the food product
Allura Red AC,
Tartrazine
4 Nutritional supplements: Substances added
to food to improve the nutritional value
Vitamins, minerals etc.
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5 Fat emulsifiers and stabilizing agents:
Substances added to food products to give
texture and desired consistency
Egg yolk (where the
main emulsifying
chemical is Lecithin)
6 Antioxidants :Substances added to food to
prevent oxidation of food materials
Butylated Hydroxy
Toluene (BHT),
Butylated Hydroxy
Anisole (BHA)

10. Soaps:
(i)Soap: It is a sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids like
stearic, oleic and palmitic acid.

The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats or oils with alkalies is
known as Saponification
Detergents

(ii)Saponification: The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats or oils
with alkalies
(iii)Types of soaps
No. Descriptions
2. Medicated soaps: These soaps are the soft soaps containing substances
with medicinal properties. Neem soap, carbolic soaps are some
common examples of medicated soaps.
3. Shaving soaps: These soaps are potassium sodium stearates and
produce lasting lather. These contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. A
gum called rosin is added in these soaps which forms sodium rosinate
which lathers well
4. Transparent soaps: These soaps are prepared by dissolving the soap in
ethanol and then evaporating the excess solvent
5. Floating soaps: These soaps float in water and are prepared by beating
tiny air bubbles into the product before it hardens
6. Soap chips: These are prepared by running a thin sheet of melted soap
onto a cool cylinder and scrapping off the soaps in small broken pieces
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7. Soap granules: These are dried miniature soap bubbles
8. Soap powder and scouring soaps: These substances contain some
soap, a scouring agent (abrasive) such as powdered pumice or finely
divided sand and builders like sodium carbonate and trisodium
phosphate. Builders help the soaps in its cleaning action

(iv) Advantages of using soaps: Soap is a good cleansing agent and is 100%
biodegradable i.e., microorganisms present in sewage water can completely
oxidize soap. Therefore, soaps do not cause any pollution problems
(v) Disadvantages of using soaps:
Soaps cannot be used in hard water because hard water contains
metal ions like Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
which react with soap to form white
precipitate of calcium and magnesium salts

These precipitates stick to the fibres of the cloth as gummy mass and
block the ability of soaps to remove oil and grease from fabrics.
Therefore, it interferes with the cleansing ability of the soap and makes
the cleansing process difficult.
In acidic medium, the acid present in solution precipitate the insoluble
free fatty acids which adhere to the fabrics and hence block the ability
of soaps to remove oil and grease from the fabrics. Hence soaps
cannot be used in acidic medium

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11. Detergents:
(i)Detergents are sodium salts of long chain of alkyl benzene sulphonic acids
or sodium salts of long chain of alkyl hydrogen sulphates

(ii)Classification of detergents:
(a)Anionic detergents:
Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or
hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogensulphates formed by treating long chain alcohols
with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form anionic
detergents. Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralising
alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali

Example:

Anionic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is an
anion.
Uses: They are used in household cleaning like dishwasher liquids, laundry
liquid detergents, laundry powdered detergents etc.
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Advantage: They are effective in slightly acidic solutions where soaps do not
work efficiently

(b)Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium salts
of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as anions. Cationic parts
possess a long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on nitrogen atom.

Example:

Cationic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is a
cation

Use: Since they possess germicidal properties, they are used as germicides
Advantage: They has strong germicidal action
Disadvantage: These detergents are expensive

(c) Non- ionic detergents: They do not contain any ion in their constitution.
They are like esters of high molecular mass.
Example: Detergent formed by condensation reaction between stearic acid
reacts and polyethyleneglycol

Use: Making liquid washing detergents
Advantage: They have effective H- bonding groups at one end of the alkyl
chain which make them freely water soluble.
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12. Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having straight hydrocarbon
chains that are easily decomposed by microorganisms.
Example: Sodium lauryl sulphate
13. Non-Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having branched hydrocarbon
chains that are not easily decomposed by microorganisms

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Normal molar mass

Normal molar mass

then the limiting molar conductivity of

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