Preface his book discusses problems, algorithms, and solutions for processing signals re- ceived by arrays of sensors. The book incorporates the latest results from the field of digital signal processing into a coherent discussion of array processing applications. We wrote it primarily to serve as a text for a graduate course in advanced digital signal processing, but practicing engineers should also find it useful as a reference for array pro- cessing. We assume the reader is familiar with the fundamental concepts of digital signal processing, gained perhaps by studying a text such as Discrete-Time Signal Processing by Oppenheim and Schafer (Prentice Hall) or its predecessor, Digital Signal Processing, also by Oppenheim and Schafer (Prentice Hall). Our goal is to assemble in a coherent way a variety of theoretical and practical approaches to sensor array processing problems. Mastery of the concepts presented in this book will give the reader a strong foundation for approaching problems in applications areas such as acoustic signal processing. sonar. radar, geophysical processing, and, to a lesser extent, tomography, computed imaging, and ultrasonic imaging. We envision several ways in which this text may be incorporated into a graduate curriculum in digital signal processing. This book contains more than sufficient material and depth of discussion to support a one-term course in sensor array processing. Some of the topics discussed, such as sampling in space and time and derivation of array patterns, are elaborations on fundamental concepts of digital signal processing, giving the student some enlightening variations on the themes leamed in a first course on digital signal Processing. Other topics, such as detection, parameter estimation, and tracking, may reinforce material covered in courses on detection and estimation theory. Alternatively, this book could be used in conjunction with other texts, for example Multidimensional Digital Signal Processing by Dudgeon and Mersereau (Prentice Hall), for a course on advanced topics in digital signal processing. Part of the motivation for writing this book is the realization that many of these topics are being taught in advanced courses using informal notes. In addition to its use as a graduate text, this book should be helpful to the practicing engineer, particularly one who has recently graduated and has become immersed in an applications area, such as sonar, not covered explicitly during his or her formal education. It forms a convenient bridge for such a person, connecting basic understanding of digital signal processing concepts to sensor array processing concepts useful in applications. For the experienced engineer, the book draws together a variety of techniques—some familiar, xixil Preface some modern and perhaps less familiar—into a common framework and provides an analytical basis for reaching a deeper understanding of the processing techniques that have been developed in his/her particular specialty. Its range of topics and its references to the technical literature should make this book a useful summary of array processing techniques. The book begins with a discussion of the objectives of sensor array processing and describes some typical applications, such as signal detection, estimation of propagation direction, and measurement of frequency content. We then introduce the physics of wave propagation along with an entry-level discussion of how media affect propagation. Those aspects of propagating waves that can be exploited by array processing algorithms are highlighted, foreshadowing what the remainder of the book discusses. One important con- cept that arises from the physics is the notion of decomposing a general space-time signal into a superposition of propagating plane waves using the Fourier Transform. From this viewpoint, the wavenumber-frequency spectrum is introduced as an alternative descrip- tion of space-time signals. Since the use of modem signal processing algorithms implies the use of digital computers and sampled-data systems, we discuss the sampling of signals in space as well as time. This treatment includes multidimensional sampling pattems, the Sampling Theorem, and the multidimensional discrete Fourier Transform. In subsequent chapters, the concepts of beamforming, detection, and power spectrum estimation are developed in detail. The goal of these chapters is to show how these techniques can be applied to problems in sensor array processing rather than duplicating results found in existing texts. Results from estimation and optimization theory are derived in the con- text of sensor array processing to motivate the development of high-resolution, adaptive beamforming techniques including methods based on the eigenanalysis of covariance ma- trices, Finally, multiarray tracking is discussed, to give the engineer examples of systems built upon the foundation of sensor array processing. This book is a technical book; it relies on mathematics to reach its many observations and conclusions. We have tried to write it, however, in a style that appeals to the reader's intuition, and we strive to develop and refine that intuition for the topics discussed. In some cases, mathematical rigor and lengthy derivations have been sacrificed to get to the point. We hope that this style does not offend purists unduly; we recognize the importance of mathematical precision in any analytical endeavor, but we feel the need for engineering judgment in solving real-world problems. We firmly believe that mathematics should be used {0 support and verify intuition, not substitute for it. Many have helped us in our writing efforts. Rice University, through its sabbati- cal program, enabled us to work together at Lincoln Laboratory for a year during the initial stages. Throughout the project, both of our institutions have supplied generous background support, allowing unfettered access to word processing systems. Many re- viewed manuscript drafts; we thank B. Aazhang, R. D. DeGroat, D. J. Edelblute, D. A. Linebarger, J, H. McClellan, and D. B. Williams for their efforts. The book’s quality has been enhanced by their reviews. Finally, this book has been formatted within the IsIex typesetting system; all in all, it helped more than hindered, but we did find a few bugs along the way. A note about notation: We have exploited the referential capabilities of ISTEX in