An Outline of The History of The Intellectual Class in Western Europe

Columbia nitiem'tj)
THE LIBRARIES
Hief OBY B?
R<
AN OUTLINE
OF THE
HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL CLASS

IN
WESTERN EUROPE
BY
JAMES HARVEY EOBINSON

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
No man
hath propounded to himself the general
state of learning to be described
and repre-
sented from age to age, as

ecclesiastical
many have done
the works of nature, and the state civil and

;
without which the history of
the world seemeth to

of
me
to
be as the statua
Polyphemus with
his eye out.

"Sk. 11,
i,
Bacon, 'AHviiKcemtn* cfltearhiag,
2.
THIRD ED'Ifl'JON, BEVISED
NEW YORK
1915
PREFATORY NOTE
This outline of Intellectual History is designed first and foremost to be used in connection with the course of lectures offered in this field to graduate and advanced undergraduate students in the School of Political Science of Columbia University.
Should
it is
it
fall into
the hands of others than those

con-
for
whom
may
primarily intended they should recollect that

it
the selection and ordering of the historical facts which

tains
appear more arbitrary than they do when they are explained in class. At no very distant date the author hopes to complete a manual of which this preliminary outline is the
harbinger.
The bibliographies demand a word of explanation. They hand namely, to illustrate the general trend of knowledge and speculation among educated people in the past. They make no pretence to be
are adapted to the specific purpose in
adequate
lists
of
sive scholarship
works relating to the various fields of intenupon which it is necessary to encroach, such
as Greek philosophy, the history of the Jews, the origin of

Christianity,
volt, or the
Scholasticism,
Humanism, the Protestant Re-
development of the modern sciences. From the vast literature that exists upon each of these subjects those few works have been chosen, in consultation with experts in the respective fields, which give in a clear, compact and authentic form those large considerations with which the course
deals.
The
treatises relating specifically to the history of thought,
which it is here used, are few in number, none of them attempts to follow the lines suggested in this and
at least in the sense in
outline.
In addition to the histories of philosophy, literature
and education, which have other aims than the present undertaking, there are the works of Lecky, Andrew D. White, Leslie Stephen, J. M. Robertson, Henry O. Taylor, Benn, Merz and others, covering portions of the field from special standpoints.
iv
Prefatory Note
These are cited in their appropriate places, but in general, as has been implied, the student who desires a review of the whole they subject must seek his materials where he can find them
are not yet collected and digested for
him
in
any convenient
manual.
An
asterisk has been placed before those titles in the
bibliographies which
recommend themselves
especially for the
purposes of the course. It has not been deemed necessary to refer in every instance to the valuable special articles to be found in encyclopaedias, the most useful of which, in addition to the eleventh edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, are The
New
Schaff-Rerzog
Encyclopedia of Beligious Knowledge (1908 sqq., in 12 vols.) edited by S. M. Jackson and based upon the third edition of
the Bealencyclopddie fur protestantische Theologie (1896-1909, 22 vols.) The Catholic Encyclopedia (1907 sqq., 16 vols) The
; ;
Jewish Encyclopedia (1901-06 in 12 vols.); Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics edited by James Hastings (1908 sqq., in slow
process of publication)
Paul Monroe (1910

1885-1903).
by and La Orande Encyclopedic (31 vols., The Columbia University Press is planning to
;
the Cyclopedia of Education, edited
sqq.)
publish a very valuable collection of historical sources. Records of Cimlization, edited by Professor James T. Shotwell. Several volumes are announced to appear during the coming year. It
is
now
the custom in the
more scholarly encyclopaedias
to fur-
nish bibliographies, which are sometimes very excellent indeed. In this way and by means of the references in the works menit will be possible for the more earnest and enterprising student to proceed as far as he has the patience to go in carrying out any particular line of study. It has not been thought worth while to cite articles in periodicals, although now and then the more technical historical and
tioned in the syllabus
philosophical journals
history of thought.
make
interesting contributions to the
J.
H. R.
Columbia University,
October, 1915.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART
I.
THE BACKGROUND OF INTELLECTUAL HISTORY.

1.
Section
2. 3. 4.
Scope and Aims of Intellectual History Man's uneducated Mind
...
2
3
The Antiquity
Intellectual
of
Man
Primitive Reasoning of
Man
Development
......
:
General Perspective of
3
PART
II.
HELLENISM AND ITS TRANSMISSION TO THE
ROMAN EMPIRE.
Section
5. 6.
Intellectual
Debt
of
Europe
to
Egypt and Assyria
Beginnings of Philosophic Greeks
7. 8.
The Sophists
Aristotle
......... ....
Speculation
among
the
5
6
Socrates and Plato
9.
and his Supreme Place in the History of European Thought The Four Main Schools of Greek Thought Stoics and
:
Epicureans
10.
Transfer of the Intellectual

the Hellenistic Period
Hegemony
11.
How
......
to Alexandria
.
12.
13.
Hellenism was Transmitted to the Romans Cicero's Role in transferring Greek Thought into Latin Decline and Disappearance of Hellenism in Western
10
10
Europe
11
PART
HI.
Section
FORMATION IN THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 14. How Christian Literature largely supplanted that of
Greece and
15.
Rome
.
13
16.
Syncretism: The Place of Religion in the History of the Intellectual Class The General Religious Disposition in the Roman
Christian Epic":
"The
13
17.
Persian Syncretism
18.
Neoplatonism 14 Mithraism Manichaeism 15 How Judaism became the Backgroiind of the Religion of Europe The Hebrew Bible .16
:
Empire:
VI
Table of Contents
Testament became a part of the IntelEurope 18 How the Catholic Church became the Intellectual Arbiter of Western Europe 18 Asceticism and the Monastic Life .19 Summary of the Views of Man and the World Transmitted by the Later Eoman Empire to Posterity 20 Intellectual Stagnation of the Early Middle Ages 22
the
lectual Heritage of
. . . . .
19.
How
New
20.
21. 22.
23.
PART
IV.
RISE OF
THE MEDIAEVAL UNIVERSITIES AND THE PREVAILING OF A MEDIAEVALIZED
ARISTOTLE.
Section
24.
25.
26.
27.
Abelard and the Development of Theology into a subject of Systematic Instruction Medicine Revival of the Study of Law The Origin of the Mediaeval Universities
: . .
.....
24
24
25
26
How
Aristotle's
Works
in Latin Translations
became
28.
29.
the Basis of Instruction in the Arts Course Nature and Scope of University Instruction in the Thirteenth Century: Scholasticism Astrology and Alchemy
......
27
29
PART
V.
SLOW UNDERMINING OF THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM (FROM ROGER BACON TO LORD BACON).
30.
Section
Excursus on the Question of Dividing the Past into

Periods
30
Discoveries of the Thirteenth Century:
:
31.
Beginnings of
. .
32.
Roger Bacon Experimental Science Beginnings of Criticism of Social Institutions Dubois and Marsiglio of Padua .
.
.30 .31
32
32
33
Peter
.
33. 34.
Dante and his World Petrarch and Humanism
......
Century
.
35. 36. 37. 38.
Italian Scholarship in the Fifteenth
39.
The Making of Books before the Invention of Printing 35 The Invention of Printing and its Effects .35 Spread of Humanism beyond the Alps, especially into Germany 36 Erasmus, the Embodiment of Humanistic Enlighten37 ment
. . .
40.
41.
.38 General Nature of the Protestant Revolt . Relation of the Protestant Revolt to Intellectual Pro.
gress
42.
......... .........
it
.
39
Witchcraft and the Superstitions underlying
.39
Table of Contents
vii
Page
PART
VI.
BIRTH OF THE MODERN SCIENTiriC SPIRIT.

43. 44.
Section
Discovery of the Vastness and Order of the Universe Exploration of the Earth
41
42
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
Montaigne and his Perception of the Varied Interest of the Purely Human 42 Francis Bacon and the "Kingdom of Man" 43 Descartes and the New Philosophy .44 Conditions and Achievements of Scientific Research in the Seventeenth Century 44 Development of Toleration and of the Freedom of the
. .
......
. . . :
Press
50.
51. 52. 53.
.........
:
. . .
45
Decline of Belief in the Miraculous
The English Deists

:
. .
46 47
48
The French PliilosopheH Voltaire Development of the Idea of Progress
.48
Reaction against the Thought of the Eighteenth Century
PART
VII.
THE CHIEF NOVEL ELEMENTS IN CONTEMPORANEOUS INTELLECTUAL LIFE.

54. 55.
Section
The New Social Basis of Intellectual Life: Democracy The New Historical Basis of Intellectual Life The
:
50
Doctrine of Evolution
56.
51
of Intellectual Life:
The New Economic Basis

Industrial Revolution
......
Democracy
. . .
The
51
57.
58.
Socialism, the Religion of Industrial
52
53 53
Speculation concerning Man's Bodily Welfare
59.
60.
61.
The Newer Social Sciences Problem of readjusting Education to our new Knowledge and new Needs The Conservative Spirit in the Light of Intellectual
......
54
History
55
AN OUTLINE OF THE
HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL CLASS

IN
WESTERN EUROPE
Part
I.
THE BACKGROUND OF INTELLECTUAL

HISTORY.
i.
Section
Scope and Aims of Intellectual History.

the
Sketch of
development of
History:
epic,
political,
''sacred"; the "philosophy of history."
How
became
in the latter
scientific
half of the nineteenth century History
and
truly historical in
aims and methods. Man's abject dependence on the past gives

its
rise to the con-
tinuity of history.
tellectual tastes;
Our
convictions, opinions, prejudices, in-
of
our knowledge, our methods of learning and apphing our information we owe, with slight exceptions, to
the past
often to a remote past.

like
History an expansion of
memory, and
in this lies its
memory
it
alone can explain the present and
Intellectual History.
intellectual
most unmistakable value. Greneral neglect of Distinction between the history of the class and the history of philosophy, science, litera-
ture, or education.
Reading: The article "History" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th (by J. T. Shotwell) Robinson, J. H., The Xew History, especially essays I-IV. There is no satisfactory general account of the history of history, but Flint, R., The History of the Philosophy of History (1894), which relates chiefly to France, contains much of value. Langlois and
ed.
;
Seignobos, Introduction
tific
to the
Study of History, sets forth the modern scien-
methods of
historical research.
History of the Intellectual Glass
Bemheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode (6th ed., 1908), is the most elaborate study of the subject and gives a list of works on special fields of historiography. An idea of more recent discussions can be had in Berr, H., La Sijnthese en Histoire (1911). See also article "Histoire," in La Grande Encyclop6die.
Section
a.
Man's uneducated Mind.

supreme importance discovered in
that
Two
historical facts of
the latter half of the Nineteenth -century:
man
is
de-
scended from the lower animals and that he appears to have been sojourning on the earth for several hundred thousand Contrast between the implications of this view of years.
man's origin and of that formerly held. Reasons for assuming that we retain our animal mind along Importance of the new study of with our animal body. Extraordinary educaanimal (comparative) psychology. How an ape learns: Trick psybility of the Chimpanzee. chology, "trial and eri'or"; association of thought through
Why the ape does not all very human. Man's large brain, superadded to his ape-like structure and temperament, enables him to imitate and to transmit acquired knowledge and habits and so to accumulate civilizaFundamental contrast between "nature" and "nur|tion. ture" (culture), the first of which only is transmitted heredi"contiguity,"
"ape."
tarily.
Problem of the hereditary transmission of acquired
Hypothesis of a colony of really uneducated nature constantly confused with what is really human nurture. Question of racial differences in mental capacity. Does Intellectual history deal with nature or nurture or both ?
characters.
infants.
Human
The Doctrine of Evolution, its Basis and its Scope *Gedde8 & Thompson, Evolution (Home University Library); *Drummond, H., The Ascent of Man, chaps, i-ii; *Thorndike, E. L., Animal Intelligence, Experifnental Studies (1911), especially chaps, i, iv, and vii; Holmes, S. J., The Evolution of Animal Intelligence (1911); Washburn, M., The Animal Mind (1908), especially earlier
*Crampton, H.
E.,
(1911), especially chaps, v-vi;
chapters; James,
Wm.,
Psyeliologij (edition in 2 vols., 1895), chaps, xxii
and xxiv, on reasoning and o/Jfaw (1913).
instinct.
Thorndike, E. L., Tlie Original Nature
BacTcground of Intellectual History
Darwin, Ch., The Descent of Man ; Morgan, C. Lloyd, Instinct and ExperiMcDougall, W., Social Psychology (^d. gA., 1910); by the same. Body and Mind (2d ed., 1913); Tarde, G., Laics of Imitation; Hobhouse,
ence (1Q\2)
;
Mind
in
Evolution (1901).
3.
Section
The Antiquity
of
Man.
Lyell's Nature of the evidence bearing on man's antiquity. Physical remains of Antiquity of Man, published in 1863. man Pithecantropus Erectus discovered in Java in 1892. " EoUths." The fist hatchet the first well developed unmisPaleolithic eras. Great influence in takable human utensil. the development of culture attributed to the movements of the Ground stone tools of the NeoPaleolithic art. ice sheet.
;
lithic period.
bronze
celts.
The continuity of invention illustrated by Vast progress implied by the advance to the
Survival of paleolithic
civi-
Neolithic or agricultural stage.

lizations
among
the recently extinct Tasmanians and other
backward peoples.
Buttel-Reepen,
Man and
his Forerunners, 1913,
good illustrated summary
Keith, A., Antiquity of Ma)t. (1915); Sollas, Ancient Hunters, 2d ed., 1915; Article " Archeology" by C. H. Read in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed.;
*MaeCurdy, G. G., Recent Discoveries heariny on the Antiquity of Man in Europe (1910), extract from the Smithsonian Report of 1909 *Haddon, History of Anthropology (1910), especially chaps, iv and viii Marett, R. R.,
; ;
Anthropology
toire
(Home University
Library).
Lyell, Ch., Antiquity of

;
Man
D^ehelette,
J.,
Manuel
(1863); Mortillet, de, G. et A., La Prehisd'archeoloyie prehistorique. Vol. I.
Section 4. Primitive Reasoning of Man General Perspective of Intellectual Development.

:
Nature of primitive intellectual

archeological survivals
life
reflections on the Spontaneous generation of superstition. Prevalence of the mana, animism, magic, totemism; ^'di'eam These logic," belief in the soul and a life beyond the grave. all perendure as elements in even highly developed later religious systems and in ancient and mediaeval science. General perspective of the history of the human mind 'illustrated by a clock dial on which each of the twelve hours repre-
ous savages.
and from the study Development of language

;
can be deduced from of contemporane-
role of language.
History of the Intellectual Class
sents 20,000 years.
What we
call ''civilization"
a recent
and hitherto precarious addition mankind.
to the older attainments of
*Boa8, Franz, The Mind of Primitive Man (1911), especially chaps, i-v and the summary, pp. 244-250, calculated to dispel many venerable illusions; by the same author. Introduction to Handbook of American Indian Languages (Bureau of Ethnology, 1910), and discussion of language in Payne, History of the New World called America, Vol. 11, pp. 88 sqq. Car;
penter, J. E.,
op. dt.;
Comparative Religion
(Home University
Library)
Marett,
^Thomas,
Wm.
I.,
Source Book for Social Origins, pp. 1-26, 143-186,
426-435, and part VI, on Magic, Animism, etc.

Tylor, E.B., Frimitive Culture, 2 vols. Westermarek, Origin and Develop(2 vols., 1906-8); Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, new ed., 1915.
;
ment of Moral Ideas
Part
II.
HELLENISM AND ITS TRANSMISSION TO THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Section 5. Intellectual Debt of Europe to Egypt and Assyria.

books (with the exception of form a part of Unsolved the intellectual heritage of Western Europe. problem of what the Greeks owed to the Egyptians and to The Egyptians the the eastern Mediterranean countries.
the
first
The Greeks wrote
portions of the Old Testament) destined to
first,
so far as
is kno\\Ti,
to invent writing.
Character of
Interest
the slight remains of early Egyptian literature.
world and of Egj^tian origin of Alchemy. From the soul in the next. Assyria came astrology and our divisions of the circle and
mainly
practical,
e. g.,
care of the
body
in this
of the day.
Newly discovered Aegean
civilization.
*Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, 1912; Hawes, C. H. and Jastrow, Civilization of Babylonia and Antiyria, 1915 H. B., Crete, the Forerunner of Greece (1911); Hogarth, D. G., Io7iia and
;
the
East (1909); *Rogers, R. W., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, espeill
cially
its
relations to Israel, 1908.

ed., 1907, sqq. ; Cantor, VorlesI-II, pp. 17-104; Dussaud, E.,
Meyer, E., Geschichte des Altertmns, new ungen iiber Geschichte der Mathetnatik, parts
Les Civilisations prehSlleniques, 1910.
Section
6.
The Beginnings
the Greeks.
of Philosophic Speculation
among
The intellectual life, strictly speaking, appears to have first begun on a considerable scale in the Ionian towns and in their colonies in southern Italy and Sicily (700-500 B.C.). Thales
Search for the material principle of all things culminated in the theory of the four elements of Empedocles (fl. circa 450 B.C.) which was later sanctified by Aristotle.
of Miletus.
The
Eleatic philosophers
(fl.
Parmenides
circa 495)
Xenophanes circa 530 B.C.), their confidence in metaphysical

(fl.
reasoning, their paradoxes and unchanging world.
Pythagorean enthusiasm for explanatoi-y value of numbers and pro-
6
portion.

(fl.
Leucippus (fl. circa 440 B.C.) and Democritus advance the mechanistic theory of atoms. 410 B.C.)
(A generation earlier the Destruction of Miletus in 494. Hebrews had returned from the exile and were developing the literature which was destined to be included in the Old TestaAfter the repulse of Xerxes (Marathon, 490; Therment.) mopolae and Salamis, 480) Athens becomes the center of an incomparable intellectual life for a century and a half.
John,
I,
Short accounts of thft early Greek thinkers will be found in *Marshall, A Short History of Greek PMJosophii ; Burnet, Greek Philosophy, Vol.
1914, Thales to Plato;
the History
Windelband, Ancient Philosophy ;
Zeller, Outlines
of
of Greek Philosophy, and in Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque, Vol. 11, pp. 471-535. Extracts from Pre-Socratic philosophy in *Bakewell, Source Book in Ancient Philosophy, pp. 1-66.
Fuller treatments may be found in Gromperz, Greek Thinkers, Vol. I Burnet, John, Early Greek Philosophy, and Zeller, History of Greek Philosophy from the earliest period to Socrates, 2 vols.
Section
7.
The Sophists: Socrates and
Plato.
Appearance of a
Athens,
acter
class of professional teachers, Sophists, in
who bring philosophy down
to earth.
Their charAttitude of
and the reasons for their bad reputation.
Euripides.
largely due to
Our impressions of Socrates (470-399) (who wrote nothing) Xenophon and Plato. Socrates early alienated from natural science; his exclusive reliance upon discussion
(dialectic).
Plato (427-347): Nature and variety of his Dialogues. Importance of the indecisive character of the discussions. Free play of reason Plato has no " authorities " in later sense of term, and gives only a subordinate place to the supernatural. Theory of ideas the basis of later Platonism. Two tendencies in Plato which become distinct later: (a) his skeptical method approved by the Academy in succeeding centuries;
;
(b) his mystic tendencies as shown in the Timaeiis (the only dialogue to be had in Latin in the Middle Ages) and in the sequel to the "Laws," the Epinomis became the basis
of Neoplatonism, which abjured reason.
Hellenism and
its
Transmission
;
writer, Euripides and his
Murray, Gilbert, Ancient Crreek Literature, chaps, vii and xiv by same *Croi8et, An Age (Home University Library) Abridged History of Greek Literature, chap, xix (Attic philosophy from Xenophon to Aristotle) Burnet, Greek Philosophy, Vol. I. Shorter accounts will be found in the manuals of Marshall, Windelband, and Zeller, men;
; ;
Grote, History of Greece, chap. Ixvii contains a tioned under section 6 celebrated account of the Sophists; *Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. IV, pp. 38-68 (Sophists). Of Plato's dialogues the best worth
reading are perhaps *The Bepuhlic (especially books i-ii and the opening of The Apology, Crito, and Phaedo (which relate to iii and books vii and ix) The Banquet or Symposium, the trial, last hours, and death of Socrates
; ) ;
work Protagoras, showing up charmingly the chief Sophists; the Thcaetetus which deals with the nature of knowledge; and the Timaeus (see Jowett's interesting introduction) which exhibits the mysticism that appealed to Plato's mediaeval admirers. Xenophon's Memorabilia or liceollections of Socrates, together with several of Plato's most important dialogues, are to be found in "Everyman's Library" in two inex-
deemed
Plato's finest literary
pensive volumes
important extracts are given in Bakewell, Source Book.
Fuller treatments of Socrates and Plato will be found in Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Vols. II-III ; Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque. Vol. IV, pp. 200-385. Zeller has a volume on Socrates and the Soa-atic Schools and another on Plato and the older Academy.
Aristotle and his Supreme Place in the Section 8. History of European Thought.
How
Aristotle codified
his own.
Greek learning and added much of Their encyRomantic story of his manuscripts.
Fourfold character of Aristotle's interests, His habit of and ethical.
clopaedic range.
philosophical, scientific, scholarly,
presenting his material in the form of systematic treatises.
His theory of essence and the four '* causes," material, formal, efiicient, and final. The four elements, earth, water, air, and The perfection of the heavens and his conception of fire. God as the "first mover." Theory of motion and of light and heavy. Virtue a happy mean highmindedness the ideal contemplative life Aristotle's reason-loving God. Sources of Ai'istotle's enduring influence. He opens the era of " la
; ;
;
science Uvresque."
The most available of Aristotle's works are his ^Politics (especially Book I and opening of Book III and his * Ethics (for example, Book II, vi-ix; Book IV, chaps, vii-viii, and Book X). The works of
8
Aristotle are
now being translated into English and published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford. The Metaphysics, 1908, the Historia Animalmm, There are good trans1910, and some of the lesser works have appeared. Important extracts may be found in Bakewell, lations of the De Anima.
Source Book.
Civilization,
For general range of interests among the Greeks see Hellenic by Professors Botsford and Sihler in " Records of Civilization ,"
Columbia University Press, 1915.

In addition to the manuals mentioned in section 6 above, see Wallace, Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle ; Taylor, A. E., Aristotle (an admirable little book) ; Lones, T. E., Ai-istotle's Researches in Xatural Science, 1912 Grote, Aristotle; Zeller, Aristotle and the Peripatetics; and, especially interesting, *Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. IV, pp. 675 sqq.
Section
Four Main Schools of Greek Thought 9. and Epicureans.
Stoics
Four main schools

and the Academy;
enes
(pxipil of
of thought traced their origin to the

(a)
(c)
rather vague and uncertain teachings of Socrates:

(b) Aristotle
Plato
and the Peripatetics;

;
Diog-
Antisthenes) and the Cynics
(d)
Aristippus and
the Cjrrenaics.
Zeno, shortly after Aristotle's death, revises the tenets of the
Cynics and
dentia)
is
regarded as the founder of Stoicism.

Stoic conception of
Hymn
(Provi-
of his co-worker, Cleanthes.
God
and of our
essential
ent," things alone out of
duty of praising God but their views to be found in the writers of the Roman period, in Cicero's Nature of the Gods, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus AureUus. Epicurus, a contemporary of Zeno, combined doctrines of the Cyrenaics with the atomic theory of Democritus. Mechanistic theory of the universe. The Epicm-eans hoped to free men's minds from needless anxiety in regard to the gods and death. The Roman poet Lucretius (d. about 55 B.C.) set forth atomic theory and Epicurean doctrines. His horror of "religio" (Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum). All things are due to natural causes, nothing to supernatural intervention.
lost
freedom through reason; ''Indifferour control. Argument from design in his works. Books of Greek Stoics
In addition to the manuals mentioned under section

excellent.
6,
Zeller, Stoics,
Epi~
ii,
cureans and Skeptics; *Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, V, chap,
For the
Stoics, Seneca,
On
Benefits; Epictetus, Golden Sayings,
Hellenism and
selected
its
Transmission
;
Golden Treasury series Complete translation of by Long in Bohn Library Marcus Aurelius, Thoughts, many editions. Hicks, Stoic and Epicurean; For the letters of Epicurus (very important) see Diogenes Laertius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosopliers (written probably early in the third century A.D.) or extracts given by Bakewell in his Source Book. Second only in importance to the words of Epicurus are those of his admirer Lucretius in his poem on The Nature of Things," translated by Monro and in a more spirited manner by Bailey (Clarendon Press).
in
by Crossley
Discourses of
Epictetus
'
'
Section lo. Transfer of Intellectual andria: Hellenistic Period.

Character of later Greek thought.
Hegemony
to Alex-
Failure to standardize
In-
sensation through invention of scientific instruments.

fluence of slavery in checking development of science.
Hellenizing of Alexander's empire.
Alexandria (founded
activity.
Its
becomes center of "Museum" and great Ubraries.

332 B.C.)
lost.
(d.
;
intellectual
Books
of period nearly all
Variety of scientific interest illustrated by Euclid about 300) Aristarchus and his discovery of the rotation of the earth; Eratosthenes (about 275-195) and his encyclopaedic interests; Archimedes (287-212) and his attitude toward
applied science, and Hipparchus
cal
(d.
about 130).
G-eographi-
and astronomical ideas of the period transmitted by Ptolemy (2d cent. A.D.). Treatises on mechanical devices by Hero of Alexandria (fl. circa 100 B.C. or later). Range of mechanical inventions of Greeks and Romans. Unfulfilled promise
of Hellenistic science.
Gow, James, A Short History of Crreeh Mathematics (1884); Ball, W.W.R., Short Account of the History of Mathematics (3d ed., 1901), chaps, i-iv; Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. V, chap, i Mahaffy, Greek
;
Thought from the death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest (disappointing for our purpose, in spite of promising title) Snyder, Karl, The World Machine (marvelously enthusiastic but highly uncritical). There appears to be no satisfactory summary of the general intellectual history of this period in English, but some good chapters may be found in
Life and
;
Holm, History of
Greece, Vol. IV.
The standard treatment
of Hellenistic literature
is
Susemihl, Fr. Ge-
schichte der Griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerseit (2 vols., 1891-2).
10
There
is an admirable recent account in Christ, Geschichte der griechischen lAtteratur (5th ed., 1911), Vol. EE, pp. 190-228; Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathematik (1894), sec. iii, pp. 105-482, would appear to be well nigh exhaustive; Dannemann, F., Die Xaturwissenschaften in ihrer Entwicklung, 1910, I, 118 sqq. ; Gerland und TraumiUler, Geschichte der Physikalische Experimentisrkunst, 1899.
Section
ii.
How
Hellenism was transmitted to the
Romans.
After the Third Samnite war the
of
Romans annex
the cities
DeGraecia (290-272) and later (212) Syracuse. velopment of Roman Literature and thought stimulated by Long history of the Latin language from Naevius Hellenism.
Plautus (d. about 184) about 200) to the present day. (d. about 159) adapt Greek comedies to Roman demands. Cato the Censor (about 232-147), first Latin prose Cicero and writer, protests in vain against Greek influences. his contemporaries Lucretius and Varro, the encyclopaedic
(d.
Magna
and Terence
writer.
"Golden" age of Augustus
(d.
14 A.D.), Virgil,
Horace, Ovid, Livy.

Duff, J.
W.,
Literary History of
i-iii,
Rome
Mackail, Latin Literature, chaps,
(1909), pp. 18-38 and 92-117; contains a brief review of the begin-
nings of Latin literature.
Section
12.
Cicero's Role in Transferring Greek
Thought
into Latin.
Cicero (106-43) and his importance in the history of thought. His early studies in Athens, Rhodes, and elsewhere. Delighted in freedom from dogmatism. Nos qui sequimur probabilia et ref ellere sine pertinacia et refelli sine iracundia parati
philosophical treatises.
His method of using Greek books as a basis for his His dialogue On the Nature of the Gods an admirable illustration of the various schools of thought of his time.
sumus.
Mackail, Latin Uterature, chap, vi Duff, J. W., A Literary History of Rome, pp. 349-397. Eeid in his introduction to his edition of Cicero's Academica gives an excellent account of Cicero's attitude toward Greek learning.
;
Hellenism and
its
Transmission
11
Section
Decline and Disappearance of Hellenism 13. Western Europe.

intellectual
in
The Hellenic
and
;
literary
to flag after the ''Golden" age of Augustus.
impetus begins sensibly The "Silver"
age scarcely holds its own followed by the steady and definite The elder Pliny (d. 79 decline of Hellenism in the west. A.D.) his Natural History, a vast and indiscriminate compila;
tion.
The
year 100:
Tacitus,
circle of the
amiable younger Pliny, about the
Suetonius, Martial, Quintilian; Juvenal
Age of the Antonines (138-180) of which (d. about 140). one can form some notion from the Attic lights of Aldus
GeUius.
Learning had long been largely reminiscent. Archaistic affectation and intricacy of literary style. PreGreek still current among dominating study of rhetoric. The belated Lucian (d. about 200) and his the learned. After this time only a few scattering exwitty dialogues. amples of the older Hellenic ambitions. Martianus Capella, probably in Constantine's time, furnishes in his Marriage of Mercury and Philology a text book of the Seven Liberal Arts, which admirably illustrates the bad taste, degenerate style and dry epitomizing which overtook the antendency;
cient learning.
Fundamental weakness of Hellenic learning It was an imposing collection of speculations, opinions, and guesses, which, however brilliant and ingenious they might be, were based on
:
a very slight body of exact knowledge, and failed to recognize

the fundamental necessity of painful scientific research, aided
There was no steady accumulation of knowlgrowing emotional distrust of reason. The game was played out, and the ancient knowledge which did not find its ways into the arid and unintelligent epitomes of the Vain efforts of Boethius (about 475-525) time, was doomed. to transmit to posterity Latin translations of some of the chief Greek authors. Knowledge of Greek practically lost in Western Europe for nearly a thousand years.
by apparatus.
edge to
offset the
12
An emotional and consequent intellectual revolution had been in progress in the Roman Empire, which not only serves to explain the intellectual life of the Middle Ages but that of
modem
Roman
times.
*Pliny the Yoimger, Letters, translated by Firth (Camelot Series) Dill, Society from Nero to Marcus AureJius, Bk. II, chap, i ("Circle of the
;
Younger Pliny"); Mackail, Latin

Gellius, Attic Nights
;
Literature, part III, chaps, iv-v; A\ilus
*Glover, Conflict of Religions in the early Roman Einpire, chap, vii; *Hatch, Influence of &reek Thought and Usages on the Chrisii (Greek Education); Selections from Lucian, translated Smith; Walden, J.W. H., Universities of Ancient Greece (relates chiefly to this period) *Taylor, H. O., Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, pp. 18-56; Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth Century; Dill, Ro^nan
tian Church, chap,
by E.
J.
Society in the Last Century of the Empire, Bk.
V (Characteristics
of
Eoman
Education and Culture in the Fifth Century).
Part
III.
FORMATION IN THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
How Christian Literature Largely SupSection 14. planted that of Greece and Rome.
The new Christian
tion,
literature confined to reUgious exhorta-
controversy, and ''sacred" history. works were in Greek; Apology of Minucius Felix (end of 2d century) first example of a Christian work in Latin. Tertullian (d. about 230) first voluminous Latin
biblical
exegesis,
Earliest Christian
Great expansion of Christian Eusebius and his Ecclesiastical History ; Sozomen, Socrates, and Orosius establish new standards of historiography. Athanasius (d. 375), Basil (d. 379), and Chrysostom (d. 407) write in Greek; chief Latin "fathers" of this period, Ambrose (d. 373), Jerome (d. 420), and, above aU, Augustine (d. 430).
writer.
(d.
Cyprian
258).
literature
after
Constantine's
accession
The
origin and character of the intellectual activity of the patristic
period will be the subject of the succeeding sections and references will be
given in connection with each topic.

chap,
vi,
For the general development of Chrisiii,
tian literature see short account in Mackail, Latin Literature, part
and excellent extensive treatment

I.
in Ebert, Litteratur des Mittel-
alters, Vol.
Section 15. "The Christian Epic": Syncretism: The Place of Religion in the History of the Intellectual
Class.
"The Christian Epic," as summarized by Santayana. Whence came the Church with its conception of "two cities,"
its
revelation dominating reason,
its
ideas of sin
and
salvation,
of the resurrection and last judgment, of heaven and hell,
angels and devils, miracles, martyrs and monks, its mysticism and sacraments, and its power to make disbeUef a crime in the
eyes of the State?
Habit of Christian apologists to contrast Christianity, pure
14

undefiled, with
and
ship.
an unspeakable "paganism" or idol wor-
Historical ''Christianity"
now
appears to the modern
student of comparative religion to have been the highly complex result of a long development, and to resemble in certain
Stoicism, important respects a number of world religions Mithraism, Manichaeism, Judaism with which Neoplatonism, it found itself in rivalry during the early centuries of its exisReligious ^^ syncretism, a process of unconscious tence.
^^
borrowing and lending.

over
new
religious system is always
deeply affected by the prevailing conditions and always carries
much
that
is old.
"Religious" a vague and comprehensive term applied to: (1) Certain classes of emotions (awe, dependence, self-distrust,
aspiration, etc.) (2) Conduct, which may take the form of distinctive religious acts (ceremonies, sacrifices, prayers, " good
;
works") or the observance of what in primitive conditions are

recognized as "taboos";
lations to
(3)
Priestly or ecclesiastical organi-
zations; (4) Beliefs about supernatural beings
and man's
re-
them
the latter
may take
the form of revelation and
be reduced to creeds and become the subject of elaborate The highly organized Christian theological speculations.
Church with
its
revelations, its creeds,
and vast system of
theology has exercised an incalculable influence on the develof thought and science in Western Europe from the days of Augustine to our own.
opment
fluence of Greek
; Reason in Religion, chap, vi; *Hateh, InThought and Usages on the Christian Church, chap, i; *Taylor, Henry O., The Mediaeval Mind, chap, iii; *Shotwell, James T.^ The Religious Revolution, 1913; Farnell, The Evolution of Religion, 1905 (a brief and admirable statement of the anthropological attitude toward religious phenomena) Knox, G. W., Japanese Life in Town and Country, chaps, vi-ix (contains striking parallelisms between oriental and western
*Saiitayana, Life of Reason
religious ideas).
Section
i6.
Roman
The General Religious Disposition in the Empire. Neoplatonism.
Stoicism (see above section 9) had a good deal in common with Christianity, but exalted reason. Dechne of confidence
Intellectual Heritage of the
Middle Ages
15
in reason;
purification
consciousness of sin and pollution;
longing for
and salvation; great expansion of the supergood and evil spirits, theurgy, mysticism, ecstacy, natural Plutarch (b. about 50 A.D.) and his respectful asceticism. attitude toward new gods and old myths. Neoplatonism Kindred in mystical spirit to Christianity
communion through
superior to reason
;
ecstacy with a supernatural
God
intuition
contempt of material things.
Doctrines
its reputed founder, edited by Porphyry (about 232-300), whose attack on Christianity was Jamblicus (d. about later burned by order of Theodosius II. The 330) defends unbounded credulity in his de Mysteriis. Celestial Hierarchy, which we first hear of in the early sixth century, a Neoplatonic work ascribed by the Church to Dionysius the Areopagite. Augustine's attitude toward Platonism in his Confessions and City of God.
of Plotinus (about 204-270),
*Cumont, Oriental Religions

Dill,
in
Roman
Society in the last Century of the Empire,
Roman Paganism (remarkable work) Book I, chap, iv;

the Christian
*Hatch,
Influence of Greek
ii,
Thought and Usagen on

xi
;
Church,
especially chaps,
iii,
and
*Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Early
Roman Empire,
see Select
chap,
iii
(Plutarch) and viii (Celsus).

;
For Neoplatonism
fVorlcs
Source Book;
sqq.
"Extracts in Bakewell, of Plotinus (Bohn Library) *Hamack, History of Dogma, appendix to Vol. I, pp. 336
;
; *Taylor, Ancient Ideals, Vol. II, pp. 80 sqq. Uttirature grecque, Vol. V, pp. 820-841.
Croiset, Histoire de la
Section 17. Persian Syncretism: chaeism.
Mithraism:
Mani-
Persian (Zoroastrian) explanation of the existence of evil
by assuming two principles, the light and the dark, the good and the bad, at war with one another. Worship of Mithras, the Mediator, appeared in the Roman Empire as early as Plutarch and later spreads widely in the west. Worship of the sun. Similarities between Mithraism and Christianity in its ritual, baptism, and communion. How the Christian Sunday and Christmas are associated with Mithras. Manes, born at Ctesiphon about 215 A.D. (crucified in 272) largely affected by teachings of primitive Christianity. Re-
16
jection
by the Manichaeans
of the Old Testament, as the
work
of the evil spirit. light
Final judgment and separation of the
from the darkness.
Manichaeism had
its
revelation of
truth, its ecclesiastical organization, its asceticism,
and heaven
and
hell.
Revival in later Middle Ages of Manichaean con-
ceptions
by the Cathari (Albigensians).
Cumont, F., The Mysteries of Mithra ; *Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, final chapter (on Mithras); Harnack, History of Dogma, appendix to Vol. Ill, pp. 316 sqq. The so-called "Acta Archelai," or alleged disputation between Manes and the Christian bishop Archelaus of Mesopotamia (early fourth century) may be found translated in Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Vol. XX. Augustine's works directed against the Maniare translated in The Nicene to which sect he once belonged chaeans and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. IV.
Section 18. How Judaism Became the Background of the Religion of Europe: The Hebrew Bible.
Christianity a development of Judaism, to which
in great
to
it
owed
measure
its
early propagation.
Christians assign
Hebrew literature a position far higher than to that of Greece and Rome, and accept Jewish tradition and history as history par excellence, beginning with the account in the
Pentateuch of the creation, the fall of man, the flood, the confounding of tongues. Founding of Hebrew monSummary of Jewish history David and Solomon, archy under Saul, about 1050 B.C. Jerusalem becomes the capital. Division about 1025-950. Northern part taken by Sargon, 722. of Hebrew kingdom. BabyDestruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 586. Return of Jews to Jerusalem under Cyrus, lonian exile. 537. In following centuries, successively under various foreign powers, Palestine finally becomes part of the Roman Empire, 6 A.D. Jerusalem destroyed by Titus in 70 A.D. The importance of the " Diaspora" or Jews of the Dispersion, who were greatly affected by Hellenism. Alexandria a center of Jewish learning the Septuagint, including the Apocrypha Philo Judaeus (d. about 50 A.D.). The active missionary
:
spirit of the
Hebrews
of his time.
Middle Ages
17
Formation of the canon of the Old Testament, which was

largely compiled, revised, or written after the exile.
acteristics of
''
Char-
inspired" scriptures: Everything tnie, essential,
significant, equipollent,
harmonious, interchangeable, and sus-
ceptible of infinite combinations, regardless of context

historical
and of
and
literary considerations.
Necessity of allegori-
cal interpretation.
''
Excellently illustrated by Philo Judaeus'

in the Bible.
Allegories of the Sacred Laws."
and apocalyptic elements
The messianic, prophetic, The later Jewish
angelology, demonology, and eschatology, exhibited in "the
The wide range of superstitions illustrated Book of Enoch," by the pseudepigraphical literature and in the traditional rules
and interpretations contained in the Talmuds. The Christians reject the Jewish " Law" but regard the Bible as the background of their religion, believing that it foretold the coming of Jesus and described God's dispensations to his chosen people, whose successors they were. Like the Jews,
they resorted freely to allegorical interpretations,
alchemy," as
the
*'
''
Biblical
"
be Shepherd of Hermas."
the
may
seen in "
The
Epistle of Barnabas
and
ComMll, History of
servatism of which Old Testament
d' Israel,
may be
People of Israel a brief, clear outline, the conoffset by Reinach, Solomon, Orpheus, A General
Historif of Beliijions, 1909, chap. \ii;
(Home
*Moore, Geo. F., The Literature of the Univ. Lib.), admirable; Loisy, Alfred, La Religion
1908, delightful little

the
volume; Charles, R. H., Religious Develop-
(Home Univ. Lib.); Kent, C. F., and chronologically arranged, 6 vols., 1904 sqq., very interesting; The Apoci'apha and Pseudepigrapha of the 0. T. in English, edited by R. H. Charles, 2 vols., 1913, very illuminating. *Suj)ernatural Religion, part I, chap, iv, first part (on superstitions of the Talmud); *Hatch, Influence of &reek Thought and Usages on the Christian Church, chap, iii (on the Greek use of allegory) Philo Judaeus, The Creation of the World and The Allegories of the Sacred Laws in his works in Bohn Library, Vol. I. For the relations of Christianity to Judaism see Schmidt, Nathaniel, The Prophet of Xazareth, chaps, iii-vii; *Harnack, History of Dogma, Vol. I, pp. 99-114; Wemle, The Beginnings of Christianity, Vol. I, pp. 1-36 Santayana, Life of Reason, Reason in Religion, chap, v (The Hebraic tradition), "The Epistle of Barnabas" and the " Shepherd of Hermas " may be found in The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library). See also article "Israel," by Wellhausen, in 9th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica and article "Jews"
ment between
Old and Xeic Testaments
The
Students' Old Testament logically
18
in the 11th edition. Juster, J., Les Juifs dans V empire Bomain, leur condition
juridiqtte, econonrique et sociale, Vol.
I,
1914 (Vol. 11 to contain documents and
tables).
Excellent treatments of the various topics in this and the following sections will be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia and the Jewish Encyclo-
paedia.
Section 19. How the New Testament became a part of the Intellectual Heritage of Europe.
The synoptic
and Luke
gospels.
Relations of gospels of Matthew
to that of
Mark, which in turn seems to have been
compiled from earlier sources. ment, reconstructed by Harnack.

the
life
The
"
Non-Marcan " docubelieve that Jesus
Attitude of Paul toward
of Jesus.
Argument
of those
who
''
did not contemplate the founding of a

sense.
church " in the later

of exclusion.
The New Testament formed by a process
Justin (about 150 A.D.) refers only to ''memorials of the

apostles."
canon of the
first
Irenaeus (d. 202) assumes the existence of the New Testament, and Tertullian (d. about 230)
''
uses the terra
Novum
Testamentum."
Long
doubts,
according to Eusebius, in regard to the inclusion of Hebrews,

2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation.
the
New
Natural tendency to interpret Testament in the same way as the Old.
Harnack, History of Dogma, Vol. I, pp. 41-75, and Vol. II, pp. 38-66 *Conybeare, F. C, Myth, Magic, and Morals, chaps, i-ix (a clear discussion of the sources for the life of Jesus); "Muzzey, D. S., Rise of the Xew Testament; Wrede, The Origin of the Xew Testament, both good brief accounts; Schmidt, Nathaniel, The Prophet of Nazareth, chaps, viii-ix *Glover, Conflict of Keligions in the Early JRoman Empire, chaps, iv-v; Wernle, The Be;
ginnings of Christianity, Vol.
I,
especially chaps, iv-xiii; *Reinach, Orpheus,
*Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity, Vol. I, pp. 1-39; Gwatkin, Selections from Early Christian Writers (a valuable little volume containing both the Greek or Latin original and a translation into English).
chap,
viii;
Section
20.
How
the Catholic Church became the Intel-
lectual Arbiter of
Western Europe.
Informal character of the primitive " ecclesia." Development of the " overseers " into bishops and of the elders (presbyters) into priests. The clergy becomes a distinct order. Divergence of behef and the appearance of numerous Christian sects beget the idea of orthodoxy and its opposite, "heresy."
Middle Ages
19
Contagious, wilful, and devilish character of heresy (see 2 Peter

or Jude)
;
Cyprian's
**
outside the one church there
Unity of the Church " doctrine that was no possibility of salvation.

;
Rome, two most glorious of the apostles " the Church takes on the characteristics of a State, which it was destined to retain, and adopts the Latin language, in the West, which it thus sanctified and perpetuated. Edict of Toleration issued by Emperor Galerius in 311. Polposition in questions of faith of the bishop of
" the successor of the
;
Supreme
icy of Constantine favorable to the Catholic Church.
The
sixteenth book of the Theodosian Code contains edicts relating
Church issued by the Roman Emperors during the fourth and early fifth centuries. They make it a crime to disagree with the Church they provide harsh penalties for heretical teaching and writing, and grant privileges to the orthodox clergy (exemptions from regular taxes and benefit of clergy).
to the
;
Theodosius the Great forbids (392)
all
worship of heathen gods

State.
chap,
il
and Christianity becomes a monopoly defended by the

Dill,
Soman
Society in the Last Century of the Umpire,

Christianity
Book
I,
and the Prosa-ijjtion of Paganism, 1914, " Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Columbia University" Addis, W.E., Christianity and the Roman Empire; Hardy, E.G., Christianity and the lioman Government ; *Lecky, Rise and Influence of Rationalism, chap, iv, part I, and opening of part H; *Robinson, J. H., Readinys in European History, Vol. I, pp. 19-27 and 62-73, gives extracts ilhxstrating the development of the Church Reinach, Orpheus, chap. ix.
;
Huttmann, M. A., The Establishment of
Section
21.
Asceticism and the Monastic
Life.
The monastic life generally acknowledged during the MidImportant role of dle Ages to be the ideal Christian life. and friars in the intellectual history of western the monks
Europe.
sively
Asceticism and monastic
life
Christian.
Ascetic tendencies of
Neoplatonism.
The
" saintly" spirit
by no means excluStoicism and of as discussed by William
Puritanical tendencies of the early Christians. James. Monasticism first develops on a large scale in Egypt in the His life by fourth century. St. Anthony (d. about 356). Athanasius, and the life of Paul, the first hermit, by Jerome.
20
writes the
Pachomius organizes monastic communities on the Nile and Egypt speedily becomes the first monastic rule.
Basil, source of the classical traditions of monasticism. bishop of Cappadocia, prepares a rule in which the Church undertakes to regulate the new tendencies. ''Regular" and Church in the West accepts monasticism.
" secular " elergy. The secular clergy become a celibate class. Apparent contradiction between the monastic and sacramental Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine ratify theory of salvation. Benedict draws up his rule for Monte the new monastic life. Cassino about 530, and furnishes a standard guide to the monThe principles of poverty, chastity, astic life in the West. Literary and scholarly phases of monastiand obedience.
cism incidental.
*Jame8, William, Varieties of Beligious Experience, Lectures xi-xiii (on Workman, H. B., Evolution of the Monastic Meat, 1913; *Taylor, H. O., The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, chap. \ii; Harnack, Monasticism (an interesting essay) Jerome's X/fs o/ Paul the First Hermit
Saintliness)
; ;
is
translated in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, VI,
pp. 299-303, and the Life of Anthony, attributed to Athanasius, in same, rV, pp. 19.5 sqq. The Benedictine Rule is in large part translated in Henderson, Select Documents of the Middle Ages, pp. 274 sqq. and in Thatcher
;
and McNeal, Source Book for Mediaeval History, pp. 434 Columban, Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, no. 7.
sqq.
*Life of St.
Section 22.
Summary of the Views of Man and the World Transmitted by the Later Roman Empire to
phenomena (except viewed from the
;
Posterity.
Indifference to natural
standpoint of astrology and alchemy)
loss of
much
of the older
knowledge and of the
and proportion of Hellenism. The seven Liberal Arts logic, grammar, and rhetoric; arithepitomized metic, geometry, astronomy (astrology), and music Augustine's conception sixth century. by Cassiodorus in the Origin of the city of the devil comprised aU secular matters. The "Chron"sacred" as over against ''profane" history. of icle " of Eusebius makes Hebrew history the background of all Sozomen, Socrates, and other Christian histodevelopment.
clarity
Intellectual Heritage of the Middle
Ages
21
nans
deal by preference with martyrs and miracles. Orosius, under Augustine's influence, writes his ''Seven Books of History against the Pagans," which becomes a standard manual
of general history.
Natural science, like history, only valuable as illustrating

God's ways to man, but magic useful to foretell the future,
heal the sick, and
spiritual ends.
make
The
gold.
The worst
in Pliny's Natural
History and other similar compilations utilized for moral and

" Physiologus,"
which probably
origi-
nated in Alexandria before 150 A.D.

Flourishing of the miraculous; any unusual or startling
occurrence attributed to the intervention of either
God
or the
The worship Our arbitrariness."

devil.
of
what Harnack has
called " a
God
of
legal expression "act of
God"
confined
to unforeseeable natural disasters.
How
with a growing
appreciation for natural law and a chastened taste in wonders,
miracles have tended to become a source of intellectual distress
and bewilderment.
Augusallegory put an end to all literary criticism. (Confessions, xii, view of the resources of vagueness. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) Gregory the Great's Moralia. 31.) prepares an encyclopaedia of edifying " EtjTuologies." Hebrew cosmology proves a grave obstacle to the advance of Eschatology took the place of our modern natural science. Theology the highest ideas of scientific and social progress.
tine's
How
No form of intellectual activity, the ''Queen of Sciences." form of ignorance or of perversity of thought left for the Middle Ages to discover.
*Taylor, H. O.,
The Mediaeval Mind, Vol.

I,
I,
chap, iv (The Patristic Mind);

VII,
Supernatural Beligion, part
chap,
iv,
end, and chap, v; McCabe, Joseph,

I,
Augustine; *Augustine, City of God, especially Bk.
(IX in the
Temple Classic edition), XH (XI), XVIH (XIV), XXI-XXH (XVH-XVIH). The " Physiologus" is edited in the Greek version with a German translaBrehaut, An Encydopaedist of the Dark Ages, Isidore of tion by Lauchert. Serille, " Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Columbia University." White, Andrew D., History of the Warfare of Science and Theology, This work, in spite of its polemical character and its inaccuracies, 2 vols.
is
an unrivalled arraignment of the weaknesses of the whole traditional
22
The Church History of Eusebius, translated with admirable notes by Professor McGrffert, may be found in the Nieene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. I. The histories of Socrates and Sozomen
theological view of the world.
are in the
same
collection.
Section 23. Ages.
Intellectual Stagnation of the Early Middle
Disruption of the western portions of the Roman Empire in the fifth century and the establishment of kingdoms under
German
chiefs.
The Germans had
little
to contribute to the
and with the destruction or decline of the towns and flourishing villas, books and education became more Higher intellectual culture at that time and more rare. very superficial and precarious. Ineffectual attempt of Boethius to hand down Plato and How Cassiodorus (about 480-575) gave Aristotle in Latin. His popular compilations. monasticism a literary turn. Gregory of Tours (d. 594) laments the general ignorance and Gregory the Great resolves to write in "rustic" Latin. His pro(d. 604) regarded as one of the great Latin fathers. His popular test against the prevailing artificiality of style. The Church "Dialogues" and his allegorical "Moraha."
intellectual heritage,
forced to maintain a
survive.
modicum of literary activity in order to The monasteries a refuge for those with scholarly Isidore of Seville (d. 636) and his ambitions and tastes. compilations. The Venerable Bede (d. 735) represents the
greatest possibilities of his time.
Charlemagne reestablishes order and directs monasteries and cathedrals to maintain schools. Hopeful intellectual
revival in
the ninth
century
^Alcuin,
Claudius of Turin,
Agobard
Rhabanus Maurus, Walafrid Strabo, Hincmar of Rheims, Erigena. Commentaries and text books. The annals grow into chronicles. Lives of Saints. Monastic schools at Tours, Fulda, Corbie, and elsewhere. Renewed invasions; chronic disorder and neighborhood war. Intellectual dechne in following century. Legend of the Year 1000. Emergence during this period of the modem
of Lyons,
Intellectual Heritage of the Middle
Ages
23
languages.
est in English.
Strasburg Oaths (843).
King
Alfred's inter-
Political conditions tend to
become better
in the twelfth century.

*Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, Vol. I. chap, v (The Latin Transmitters of Antique and Patristic Culture), chap, vi (The Barbaric Disruption of the Empire), chap, x (The Carolingian Period); Robinson, J. H., The Xeiv History,
chap,
vi,
"The
i-ii
;
Thought, chap,
Fall of Rome"; *Poole, R. L., Illustrations of Mediaeval Taylor, Mediaeval Mind, chap, xi (Continuity of Antique
Thought
France).
in Italy), chap, xii (Mental Aspects of the Eleventh
Century in
Roger, L'enseignement des exhaustive bibliography.
lettres classiques
d'Ausone a Alcuin (1905), with
Part
IV.
RISE OF
THE MEDIAEVAL UNIVERSITIES AND THE PREVAILING OF A MEDIAEVALIZED ARISTOTLE.

Abelard and the Development of Theology
Section
24.
into a Subject of Systematic Instruction.
Seemingly rather sudden beginning, about the year 1100, Importance of the growth of towns, the extension of commerce, and of other
of a steady progress in intellectual matters.
secular interests.
His Abelard (1070-1142) exhibits a taste for criticism. The issue between Reahsts and "Historia calamitatum." Passage on the nature of "universals" in Nominalists.
Boethius's translation of Porphyry's Introduction to Aristotle's
"Categories."
rogatio;
Abelard's "Sic et Non"; Haec quippe prima
sapientiae clavis definitur, assidua scilicet sen frequens inter. .

.
dubitando enim ad inquisition em venimus;
in-
quirendo veritatem percipimus.

tional enthusiasm
He promoted
the educa-
which led
later to the formation of
the
Universities.
Appearance about the time of Abelard's death of Peter Lombard's " Sentences," a handbook (which first distinctly formuan elaborate system of theological instruction. Contrast between the Scholastic theology and that of the Fathers.
lated the seven sacraments) affording a basis for
*Rashdall,
Universities of
Europe
in the Middle Ages, chap,
ii
Poole,
Illustrations of Mediaeval Thought, chap, v;
Taylor, H. O., The Mediaeval

(a
Mind, chap, xxv (Heloise)

biography).
*MeCabe, Joseph, Abelard
most fascinating
Section
25.
Revival of the Study of Law: Medicine.
Importance of the appearance of a class of professional

lawyers.
criticism,
ity.
Law
gives
scope for
intellectual
activity
and
with perfect conservatism and veneration for authorIrnerius lecturing on the Digest of Justinian at Bologna
early in the tweKth century.
Components of the "Corpus
Mediaeval Universities: Scholasticism

juris civilis" or
25
Roman law
as codified under Justinian, A.D.

;
527 sqq.: The Code, with its later supplements (novellae) Pandects or Digest of the opinions of the leading jurists
Institutes, a brief text book.
the
the
The codification of the Canon or Church law in Gratian's Decretum (Concordia discordantium canonum), published about 1142. This was based on older collections Dionysius Exiguus collected the " decretals " of the popes about the year 500
:
the Pseudo-Isidorian collection of the Misleading term " forgery." Gratian unsuspectingly includes many ''forged" documents. Bologna
;
the acts of the councils
ninth century.
becomes the chief center of legal degree, LL.D.

especially of
studies.
Origin of our
Role of authority, about 130 A.D.). This subject in time takes its place as a professional study beside Theology and the two Laws.
Attention to medicine at Salerno.
Galen
(b.
and
*Ra8hdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, chap, iv, sections 1 *Taylor, H. O., The Mediaeval Mind, chap, xxxiii; Tardif, Histoire 2
;
des sources
dti
droit canonique (1887),
an indispensable introduction to a
is
study of the Corpus juris canonici of which Friedberg's edition

best for historical students.
far the
Section
26.
The Origin of Mediaeval
Universities.
sort of a
Increase of students and instructors
made some
guild organization expedient, and resulted naturally in universitates or corporations of teachers or students.
Scholastic
corporations appear at Paris and Bologna in the latter part of

the twelfth century.
trol those of the professors.
At Bologna the students' guilds conAt Paris the Faculty of Arts
predominates.
The
technical faculties of theology, law (civil
and canon), and medicine.

a professors' guild
degree originally admission to
''Magister," and permission to teach. "Professor," and ''Doctor" nearly synonymous; The A. B. University lectures commonly consisted in comand A.M. No university buildings. mentaries on authoritative texts. Oxford and Cambridge. Origin of the colleges.
26
*Eashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, I, pp. 144-252 *Vol. II, chap, xiv (Student Life in the (Bologna), pp. 273-344 (Paris) Middle Ages); Paetow, L. J., The Arts Course in Mediaeval Universities
;
(with bibliography), published by University of Illinois, 1910

History of Mediaeval Philosophy, 1909.
Wulf M.
,
de,
Section
27.
tions,
How Aristotle's Works, in Latin Translabecame the Basis of Instruction in the Arts
Course.
Great importance of the introduction of Aristotle's works
into the
new
universities in the first half of the thirteenth
century.
Previous to 1200 only the logical treatises avail-
able in Latin.
Paris
through
Two
sources from which his works came to
Constantinople and through the
Mohamme-
Circuitous manner in which a dan scholars of Spain. Importance of knowledge of Aristotle had reached Spain. the Mohammedan commentators, especially Avicenna (d. in How it Persia, 1037) and Averroes of Cordova (d. 1198). came about that the European universities based their instruction on a Latin translation of a Hebrew translation of an Arabic commentary on an Arabic translation [of a Persian translation] of a S}Tiac translation of a Greek philosopher. Averroes' worshipful attitude toward Aristotle. Lecturing on Aristotle's Natural philosophy and Metaphysics at Paris forbidden at first by papal legate (1215). In 1231 Gregory IX appoints commission of three to expurgate Aristotle. A generation later practically all of Aristotle prescribed by faculty of arts at Paris. Rise of the Dominicans as teachers.
Albertus
Magnus
(about 1193-1280) prepares a paraphrase of
Aristotle including the commentaries of the
Arab philosophers.
phil-
His disciple Thomas Aquinas, the chief of the scholastic

osophers (1227-1274), furnishes a more
this
scientific edition.
In
way
the Dominicans christianize and popularize the great-
pagan scholars. The Averroists reject Christianity in favor of Aristotle as interpreted by Averroes. The founding of the Inquisition
est of
did not affect
the
intellectual
classes
except incidentally.

Indications of a good deal of intellectual freedom.
of heresy
27
Nature
and lowly status of most of the

of Aristotle readily explained
heretics.
Worship
by the vast amount

and above
all
of information in his works, his skillful classification of knowl-
edge, his logical method, already in high repute,
by the fundamental consonance

of essence, of the four elements,
of his teleology, his theories
and of the perfection of the
heavens with Christian
beliefs.
Aristotle's ill-understood works and often fundamentally erroneous doctrines remain for centuries the basis of higher education and an additional obstacle that had to be overcome
before
modern progress could
begin.
Roger Bacon declared
with prophetic insight, Si enim haberem potestatem super libros Aristotelis (that is the Latin translations) ego facerem omnes cremari, quia non est nisi temporis amissio studere in
illis,
et
causa erroris et multiplicatio ignorantiae, ultra id quod
valeat expUcari.
*Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, Vol.
11,
chap, xxxix; Renan, Averroes
et
VAverroi'sme; Rashdall, Universities of Europe, I, pp. 345-392; *Lea, H. C, History of the Inquinition of the Middle Ages, Vol. I, contains chapters on
the rise of heresies and the organization and procedure of the Inquisition
in the Thirteenth
Century
Vol. EQ, chap,
viii,
deals especially with the

Article "Inquisition"
relation of the Inquisition to the intellectual class.

in the
Catholic Enct/clopedia
I,
*Robinson,
J. H.,
Sigei'
Headings
in
European
History, Vol.
latin
chap, xvii; Mandonnet, P.,

Steele,
de Brabant et I'averroisme
an xiiiieme
2d ed., 1911, with second part containing documents.
Grabmann,
Geschichte der Scholastische Methode.
Section 28. Nature and Scope of University Instruction in the Thirteenth Century: Scholasticism.
meager heritage which had been worked over and Roman Empire was now added all of Aristotle's works in faulty and obscure Latin translations, with the commentaries of the Arabic scholars and of the In addition to grammar and rhetoric, scholastic theologians. the "arts" course consisted mainly of lectures on Aristotle's
To
the
over again since the break-up of the
"Physics," "Metaphysics," "Ethics,"
"On
Animals,"
"On
the
28
Soul," his lesser
works on natural phenomena, and above
all,
his logical treatises.
Exaggerated respect for Logic, which Albertus Magnus calls Predominance of eristic over diaomnis doctrinae modus. Character Lists of propositions and their defence. lectic.
by the commenworks prepared by Albertus Magnus and Mainly commentary on opinions of earlier writers Aquinas. and refutation of ingenuous objections with little attempt to criticize the data on which the opinions were formed or test Conception of " authorthem by a reexamination of the facts. Necessity of harmonizing conclusions with itative" texts. All the weakthe Christian Epic and the Patristic theology. nesses of the Hellenic reasoning, combined with those of the Christian Fathers, underlay what appeared to be a most logically elaborated and definitive system of thought. no literature. Deficiencies of the university education Greek practically unknown Latin, in a sense, a living tongue Chief contrasts between Mediaeval as used among scholars. Vernacular languages not recognized and ancient Latin. Little History or by the scholarly world until recently.
of the scholastic philosophy best illustrated
taries
on
Aristotle's
Natural Science, in our sense of the word, taught in the

universities.
(See below. Section 31.)

of
may
knowledge of the educated class in general be judged from such convenient encyclopaedic works as Alexander Neckam's " De naturis rerum," in time of Henry II of England, and, in the next century, Bartholomew Anglicus's
The range
"De
proprietatibus
rerum"
(extracts in Steele's ''Mediaeval
Lore"), or Vincent of Beauvais' vast Speculum, in three parts,

" Naturale,"
''
Morale," and " Historiale."

II,
*Taylor, The Mediaeval Hind, Vol.
chap, xxxix (Albertus Magnus)

I,
and chap,
xl (Aquinas)
*Rashdall, European Universities, Vol.
pp. 426-
477; Aquinas, Of God and His Creatures, a translation of the Summa contra Gentiles, by Riekaby, 1905 Walsh, J. J., The Thirteenth the Greatest of
;
Centuries (N. Y. Catholic
Summer
School), 1907, chaps, ii-v (to be taken
cumgrano)', Wulf, M. de, History of Mediaeval Philosophy, 1909.
29
Section
29.
Astrology, Alchemy, and Magic.
Chiefly through Arabic influence attention
Western Enrope which developed

westward.
scribed
was turned in and Alchemy. Astrology, in Babylonia and Assyria, found its way
to Astrology
Ptolemy's treatise.
by Roger Bacon.
Judicial astrology as deLater taught in the universities
and regarded as an indispensable adjunct to medicine. Theory centered about the " temperamentum," as influenced by stellar conditions at the time of conception and of birth. Intricate matter to determine the relations of the planets and the sun and their combined influence in particular cases. Alchemy developed in Egypt and was associated with appUed
chemistry.
Its
popularity in the
Roman
Empire.
Arabic
derivation of the term.
Roger Bacon gives an excellent
notion of the ambitions of the alchemists in the Thirteenth
Century.
of chemistry.
Their fantastic terminology and secret and mysstood in the
tical operations all
way
of the rapid development
Continued interest in magic; represented by a considerable

literature.
Article "Astrology" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed.
Bennett,
E. H., Asfrologj/, 1897,
by a modern adept; Roger Bacon,
Ojyus
by Bridges), Vol.
I,
;
pp. 238 sqq.;

Berthelot,
Britannica, 11th ed.
Article "Alchemy" in La Chimie an Moijen age; Article " Alchi;
Majus (ed. Encyclopaedia
mie," by Berthelot, in Grande Encyclop^die
Muir, M. M. P., Story of
Alchemy and
the beginnings
of Chemistry, 1903.
Part V.
SLOW UNDERMINING OF THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM (FROM ROGER BACON TO LORD

BACON).
30.
Section
Excursus on the Question of Dividing the
Past into Periods.

Historical continuity seems to preclude periodizing of the Historical divisions adopted by Orosius; by Otto of past.
current notions of " Middle Ages/' Freising (12th Century) " Renaissance " and " Reformation." Suggested division from I. Neolithic or of intellectual development. the standpoint
;
primitive
II.
Ancient
III.
;
Hellenic
IV. Patristic
V. Scho-
lastic (Pseudo- Aristotelian)
VI. Period of slow disintegration
VII. The "Aufklarung/' from Lord Bacon to Voltaire (growing confidence in scientific research, and the kingdom of man decline of authority, revelation, and
of the Mediaeval System;
;
the miraculous)
VIII.
Present period, of applied science,
democratization, evolution, and the scientific study of mankind. Beginning in the twelfth century there has been a tolerably
steady progress, very slow at first, in regaining old knowledge and amassing new, in rejecting former errors, in criticising and applying knowledge and in spreading it by means of books and
institutions of learning.
Section 31.
Discoveries of the Thirteenth Century: Beginnings of Experimental Science: Roger Bacon.
Geographical discoveries begin to extend beyond the limits The Crusades Travels of John of Ptolemy's '' Geography."
;
of Piano Carpini (1246)
and of William of Rubruquis

1295).
(1253),
and
especially of
ity of
Marco Polo (reached home Travels of Sir John MandeviUe.

:
Popular-
concave muTors, the Great importance of the introduction of the Arabic numerals. Beginnings of experimental science, which was to revolutionPractical inventions
lenses, spectacles,
compass, useful chemicals.
Increased use of paper.
Undermining of
ize
the Scholastic
System
(b.
31
d.
thought.
Attitude of Roger Bacon
about 1214,
''
and clarity can only come through Experientia," not through authority or mere reason. Bacon's life focuses in letter from the pope, 1266, commanding him to write out his ideas. The Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Ojnis Tertium completed before end of the next year. Bacon urges investigation of common things and the useful application of the knowledge thus gained. His letter on the possible
after 1292); Certitude
achievements of applied science. Obstacles in the way of advance. Sterility of scholastic method. Views of Bacon not so exceptional as once supposed. Experimenscientific
tation
went on among artisans and alchemists.
*Marco Polo, T7-ari'Is, many editions, the best of which is edited by H. Yule, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1903. "Travels of Sir John MandeviUe. The best edition is published by the Macmillan Co., for it contains the narratives of Piano Carpini, Rubruquis, and of Friar Odoric, on which " Sir John MandeviUe" relied. Beazley, C. R., The Dawn of Modern Geography, 3 vols., 1897For Roger Bacon: Article in 11th ed. of Ency1906, especially vol. iii. clopaedia Britannica Thorndike, Lynn, in Popular Science Monthly, September, 1915, and Philosophical Review, May, 1914; Roger Bacon Essays
;
commemoration of seventh centenary), ed. by Little, 1914 Introduction by Brewer to his Opera Inedita of Bacon; Introduction and analysis in Bridge's edition of the Opus Majus ; Cantor, Vorlesunyen iiber (Teschichte der Mathematik, sec. vii, pp. 699-768 (on the Arabians) and sec. viii on Kloster(in
;
gelehrsamkeit.
Section
32.
tions: Peter Dubois
Beginnings of Criticism of Social Instituand Marsiglio of Padua.
Tendency of society to view its institutions as sacred and permanent and to regard those who criticize them as enemies
Mediaeval discussion of the relations between pope and emperor. Rediscovery of Aristotle's Politics broadens speculation in 13th century. Peter Dubois's De Becuperatione Terre Sancte (written about 1303) secularization of church offers a general program of reform
of the social order.
property,
international
arbitration,
reduction
of
litigation,
and practical education.

Marsiglio of Padua writes his Defensor Pads about 1324. His conception of popular sovereignty and of the supremacy
32
His hostility to the of the state in ecclesiastical matters. and his critical examination of the tradition of Peter's papacy
presence in Rome.
Dubois, Reeuperatione Terre Sancte, edited by Langlois, with introduction, 1891; *Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, I, 491 sqq., for extracts from the Defensor Pads; Poole, R. L., Illustrations of Mediaeval
Thought, chap.
ix.
Section
33.
Dante (1265-1321) and his World.
Dante represents the highest secular culture of his day. Availability of his works for the student of intellectual hisVita Range of his writings in Italian and Latin tory. ParMonarchia, De vulgari eloquio, CommecUa. Nuova, Be ticular interest of The Banquet, wiitten for the intelligent Cosmology (r/. passage public who did not know Latin. end of thirty-fourth canto of Inferno); Ptolemaic system; at Dante's Allegory on a par with scientific descriptions. attitude toward the past (c/. end of fourth canto of Inferno). Contrast between Dante His knowledge of ancient authors.
and
later humanists.
Dante, Convivio, as edited by Wicksteed in Temple Classics, *books i-ii. There is an excellent prose translation of the Comedia and the New Life by Charles Eliot Norton; the De ruJgari eloquenfia is translated by Howell; Moore, Ed., Studies in Dante, First the De Monarchia by F. J. Church. Series, contains an account of the scriptural and classical quotations in Dante's work see, especially, complete list of Dante's citations, at end of the volume. *Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, chap, xliu, an admirable review
;
of Dante's attitude.
Vossler, K., Die gottUche EomikUe (1807-10, 2 vols., in 4 parts), parts an elaborate study of the antecedents of Dante's great work.
i-ii,
Section
34.
Petrarcli
and Humanism.
Learning" and the theory of a
The
so-called ''Revival of
Renaissance or awakening of Western Europe from its supposed winter sleep through the rediscovery of the Latin and
Greek authors. "Humanism" a convenient term for the enthusiasm for Roman and Greek literature which began Original to develop in Italy in the fourteenth century.
Undermining of
the Scholastic
System
33
meaning of "hmnanitas" {cf. Aulus Gellius, N'octium Atticarum, Lihri XX, book xiii, 17). Term "litterae humaniores" misunderstood by Symonds and others; peculiar position
of Italy in regard to
Roman
literature.
first
;
Petrarch (1304-1374) the

ist; his
distinguished Italian
his
human-
power of
self -revelation
;
ence
" Letter to Posterity "
voluminous correspondscope of his works his conflicting

;
ideals
and ambitions as
illustrated
;
by
his " Secret."
Contents
of his library of Latin writers
his inability to read Greek.
Translations of some of the more important of Petrarch's letters
may be
found in *Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch,
the first
Modern Scholar and Man
of Letters, 2d enlarged ed., 1914; especially Introduction, parts i, ii, iii, andvii; and Cosenza, M. E., Petrarch's Letters to Classical Authors, 1910. *Loonii8, Louise, Mediaeval Hellenism, 1906 (Columbia University Doctor's dissertation), a remarkably clear review of the antecedents of humanism.
Nolhac, P., Petrarch et rHumanism, 2d ed., 2 vols, 1907, admirable; Voigt, Wiederhelehung des Classischen Alterthums, 3ded., 1893, book i (excelKorting, Petrarca's Leben und Werke, 1878. Brandi, Karl, Das Werlent) den des lienaissance, 1908. This is a lecture which with its critical notes admirably sums up the newer view of the Renaissance. Wernle, Paul, Benaissance and lieformation (six lectures), 1912.
;
Section
35. Italian
Scholarship in the Fifteenth Century.
Absence of literary criticism before Petrarch. With him began in Italy the systematic search for manuscripts, first of the Roman and then of the Greek writers, which were collated, copied, edited, and the Greek translated into Latin. Very chief of these, Tacitus, few Roman wi-iters "rediscovered" Younger Pliny, Lucretius, and many of Cicero's letters. Great
part of
Roman
hterature
still lost, e. g.,
Varro,
much
of Livy,
Tacitus, Seutonius, etc.
Recent finds in Egypt.

Chrysolorus, teacher of Greek at
Reflections
Ignorance of Greek literature in the West from the sixth

to the fifteenth century. of his pupil, Leonardo Bruni (1369-1444), who begins the translating of Greek works Aurispa arrives in Venice iu 1422 with 238 Greek into Latin. five years later Filelf manuscripts from Constantinople Niccolo NiccoH (1364-1437), brings 48 more. (1398-1483?) a Florentine patron of classical Literature, leaves 800 books for
Florence, 1396-1400.
34

Activity of Poggio (1380-1459).
a public library.
Ves-
Cosimo de'Medici (died 1464), of Pope Nicholas V (died 1454), and of These all included patristic and schothe duke of Urbino. lastic works and indicate no special partiality for the "classics." Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) shows some critical tendencies in His Elegantiae. repudiating the Donation of Constantine." Ficino translates Circle of Lorenzo de'Medici (died 1492). Plato into Latin (first ed. 1482), then Plotinus and Dionysius Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) and his the Areopagite. Aldus Manutius, the enthusiasm for the Jewish Cabbala. Venetian printer, issues 33 editions of Greek writers from 1494
pasiano's (1421-1498) description of the libraries of
'*
to 1515.
Place of
Humanism
in
the
intellectual
development of
Doubtless served to preserve a few Latin Western Europe. works that might have been lost and, what was far more important, to familiarize the West with that part of Greek literaIt brought with it literary taste and ture which survives. It ultimately criticism, but did not revive hellenism. some furnished a new basis for "liberal" education through the
substitution of a study of the "classics" for the older Aristotelian curriculum.
It certainly did
something to produce
life
or forward the secularization of intellectual

sixteenth century, as
it
early in the
appears, for example, in Pomponazzi,
Machiavelli, Guicciardini.
Humanism
it
it
did not free itself from Neoplatonic mysticism
had little hampered
to contribute to in
modern
;
scientific
advance, which
some respects
it
it
tended to perpetuate the con-
fidence in ancient authority
the
modern languages;
and impeded the development of was reactionary rather than pro-
gressive.
*Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, part III, espei, iii, vi, ix, and xi; Symonds, J. A., The Eevival of Learning,
;
cially chaps,
especially chaps, vi and ix
chaps, i-ix; Whitcomb, M.,
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. 11, A Literary Source Book of the Italian Renais-
sance, contains translated extracts
from writers of the time.
Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classisclien Alterthums, books ii-v and book vii on the achievements of Humanists.
Undermining of
the Scholastic
System
35
Section 36. The of Printing.
Making
of
Books before the Invention

rolls of
Among
papyrus
" charter."
the Greeks and

(bibJos,
Romans books commonly

Derivation
of
and The wax tablets and stylus for correspondence and memoranda; parchment "codex" mentioned before end of Slow substitution of parchment for papyrus, first century. which disappears in the West after the Arabic conquest of
"paper"
Egypt, in seventh century. By twelfth century paper begins to be introduced, through the Moors, but not much used in Christian Europe until the fourteenth century.
volumen).
The Roman
cules)
capital letters (majuscules)
mainly derived from
a Greek alphabet.
in
Origin of our lower case letters (minus-
from the cursive writing of the Romans. Variations forms Gothic or black letter, and Roman. Study of Paleography; temptations to abbreviate in copy-
ing; chances of eiTors; inclusion of glosses; emendations, interpellations.
No two
manuscripts ever alike; families of

original
lost until
manuscripts;
tively recent
collation essential to critical editing;
autograph copy (hologi'aph) invariably

period.
compara-
Organization of the book trade in
connection with the universities.

plentiful
Standard books pretty
and convenient
did
it
in form.
What
his
mean
to publish (edere) a
book before the
in-
troduction of printing?
Petrarch's difficulties in
getting
writings
copied.
Libraries
mainly in
monasteries.
Cassino.
Boccaccio's account of the collection at

Putnam, G. H., Books and
1896-7, Vol.
I,
Monte
the
tlwir
part
I,
deals with manuscript books.
I'Humanism, 2d
ed., 2 vols., 1907.
Middle Ages, 2 vols., Nolhac, Petrareh et Wattenbach, Schriftwesen im Mitfelalter,
Makers during
3d
ed., 1896, is the chief treatise
on the subject.
is
Thompson, E. M., Handexcellent.
hook of Greek and Latin Faleography, 4th ed.,
Section 37.
printing
The Invention of Printing and

of
its Effects.
Disadvantages
:
cast type, ink, paper, press.

number
manu
scripti.
Essential elements in
Only advantageous
Famiharity Block books in the
when
a considerable
of copies are made.
of the ancients with stamps and seals.
36
Donatuses in cast type may anteMayence Bible probably completed in 1456. date 1440. First press in Italy, 1466. Dated Psalter of the next year. 1500 there were some 42 presses which may have produced By Celeno less than 8 millions of copies of books by that date. brated presses of Koburger at Nuremburg, Aldus at Venice, Caxton issues first book printed in England Froben at Basel.
early fifteenth century.
in 1477.
Printers at
style of letters.
first
sedulously imitate calligraphy

scribes.
"
and current abbreviations of the

the
Roman
ophon.
The Gothic and The colPrinting insures uniformity of copies and discour" Italics
invented.
ages tampering with the text.
Great part of the early printed books
"incunabula"
ancient works having to do with theology, religion, astrology,
and mediaeval thought, to which were added in time the Early in the sixteenth century Roman and Greek writers.
printing begins to stimulate the production of
new
books.
Great expansion of our historical sources from this time. Promise of a complete democratization of books.
DeVinne, Invention of Printing, their Makers in the Middle Ages, Vol. I, part II Janssen, History of the German People, Vol. I, Book I, chap. i. A considerable library might be collected of works relating to early printing, but those mentioned give an excellent idea of the chief points.
*Blades, Pentateuch of Printing, 1891
;
2d ed., 1878; Putnam, G. H., Books and

;
Section 38. Spread of Humanism Beyond the Alps, Especially into Germany.
Founding of the German universities Prague (1348) Vienna During the succeeding generation Heidelberg, Cologne, Erfurt, and Leipzig (1409). In latter part of fifteenth century the number was more than doubled Freiburg, Trier, Tiibigen, Basel, Wittenberg (1502). Prevalence of dialectic, Aristotle, and " Kitchen Latin." Rudolph Agricola (1442-1484), the Petrarch of Germany.
;
;
(1365, reorganized 1384).
German humanists resemble the early humanists in their conservatism. Contrast between the national enthusiasm of Germany and Italy.
First generation of
Italian
Undermining of
the Scholastic
System
37
Later "poets" of the opening sixteenth century. Celtes, Mutianus, Crotus Rubeanus (Latinization of proper names) find themselves in opposition to the conservative (Dominican) theologians.
How Erasmus joined the circle. John Reuchlin (1455-1522) and his famous heresy case. The Letters of Obscure Men (1515-1517). Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523)
Appearance of Martin Luther.
and his Dialogues.
*Creighton, M., History of the Papacy, Vol. VI, Book VI, chaps, i-ii; *Beard, C, Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany, chap, iii; *Lindsay, T. M., A History of the Reformation (1906), Vol. I, pp. 42-78;
Janssen, History of the German People, Vol. I, Book I, chaps, iii-iv Vol. Ill, BookV; Strauss, D. F., Ulrich v. Hutten, His Life and Times {I87i);
;
Whitcomb, M., Literary Source-Book of
the
German Renaissance
(1899);
Stokes, F. G., Epistulae Obscurorum Virorum, with English translation, 1909.

Voigt, TViederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums, Book VI; Geiger, Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien vnd Deutschlund, 1882, part II.
Section
39.
Erasmus, the Embodiment of Humanistic
Enlightenment.
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) comparable to Petrarch and Voltaire in his international reputation. Brief experience in a monaster3^ Goes to England, 1499, and to Italy His Adages give him a gi*eat reputa(1506) to aid Aldus. tion; his Enchiridion militis Ghristiani (1503) and his idea of Christ's philosophy, and hope of a Christian revival which should tend neither to paganism nor to ceremonial. The Praise of Folly (1511) illustrates the freedom with which a
loyal Catholic
could then criticize the prevailing religious
notions and practices.
Confidence in culture.
Groes to
Basel to aid Froben with edition of the Greek

tion in Spain).
New
Testament
(1516) (the Complutensian polyglot edition already in preparaCritical comments of Erasmus on the text. Reasons for his Erasmus continues to live in Germany. dishke and disapproval of Luther.
*Emerton, Erasm us ; a readable biography, with extracts from Erasmus's *Praise of Folly, many editions of a poor old EngUsh translation with Holbein's sketches. Nichols, The Epistles of Erasmus (1901-04), a
works.
scholarly translation of letters written before 1517.
in the 11th ed. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
"Article,
"Erasmus,"
38
arum
Opus Ejnstolof Erasmus's letters in the original Latin being issued by the Oxford Press, edited by P.S.Allen; Vols. I-II (1906-10) contain the letters written 1484-1517.
A new edition
is
Section 40.
General Nature of the Protestant Revolt.
Protestant writers have been in the habit of ascribing the most miscellaneous beneficent results to the "Reformation," The which is really a vague and misleading partisan term. or Protestant Revolt was unmistakably the '^ Reformation" secession of a number of European governments from the This left the " Protestant " rulers Roman Apostohc Church.
free to reform the religious institutions of their respective
realms regardless of the pope.
The
close
relation
between
"Cujus regio ejus religio." Church and State continued.

Trea-
There was freedom of conscience for the princes only, who

generally endeavored to enforce religious conformity.
son and blasphemy replace heresy in Protestant countries.

Protestants continue to accept the whole " Christian epic and a great part of the beliefs of the church from which they seceded, but they agreed in rejecting the headship of the pope
("
general priesthood of believers ")
in gravely
modifpng the
;
theory of the seven sacraments, especially of the eucharist

(Mass) and Penance (confession and absolution)
in
adopting
a different theory of the process of salvation, by surrendering

the belief in purgatory and the treasury of superabundant
merit (indulgences), and by deprecating "good works," such

as pilgrimages,
adoration of
the
saints
and
life.
relics,
hearing of
masses, and
leading
monastic
Illustrated
by
Luther's attitude toward the problem of salvation.
Protestants believed that they were reverting to the institutions
and
beliefs of the early
uncorrupted church, and they
placed unlimited confidence in the clearness and sufficiency

of the Bible.
Schaff, Ph., History of the Christian Church, VI, eh. i (a warmly partisan Protestant statement) The Catholic Encyclopedia, articles "Protestantism" and " Eef ormation " Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Eeforma;
tion "
New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, articles "Protestantism" and "Reformation," sections i-ii *Beard, C, The Re;
Undermining of
the Scholastic St/stem
39
formation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (Hibbert Lectures for 1883), chaps, iii-iv; Cambridge Modern
History,
I,
chap, xlx
("The Eve
of the Reformation,"
byH. C.Lea).
Section
41.
Relation of the Protestant Revolt to Intelintellectual in char-
lectual Progress.
The Protestant Revolt only incidently

acter.
Extent of its debt to classical scholarship. Its issues mainly mediaeval. Luther and Calvin base their theories on the conception of man's innate and absolute badness and incapacity to wiU anything pleasing to God. Calvin's stress on the seemingly paralyzing doctrine of predestination. ProtLuther's denunciation of the "pretty harlot," reason. Protestants shared with Roman Cathohcs the horror of "rationalists" and "freethinkers." The leaders of both parties agreed in hampering and denouncing scientific discoveries. These made by those living in
estant conception of the Bible.
CathoHc and Protestant countries alike, who have commonly been indifferent to religious issues. Gibbon's masterly summary of the direct and incidental effect of the " Reformation " (Decline and Fall, end of chap. liv).
The early Protestants did not aim consciously at progress, and their teachings may be said to have been nine-tenths conservative and one-tenth reactionary.
*Bear(i, Ch., The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knoivledge, chap, v; *McGiffert, A. C, Protestant Thought before Kant (1911), chaps, i-viii (admirable); Hamack, History of Dogma, Vol. VII.
Troelsch, Protestantisches Christenthnm nnd Kirche der Nenzeit, in "KulIn the same Samtur der Gegenwart," Teil i, Abt. 4, erste HaLfte, 1909. melwerk, is Bezold, Staat und (resellschaft des Reformationszeit, 1908. Berger, A. E., Die Kulturaufgaben der Reformation, 2d ed., 1908, an elaborate prolegomenon. Harnack, Martin Luther in seiner Bedeutung fiir die Geschichte der IVissenschaft und der Bildung, 4th ed., 1910; interesting pamphlet.
Section ing
43.
it.
Witchcraft and the Superstitions underlyall
Protestants retained
the old
demon ology and gave much

belief in witchcraft rested
prominence to the
devil.
The
on
40
writers.
the solid foundations of the Bible and of the Greek and The older European heritage reenforced
Christians' devil.
Roman
by the The " witches' sabbath " of Norse origin. Witchcraft in its modern form emerges clearly in the fifteenth Pope century (Heresy of the Vaudois, hence voodoo, hoodoo)
.
issues (1484) bull, "
Summis
desiderantes," against witches in
Germany.
Hammer)
codifies all
Next year the Malleus maleficarum (Witches' learning in regard to witches and the
Great prevalence of witchcraft method of dealing with them. during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Protestant and
Catholic countries alike.
witchcraft.
Character of the charges brought against those suspected of Illustrated by writings of Glanvil and Cotton
(late
Mather
seventeenth century).
alive, strangling,
Trial of those suspected
of sorcery.
Penalties,
Torture to force confession.
The
burning
hanging.
witch's mark. Tens of thou-
sands of innocent persons perish. Dr. Wier's attempt to refute notion of witchcraft, 1565, brutally answered by the learned Bodin in his " Demonology,"
little
1580; Reginald Scott's '' Discovery of Witchcraft," 1584, had influence, but the "Cautio criminalis" issued by Spe, a
witchcraft
Jesuit, in 1631,
credit
Those who tried to diswas widely read. denounced as "Sadducees" and atheists.
Cotton Mather's "Wonders of the
the Salem experiences in 1692.
;
Glanvil's ''Saducismus Triumphatus," 1681, Sinclair's "Satan's

Invisible World," 1685.
Invisible
World" sums up
*Lecky, Bise of Rationalism in Europe, chap, i Lowell, J. E., essay on "Witchcraft," in Anion;/ mi/ Books, Vol. I; *Biirr, George L., The Witch
Pemecntions (translations and reprints, Vol.
lection of vivid extracts
Ill,
No.
4),
an admirable
col-
hand material. By the same, Xarratives of Witchcraft, 1914, confined to American colonies. Notestein, A History of Witchcraft in England, 1911. The earlier phases of witchcraft are treated by Lea, H. C, History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, Vol. EH, chaps, vi-vii, and above all, Hansen, J., Zauberwnhn, Inquisition und Hexenprozess im Mittelalter (1900) and the accompanying QueUen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Hexenwahns (1901), with many extracts from inaccessible
from
first
sources.
Part VI.
BIRTH OF THE MODERN SCIENTIFIC

SPIRIT.
Section 43. Discovery of the Vastness and Order of the Universe.
The conceptions
of
man and
of
God
closely associated with
the conception of the cosmos.
Christian- Aristotelian-Ptole-
maic conception of the universe. The theory of transparent spheres, revolving about the earth, in which the heavenly bodies Primum mobile. were fixed. Eternal circular motions contrasted with the transient rectilinear motions of the earth. The exalted nature of the heavenly bodies, which were not made of the four elements of which all earthly things were composed. Roger Bacon's ideas of the distance and size of the heavenly Terra non habet aUquam quantitatem sensibilem bodies
respectu coeh, sicut probat Ptolemaeus.
Universe limited
and
fixed in absolute space.
The
**
Christian Epic" essen-
tially geocentric in its presuppositions.
Copernicus'
1543.
De
Revolntionihus orbium coelestiuni, Libri VI,
Preface,
probably by Osiander;
Copernicus'
own
introduction acknowledges his debt to ancient philosophers.
His discovery had beheved in fixed starry sphere. Giordano immediate effect on prevaihng notions. Bruno (1548-1600) made it his chief business to think out and set forth in Latin and Italian the imphcations of the " On the Immeasurable and the discovery of Copernicus. Countless": single law, single force, infinite God, infinite universe, no absolute motion, no center, no up, no down, no Bruno burned by the all things relative. light, no heavy
Still
little
inquisition at
Rome.
Kepler (1571-1630) and his discovery of the elliptical orbits His telescope (1609) GalHeo (1564-1642). His attispeedily improved so as to magnify 32 diameters.
of the planets.
tude toward the Copernican theory, which was condemned by
42

inquisition 1616.
''
Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi Galileo's mondo," 1632, and G-alileo's condemnation. chief discoveries were in physics and mechanics. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proved that the laws of falling
del
Roman
bodies apply to the heavens.

sion
This makes a deep impres-
and
finally the
to be popularized
newer conceptions of the universe began for example, in Pope's ''Universal Prayer"
(1737).
Berry, A., SJwrt History of Astronomy, 1899; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., Articles, Copernicus, Bruno, Kepler, and Galileo; Hoffding, HisGalileo, Dialogues tory of Modern Philosophy, I, pp. *103-148 and 167-183
;
concerning two new sciences,
tr.
by Crew and
Salvio, 1914; White, A. D.,

iii;
History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, Vol. I, chap, Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance, chap, iv (on Bruno).
Owen,
J.,
Section
44.
Exploration of the Earth.
Ptolemy's "Geography" remains the standard in spite of

of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Gradual progi-ess down the African coast in the fifteenth Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope, 1486. century. Columbus, as he believed, reaches "The Indies" by sailing west, 1492, and Vasco da Gama really reaches India by sailing around Africa, 1498. Portuguese visit the Malay
discoveries
Archipelago,
globe
1511.
Magellan's ship circumnavigates the
(1519-1522).
The question what
influences,
other
than commercial and industrial, did the contact with new and, in some cases, highly civilized peoples exercise on Euro-
pean thought?
Intellectual effects
not conspicuous until
the eighteenth century.

Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, chaps, The Story of Geographical Discovery.
i-ii
(by E.J.Payne); Jacobs, J.,
Section 45. Montaigne (1533-1592) and his Perception of the Varied Interest of the Purely Human.
first
Montaigne's "Essais" (Books I-II, 1580, and III, 1588) the permanently popular French work. "Je suis moy
la matiere de
mesme
mon
livre."
His attitude toward the
classical authors,
His superb nonchalance. which he assimilates
Birth of Modern
Scientific Spirit
43
rather than imitates, and uses to reenforce his own ideas. Affection for Plutarch and Seneca. His appreciation of the
inconstancy and relativity of all our thoughts and conduct. Endless variety the very essence of nature, and the inculcation
of this the chief end of education.
difference between us
"There is as much and ourselves as between us and others."
can know only our own perceptions. ''Que sais-je?" His unbounded tolerance and distaste for dogmatism. His God no more exacting than he. Custom and law highly artificial but properly binding on the outer man. Extraordinary popularity of the Essays, especially in the eighteenth
century.
There
is little
We
himself than any one else can.
use in reading about Montaigne when he writes better of Of his " Essays," which are easily obtained
either in Cotton's translation, revised
by
Hazlitt, or in Florio's, that
on
*" The Education of Children" (Bk. I, 25), and that *"0n Books" (Bk. II, Hoffding, 10), are perhaps the best worth reading for our purposes.
History of Modern rhilosoplnj, Vol.
I,
pp. 26-33.
Section 46.
Francis Bacon and "The Kingdom of Man."
Lord Bacon the ''buccinator" of experimental and applied modern science. His high connections; plans a " Temporis His public career. First partus maximus" about 1582. edition of the "Essays," 1597; "Advancement of Learning,"
1605.
ratio" of
His political disgrace, 1621. which the Novum Organum
is
a part.
His "Magna InstauHis lively
appreciation of the existing obstacles to scientific advance;

the idols of the tribe, cave, market-place, and theater.
are the ancients."
"We
Necessity of escaping from the scholastic
method of "tumbling up and down in our reasons and conUndreamed of and studying the world about us. achievements possible if only the right method of research be Bacon's "New Atlantis" with its House of Solfollowed. omon. Bacon used his vast and varied literary resources to spread abroad the spirit of modern scientific progress and the
ceits,"
distrust for ancient authority.
By
formally according the-
ology the supremacy
among
the sciences and eliminating the
44
consideration of final causes from the field of scientific research
Bacon's neglect of contemhe avoids religious criticism. Rejects poraneous discoveries of Kepler, Bruno, and Galileo. DraHis feeble " Sylva sylvarum." the Copernican system.
per's
savage attack on him in his ''Intellectual History."
*Baeon, Advancement of Learning, especially book i (excellent edition with Life of Bacon in Clarendon Press Series cheaper edition in " The World's Classics" series, also issued by the Clarendon Press and containing
;
The New
Atlantis);
*Xovum Orf/annm,
especially
book
*H6ffding, History
of Modern Philosophy, I, 184-206; 'Article "Bacon" in the 11th ed. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Philosophical Works of Francis Bacon, edited
by
J.
M. Robertson
(1 vol., 1905), is
an excellent inexpensive
edition.
Section 47.
Descartes and the
New
Philosophy.
Descartes (1596-1650), educated by the Jesuits, goes to the
Later scholarly retirement in wars for worldly experience. His ''Discours de la Methode" (1637) HoUand, 1629-1649. in which he proposed to reach the truth through analysis and clear ideas, on the assumption that God will not deceive. His His expression ''innate" ideas later misinterpreted. Terram totumque hunc mechanistic theory of the universe mundum instar machinae descripsi (including man's body and the animals, which he held to be automatons). His fundamental interest in mathematics. His geometry (Cartesian His claim to origincoordinates) and its admirable clarity. His anxiety to conality and his rejection of all authority.
ceal his beUef in the
movement
of the earth
"Bene
vixit
qui bene latuit."

*Descartes, Discourse on Method; *H6ffding, History of Modern Philosophy,
Vol.
I,
pp. 212-241
Encyclopaedia Britannica, llthed., article "Descartes."
Section 48.
Conditions and Achievements of Scientific Research in the Seventeenth Century.

still
Obstacles to scientific advance: the universities

of the press exercised
domi-
nated by Aristotle; the theological faculties; the censorship
by both church and
state
the role of
the Jesuits.
Birth of Modern
Scientific Spirit
45
Development of
**
philosophic societies" of amateurs

etc.
who
studied experimentally physics, anatomy,
Development of a lay public interested in science. Bacon, Descartes, and Galileo each appeal to public in his mother tongue, as well as
in Latin.
New science tends to take modern popular form. Origin of the Royal Society, formally founded in 1662 its
; ;
French Academy of Sciences (1666) The ''Journal des Savants" began to appear in 1665. Paris Astronomical observatory, 1667, and Greenwich Observatory, 1676. Halley forecasts the reappearance of the comet of
search
;
" Transactions."
1682 (period of 76 years). Instruments for scientific reLogarithms invented by Napier and Briggs about Descartes' analytical geometry (1637) 1616 Leibnitz pub:
lishes his
ricelli's
method
of calculus in 1675.
;
The
;
telescope; Tor-
barometer, 1643
1657;
the air
pump
Huy gens' pendulum

to
etc.
clock,
Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) uses miscroscope

(1709).
discover animalculae, blood corpuscles, bacteria,

enheit's
Fahr-
thermometer
*Ornstein, Martha, BSlc of the Sdentific Societies in the Seventeenth Centuri/,
1913 (Columbia Doctor's dissertation) excellent, with full bibliography. Encyclopaedia Britanniea, 11th ed., article "Academies"; Histoire General, edited by Lavisse and Rambaud, Vol. V, pp. 450 sqq., and VI, pp. 394 sqq., good chapters by Paul Tannery Dannemann, F., Die Xaturivissenschaften in ihrer Entwicklung, Vol. 11, 1911; Garland und Traumiiller,
,
Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst, 1899.
Section 49. Development of Toleration and the Freedom of the Press.
The
intolerance of the Church a natui-al result of
its state-
like organization
and
claims.
Its doctrine of exclusive sal-
vation and
State.
its
conception of heresy both sanctioned by the

error regarded as sinful.
Doubt and
Beginnings
of censorship of the press after the invention of printing.
Licensing by ecclesiastical and

dentine Index of 1564.
proliihitorum.
civil authorities.
The
Triet
Indices Ubrorum expurgatorum
Fierce edicts issued in France.
Protestants of sixteenth century accept the theory of intol-
46

Intolerance in
erance (except Anabaptists and Socinians).
England.
Long Parliament
ratifies
system of Star Chamber,
1643, and calls forth Milton's "Areopagitica," for the liberty of
unlicensed printing (1644).

of Protestants a Safe
Chillingworth's
"The Religion
Way
to Salvation" (1637)
trine of adiophora or things indifferent.
and the docJeremy Taylor's
"Liberty of Prophesying" (1647).

Glanvil's Situation in England after Restoration. "Vanity of Dogmatizing," 1661; Death penalty for heresy removed 1677; Bayle's "Compel them to come in," 1686; Locke's first "Letter on Toleration," 1689; Censorship allowed to lapse, 1694, and Act of Toleration, 1695 (excepting Catholics Anthony Collins, "Discourse of Freeand Unitarians).
thinking," 1713.
Parliament continues occasionally to con-
demn
iii;
books.
Symonds, J. A., Benaissance in Italy, The Catholic Reaction, part I, chap, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Press Law"; *Milton, Areopagitica, edited by Hales (Clarendon Press Series), with historical introduction; Putnam, G. H., The Censorship of the Church of Home, 1906-7. The best general treatment of the subject is to be found in *Lecky, Else and Influence of Rationalism, chap, iv, part II. Bury, J. B., A History of Freedom of Thought (Home Univ. Lib.), excellent brief account. Schaflf, Ph., The Progress of Religious Freedom as shown in the History of Toleration
Acts, 1889.
Section
150. The Decline of The English Deists.
Belief in the Miraculous
Christian conception of "revealed" truth, especially in the

Bible.
Revelation supported by miracles and prophesy.
in
Freedom of thought England permits criticism of the older system of belief in the hght of new scientific knowledge. Herbert of Cherbury (died 1648) the " first Deist." His
Protestants reject mediaeval miracles.
five principles of
natural religion set forth in his Religion of
the
Gentiles
(completed in 1645).
He
rejects
revelation.
Charles Blount (died 1693) formulates Deism and seeks to
Birth of Modern
discredit revelation
Scientific Spirit
47
Chrisiianity (1695)
(1696).
and miracles. Locke's Beasonahleness of and Toland's Christianity not mysterious
had
laid the foundations for
Spinoza in his Tractatus Theologico-PoUticus (1670) what would now be called *' the
divorces
higher criticism."
Shaftsbury (1671-1713)
morality from
religion
and theology.
Bitterness of Woolston,
who
in his ''Dis-
courses," 1727-29, violently attacks biblical miracles.
Tindal's
Christianity as old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Bepublica-
Nature (1730). Pope's "Universal Prayer" and his ''Essay on Man" (1732-34) dedicated to the
tion of the Religion of
deist Bolingbroke.
Butler's Analogy, 1737.
Hume's essay
Religion, 1757.
on Miracles, 1748, and his Natural History of

[For conservative reaction against
section 53.]
Rationalism see below,
*Leeky, Rise and Influence of Rationalism, chap, ii; *McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, chap, x; Benn, A.W., History of English Rationalism
in the Nineteenth Century (2 vols., 1906), Vol.
I,
chap,
iii;
Stephen, Leslie,
History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, Vol. I; Leland, John, A View of the Principal Deistical Writers (2 vols., 1754-6), an old, hostile
review of the movement.
Section
51.
The French Philosophes.

Sojourn in England, 1726-29.
Voltaire (1694-1778) and his extraordinary reputation and

influence.
His Philosophic
Letters on the English (burned
by order
of the Parlement of
Paris) well illustrates his debt to the English.
John Morley's
literary appeal.
estimate of Voltaire.
Vast range of his

1765.
The Philosophic Dictionary,

editors
Diderot (1713-1784).
obstacles which
its
The Encyclopaedia (1751-1765) and the

encountered.
Its
nature
scientific
rather
than
polemic.
D'Holbach and the
atheists.
i, ii,
*Morley, John, Voltaire, especially chaps,
and v; the same, Diderot
Faguet, Le ISieme Steele; Voltaire, Lettres philosophiqnes sur VAnglais, edited by Lanson, 2 vols., 1909, with elaborate notes Lange, History of Materialism, Vol. II, chaps, i-iii Gushing, Max P.,
and
the Encyclopaedists, 2 vols.
Baron d'Holbach, 19U.
48
Section
52.
Development of the Idea of Progress.

conservatism
of
Excessive
primitive
peoples.
Greeks
speculated on the origin of things, but did not have a conception of the possibility of indefinite progress.
brew Prophets.
eschatology.
The HeThe Christian conception of creation and Progress of man from the earliest times to
the opening of the seventeenth century almost altogether unconscious.
tion
Lord Bacon's conception of betterment through the acquisiIdea of progress and application of natural science.
a
decline
in
implied
the
strength
the
of
ancient
authority.
Descartes' independence of the past.
Swift's Battle of the
Books ; Fontenelle's Dialogues of

Geschichte der Menschheit (1784).
torique des progres de V esprit
Dead
(1683) aims to dis-
credit authority of classical antiquity.
Herder's Ideen zur
Condorcet's Tableau his(1793).

;
humain
Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, especially pp. 87-104

vaille, J., Essai sur Vhistoire de I'idee de
Del-
Progres jiisqu'a
la
fn du XVIIIieme
SiMe, 1910.
Section 53. Reaction Against the Thought of the Eighteenth Century.
How Hume
Herder's
awoke Kant from

eine
his
dogmatic
slumber;
criti-
Auch
Philosophie der
Oeschichte (1774)
cizes spirit of
the philosophes and tends to "romanticism."
Montesquieu
philosophers.
{Spirit of
Laws, 1748) essentially conservative;

life;
Rousseau's return to the simple
The German "Romantic"
Fichte and his theory of nationahty; Hegel
(1770-1831) and his Philosophy of History. Defense of the Christian Epic; Christian apologetics in
England; Paley's View of
the Evidence of Christianity, 1794; Courses in Christian evidences in American colleges; The
Bridgewater Treatise (1833-40). John Wesley (1703-1791) and the Methodist religious revival founding of Baptist
;
Birth of Modern
Scientific Spirit
49
Foreign Missionary Society, 1792, and of the Religious Tract

Society, 1799.
The Tractarian movement
at
Oxford
(1801-1890), Affirmation of the Catholic
John Henry Newman dogmas of the Im-
maculate Conception (1854) and of Papal Infallibility (1870) The papal syllabus of 1864. The platonic tendencies of
Emerson; Christian
Science.
*Dewey, John, German Philosophy and Politics, 1915 *McGiffert, The Rise of Modern BeUgious Ideas, 1915; Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, books vi and viii; Morley, J., Rousseau; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
;
ed., articles "Kant," "Hegel," "Wesleyan Methodism," "Missions," etc.; Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, chap, viii (The Religious Revival); Wesley's famous "Journal"; *Benn, History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century, chaps, v and viii (excellent for our purpose); Denziger, Enchiridion (S'ymfeotorMw, for the Catholic formulation of dogma.
Part
VII.
THE CHIEF NOVEL ELEMENTS IN CONTEMPORANEOUS INTELLECTUAL LIFE.

The New
Social Basis of Intellectual Life:
Section
54.
Democracy.
and intellectual. Oreek democracy presupposed slavery (Aristotle). The Roman Res pnhlica. Disappearance of slavery and serfdom. Development of European kingship. Divine right of kings defended by James I and Bossuet. Position of the Jesuits, Mariana and Suarez. Conception of pohtical liberty develops in England in seventeenth century. England the model of free government in the eighteenth century. Character of the House of Commons. Rousseau's Social Contract (1761) and his idea of the "general will." The "people" rarely conceived as the whole adult male population. Original limitation of the franchise in the United States. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789. Manhood suffrage established in France 1793. Gradual extension of suffrage in Europe and America. Methods of neutralizing it. The question of votes for women. Mill, On the Subjection of Women (1869). Clear tendency toward further developments of democracy the referendum, initiative, and recall. The democratic experiment essentially new and implies a fundamentally new conception of government and the citizen.
Democracy,
political, industrial,
conception
of
alism in Europe, chap, v,
*Seherger, G. L., The Evolution of Modern Liberty, 1904; *Lecky, Bationon the secularization of politics; Figgis, J. N.,
P., English Denioeratic Ideas in
The Divine Right of Kings, 1896; Gooch, G.

the Seventeenth Century, 1898;
Dunning,
W.
A.,
History of Folitical The-
from Luther to Montesquieu ; Rose, T. H., Rise of Democracy, 1897 (relates to England in the 19th century) Dewey, John, German Philosophy and Politics, 1915; Barker, E., Political Thought in England (Spencer to
ory,
;
present), 1915
(Home University
Library).
Elements of Contemporaneous Intellectual Life
51
Section
55.
Life:
The New Historical Basis of The Doctrine of Evolution.
Intellectual
Discovery of the great age of the earth; James Button's Theory of the Earth (1795); Lyell's Principles of Geology
Gradual development of the evolutionary Lamarck's Philosophie zoologique (1809); Chamber's Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1846) Darwin's Origin of Species, 1859.
(1830-33).
theory.
Character of the opposition to the evolutionary theory. '' Darwinism" with " evolution." Revolutionary effects of the new point of view. Does away with
Popular confusion of
conception of fixed species (Platonic ideas) that had previously
dominated speculation.
the
organic
sciences,
The genetic method adopted in all including the newer social sciences.
to the discoveries of the past
Problem of adjusting History

fifty years.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Evolution"; Jndd, J. W., The Coming of Evolution, 1910; Darwin's own historical sketch of the evolutionary idea in the later editions of The Origin of Species; *Merz, J. T., History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Vol. 11 (1903) chap, ix, on the genetic view of nature, is admirable. Life and Letters of Charles Dartcin, Vol. I, chap, xiv, by Huxley, on the reception of the Origin of Species, and Vol. 11, chaps, i-ii, containing letters and reviews relating to the work. Fifty Years of Darwinism, 1909, a collection of essays by eminent scientists.
Section
Life
56.
:
The New Economic Basis of The Industrial Revolution.
Intellectual
During the past two centuries the apphcation of scientific to daily life has revolutionized our methods of supplying our economic needs, our social and intellectual life, Iron, coal, and the whole range of the relations of mankind. essential to the development of machinery on a and steam, large scale; machinery has in turn begotten the modern factory with its vast organized labor, the modern city, and, finally, our well nigh perfect means of rapid human intercommunication. Watt patents his improved steam engine,
discoveries
52
1769;

Fulton's steamboat,
;
1809;
railroad opened, 1825

electric telegraph,
Penny post
;
in England, 1839
Stockton and Darlington Morse's

;
1844
the Atlantic cable successfully laid,
1866; the telephone, 1876.
The advance
of science
and
its possibilities
the tremendous
increase in the production of wealth and the growing interlation in regard to the betterment of
dependence of nations have opened up a vast range of specumankind through the

abolition or reduction of poverty, ignorance, disease,
and war.
Contrast between the current views of the social significance

of poverty and those held previously; the Peace movement. The Nineteenth Century, a
Bevieiv of Progress ; articles reprinted
in the
from the
"N.Y. Evening Post"; Byrn, E.W., Progress of Invention
Xineteenth
Century; Gibbins, Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century, 1903; The Progress of the Century, 1901, contains excellent reviews of the changes
in the nineteenth century; Seligman, Economic Interpretation of History.
New
Moore, Origin of Matter and Life (Home University Library); Duncan, The Knotcledge, deals clearly with radio-activity Cochrane, Modern Industrial Progress, 1904; Wells, D. A., Economic Changes, 1899; Lankester, E. Ray, The Kingdom of Man, chap, ii (chief discoveries, 1881-1906) Trail, Social England, Vol. VI, passim Lecky, Rise and Influence of Ration;
alism, chap, vi (Industrial history of Rationalism).
Section
57.
Socialism,
the
Religion
of
Industrial
Democracy.
Socialism, the religion of industrial democracy. Earlier "Utopian" sociahsm. The Communist Manifesto (1848). Karl Marx (d. 1883); "Class struggle" and the public control of the means of production. The English Fabians. The socialists emphasize the gross injustice, reckless waste, needless suffering,
and incredible stupidity of the existing economic and social organization. Current attempts to alleviate abuses through legislation. A small portion only of human capacity and energy utilized under present system.
*Kirkup, History of Socialism, new edition by Pease, 1913; Wells, H. G., Neio Worlds for Old, 1908; Schaeffle, The Qnintessence of Socialism, by a
fair
minded unbeliever; Spargo, John, Socialism, 1906; Patten, Simon, The New Basis of Civilization, 1907; Seager, H. R., Social Insurance, A
JElements of Contemporaneous Intellectual Life
53
Program of
Socialism
;
Social Reform,
Dewey and
1910; Simkhovitch, V. G., Marksism versus Tufts, Ethics, especially part III; Webb, Sidney and
Beatrice, Industrial Democracy, 1902; Weyl, W. E., The Redfield, Wm. C, The New Industrial Day, 1912.
New Democracy
Section
58.
Speculation Concerning Man's Bodily Wel-
fare.
Older conception of disease as caused by the devil Introduction of vaccination, 1796; Anaesthetics, 1846-7; Bacteria
;
named, 1863 Development of the germ theory of disease by Pasteur and Koch aseptic surgery, 1870-80. Older conceptions of insanity Exorcism Modern study of insanity and of abnormal psychology; Hypnotism and hysteria; Psychiatry and Freud's study of Dreams Question of heredity Eugenics or human breeding; Criminology; The alcohol problem; Public sanitation.
; ;
;
The Progress of
1910; Kellicott,
the Science
I.
the Century, articles
on advance of medicine; Daven-
port, C. B., Eugenics, the Science of E., Social
Human Improvement by Better Breeding, Direction of Human Evolution: an Outline of
of Eugenics, 1911; Pearson, Karl, Grammar of Science, chap, xi; Whetham, The Family and the Nation, 1909; Encyclopaedia Britannica,
11th edition, articles
"Temperance" and "Hypnotism"; Myers,
F.
W.
H.,
Human
cal
(
Personality (2 vols., 1903), for the range of abnormal psychologi-
phenomena; White, A. D., Warfare of Science and Theology, chap. tHii " Miracles to Medicine"), xiv, xv, and xvi; Prince, Morton, Dissociation of a Personality, 1906; Coriot, I. H., Abnormal Psychology, 1910; Freud, S., Interpretation of Dreams, 1913. Gordon, Ernest, The Anti-Alcoholic Movement in Europe.
Section
59.
The Newer
Social Sciences.
to the growth of the social Development of Political Economy in the Eighteenth Century; The French Physiocrats; Turgot; Hume; The English ClasAdam Smith's Wealth of Nations, 1776. Karl sical School; Mill's Principles of Political Economy. Marx. Tendency of Political Economy to become more
sciences.
Modern conditions favorable
democratic.
54
Development of Anthropology in the Nineteenth Century. Discovery of the vast age of mankind the study of primitive Philology The Arian Theory. peoples and its importance. Recent appearance of Comparative (Animal) Psychology; of Social and Functional Psychology.
;
;
Origin and aims of SociologJ^

well as of Psychology'.
Socializing of Ethics as
General nature of the "pragmatic" Constantly increasing emphasis tendencies in philosophy. on the social and historical aspects of the various branches of
philosophy.
trast
Revolution in fiction during the past half century. Conbetween Thackeray and Dickens, on the one hand, and
other.
Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells on the

Small, A. W.,
Ingram, History of Political Economy ; Haddon, History of Anthropology The Meaning of Social Science (1910); Sociological Papers (Macmillan Co., 1905), very interesting discussions by leading representatives of the social sciences; James, William, Pragmatism ; Schiller, T.C. S., Humanism, 1903 especially chap, ii on "useless" knowledge. Dewey and an excellent example of the tendency to socialize the theory Tufts, Ethics Robof conduct; Bernard Shaw's introduction to Three Plays by Brieiix. inson, J. H., The New History, chap, iii, " The New Allies of History."
Section 6o.
Problem of readjusting Education Knowledge and New Needs.
to
New
The "Liberal arts"; Educational ideals of the Greeks. prolonged enthusiasm for rhetoric and oratory the Scholastic
;
ideal; origin of the "classical" course.
Former close association of all education with the Church modern process of secularization, democratization, and state Ability of all classes to read and write promises support. soon to be general throughout the world novelty and importDevelopment of technical and industrial eduance of this. cation; higher education of women. Question of the fate of older educational system based upon the ideal of the "liberal arts," the "classics," and confidence Recomin "training the mind" to abstract reasoning. Obstacles to readjustmended by its inexpensiveness.
;
Elements of Contemporaneous Intellectual lAfe
55
ment presented by consecrated
tradition
and by the now
questioned confidence in the miscellaneous disciplinary value of the ancient languages and mathematics. Our present
departmental system based upon a

cational classification of subjects.
rights in
scientific rather
than edu-
G-rave effects of vested
hampering experiment and readjustment. As yet our education has not been brought into close relation with prevailing conditions or our ever increasing knowledge.
While there are numerous books for example, Flexner, A., The American College, 1908; Wendell, B., The Mystery of Education, and still more
numerous articles harshly attacking our higher education and suggesting reforms, few or none of their authors attempt the difficult task of sketching out a fundamental readjustment to meet present conditions. Efforts to bring habits of thinking up to date are made by Wallace, Graham, The Great Society ; Lippmann, W., Preface to Politics and Drift and Mastery; Dewey, John and Evelyn, The Schools of To-morrow, 1915 Thorndike, E. L., Education, 1912, judicious and suggestive; Weeks, A.D., The Educa;
tion of To-morrotv,
The adaptation of School Curricula
to
Economic Democracy.
Section
6i.
The Conservative
Spirit in the Light of
Intellectual History.
In
human
history man's nature has probably changed but
slightly;
nurture (culture) has however produced the most
extraordinary and varied effects, which are not uncommonly mistaken for nature. Culture cannot be transmitted hereditarily but can be accumulated through education and modified
indefinitely.
Primitive natural reverence for the familiar and habitual

greatly reenforced by religion and law.
Natural conserva-
tism of
all professions.
Those who
suffer
most from
exist-
ing institutions commonly helplessly accept the situation as

inevitable.
he urges the impossibility of nature" and warns against the disasters of altering ''human His early Recent emergence of the radical. revolution. Maetrealized beyond his wildest expectations. dreams now
Position of the conservative
;
erlinck's theory of radicalism.
History would seem to
dis-
56
credit conservatism completely as a
of the vast achievements of
mankind
working principle in view in the recent past and of
the possibilities which open before us.

Dickinson, G. Lowes, Justice and Liberty, 1909 ; Maeterlinck, essays on Social Duty" and "Our Anxious Morality" in the volume called
"Our
Measure of the Hours ; Lankester, E. Ray, The Kingdom of Man, chap, i, on " Nature's Insurgent Son" Wells, H. G., First and Last Things ; Morley, John, On Compromise ; Robinson, J. H., The Xew History, chap, viii on
;
"The
Conservative Spirit in the Light of History."
THE MARION PRESS

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Columbia nitiem'tj)

HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL CLASS

JAMES HARVEY EOBINSON

hath propounded to himself the general

state of learning to be described

sented from age to age, as

many have done

the works of nature, and the state civil and

without which the history of

the world seemeth to

his eye out.

Bacon, 'AHviiKcemtn* cfltearhiag,

THIRD ED'Ifl'JON, BEVISED

the hands of others than those

primarily intended they should recollect that

the selection and ordering of the historical facts which

as Greek philosophy, the history of the Jews, the origin of

Humanism, the Protestant Re-

treatises relating specifically to the history of thought,

In addition to the histories of philosophy, literature

are not yet collected and digested for

asterisk has been placed before those titles in the

especially for the

Paul Monroe (1910

the Cyclopedia of Education, edited

the custom in the

more scholarly encyclopaedias

tioned in the syllabus

interesting contributions to the

THE BACKGROUND OF INTELLECTUAL HISTORY.

Scope and Aims of Intellectual History Man's uneducated Mind

HELLENISM AND ITS TRANSMISSION TO THE

Egypt and Assyria

Beginnings of Philosophic Greeks

Socrates and Plato

Transfer of the Intellectual

THE MEDIAEVAL UNIVERSITIES AND THE PREVAILING OF A MEDIAEVALIZED

Excursus on the Question of Dividing the Past into

Dante and his World Petrarch and Humanism

35. 36. 37. 38.

Italian Scholarship in the Fifteenth

Witchcraft and the Superstitions underlying

BIRTH OF THE MODERN SCIENTiriC SPIRIT.

Decline of Belief in the Miraculous

The English Deists

The French PliilosopheH Voltaire Development of the Idea of Progress

Reaction against the Thought of the Eighteenth Century

THE CHIEF NOVEL ELEMENTS IN CONTEMPORANEOUS INTELLECTUAL LIFE.

The New Economic Basis

Socialism, the Religion of Industrial

Speculation concerning Man's Bodily Welfare

HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL CLASS

THE BACKGROUND OF INTELLECTUAL

Scope and Aims of Intellectual History.

''sacred"; the "philosophy of history."

half of the nineteenth century History

aims and methods. Man's abject dependence on the past gives

rise to the con-

convictions, opinions, prejudices, in-