Visual Basic Tutorial

Introduction to Visual Basic 6.
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Visual basic is a Microsoft windows programming language. Programs written in visual basic are done in an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The IDE allows a programmer to: Create/design a user interface. Code the program. Set the properties for the controls. Run/compile the program. Debug the program.
Terms used in visual basic Program A set of instructions that are aimed at accomplishing a certain task. Properties These are characteristics of objects in a program. Controls They are elements that you place inside a form to create the user interface. Methods These are actions or function associated with the objects in visual basic. Events These are responses to actions performed by programs. THE VISUAL BASIC IDE The IDE is where the programmer creates and tests projects in visual basic. The form window This is where the programmer designs the user interface for data entry and navigation. Project explorer window It holds all the filenames the makes up your project. Properties window Used to set properties of objects on a form. They are attributes of controls. Toolbox Holds buttons that you use to create the user interface. Each buttons represents a control. Form layout window Specifies the form position at run time. Toolbars Contains shortcut buttons for frequently used operations. Each button represents a command.
TOOLBOX CONTROLS Textbox - txt 1

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL
A control for accepting user input. Label lbl A control that displays unedited text to the user. Command button cmd A control which represents a button. The user clicks on it initiate an action. Picturebox pic A control that displays images. Frame fra A control that is used to group objects. Checkbox chk A control that provides user with a toggle choice. Listbox lst A control that provides a list of items Combobox cbo A control that provides a short list of items. Data dat A control for connecting to a database. OLE ole A control for interacting other windows applications. Shape shp A control that is used to draw circles,rectangles. VARIABLES Variables are memory locations that hold values to be used by the program at execution time. It is a valid identifier. Rules for creating variables Variables cannot be keywords in visual basic. Variables must begin with letters. The maximum length of variable names is 255 characters. Variable names can contain letters, numbers and underscores. Variables categories Static variables They are those variables that dont change when the program executes. Dynamic variables They are those variables that change when the program executes.
Types of variables Global variables These are variables that are accessible through the program when it executes. Local variables They are programs that are accessible within the function or procedures in which they are declared. NB: the keyword Dim is used to declare dynamic variables in visual basic. The keyword const is used to declare static variables in visual basic. DATA TYPES A data type shows the kind information or data a certain variable stores. Integer Stores whole numbers ie non-floating numbers. Boolean Represents true or false values. Byte Stores a byte of information. Double Represents adouble precision floatingpoint numbers. Single Represents a single precision floating point numbers. Strings Stores a series of characters. Variant Stores data types of any type. Date and time. Stores date and time formats. Long Stores whole numbers with greater magnitudes. Currency Stores monetary values.
Data type Integer Byte Currency Date/Time Double Long Boolean Object Single String Variant
Bytes 2 1 8 8 8 4 2 4 4 10+ 16
Range -32768 to 32768 0 to 255 -922337203685477 to 922337203685477 1 January 100 to 31 December 9999 -1.79769313486232E308 to 1.79769313486232E308 -2147483648 to 2147483648 True or False Any object type. -3.40823E38 to 1.44012998E-45 0 to 20,000,000,000 Any value within the range listed above.
Example 1 Write a program that calculates the sum of two integers Algorithms Start Start Enter the integer values. Compute the sum the two numbers. Produce results Enter the two integers Stop Flowchart
Compute the sum of the two integers
The sum of the two integers
Stop
Interface
Code Private Sub cmdcompute_Click() Dim num1 As Integer Dim num2 As Integer Dim sum As Integer num1 = Val(txtnum1.Text) num2 = Val(txtnum2.Text) txtsum.Text = Val(txtnum1.Text) + Val(txtnum2.Text) End Sub
ARITHMETICS IN VISUAL BASIC Visual basic allows programmers to do mathematical operations using various arithmetic operators. Vb operator Arithmetic operator Algebraic expression Vb expression Addition + X+y X+y Subtraction a-b x-8 Multiplication * Yb Y*b Division / u/v u/v Division(integ \ None u\v er) Exponentiatio ^ qp Q^p n Negation -e -e Modulus Mod Qmodr qmodr ORDER OF PRECEDENCE These are visual basic arithmetic rules that determine the sequence of evaluating values in a visual basic expression. Rules 6
Use the operators in order of precedence. For operators on the same precedence, evaluate from left to right in an expression. Order of precedence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lastly Symbol () ^ */ \ Mod +& Operator The value between the brackets The exponentiation Negative (negative values) Multiplication and division Integer division Remainder division Addition and subtraction String concatenation
Example 1 Evaluate the expression below Total=10+15*2/4^2 Total=10+15*2/16 Total=10+30/16 Total=10+1.875 Total=11.875 Example 2 Number= (8-5)*3^2 Number=3*3^2 Number=3*9 Number=27 Example 3 X= (8-5*3) ^2 X= (-7) ^2 X=49 Example 4 Number= ((8-5)*3) ^2 Number= (3*3) ^2 Number=9^2 Number=81 Visual basic reserved words AndAlso Auto ByVal Ansi Boolean Call As ByRef Case 7 Assembly Byte Catch
CBool CDec Class CShort Date Delegate Double End Event For GetType If Inherits Let Loop MustInherit Namespace Nothing On OrElse ParamArray Protected ReDim Return Shared Step Sub To Unicode While
CByte CDbl CLng CSng Decimal Dim Each Enum Exit Friend GoSub Implements Integer Lib Me MustOverride New NotInheritable Option Overloads Preserve Public REM Select Short Stop SyncLock True Until With
CChar Char CObj CStr Declare DirectCast Else Erase False Function GoTo Imports Interface Like Mod MyBase Next NotOverridable Optional Overridable Private RaiseEvent RemoveHandler Set Single String Then Try Variant WithEvents 8
CDate CInt Const CType Default Do ElseIf Error Finally Get Handles In Is Long Module MyClass Not Object Or Overrides Property ReadOnly Resume Shadows Static Structure Throw TypeOf When WriteOnly
Xor Add AndAlso AscW ByRef Case CDate ChDrive Clear Const CStr DateDiff Day Delegate Do End Erl Exit FileDateTime FileWidth FormatCurren cy Friend GetAttr GetType Hex Imports InputString Interface IsDate
Const AddHandler Ansi Assembly Byte Catch CDbl Choose CLng Count CType DatePart DDB DeleteSetting Double Enum Err ExternalSour ce FileGet Filter FormatDateTi me Function GetChar GoTo Hour In InStr IPmt IsDBNull
ExternalSource AddressOf AppActivate Auto ByVal CBool CDec Chr Close CreateObject CurDir DateSerial Decimal Description Each Environ Error False FileLen Finally FormatNumber FV GetException Handles If Inherits InStrRev IRR IsError 9 Alias As Beep Call CByte Char CInt CObj CShort Date
#If...Then...#Else And Asc Boolean CallByName CChar ChDir Class Command CSng DateAdd DateValue Default Dir ElseIf Erase Event FileCopy FilePut For FreeFile GetAllSettings GetSetting HelpFile Implements InputBox Integer IsArray IsNumeric
DateString Declare Dim Else EOF ErrorToStri ng FileAttr FileOpen Fix FormatPerc ent Get GetObject HelpContex t IIf Input Int Is IsNothing
IsReference LBound Lib LOF Me Mod MustInherit New NotOverridabl e Object Or ParamArray Print Public Randomize Rem Reset Rnd ScriptEngine BuildVersion SetAttr Single Split StrComp Structure SystemTypeN ame Timer Today
Item LCase Like Long Mid Module MustOverride Next Now Oct OrElse Partition PrintLine PV Rate Remove Resume RSet ScriptEngine MajorVersion Shadows SLN Static StrConv Sub Tab TimeSerial Trim
Join Left LineInput Loop Minute Month MyBase Not NPer On Overloads Pmt Private QBColor ReadOnly RemoveHandler Return RTrim ScriptEngine MinorVersion Shared Source Step StrDup Switch Then TimeString True 10
Kill Len Loc LSet MIRR MonthNam e MyClass Nothing NPV Option Overridable PPmt Property Raise ReDim Rename RGB SaveSettin g ScriptEngin e Select Shell Space Stop String SYD Throw TimeValue Try
LastDllError Let Lock LTrim MkDir MsgBox Namespace NotInheritable Number Optional Overrides Preserve Protected RaiseEvent Region Replace RmDir Seek Second Set Short Spc Str StrReverse SyncLock TimeOfDay To TypeName
TypeOf Until WeekDay WithEvents
UBound Val WeekDayNa me Write
UCase Variant When WriteLine
Unicode VarType While WriteOnly
Unlock VbTypeName With Xor
Visual basic input output commands Mathematics

Round - Rounds a number to a selectable number of decimal places o result = round ( tempvariable,2 ) Val - Returns the numerical content of a string o result = Val ("123.4") Int - Returns an integer by truncating (different than Fix) o i = int ( tempvariable ) Fix - Returns an integer by truncating (different than Int) o i = fix ( tempvariable ) Hex - Returns the hexadecimal value of any number o temp$ = hex ( tempvariable ) Oct - Returns the octal value of any number o temp$ = oct ( tempvariable ) Tan - Returns the tangent of an angle o tempvariable1 = tan ( tempvariable2 ) Rnd - Returns a random number between 0 and 1 o tempvariable1 = rnd Randomize - Initializes the Rnd function so it gives different answers each time o randomize Sgn - Returns the sign of a number o i = sgn ( tempvariable ) Sin - Returns the sine of an angle o tempvariable1 = sin ( tempvariable2 ) Cos - Returns the cosine of an angle o tempvariable2 = cos ( tempvariable ) Abs - Converts a number to a positive value o i = abs ( tempvariable ) Sqr - Returns the square root of a number o tempvariable1 = sqr ( tempvariable2 ) Log - Returns the base 10 logarithm of a number o tempvariable1 = log ( tempvariable2 ) Atn - Returns the arctangent of an angle 11
o tempvariable1 = atn ( tempvariable ) Partition - Sort of an oddball function but segregates values according to ranges o
Type Conversions - A variety of conversion functions o CBool, CByte, CCur, CDate, CDbl, CDec, CInt, CLng, CSng, CStr, CVar
Strings

Left - Returns the left n characters of a string o temp$ = left$ ( teststring$, 4 ) Right - Returns the right n characters of a string o temp$ = right$ ( teststring$, 4 ) Trim - Removes leading and trailing spaces of a string o temp$ = trim$ ( teststring$ ) LTrim - Removes only the leading spaces of a string o temp$ = ltrim$ ( teststring$ ) RTrim - Removes only the trailing spaces of a string o temp$ = rtrim$ ( teststring$ ) UCase - Makes all characters upper case o temp$ = ucase$ ( teststring$ ) LCase - Makes all characters lower case o temp$ = lcase$ ( teststring$ ) Mid - Returns n characters from a string, starting a any position o temp$ = mid$ ( teststring$, 1, 4 ) Len - Returns the length of a string (how many characters it has) o temp$ = len ( teststring$ ) LSet - Positions a string inside another, flush to the left o temp$ = lrset ( teststring$ ) RSet - Positions a string inside another, flush to the right o temp$ = rset$ ( teststring$ ) Format - Returns a string formatted according to a user-defined format o temp$ = format$ ( teststring$, "####.0" ) String o temp$ = left$ ( teststring$, 4 ) Chr - Returns the string representation of a number o temp$ = str$ ( 32 ) Asc - Returns the ASCII code of a single character o temp$ = asc ( "A" ) Space - Returns n spaces o temp$ = space$ ( 15 ) Instr - Determines if one string is found within a second string o i = Instr (starthere, string1, string2) InStrRev - Determine if one string is found in a second, starting at the end o i = InStrRev (string1, string2, start) StrComp - Compares two strings o result = StrComp (string1, string2) VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 12
PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL
StrConv - Converts the case of a string's characters o StrConv (string, vbuppercase) StrReverse - Reverses character order in a string o StrReverse (string1) Replace - Replaces each occurrence of a string o Replace (bigstring, searchstring, replacementstring) FormatCurrency - Returns a string using a currency format o FormatCurrency(var1, 2) FormatDateTime - Returns a date or time expression o FormatDateTime("3/2/99",vbShortTime) FormatNumber - Returns a number formatted according to a variety of options o FormatNumber(var1, 2) FormatPerCent - Returns a number formated as a percent o FormatPerCent(var1, 2)
Arrays

Option Base - Determines whether the lowest range of an array is 0 or 1 o option base 1 Erase - Erases all values of an array o erase (arrayname) Dim - Creates an array o dim arrayname(25) Redim - Resets the bounds of an array (has option to save values) o redim arrayname(28) UBound - Returns the upper dimension of an array o i = ubound (arrayname) LBound - Returns the lower dimension of an array o i = lbound (arrayname) Filter - Returns a subset of an array based on a filter o Filter (inputarray, searchstring) Array - Yes, there is a function called array. It returns an array that has been filled with data from a list. It allows you to put the actual data values in the code to avoid having the user input it or to avoid having to read it from a file o ArrayName = Array (10, 20, 30) Join - Concatenates strings within an array
File Handling (Generic)

Dir - Returns a filename that matches a pattern o temp$ = Dir ("*.*") CurDir - Returns the current directory o temp$ = CurDir MkDir - Creates a directory o mkdir ( "newdirectoryname" ) 13
ChDir - Changes the current directory to a new location o chdir ( "newdirectoryname" ) ChDrive - Changes the current drive o ChDirve "A" RmDir - Removes the indicated directory o rmdir ( "directoryname" ) Freefile - Returns an unused file handle o i = freefile Open - Opens a file for access, locking it from other applications o open "filename" for input as #1 Close - Closes a file so that other applications may access it o close #1 LOF - Returns the length of a file in bytes o i = lof ( #1 ) EOF - Returns a boolean value to indicate if the end of a file has been reached o statusvariable = eof ( #1 ) Name As - Renames a file o name "filename1" as "filename2" Kill - Deletes a file o kill "filename" Fileattr - Returns attribute information about a file o i = int ( tempvariable ) GetAttr - Returns attributes of a file or directory o i = GetAttr("c:\windows\temp") SetAttr - Sets the attributes of a file o SetAttr pathname, vbHidden Reset - Closes all disk files opened by the OPEN statement o Reset FileDateTime - Returns data file was created or last edited o FileDateTime ( filename ) FileLen - Returns length of file in bytes o FileLen ( filename ) FileCopy - Copies a file to a new name o FileCopy sourcefile, destinationfile Lock - Controls access to a part or all of a file opened by OPEN o Lock #1 UnLock - Restores access to a part or all of a file opended by OPEN o UnLock #1 Width # - Set the output line width used by the OPEN statement o Width #2, 80
File Handling - ASCII-specific

Line Input - Reads an entire line of ASCII text o line input #1, tempvariable$ Write - Puts data in a file, with separators for the data VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 14
o write #1, tempvariable$ Print - Puts data in a file with no separators o print #1, tempvariable$ Spc - Used in a print statement to move a number of spaces o Print #2, var1; spc(15); var2 Tab - Used in a print statement to move to TAB locations o Print #2, var1; Tab(20); var2
File Handling - Binary-specific

Get - Reads data from a file o get #1, anyvariable Put - Puts data into a file o put #1, anyvariable Seek - Moves the current pointer to a defined location in a file o seek #1, 26 Input o input #1, anyvariable Loc - Returns current position with an open file o i = Loc(#2)
Declarations
Dim - Used to define a variable as a certain type o i = dim i as integer, r as single o You can use the Option Explicit to make sure that VB forces you to declare every variable you use. DIM is that simplest way to declare a variable ReDim - Used to change the dimensions of a dynamic array o redim arrayname(37) o Don't be afraid of this one. You can use ReDim to create an array whose size grows by 1 every time you want to add a number to it. Then, the UBound tells you how many numbers you've added. Static - Establishes a procedure variable which keeps its value between calls o static i as integer o For example, if you want to keep track of how many times you've been in a procedure, set a counter as STATIC and increment it by one for each visit to the procedure. It will never go away until the program is terminated. Public - Creates a variable which can be accessed outside its own procedure o public i as integer o Even if you're the only programmer writing code in your application, use of Private vs Public will help catch errors if you inadvertently try to access an out-of-scope variable 15
Private - Creates a variable that can be read only in its own procedure or module, according to where the declaration took place. o private i as integer o Use this as often as possible to avoid unnecessary exposure of your variables to coding mistakes. Sub - Defines a procedure which can execute a block of code o Sub NewProcedure (var1 as integer, var2 as string) o Be sure to check out HELP for how to handle Sub arguments. There are more questions and mistakes made concerning the use of arguments than just about anything else I've seen. Function - Declares a procedure which can return a value o Function NewFunction (var1 as integer, var2 as string) as SINGLE o This is actually the most versatile of the Sub/Function procedure types. It can do anything a Sub can do as well as returning a value for use in an expression. Call - Transfers control to a Sub or Function (is optional) o Call Procedure 1 o Since the use of CALL is optional, forget you ever saw it CallByName - Executes a method of an object or set/returns a property o CallByName(form1,procedurename,vbMethod) o The really cool thing about this is that you don't have to hardcode a procedure call. Just use a string variable with the name of the procedure to call. Option Explicit - Instructs VB to force an explicit declaration of all variables o Option Explicit o You're borderline stupid if you don't use it to catch typing errors. Set up the VB IDE to automatically include this in all projects. Option Compare - Instructs VB on how to make string comparisons o Option Compare Binary o This can add case-insensitivity for those times when you don't want to hard-code it Option Private - Prevents a module's content from being referenced outside a project. o Option Private Module o Generally doesn't apply to most VB applications. If you find a good use for it let me know. Property Get - Declares how to get the value of a property o Property Get Name() o You won't use this much until you get into creating classes of your own Property Let - Declares how to assign a value to a property o Property Let Name() o You won't use this much until you get into creating classes of your own Property Set - Declares how to set a variable reference to an object
o
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You won't use this much until you get into creating classes of your own Set - Assigns an object reference to a variable o Set X = form1.txtInputFromUser o Very useful for making code more readable or simply to cut down on how much typing you have to do! Let - Precedes assignment of a value to a variable o Let i = 3 o It's optional, no one uses, so forget you ever saw it Type...End Type - Creates a user defined part type which consists of standard VB data types o type anytypename o one as string o two as integer o three as boolean o End Type o This is a really excellent way to keep several kinds of data under one variable name. Plus, you can PUT or GET a user-defined type with a single line of code. Const - Creates a variable whose value is fixed o const anyname o Basically, use this to give easy to remember names to values. For example, suppose you use the value 37.2 a lot in your code, then if you put CONST MyAge = 37.2 in your code you'll be able to insert the MyAge where the 37.2 should have gone. Easier to type and easier to read. Also, you can chane the value of the constant by changing only the declaration line of code, rather than searching out every place the value was used! Declare - Used to define a procedure that exists in another file o declare functionname (arg1 as integer, arg2 as string) as integer
o o o o o
ArrayName = Array (10, 20, 30) Implements - Specifies a class to be implemented in a module
Friend - Allows procedure to be callable from modules outside the class
o o o
GetObject - Return a reference to an ActiveX component
CreateObject - Creates and returns a reference to an ActiveX object
GetAutoServerSettings - Returns information about the state of an ActiveX component's registration.
o o
Enum - Declares a type for an enumeration
Event - Declares a user-defined event VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 17

o o o o
TypeName - Returns the type of data in a variable
VarType - Returns the type of data in a variable
DefType - Sets the default data type of variables DefInt A-Z IS - A variety of data type or status checking options IsArray, IsBindable, IsBroken, IsDate, IsDirty, IsEmpty, IsError, IsMissing, IsNull, IsNumber, IsObject, IsReady, IsRootFolder
Date/Time

Date - Gets the current date Time - Gets the current time Now - Gets the current date and time Timer - Returns the number of seconds since midnight DateAdd - Adds a time interval to a date DateDiff - Returns how many time intervals there are between two dates DateSerial - Returns the month/day/year DateValue - Returns the date Year - Returns the current year Month - Returns the current month (integer) MonthName - Returns the text of the name of a month Day - Returns the current day Hour - Returns the current hour Minute - Returns the current minute Second - Returns the current second TimeSerial - Returns a date with the hour/minute/second TimeValue - Returns the time WeekDay - Returns the current day of the week (integer) WeekDayName - Returns the text of a day of the week MsgBox - A built-in dialog box that gives a message and allows a user input i = msgbox "Read this!", vbokonly, "Test Message" DoEvents - Allows VB to complete pending tasks doevents Shell - Executes a 2nd program from within the current program shell "notepad.exe" Note - VB does not wait for the Shell'd program to quit before executing the next line of code! Command - Gives any text that followed a VB .EXE execution command temp$ = command Environ - Returns the system environmental space content 18
temp$ = environ Beep - Makes the computer beep once. beep InputBox - A built-in dialog box that allows entry of a text string inputbox "Input a value!", 5 AddressOf - Provides an entry point for an external program to use a procedure AddressOf ( procedurename ) AppActivate - Activates an applications window AppActivate ( windowtitle ) RaiseEvent - Fires an event declared at module level RaiseEvent ProcedureName Load - Load an object load form1 Unload - Unload an object Unload form1 LoadPicture - Load a picture into a control property form1.picture = loadpicture (filename) SavePicture - Save a picture to a file SavePicture(form1.picture,filename) LoadResData - Load the data from a resource file LoadResData(index,format) LoadResString - Load a string from a resource file LoadResString(index,format) SendKeys - Send keys to another app as though they were from the keyboard Sendkeys {DOWN} QBColor - Returns a value corresponding to the original QB values 0-15 form1.backcolor = QBcolor (12) RGB - Returns a color value by inputting the red, green, and blue parts form1.backcolor = RGB (12,128,256) Me - Refers to the current object, usually the active form print Me.caption
GetSetting - Get a value from the Registry temp$ = getsetting "TestApp", "SectionName", "defaultvalue" GetAllSettings -Returns a list of key settings and their values GetAllSettings(appname,section) SaveSetting - Save a value into the Registry savesetting "TestApp", SectionName, KeyData DeleteSetting - Deletes an entry from the registry deletesetting "TestApp", "SectionName", "Keyname"
"KeyName",
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Program compiling This involves a process of testing a program in visual programming to check if the program is error free. It is a process of converting a program from source code to its object equivalent. Program debugging This is a process of correcting errors in a program. When a program executes in visual programming, it must produce the expected results. If it doesnt give the expected output then it has errors. In this regard the programmers should start the process of debugging. Testing programs in visual programming This is a process of running (executing) programs to find errors (bugs). The process of finding bugs is called debugging as mentioned above. Program testing is part of the procedure which ensures that the program corresponds with original program specification and that it works in the intended environment. Test plan These are the stages involved in testing the programs. They include the following. Deskchecking After writing the program the programmer goes through the program on a paper to eliminate any error that might cause extra work later.
Translator system checking After coding the program is checked using the compiler or translator to detect any syntax error. The programmer corrects these errors and then resubmits the program to the compiler until the errors are over. Program run with test data 20
These are trial runs done with test data that includes all variations and extremes data including data with errors to ensure that program does not grind to an halt if incorrect data is used. Diagnostic procedures For complex programs diagnostic procedures are used to find logical errors. A trace routine print the results at each stage to enable errors detected quickly. If the trace routine is not available, the programmer can insert instructions in the program to print out intermediate results at key points. System test with actual data (full-scale) system Usually new system are run parallel with existing system for a short period so that the results are compared and adjustments made. TEST DATA This is the information that is used to test the new system or program. The program tried and executed at least once every routine through the program and the accuracy of the program is verified to meet the original design specification. Categories of test data Dummy data This is the data input into a system for trial purposes. Used to test the system for correctness. Real data (normal data) This includes the general data for which the system was designed. Exceptional data Programs are designed to accept certain range of data. If illegal data is input it should be able to detect and reject it rather than try to process it to avoid getting wrong results. Visual operators basic Expressions An operator is a code element that performs an operation on one or more code elements that hold values. Value elements include variables, constants, literals, properties, returns from Function and Operator procedures, and expressions. An expression is a series of value elements combined with operators, which yields a new value. The operators act on the value elements by performing calculations, comparisons, or other operations. 21
Types of Operators Visual Basic provides the following types of operators:

Arithmetic Operators: perform familiar calculations on numeric values, including shifting their bit patterns. Comparison Operators: compare two expressions and return a Boolean value representing the result of the comparison. Concatenation Operators: join multiple strings into a single string. Logical Operators: In Visual Basic combines Boolean or numeric values and return a result of the same data type as the values. Assignment operator: assign variables to some values in visual basic for example equal sign (=)
Evaluation of Expressions The end result of an expression represents a value, which is typically of a familiar data type such as Boolean, String, or a numeric type. The following are examples of expressions. X=5 + 4 Y=15 * System.Math.Sqrt (9) + x "Concat" & "ena" & "tion" 763 < 23 Several operators can perform actions in a single expression or statement, as the following example illustrates. x = 45 + y * z ^ 2 Types in Visual Basic 6 No matter how hard we try, errors do creep into our programs. These errors can be grouped into three categories: 1. Syntax errors 2. Run-time errors 3. Logic errors Syntax errors occur when you mistype a command or leave out an expected phrase or argument. Visual Basic detects these errors as they occur and even 22
provides help in correcting them. You cannot run a Visual Basic program until all syntax errors have been corrected. Run-time errors are usually beyond your program's control. Examples include: when a variable takes on an unexpected value (divide by zero), when a drive door is left open, or when a file is not found. Visual Basic allows you to trap such errors and make attempts to correct them. Logic errors are the most difficult to find. With logic errors, the program will usually run, but will produce incorrect or unexpected results. The Visual Basic debugger is an aid in detecting logic errors Logical errors This is a human error. A programming mistake that makes a program code to output results. Syntax error These are errors that violate rules and regulations or the syntax of a language. Runtime error These are the undiscovered error in a program.
Ways to minimize errors

Design your application carefully. More design time means less debugging time. Use comments where applicable to help you remember what you were trying to do. Use consistent and meaningful naming conventions for your variables, objects, and procedures.
Run-Time Error Trapping and Handling Error Handling enables programmers to write clearer, more robust, more fault-tolerant programs. Error handling enables the programmer to attempt to recover (i.e., continue executing) from infrequent fatal errors rather than letting them occur and suffering the consequences (such as loss of application data). Error handling is designed for dealing with synchronous errors such as an attempt to divide by 0 (that occurs as the program executes the divide instruction). Other common examples of synchronous errors are memory exhaustion, an out-ofbound array index, and arithmetic overflow. Error handling provides the 23
programmer with a disciplined set of capabilities for dealing with these types of errors. Error-handling code is interspersed throughout a program's code. Errors are dealt with the places in the code where errors are likely to occur. The advantage of this approach is that a programmer reading the code can see the error handling in the immediate vicinity of the code and determine if the proper error handling has been implemented.
Run-time errors are trappable. That is, Visual Basic recognizes an error has occurred and enables you to trap it and take corrective action. If an error occurs and is not trapped, your program will usually end in a rather unceremonious manner. Error trapping is enabled with the On Error statement: On Error GoTo errlabel This uses the GoTo statement. Any time a run-time error occurs following this line, program control is transferred to the line labeled errlabel. Recall a labeled line is simply a line with the label followed by a colon (:). The best way to explain how to use error trapping is to look at an outline of an example procedure with error trapping. Private Sub Example () Declare variables.. On Error GoTo HandleErrors Procedure code Exit Sub HandleErrors Error handling code End Sub Once you have set up the variable declarations, constant definitions, and any other procedure preliminaries, the On Error statement is executed to enable error trapping. Your normal procedure code follows this statement. The error handling code goes at the end of the procedure, following the HandleErrors statement label. This is the code that is executed if an error is encountered anywhere in the 24
Sub procedure. Note you must exit (with Exit Sub) from the code before reaching the HandleErrors line to avoid execution of the error handling code. Since the error handling code is in the same procedure where an error occurs, all variables in that procedure are available for possible corrective action. If at some time in your procedure, you want to turn off error trapping that is done with the following statement: On Error GoTo 0 Once a run-time error occurs, we would like to know what the error is and attempt to fix it. This is done in the error handling code. Visual Basic offers help in identifying run-time errors. The Err object returns, in its Number property (Err.Number), the number associated with the current error condition. (The Err function has other useful properties that we wont cover here consult on-line help for further information.) The Error() function takes this error number as its argument and returns a string description of the error. Consult online help for Visual Basic run-time error numbers and their descriptions. Once an error has been trapped and some action taken, control must be returned to your application. That control is returned via the Resume statement. There are three options: Resume lets you retry the operation that caused the error. That is, control is returned to the line where the error occurred. This could be dangerous in that, if the error has not been corrected (via code or by the user), an infinite loop between the error handler and the procedure code may result. Resume Next Program control is returned to the line immediately following the line where the error occurred. Resume label Program control is returned to the line labeled label. When executing the error handling portion of the code and the end of the procedure is encountered before a Resume, an error occurs. Likewise, if a Resume is encountered outside of the error handling portion of the code, an error occurs. Debugging Visual Basic Programs These are errors that dont prevent an application from running, but cause incorrect or unexpected results. Visual Basic provides an excellent set of debugging tools to aid in this search. There are no prescribed processes that you can follow to eliminate all logic errors in your program. The usual approach is to eliminate them as they are discovered. The Immediate Window. The Locals Window. 25
The Watch Window.
These windows can be accessed from the View menu (the Immediate Window can be accessed by pressing Ctrl+G). Or, they can be selected from the Debug Toolbar (accessed using the Toolbars option under the View menu):
All debugging using the debug windows is done when your application is in break mode. You can enter break mode by setting breakpoints, pressing Ctrl+Break, or the program will go into break mode if it encounters an untrapped error or a Stop statement.
Once in break mode, the debug windows and other tools can be used to: Determine values of variables Set breakpoints Set watch variables and expressions Manually control the application Determine which procedures have been called Change the values of variables and properties
Debugging Unlike other examples, well do this one as a group. It will be used to demonstrate use of the debugging tools. The example simply has a form with a single command button. The button is used to execute some code. We wont be real careful about proper naming conventions and such in this example.
The code attached to this buttons Click event is a simple loop that evaluates a function at several values.
Private Sub Command1_Click() 26

Dim X As Integer, Y As Integer X=0 Do Y = Fcn(X) X=X+1 Loop While X <= 20 End Sub
This code begins with an X value of 0 and computes the Y value using the general integer function Fcn. It then increments X by 1 and repeats the Loop. It continues looping While X is less than or equal to 20. The function Fcn is computed using: Function Fcn(X As Integer) As Integer Fcn = CInt(0.1 * X ^ 2) End Function This code doesnt do much, especially without any output, but it makes a good example for looking at debugger use. Set up the application and get ready to try debugging. Using the Debugging Tools There are several debugging tools available for use in Visual Basic. Access to these tools is provided with both menu options and buttons on the Debug toolbar. These tools include breakpoints, watch points, calls, step into, step over, and step out. The simplest tool is the use of direct prints to the immediate window. Printing to the Immediate Window:
You can print directly to the immediate window while an application is running. Sometimes, this is all the debugging you may need. A few carefully placed print statements can sometimes clear up all logic errors, especially in small applications. To print to the immediate window, use the Print method: VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 27
Debug.Print [List of variables separated by commas or semi-colons] Debug.Print Example: Place the following statement in the Command1_Click procedure after the line calling the general procedure Fcn: Debug.Print X; Y and run the application. Examine the immediate window. Note how, at each iteration of the loop, the program prints the value of X and Y. You could use this information to make sure X is incrementing correctly and that Y values look acceptable. Remove the Debug.Print statement.
Breakpoints:
In the above examples, the program ran to completion before we could look at the debug window. In many applications, we want to stop the application while it is running, examine variables and then continue running. This can be done with breakpoints. A breakpoint is a line in the code where you want to stop (temporarily) the execution of the program that is force the program into break mode. To set a breakpoint, put the cursor in the line of code you want to break on. Then, press <F9> or click the Breakpoint button on the toolbar or select Toggle Breakpoint from the Debug menu. The line will be highlighted. When you run your program, Visual Basic will stop when it reaches lines with breakpoints and allow you to use the immediate window to check variables and expressions. To continue program operation after a breakpoint, press <F5>, click the Run button on the toolbar, or choose Start from the Run menu. You can also change variable values using the immediate window. Simply type a valid Basic expression. This can sometimes be dangerous, though, as it may change program operation completely. Breakpoint Example: Set a breakpoint on the X = X + 1 line in the sample program. Run the program. When the program stops, display the immediate window and type the following line: Print X;Y The values of these two variables will appear in the debug window. You can use a question mark (?) as shorthand for the command Print, if youd like. Restart the application. Print the new variable values. Try other breakpoints if you have time. Once done, all breakpoints can be cleared by Ctrl+Shift+<F9> or by choosing Clear All Breakpoints from the VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 28
Debug menu. Individual breakpoints can be toggled using <F9> or the Breakpoint button on the toolbar.
Viewing Variables in the Locals Window:
The locals window shows the value of any variables within the scope of the current procedure. As execution switches from procedure to procedure, the contents of this window changes to reflect only the variables applicable to the current procedure. Repeat the above example and notice the values of X and Y also appear in the locals window. Watch Expressions:
The Add Watch option on the Debug menu allows you to establish watch expressions for your application. Watch expressions can be variable values or logical expressions you want to view or test. Values of watch expressions are displayed in the watch window. In break mode, you can use the Quick Watch button on the toolbar to add watch expressions you need. Simply put the cursor on the variable or expression you want to add to the watch list and click the Quick Watch button. Watch expressions can be edited using the Edit Watch option on the Debug menu. Watch Expression Example: Set a breakpoint at the X = X + 1 line in the example. Set a watch expression for the variable X. Run the application. Notice X appears in the watch window. Every time you re-start the application, the value of X changes. At some point in the debug procedure, add a quick watch on Y. Notice it is now in the watch window. Clear the breakpoint. Add a watch on the expression: X = Y. Set Watch Type to Break When Value Is True. Run the application. Notice it goes into break mode and displays the watch window whenever X = Y. Delete this last watch expression. 29
Call Stack:
Selecting the Call Stack button from the toolbar (or pressing Ctrl+L or selecting Call Stack from the View menu) will display all active procedures, that is those that have not been exited. Call Stack helps you unravel situations with nested procedure calls to give you some idea of where you are in the application. Call Stack Example: Set a breakpoint on the Fcn = Cint() line in the general function procedure. Run the application. It will break at this line. Press the Call Stack button. It will indicate you are currently in the Fcn procedure which was called from the Command1_Click procedure. Clear the breakpoint.
Single Stepping (Step Into):
While at a breakpoint, you may execute your program one line at a time by pressing <F8>, choosing the Step Into option in the Debug menu, or by clicking the Step Into button on the toolbar. This process is single stepping. It allows you to watch how variables change (in the locals window) or how your form changes, one step at a time. You may step through several lines at a time by using Run To Cursor option. With this option, click on a line below your current point of execution. Then press Ctrl+<F8> (or choose Run To Cursor in the Debug menu). the program will run through every line up to the cursor location, then stop. Step into Example: Set a breakpoint on the Do line in the example. Run the application. VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 30
When the program breaks, use the Step Into button to single step through the program. At some point, put the cursor on the Loop While line. Try the Run To Cursor option (press Ctrl+<F8>).
Procedure Stepping (Step Over):
While single stepping your program, if you come to a procedure call you know functions properly, you can perform procedure stepping. This simply executes the entire procedure at once, rather than one step at a time. To move through a procedure in this manner, press Shift+<F8>, choose Step Over from the Debug menu, or press the Step Over button on the toolbar. Step over Example: Run the previous example. Single step through it a couple of times. One time through, when you are at the line calling the Fcn function, press the Step over button. Notice how the program did not single step through the function as it did previously.
Function Exit (Step Out):
While stepping through your program, if you wish to complete the execution of a function you are in, without stepping through it line-by-line, choose the Step Out option. The function will be completed and you will be returned to the procedure accessing that function. To perform this step out, press Ctrl+Shift+<F8>, choose Step Out from the Debug menu, or press the Step Out button on the toolbar. Try this on the previous example. CLASSES OF DATA TYPES Numeric data types These are those data types that will store numbers or numeric values. They are computed mathematically. Integers store numbers. Byte true or false values between 0 and 255. 31
Real (double) store 8 bytes of numeric data. Currency stores monetary values. Date and time store and time format. Single store 4 bytes of numeric data. Long stores 4 bytes of numeric data. Decimal stores 12 bytes of numeric data.
Character data types They are data types that stores characters or strings of characters. String fixed length. Stores 1 to 65,400 characters. String variable length. Stores 0 to 2 billion characters. Date January 1,100 to December 9999 Boolean stores true or false values. Object stores any embedded object. Variant numeric. Any value as large as double. Variant text. Same as variable length.
Boolean data types Stores Boolean data types. Boolean is represented by either the keyword true or false or non-zero or zero value. Boolean are stored in two bytes and have no type declaration character. User defined data types Visual basic lets the user create his own data type. This is done when you work with mixed data types. Creating user defined data types When creating user defined data types use the key word Type statement in declaration section of the form. Declare variables associated with the new data types. 32
Example 1
Private type employee Name as string Dateofbirth as date Hiredate as date Salary as currency Gender as string End type
THE VISUAL BASIC CONTROL STRUCTURES A control structure regulates the flow of a visual basic program, given a condition. Determine the output depending on the conditions used in the program. It performs an indicated action only when the condition is false or true. Types of control structures There are three main control structures in visual basic: Selection They are those control structures that provides options choose from depending on the conditions given for example If, if/then else, switch, and select case. Iteration
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These are control structures that repeat statements until a given condition turns true of false for example while/wend, do/until, do/loop while, for/next, do/loop until. Sequence A control structure that executes statements in a program procedurally; one after another.
If/then selection control structure This is a control structure that is used to choose among alternative action to take. Example 1 Determining the age of students in a class.
Interface
Enter the age Message
Display the age
Pseudo code/Algorithms Declare the variables i.e. age and message Initialize variable age If age is greater than or equal to 18 then Display you are a grown up. Learn to be responsible. End if 34
Code Private sub cmddisplay_click() Dim age as integer Dim message as string Age=value(txtage.text) If txtage.text>=18 then Txtmessage.text=You are a grown up. Learn to be responsible End if End sub
Flowchart Start
Display the message If age>=18
Stop
The above flowchart represents if/then selection control structure. It illustrates a single selection control structure. It performs the indicated action only if the condition is true otherwise it is aborted.
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If/then/else selection control structure The if/then/else control structure allows a programmer to specify that a different action can be performed when the condition is true. It tsts for true statements in a program. Example 1 A student sat for a DIT II exam an d score the below marks; SAD= 70 PI= 60 PII= 80 Maths= 40 Required: Create a visual basic program that calculates the average mark. Use the average mark and assign the student the grade according to the grading system below Key A B C D Sad E F PI PII Interface Maths Average Grade to grading system: = 80 to 100 =70 to 79 =60 to 69 =50 to 59 =40 to 49 =0 to 39
Calculate
Pseudo code/algorithms 36
Declare variables Initialize the variable that we input Calculate the average If average is greater than or equal to 80 then Display A Else if average is greater than or equal to 70 then Display B Else if average is greater than or equal to 60 then Display C Else if average is greater than or equal to 50 then Display D Else if average is greater than or equal to 40 then Display E Else if average is less than 40 then Display F Code Private sub cmdcalculate_click () Dim SAD, PI, PII, maths as integer Dim average as single Dim grade as string SAD=val(txtsad.text) PI=val(txtpi.text) PII=val(txtpii.text) maths=val(txtmaths.text) txtaverage.text= val(txtsad.text)+ val(txtpi.text)+ val(txtpii.text)+ val(txtmaths.text)/4 if txtaverage.text>=80 then txtgrade.text=A Else if txtaverage.text>=70 then Txtgrade.text=B Else if txtaverage.text>=60 then Txtgrade.text=C Else if txtaverage.text>=50 then Txtgrade.text=D Else if txtaverage.text>=40 then Txtgrade.text=E Else if txtaverage.text<40 then Txtgrade.text=F End if End sub Flow chart Switch selection control structure 37
This ia s control structure that is related to if/then/else control structure. Each argument passed to switch control structure is either a condition or a value. If a condition is true the value associated with the condition is returned. Example 1 A student sat for a DIT II exam an d score the below marks; SAD= 70 PI= 60 PII= 80 Maths= 40 Required: Create a visual basic program that calculates the average mark. Use the average mark and assign the student the grade according to the grading system below Key to grading system: A = 80 to 100 Sad B =70 to 79 C =60 to 69 PID =50 to 59 E =40 to 49 PII F =0 to 39 Interface Maths Average Grade
Calculate
Code Private sub cmdcalculate_click () Dim SAD, PI, PII, maths as integer Dim average as single Dim grade as string SAD=val(txtsad.text) PI=val(txtpi.text) PII=val(txtpii.text) 38
maths=val(txtmaths.text) txtaverage.text= val(txtsad.text)+ val(txtpi.text)+ val(txtpii.text)+ val(txtmaths.text)/4 txtgrade.text=switch(txtaverage.text>=80,A txtaverage.text>=70,B txtaverage.text>=60,C txtaverage.text>=50,D txtaverage.text>=40,E txtaverage.text<40,E) End sub
Select case selection control structure

This is a control structure that allows programmers to enter multiple information in a program. It can be used with multiple conditional statements. Format Select case (expression) Case value 1 Block of statements Case value 2 Block of statements Case else Block of statements End select Example 1 Determining the grade of an exam in a class. Marks Marks Grade Display
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Pseudo-code Declare the variable marks and grade Initialize the variables marks and grade Select case marks Case is 80 to 100 Display Distinction Case is 70 to 79 Display Credit Case is 60 to 69 Display Pass Case is 50 to 59 Display Referred Case is 40 to 49 Display Fail Case else Display Repeat the course End select Code Private sub cmddisplay_click() Dim marks as integer Dim grade as string Marks=val(txtgrade.text) Select case txtmarks.text Case is 80 to 100 Txtgrade.text=Distinction Case is 70 to 79 Txtgrade.text=Credit Case is 60 to 69 Txtgrade.text=Pass Case is 50 to 59 Txtgrade.text=Referred Case is 40 to 49 Txtgrade.text=Fail Case is 8 to 39 Txtgrade.text=Repeat End select End sub Note: the data type specified in the expression must match that of case values.
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Flow chart Start
Case A
Case A action
Case B
Case B action
Case B
Case Z action
Stop 41
Iterative control structure While/wend repetition control structure This is a repetition control structure that allows programmer to specify that an action is to be repeated based on a true or false condition. The condition given may be true or false. If the condition is false the action stops being executed, but if the condition is true the statements will be repeated until the condition turns false. Example 1 Printing numbers from 1 to 1000
Display
Code Private sub cmddisplay_click () Dim x as integer X=2 While x<=1000 Print x X=x*2 Wend End sub 42
Do until/loop repetition control structure The Do until loop repetition control structure repeats until a condition turns false. The statements in the body of a loop are repeatedly executed as long as the loop continuation evaluates to false.
Example 1 Printing numbers between 1 and 10
Display
Code Private sub cmddisplay_click() Dim x as integer X=1 Do until x<=10 Print x X=x+1 Loop Start End sub
x<=10
x=x+1 43
False
True Stop
The For/next repetition control structure It handles the details of counter controlled repetition. When a program starts executing counter variable is initialized to a certain value. The condition is tested by visual basic. The keywords to is used specify the range of values to be printed. The keyword step is also used to specify the increment operator (value). That is how much will be added to variable counter each time the for/next body executes. If the keywords Step and to are omitted, the increment value defaults to 1. Always initialize the control variable to certain value.
Example 1 Printing numbers between 1 and 10
44 Display
Code Private sub cmddisplay_click() Dim x as integer For x=1 to 100 step 2 Print x Next x End sub Components of typical for/next loop Example For x= 2 to 10 step 2 For= keyword in visual basic x= control variable name 2= initial value To=keyword to specify the range 10=final value for the control variable Step= keyword to specify the increment value 2=increment value in control variable Examples using for/next loop Varying the variable control between 1 and 100 For a=1 to 100 step 1 Varying the variable control from 100 and 1 For b=100 to 1 step -1 Varying the variable control between 7 and 77 For c=7 to 77 step 7 Varying the variable control in the following sequence 99,88,77,66,55,44,33,22,11and 0 45
For d= 99 to 0 step 11 Example 1 Calculating the sum of numbers between 1 and 10 using for/next loop
Display
Code Private sub cmddisplay_click () Dim x as integer X=1 Sum=0 For x=1 to 1 Print x Sum=sum+x Next x End sub Start
Action Do/loop while repetition control structure This is similar to do while/loop control structure. The condition is tested at the beginning of the loop before the body of the loop is performed. Do/loop while control structure tests the condition after the loop body is performed. When the loop terminates, execution continues with the statement x<=10 after the loop while clause. Flow chart 46
Stop
True
False
Example 1
Display
Code Private sub cmdprint_click() Dim x as integer X=1 Do Print x 47

X=x+1 Loop while x<=10 End sub Do/loop until repetition control structure This is similar to do until/loop control structure. In do until/loop continuation the condition is tested at the beginning of the loop. In do/loop until the body of the loop is performed first before the condition is tested. Flow chart Start
Action
False x<=10
True
Stop
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Interface
Display
Code Private sub cmdprint_click() Dim x as integer X=1 Do Print x X=x+1 Loop until x<=10 End sub Exiting Do and For statements The exit Do and For statements alter the flow of the control structure. The exit Do when used in do/until loop, do/while loop, do loop/while and do until/loop loops causes an immediate exit from the control structure.
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Example 1
Display
Code Private sub cmdprint_click() Dim x as integer X=1 Do If x=50 then Exit do End if Print x X=x+1 Loop until x>=100 End sub
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Sub-programs
Refers to any set of statements forming part of the program used to perform a specific action. The are procedures, modules or parts within the program that are used to carry out a specific task before passing control to the main program. A properly constructed subprogram should be self contained perform defined operation on a well defined data and have an internal structure independent of the program in which its contained. Types of sub-programs in visual basic Functions Procedures
A function is any normal procedure but it is used to accept certain inputs and pass them to main program to finish execution. It is used to pass or return a value which will be used to do a certain operation. There are two types of function in visual basic: Built-in functions User defined functions Builtin functions Msgbox() functions The objective of the Msgbox function is to produce a pop-up message box and prompts the user to enter or click on a command button before he/she can continue. Format Message=Msgbox (prompt, stylevalue, title) Prompt will display the message in a message box. Style value determine the type of command button will appear on the message box.
Example Message=Msgbox(click to proceed1,gretings)
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Style values in Msgbox function Style Value 0 1 2 3 4 5 NAMED CONSTANT VbOk VbOkCancel VbAbortRetryIgnore VbYesNoCancel VbYesNo Vbretycancel BUTTON DISPLAYEED Ok only Ok and Cancel Abort, Retry and Ignore Yes, No, Cancel Yes, No Retry, Cancel
Sad PI PII Example 1 Maths Average Grade
Calculate 52
Code Private sub cmdcalculate_click () Dim SAD, PI, PII, maths as integer Dim average as single Dim grade as string Dim message as string SAD=val(txtsad.text) PI=val(txtpi.text) PII=val(txtpii.text) maths=val(txtmaths.text) txtaverage.text= val(txtsad.text)+ val(txtpi.text)+ val(txtpii.text)+ val(txtmaths.text)/4 if txtaverage.text>=80 then message=Msgbox(DISTINCTION,2,Startup Menu) Else if txtaverage.text>=70 then message=Msgbox(CREDIT,2,Startup Menu) Else if txtaverage.text>=60 then message=Msgbox(PASS,2,Startup Menu) Else if txtaverage.text>=50 then message=Msgbox(REFERRED,2,Startup Menu) Else if txtaverage.text>=40 then message=Msgbox(DISTINCTION,2,Startup Menu) Else if txtaverage.text<40 then message=Msgbox(REPEAT,2,Startup Menu) End if End sub
Icons Displayed In Msgbox () Function Style Value 16 32 48 Text Displayed Stop sign Question mark Exclamation point Icon
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Information icon
Input box function The input box function is used to display a message box whwre the user can enter a value or message in form of text. Format Message=inputbox (prompt, title, default text, x-position, y-position) Prompt the message normally displayed as a question. Title the title of the inputbox function. Default text a text that appears in the inputbox field where the users can use it as his or her intended input or information he wishes to key in. X and y position indicate the coordinates of inputbox.
Example 1 Total
Add
Private sub cmdadd_click() Dim total as integer Dim x, y as integer X=inputbox (enter the value of x) Y=inputbox (enter the value of y) Txttotal.text=x+y End sub User defined functions These are those functions that user/programmer creates to perform a certain operation. Format Public function functionname (arg as datatype.) as datatype 54
Private function functionname (arg as datatype..) as datatype Public indicates that the function is applicable is to the whole program and private indicates that the function applicable to certain modules, statement or procedures only. User defined function can be created with add procedure dialog box. They can also be created in the code window by typing directly into it Example 1 Write a visual basic function using a function to calculate the grade of student based on average mark. Interface
Visual basic code Public Function grade(marks As Variant) As Variant Select Case txtmark.Text Case 80 To 100 txtgrade.Text = "DISTINCTION" Case 70 To 79 txtgrade.Text = "CREDIT" Case 60 To 69 txtgrade.Text = "PASS" 55
Case 50 To 59 txtgrade.Text = "REFFERED" Case 40 To 49 txtgrade.Text = "FAIL" Case 0 To 39 txtgrade.Text = "REPEAT" End Select End Function Private Sub cmddisplay_Click() Dim remarks As Variant Dim mark As Variant mark = Val(txtmark.Text) remarks = grade(marks) End Sub Example 2 Using a visual basic function calculate the area of a circle given: Pi=3.142 Radius=14cm Solution Visual basic Code Public Function area(r As Variant) As Variant Const pi = 3.142 Area = pi * r * r End Function Private Sub cmdcompute_Click ( ) Dim radius As Variant Radius = Val (txtradius.Text) Dim areas As Variant Areas = area (radius) MsgBox ("The area is:" & areas) End Sub
Example 3 56
Write a visual basic function that will calculate and display interest in textbox given: Amount Interest rate Period Solution =Kshs.10, 000 = 10% = 2 years
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Visual basic code Public Function interest (p As Variant, r As Variant, y As Variant) As Variant Interest = p * r * y / 100 End Function Private Sub cmdcalculate_Click() Dim amount As Variant Dim principle As Variant Dim rate As Variant Dim years As Variant Principle = Val(txtprinciple.Text) Rate = Val(txtrate.Text) Years = Val(txtyears.Text) Amount = interest(principle, rate, years) MsgBox ("The Future Value is: " & amount) End Sub Assignment to the students Using a function write a program that prints numbers from 10 to 0 but when it goes below zero it exits from executing. Write a visual basic program that accepts any three integers and then determines the highest number among them. Use a function. Write a visual basic program that accepts any three integers. Let the program divide the integers by numbers of integers entered. If it attempts to divide by zero exit the execution.
Procedures A procedure is a predefined function used to solve a problem in a project. Types of procedures in visual basic Event procedures These are procedures used to design programs that respond to events. For example Private Sub cmdcompute_Click() Block of statements End Sub General procedures These are procedures that are used to access any statement in a program. For example Const pi=3.142 Rate=10% 58
Sub procedures These are sub-routines which are logically accessed by programs in projects. They are local to the main program for example: Private Sub cmdcompute_Click () Block of statements End Sub Private sub calculate (arguments) Block of statements End sub
Function procedures A function returns a value to the calling function or statements for example: Private Function area (length as integer, width as integer) as integer Block of statements End Function
Function and procedure calling A function or procedure is called tom perform a certain operation. It then returns a value to the calling (main program) function statement or procedure. A function return value is specified in the body of the program by assigning a value to the function procedure name. Control then returns to the calling statement. Call-by-reference With call-by-reference the caller gives the called procedure or function the ability to directly access data and modify data if he called procedure of function so wishes. Call-by-value When an argument is called by value a copy of the of arguments value is passed to the calling procedure. Arguments passed by value use keyword Byval or by enclosing the arguments in parenthesis (). The arguments passed by references use the keyword Byref. For example: Function interest (Byval x as integer as integer) as integer Function interest (Byref x as integer as integer) as integer Parameter passing Parameters are those variables that are used to hold data to be passed to the calling statement or procedure. The process of transferring these parameters is called parameter passing. Arguments are real or actual values passed to calling statement or procedure. 59
Types of parameters Formal parameters These are labeled memory blank areas that are to be used to store values to be used during execution. They are identifiers rather than reserved words. Actual parameters These are variables that replace the formal parameters when the procedure or function is called. They are given the actual parameter list of procedure call.
Classes of parameters Value parameters Used to supply information to the procedure but they cannot be used to get information out of a procedure. Value parameters are declared by including their names and the corresponding datatype within a procedure header. Variable parameter Used in applications where information must be transferred in both directions between the procedure and procedure reference. When the procedure containing a variable parameter is accessed the actual parameter in the procedure reference is substituted by the formal parameter within the procedure itself.
Recursive Functions A recursive function/procedure calls itself either directly or indirectly through another call. Functions call other functions or procedures to return values. It is equally possible for a function to call itself. A recursive function or procedure is called to solve a certain problem. A recursive function or procedure problem solving approaches have a number of elements in common. The procedure only knows how to solve the simplest case(s) so called base case(s). If called with base case, the procedure stops recursively calling itself and simply returns to its caller. If called with a more complex problem, the procedure divides the problem into two conceptual pieces; a piece that knows what to do and a piece that doesnt know how to do it. The latter piece must resemble the original problem, but with a slightly simpler or smaller version of original problem. Because this new problem looks like the original the procedure launches a fresh copy (a call) of itself to go to and work on smaller problem. THIS IS CALLED RECURSIVE CALL. Example 1 60
Demonstrating factorial function Factorials are written using the! Symbol, and are defined as follows: 0!=1(by definition) 1!=1 2!=2x1=2 3!=3x2x1=6 4!=4x3x2x1=24 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120 To get factorial quickly we multiply the number by the previous factorial, i.e. 5! = 5 x 4! Similarly, 9! = 9 x 8! And 103! = 103 x 102! This means that if you know a factorial you can easily get the next one in the series.
Visual basic code Public Function factorial(ByVal y As Double) As Double If y <= 1 Then factorial = 1 'Base case Else factorial = y * factorial(y - 1) 'Recursive call 61
End If End Function Private Sub cmdcalculate_Click() Dim x, n As Integer Call lstvalues.Clear n = txtinput.Text For x = 0 To n lstvalues.AddItem Format$(x, "@@") & "!=" & -factorial((x)) Next x End Sub
Recursion and iteration Both recursion and iteration are based on control structure. Iteration uses repetition control structure while recursion uses selection control structure. Both recursion and iteration involve recursion. Iteration explicitly uses repletion control structure while recursion achieves repetition through repeated procedure calls. Iteration and recursion each involve termination test. Iteration terminates when the loop continuation condition fails, while recursion terminates when the base case is recognized. Iteration keeps modifying a counter until the counter assumes a value that makes loop continuation condition fail, recursion keeps producing smaller or simpler version of the original problem until the base case is reached. Both iteration and recursion can occur infinitely. An infinite loop loop occurs with iteration if loop continuation test becomes false, infinite recursion occurs if the recursion step (call) does not reduce the problem each time in a manner that converges on a base case. Scope of variables The scope of variables refers to the coverage or extent of variable reference in a program. In visual basic there are three scopes of variable: Local scope These are variables declared in a procedures body. Local variables are only referenced from where they are declared through end sub or end function. Module scope 62
These are variables declared in general declaration with dim keyword. By default, module variables can only be referenced in module in which they are declared. They are sometimes declared private scope. Public scope Refers to variables that are declared public. They are accessible to all modules.
Data structures These are variable that are used hold data that contain two or more elements together instead of single element. A tool for handling logically related data items. They are user defined and provide a method for packing together of different types and structure. Classes/types of data items There are two types of data structure: Static fixed-size data structure They are data structures that dont change during program execution. Dynamic data structure They are data structure that changes when the program executes. Data structures types Arrays This is a consecutive group memory of locations that all have the same name and datatype. This is a list of variables all with the same name and data type. When we work with single item, we only we only need to use one variable. However, if we have a list of item which are similar in type we need to declare an array of variables instead of using a variable for each item. For example: 63
Format Dim|Public|Private ArrayName(Subscript) As DataType ArrayName is the name of the array. Subscript is the dimensions of the array. DataType is any valid data type. Dim name as integer Dim names (10) as string single item more than two item
To refer to a particular location or element in the array, we specify the array name and an array element position number. For example: Dim numbers (3) as integer
Fixed-size array Dim array1 (6) As String Private Sub Form_Load() array1(0) = "Kisii" array1(1) = "Kisumu" array1(2) = 1234 array13) = 342 array1(4) = 234 array1(5) = 9804 End Sub Dynamic array Redim preserve array1 (0 to 7) As String Private Sub Form_Load() array1(0) = "Kisii" array1(1) = "Kisumu" array1(2) = 1234 64
array13) = 342 array1(4) = 234 array1(5) = 9804 Array1(6)=675 End Sub Declaring arrays Arrays can be declared as public in the code module, local. Module array are declared at general declarations using dim or private keywords. Local arrays are declared I the procedure using thew keywords dim or static. For example: Dim names (10) as string Public declared arrays declare arrays that are used throughout the program or application. The dim declaration arrays declare arrays that are only used in the procedure. The name of the arrays states the name to be used to be used to store arrays. The value or position number defines the upper bound (highest value) of the numbers and the lower bound(lowest value is zero(0).
Vb 1 dimensional array (1D)

Name(1) Name(2) Name(3) Name(4) Name(5) Name(6) Name(7) Name(8) Name(9) Name(10)
This is an array that consists of rows only. Example 1 Use an array and print ten names on a form.
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Dim studentName(10) As String Dim num As Integer Private Sub cmdprint_Click() For num = 1 To 10 studentName(num) = InputBox("Enter the student name", "Student names", "", 1500, 4500) If studentName(num) <> "" Then Form1.Print studentName(num) Else End End If 66
Next End Sub Example 2 Use an array and print ten names on a list box.
Code Dim studentName(10) As String Dim num As Integer Private Sub addName() For num = 1 To 10 studentName(num) = InputBox("Enter the student name") List1.AddItem studentName(num) Next End Sub 67
Private Sub cmdprint_Click() addName End Sub
Example 3 Use an array to print random numbers from 1 to 100 on a form.
Code Dim numbers(10) As Integer Private Sub cmdprint_Click() Dim x As Integer Randomize For x = 1 To 10 numbers(x) = Int(20 * Rnd + 2) 68
Next x For x = 1 To 10 Print numbers(x) Next x End Sub Multidimensional arrays These are those arrays that contain two or more indexes. Arrays that require two or more indexes to identify. For example: Dim a (2, 2) as integer Dim x (2, 4) as integer Like one dimensional array, multidimensional arrays can have public and local module scope. Function Lbound and Ubound can also used with multidimensional arrays. When calling the Ubound and Lbound the dimension is passed as an argument. Example 1 Write a visual basic that produces the data shown below on a form. Sales for May 2010 Week 1 2 3 4 Solution Sun 300 345 500 440 Mon 200 120 530 452 Tue 400 504 560 432 Wed 90 100 300 323 Thur 240 300 565 300 Fri 700 500 600 500
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Dim sales(5, 6) As String Private Sub Form_Load() sales(1, 0) = "WEEK" sales(1, 1) = "SUN" sales(1, 2) = "MON" sales(1, 3) = "TUE" sales(1, 4) = "WED" sales(1, 5) = "THUR" sales(1, 6) = "FRI" sales(2, sales(2, sales(2, sales(2, sales(2, sales(2, sales(2, 0) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) =1 = 300 = 200 = 400 = 90 = 240 = 700
sales(3, 0) = 2 70
sales(3, 1) sales(3, 2) sales(3, 3) sales(3, 4) sales(3, 5) sales(3, 6) sales(4, sales(4, sales(4, sales(4, sales(4, sales(4, sales(4, 0) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
= 345 = 120 = 504 = 100 = 300 = 500 =3 = 500 = 530 = 560 = 300 = 565 = 600 =4 = 440 = 452 = 432 = 323 = 300 = 500
sales(5, 0) sales(5, 1) sales(5, 2) sales(5, 3) sales(5, 4) sales(5, 5) sales(5, 6) End Sub
Private Sub cmddisplay_Click() Print sales(1, 0), sales(1, 1), sales(1, sales(1, 6) Print sales(2, 0), sales(2, 1), sales(2, sales(2, 6) Print sales(3, 0), sales(3, 1), sales(3, sales(3, 6) Print sales(3, 0), sales(3, 1), sales(3, sales(3, 6) Print sales(4, 0), sales(4, 1), sales(4, sales(4, 6) Print sales(5, 0), sales(5, 1), sales(5, sales(5, 6) End Sub
2), sales(1, 3), sales(1, 4), sales(1, 5), 2), sales(2, 3), sales(2, 4), sales(2, 5), 2), sales(3, 3), sales(3, 4), sales(3, 5), 2), sales(3, 3), sales(3, 4), sales(3, 5), 2), sales(4, 3), sales(4, 4), sales(4, 5), 2), sales(5, 3), sales(5, 4), sales(5, 5),
Control array Control arrays group together controls that provide same name and functionality. Each control array element maintains its own properties but shares its event procedure code with other control array element. Control arrays can be created in several ways, either by giving a control same name as another or by copying the forms and pasting the copy on a form. 71
Function arrays These are arrays that return a variant array at execution time. The values passed to arrays specify element values in returned array. The returned array element Lbound I either 1 or 0 depending on option base. Searching arrays There are two techniques to search for arrays: Linear search The computer compares each element of an array with the search key. Search key I the index specify the way to search for. Binary search In binary search the algorithm removes from consideration on behalf of the element in the array searched for after each comparison. The algorithm locates the middle element of the array and compares it with search key. If they are equal the search key is found and the array index of that element is returned. Example 1 Demonstrating linear search
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Vb code Private Sub cmdsearch_Click() Dim searchkey As Integer Dim element As Integer lblresult.Caption = "" searchkey = txtkey.Text element = linearsearch(array3(), searchkey) If element <> -1 Then lblresult.Caption = "Value was found" Else lblresult.Caption = "Value was not found" End If End Sub Private Sub lstdata_click() Dim x As Integer Call Randomize Call lstdata.Clear lblresult.Caption = "" For x = LBound(array3) To UBound(array3) 73
array3(x) = 1 + Int(100 * Rnd()) Call lstdata.AddItem(array3(x)) Next x End Sub Public Function linearsearch(y() As Integer, key As Integer) As Integer Dim x As Integer For x = LBound(y) To UBound(y) If y(x) = key Then linearsearch = x Exit Function End If Next x linearsearch = -1 End Function Private Sub Form_Load() Call lstdata_click End Sub
QUEUES This a chain of of data items in the computer memory awaiting execution. Queues use FIFO, first datum in is the first datum out. Characteristics of queues Data is entered to the end but removed from the front. The term FIFO is used to describe queues because first datum in is the first datum out. Each data stays in the storage location until its turn comes thereby reducing time spent in data movement. Overflow and underflow Underflow occurs when an attempt is made to remove data from an empty queue. Overflow occurs when an attempt is made to add data to a queue when all available memory space are occupied. Linked lists Lists are flexible ways of handling data items in order. For example: Alex Does Not Like Cakes
Each word in the sentence is a data item, which is linked to the next data item by a pointer. Datum plus a pointer make a node or element of a list. The last item in the list is a terminator. This may be stored in an array of records. Each row of an VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 74
array is one element in the list. A start pointer saying where the first datum is stored and a free storage pointer saying where the next datum can go.
Start pointer
Free storage pointer
ROW NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
DATUM ALEX DOES NOT LIKE CAKES
POINT TO THE NEXT NO 2 3 4 5 -1
COMMENT NEXT DATUM NEXT DATUM NEXT DATUM NEXT DATUM LAST DATUM EMPTY EMPTY
Types of linked lists Single linked lists The element of the record has only one pointer. Head
Address 1
Address 2
Address 3
Double linked lists The element of the record has two pointers, one pointer for giving the address of the following record another for giving the address of the proceeding record. Head
R Circular linked lists 75

The pointer of the last record gives the address first record thus this form a circular or ring of records.
Address 1
Address 2
Address 3
Trees Trees these are hierarchal data structure constructed using rule of precedence for data items using alphabetical or numerical sequence. The elements of a tree are called nodes and each element consists of a datum and at least two pointers. 56 Left pointer 42 89 Datum 65 48 Right pointer
56 is the first datum placed I the tree. Its node is therefore called parent node or root node. We add 42 to the tree next using rule of precedence; lower number to the left and higher number to the right.
Start
56
42
89
-1
48
-1
-1
65
-1
76
A S B S E S F P A S E M H Q D C
K S
STACKS They are used to temporarily store information or data. Related to queues but data is removed and added differently. Data is added at the top and removed from top using LIFO. Location of address Contents Order of arrival Order of removal Next 101 20 1 5 removal pointer 102 103 104 4 19 12 2 3 4 4 3 2 105 16 5 1 106 107 108 109
110
77
FILE INPUT/OUTPUT A file is a collection of data on a given subject, stored in a storage memory. We have executable files with .EXE extensions, library files with .DLL extensions, word files with .DOC extensions etc. Terms used in files Record A logical section of a file that holds related data set. Field A field is a section of a record which defines specific information. I/O Stands for input output. This is a means of writing and reading from a file. Types of files in visual basic Assignment File organization methods Sequential files This is a method where the files are written in order from beginning to the end. Advantages Disadvantages Random files A file where all records are accessible individually. They are scattered in a storage media. Advantages Disadvantages 78
Binary file The data is stored in byte level and you can read and write individually to the file. Serial file They are files stored in series of one another. Advantages Disadvantages Indexed files These are files that are stored and accessed using indexes. The files are accessed using keys. Advantages Disadvantages
Opening The OPEN command is used to open files. Open command assigns the files to a numbered file handle, also called channel or sometimes buffer. Syntax/format Open file number [accessmode][accessrestriction][locktype]as # filenumber Example 1 Open Git.txt for random read lock read as #1 Git.txt is the name of the file i9n the directory. For random means access to the record can be random. Read restricts access of the file to read only. Lock read means that only persons reading the records can have access to it at any time. As # 1 means that the file is assigned to handle # 1. Access modes Input It is open for sequential files input; the file will be read sequentially starting with the beginning. Output It is open for sequential files output; the file will be read sequentially starting with the beginning. Random 79
Open to read and write; any specific record can be accessed. Append Sequential output to the end of existing files; does not overwrite the file.
Closing files The CLOSE command is used to close all the open files. Syntax/format Close #fileformat1 [ #filenumber2]. Creating a sequential file in visual basic There are two commands that allow reading and writing to a file sequentially. Print reading Write writing They work almost the same only that print does not separate the fields in the file which makes data harder to read later. Format Write #filenumber, outputlist. File number is the number the file was opened with. Output list is one or more variables you want write to the file.
Example 1 Create a simple contacts file to store the students records (contacts). File design Determine the fields to have on the address book for example seven textboxes. Determine the name of the address book for example contacts.txt Determine where to store the file for example C:\. We must know the location for the purpose of the open statement. Determine the mode of access for the file when we output it for example input, output, random, append etc. Set the tab order; use the tab index property at properties window for each control on the form. It enables the user to tab as he enters data. For controls that dont have focus such as labels set their tabstop property to false.
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In setting properties for textboxes we will use control arrays technique. This is where we name one textbox and copy the same name to other six textboxes; txtfield (0) to txtfield (6). This creates an array of textboxes for output form (file).
Vb code Private Sub cmdwrite_Click ( ) Dim x As Integer Dim y As Integer For x = 0 To 6 Write #1, txtfield(x).Text Next x For y = 0 To 6 txtfield(y).Text = "" Next y End Sub Private Sub cmdcancel_Click() Dim x As Integer For x = 0 To 6 81
txfield(x).Text = "" Next x txtfield (0).SetFocus End Sub Private Sub cmdexit_Click() Unload Form1 End Sub Private Sub Form_Load() Dim x as Integer For x = 0 To 6 txtfield(x).Text = "" Next x Open "C:\contacts.txt" For Append As #1 End Sub Creating a random file in visual basic Since the file format for random file is different from the sequential file we will create a new output file called phonebook.txt. We will add a field for Personid at the beginning of each record. This allows the retrieval of records using a record number. User defined data types We will user defined data types to simplify input-output operations since the Get and Put commands only insert one field at a time. We will create a new variable that contains a whole record. The user defined data types must be declared in the module. Any information declared in the module is available to all forms in the application.
Private type phonerecord Personalid as integer Fname as string * 15 Lname as string * 15 Address as string * 15 Province as string * 10 Town as string * 10 Code as string * 10 Phone as string *10 End type 82
The type statement creates a new data called phonerecord. The remaining type can be like any other string or integer. The individual fields in the structured variable can be accessed using dot notation. Txttown.text=inrecord.town In random files it is important to determine the length of the string. Fname as string *15 Writing records to files The command used to write records to random files is Put. Format Put #filenumber, [recordnumber], variable. The recordnumber is optional Variables are written in the next record position after the last put or get statement if omitted. Reading records from file The command to read records from the random file is Get. Format Get #filenumber, [filenumber, [recordnumber], variable If record number is omitted the next record is read from the file. Creating random file We will write a code using the user defined data types called phonebook that will obtain the next record number from file, accepts input from user and write the record out of the file.
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Dim outrecord As phonerecord Dim inrecord As Integer Dim position As Integer Dim lastrecord As Integer Private type phonerecord PersonalId As Integer Fname As String * 15 Lname As String * 15 Address As String * 20 Province As String * 15 Town As String * 10 Code As String * 8 Phone As String * 15 End type
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Private Sub cmdwrite_Click ( ) Dim x As Integer Position = position + 1 txtfield(0).Text = position outrecord.PersonalId = position outrecord.Fname = txtfield(1).Text outrecord.Lname = txtfield(2).Text outrecord.Address = txtfield(3).Text outrecord.Town = txtfield(4).Text outrecord.Province = txtfield(5).Text outrecord.Code = txtfield(6).Text outrecord.Phone = txtfield(7).Text Put #1, , outrecord For x = 0 To 7 txtfield(x).Text = " " Next x End Sub Private Sub cmdcancel_Click() Dim x As Integer For x = 0 To 4 txtfield(x).Text = "" Next x txtfield(0).SetFocus End Sub Private Sub Form_Load ( ) Dim x As Integer For x = 0 To 7 txtfield(x).Text = "" Next x Open "C:\contacts.txt" For Random As #1 Do While Not EOF (1) Get #1, , outrecord Loop Position = lastrecord Lastrecord = Seek (1) - 1 End Sub VISUAL BASIC AND DATABASES (MS ACCESS 2003/2007 OR MSSQL)
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Introduction to Visual Basic 6.

TOOLBOX CONTROLS Textbox - txt 1

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

Compute the sum of the two integers

The sum of the two integers

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

TypeOf Until WeekDay WithEvents

UBound Val WeekDayNa me Write

UCase Variant When WriteLine

Unicode VarType While WriteOnly

Unlock VbTypeName With Xor

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File Handling (Generic)

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VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

Friend - Allows procedure to be callable from modules outside the class

GetObject - Return a reference to an ActiveX component

CreateObject - Creates and returns a reference to an ActiveX object

GetAutoServerSettings - Returns information about the state of an ActiveX component's registration.

Enum - Declares a type for an enumeration

Event - Declares a user-defined event VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL 17

TypeName - Returns the type of data in a variable

VarType - Returns the type of data in a variable

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

Types of Operators Visual Basic provides the following types of operators:

Ways to minimize errors

The Watch Window.

Private Sub Command1_Click() 26

Viewing Variables in the Locals Window:

Single Stepping (Step Into):

Procedure Stepping (Step Over):

Function Exit (Step Out):

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

Enter the age Message

Display the age

Display the message If age>=18

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VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

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Flow chart Start

Example 1 Printing numbers between 1 and 10

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VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

Code Private sub cmdprint_click() Dim x as integer X=1 Do Print x 47

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

Example Message=Msgbox(click to proceed1,gretings)

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Sad PI PII Example 1 Maths Average Grade

VISUAL BASIC 6.0 TUTORIAL PREPARED BY: KABA N. DANIEL

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