Introduction to DBMS

What is a Database?

A structured collection of related data An filing cabinet, an address book, a telephone directory, a timetable, etc. In Access, your Database is your collection of related tables

 A database is a storage space for content / information (data) But what is data? And where is it now?
Data is factual information about objects and concepts, such as:
Measurements, statistics

You can find it in:

Filing cabinets, spreadsheets, folders, ledgers, lists, colleagues

memories, piles of papers on your desk

Data vs. Information

Data a collection of facts made up of text, numbers and dates: Murray 35000 7/18/86 Information - the meaning given to data in the way it is interpreted:
Mr. Murray is a sales person whose annual salary is $35,000 and wrhose hire date is July 18, 1986. Data -> Field -> Record ->Table

What does managing information mean?

Making information work for us
Making information useful Avoiding "accidental disorganisation Making information easily accessible and integrated

with the rest of our work

Managing as re-organising
We often need to access and re-sort data for various uses. These may include:
Creating mailing lists Writing management reports Generating lists of selected news stories Identifying various client needs

Managing as re-processing
The processing power of a database allows it to:
Sort Match Link Aggregate Skip fields

Calculate
Arrange

Database Management System (DBMS)

Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and efficient to use. Database Applications: Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Purpose of Database System

In the early days, database applications were built

on top of file systems Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:

Data redundancy and inconsistency

Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files Need to write a new program to carry out each new task

Difficulty in accessing data

Data isolation multiple files and formats

Integrity problems

Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become part of program code Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

 Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.) Atomicity of updates

Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all Concurrent accessed needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time

Concurrent access by multiple users

Security problems

Database systems offer solutions to all the above

problems

In Short, A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer programs that controls the creation, maintenance, and the use of a database. It allows organizations to place control of database development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. A DBMS is a system software package that helps the use of integrated collection of data records and files known as databases. It allows different user application programs to easily access the same database. DBMSs may use any of a variety of database models, such as the network model or relational model. In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a structured way. Instead of having to write computer programs to extract information, user can ask simple questions in a query language. Thus, many DBMS packages provide Fourth-generation programming language (4GLs) and other application development features. It helps to specify the logical organization for a database and access and use the information within a database. It provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency, and restoring the database from backups. A DBMS also provides the ability to logically present database information to users.

Levels of Data Abstraction

Physical level describes how a record (e.g.,

customer) is stored. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data. type customer = record name : string; street : string; city : integer; end; View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information (e.g., salary) for security purposes.

View of Data
An architecture for a database system
What data users and application programs see ? What data is stored ? describe data properties such as data semantics, data relationships How data is actually stored ? e.g. are we using disks ? Which file system ?

Database Languages and Interfaces

provide appropriate languages and interfaces for each category of users.

DBMS Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are used to define internal and external schemas.

DDL Compiler
Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to specify database retrievals and updates (insertion, deletion, modifications)

- DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a generalpurpose programming language (host language).
- Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly (query language).

Types of DML -Procedural DML:

Also called record-at-a-time (record-oriented) or low-level DML Must be embedded in a programming language. Searches for and retrieves individual database records and uses looping and other constructs of the host programming language to retrieve multip records.

-Declarative or non-procedural DML:

Also called set-at-a-time (set-oriented) or high-level DML. Can be used as a stand-alone query language or can be embedded in a programming language. Searches for and retrieves information from multiple related database records in a single command.
- host language: general-purpose language - data sublanguage: DML - C++

Data Models
A collection of tools for describing data data relationships data semantics data constraints Entity-Relationship model

Relational model
Other models: object-oriented model semi-structured data models Older models: network model and hierarchical model

Entity-Relationship Model
Example of schema in the entity-relationship model

Entity Relationship Model (Cont.)

E-R model of real world Entities (objects)

E.g. customers, accounts, bank branch E.g. Account A-101 is held by customer Johnson Relationship set depositor associates customers with accounts

Relationships between entities

Widely used for database design Database design in E-R model usually converted to design in the relational model (coming up next) which is used for storage and processing

Relational Model
Attributes

Example of tabular data in the relational model

Customerid 192-83-7465 019-28-3746
192-83-7465 321-12-3123 019-28-3746 customername Johnson Smith Johnson Jones customerstreet Alma North Alma Main North customercity

accountnumber
A-101 A-215 A-201 A-217 A-201

Palo Alto
Rye Palo Alto Harrison Rye

Smith

A Sample Relational Database

Categories of data models

Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models: Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data. (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.) Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the computer. Implementation (representational) data models: Provide concepts that fall between the above two, balancing user views with some computer storage details.
Slide 2-21

HistoryModel:Data Models Codd of proposed in 1970 by E.F. Relational

(IBM), first commercial system in 1981-82. Now in several commercial products (DB2, ORACLE, SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX). Network Model: the first one to be implemented by Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System). Adopted heavily due to the support by CODASYL (CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971). Later implemented in a large variety of systems - IDMS (Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys), IMAGE (H.P.), VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp.). Hierarchical Data Model: implemented in a joint effort by IBM and North American Rockwell around 1965. Resulted in the IMS family of systems. The most popular model. Other system based on this model: Slide 2-22 System 2k (SAS inc.)

History of Data Models

Object-oriented Data Model(s): several models have been

proposed for implementing in a database system. One set comprises models of persistent O-O Programming Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE). Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB). Object-Relational Models: Most Recent Trend. Started with Informix Universal Server. Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i, DB2, and SQL Server etc. systems.

Slide 2-23

Hierarchical Model
ADVANTAGES:
Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and operate on Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically

organized domains - e.g., assemblies in manufacturing, personnel organization in companies Language is simple; uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET NEXT WITHIN PARENT etc.

DISADVANTAGES:
Navigational and procedural nature of processing Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of records Little scope for "query optimization"
Slide 2-24

Network Model ADVANTAGES:

Network Model is able to model complex relationships and

represents semantics of add/delete on the relationships. Can handle most situations for modeling using record types and relationship types. Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND, FIND member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT within set, GET etc. Programmers can do optimal navigation through the database.

DISADVANTAGES:
Navigational and procedural nature of processing Database contains a complex array of pointers that thread
Slide 2-25

through a set of records. Little scope for automated "query optimization

By adding or removing a record type or data item to expand the database reduce the database Logical Data Independence: The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change the external schemas and their application programs. Physical Data Independence: The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change the conceptual schema.

Data Independence

Reorganize physical files to improve performance e.g. List all sections offered in Fall 1998 When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings between this schema and higher-lever schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully supports data independence. The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged. Hence, the application programs need not be changed since they refer to the external schemas.

Disadvantages of two levels of mappings: Overhead during compilation or execution of a query or program

Components of DBMS DBMS Engine accepts logical request from the various other DBMS subsystems, converts them into physical equivalents, and actually accesses the database and data dictionary as they exist on a storage device. Data Definition Subsystem helps user to create and maintain the data dictionary and define the structure of the files in a database. Data Manipulation Subsystem helps user to add, change, and delete information in a database and query it for valuable information. Software tools within the data manipulation subsystem are most often the primary interface between user and the information contained in a database. It allows user to specify its logical information requirements. Application Generation Subsystem contains facilities to help users to develop transaction-intensive applications. It usually requires that user perform a detailed series of tasks to process a transaction. It facilitates easyto-use data entry screens, programming languages, and interfaces. Data Administration Subsystem helps users to manage the overall database environment by providing facilities for backup and recovery, security management, query optimization, concurrency control, and change management.

Components of DBMS

DBMS Component Modules

Overall System Structure

indices Data files

Statistical data Data dictionary

disk storage

Components of a DBMS

Multi-User DBMS Architectures

Teleprocessing File-server Client-server

Teleprocessing
Traditional architecture.
Single mainframe with a number of terminals

attached.
Trend is now towards downsizing.

Teleprocessing Topology

File-Server
File-server is connected to several workstations

across a network.

Database resides on file-server. DBMS and applications run on each

workstation.

Disadvantages include:
Significant network traffic. Copy of DBMS on each workstation. Concurrency, recovery and integrity control more complex.

File-Server Architecture

Client-Server
Server holds the database and the DBMS.
Client manages user interface and runs

applications. Advantages include:

wider access to existing databases; increased performance; possible reduction in hardware costs; reduction in communication costs; increased consistency.

Client-Server Architecture

Alternative Client-Server Topologies

Transaction Processing Monitors

Program that controls data transfer between clients

and servers in order to provide a consistent environment, particularly for Online Transaction Processing (OLTP).

Transaction Processing Monitor as middle tier of a three-tier client-server architecture

System Catalog
Repository of information (metadata) describing

the data in the database. Typically stores:

names of authorized users;

names of data items in the database;

constraints on each data item; data items accessible by a user and the type of access.

Used by modules such as Authorization Control

and Integrity Checker.

Information Resource Dictionary System (IRDS)

Response to an attempt to standardize data

dictionary interfaces.
Objectives: extensibility of data; integrity of data; controlled access to data.

IRDS services interface