A Report on the Vocational Training at NTPC Noida

Submitted By: Abhijeet J Bhaskar BE/1318/07 EEE

Contents
1. Preface. 1 2. Acknowledgement.. 2 3. NTPC- Company overview. 3 4. Introduction. 20 5. Site requirement.. 21 6. Technical specification... 23 7. Transformers... 25 Constructional features... 25 Cooling of transformer....................... 36 Parts of an oil filled transformer.... 40 Test requirement for transformers.. 48 8. Major transformers in a power station.... 53

Preface
As a part of my four-year Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) degree from Birla Institute Of Technology, MESRA I got an opportunity to undergo a training from 10th May 2010 to 10th July 2010. The report largely gives an overview of the quality and assurance department (electrical) at NTPC Noida. It also consists of a brief description of transformers including various tests which are carried out during the manufacturing process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The opportunity of working on a project with NTPC is indeed a rewarding experience. I enunciate my gratitude to Mr. S.D. Singh, DGM for permitting to undertake a project in the company. Words are not enough to express my sincerest gratitude to Dr. B.M. Karan, HOD Electrical and whole of the department for their priceless and inestimable facilitation, in the absence of which the accomplishment of this project-work would not have been possible. The kind of value addition which I have done to my existing knowledge base is exceptional and I will cherish these moments throughout my life.

NTPC (NATIONAL THERMAL POWER CORPORATION)

THE COMPANY National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) is the largest thermal power generating company of India. A public sector company wholly owned by Government of India, it was incorporated in the year 1975 to accelerate power development in the country. Within a span of 30 years, NTPC has emerged as a truly national power company, with power generating facilities in all the major regions of the country. Based on 1998 data, carried out by Datamonitor UK, NTPC is the 6th largest in terms of thermal power generation and the second most efficient in terms of capacity utilization amongst the thermal utilities in the world. NTPC's core business is engineering, construction and operation of power generating plants and also provides consultancy to power utilities in India and abroad.As on date the installed capacity of NTPC is 21,749 MW through its 13 coal based (17,480 MW), 7 gas based (3,955 MW) and 3 Joint Venture Projects (314 MW). NTPC acquired 50% equity of the SAIL Power Supply Corporation Ltd. (SPSCL). This JV company operates the captive power plants of Durgapur (120 MW), Rourkela (120 MW) and Bhilai (74 MW). NTPC is also managing Badarpur thermal power station (705 MW) of Government of India . NTPC's share on 31 Mar 2004 in the total installed capacity of the country was 19.4% and it contributed 27.1% of the total power generation of the country during 2003-04. NTPC has set new benchmarks for the power industry both in the area of power plant construction and operations. It is providing power at the cheapest average tariff in the country. With its experience and expertise in the power sector, NTPC is extending consultancy services to various organisations in the power business. NTPC has entered into a joint venture with Alstom, Germany for renovation and modernisation of power plants in India. NTPC is committed to the environment, generating power at minimal environmental cost and preserving the ecology in the vicinity of the plants.

NTPC has undertaken massive afforestation in the vicinity of its plants. Plantations have increased forest area and reduced barren land. The massive afforestation by NTPC in and around its Ramagundam Power station (2100 MW) have contributed reducing the temperature in the areas by about 3c. NTPC has also taken proactive steps for ash utilisation. In 1991, it set up Ash Utilisation Division to manage efficient use of the ash produced at its coal stations. This quality of ash produced is ideal for use in cement, concrete, cellular concrete, building material. A "Centre for Power Efficiency and Environment Protection (CENPEEP)" has been established in NTPC with the assistance of United States Agency for International Development. (USAID). Cenpeep is efficiency oriented, ecofriendly and eco-nurturing initiative - a symbol of NTPC's concern towards environmental protection and continued commitment to sustainable power development in India. As a responsible corporate citizen, NTPC is making constant efforts to improve the socio-economic status of the people affected by the its projects. Through it's Rehabilitation and Resettlement programmes, the company endeavors to improve the overall socio-economic status of Project Affected Persons. NTPC was among the first Public Sector Enterprises to enter into a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the Government in 1987-88 NTPC has been Placed under the 'Excellent category' (the best category) every year since the MOU system became operative. Recognising its excellent performance and vast potential, Government of the India has identified NTPC as one of the jewels of Public Sector 'Maharatna'a potential global giant. Inspired by its glorious past and vibrant present, NTPC is well on its way to realize it's vision of being "one of the world's largest and best power utilities, powering India's growth".

INSTALLED CAPACITY

AN OVERVIEW Commissioned Capacity (MW)

Projects

No. of Projects

NTPC OWNED COAL GAS/LIQ. FUEL TOTAL OWNED BY JVCs Coal GRAND TOTAL 3 23 314* 22,249 13 07 20 17,980 3,955 21,935

* Captive Power Plant under JV with SAIL

PROJECT PROFILE Coal Stations Commissioned Capacity (MW) 2,000 2,100 2,100 1,600 2,260 1,000 840 840 2,500 840 460 1,000 440 17,980

Coal based

State

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Singrauli Korba Ramagundam Farakka Vindhyachal Rihand Kahalgaon Dadri Talcher Kaniha

Uttar Pradesh Chattisgarh Andhra Pradesh West Bengal Madhya Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Bihar Uttar Pradesh Orissa Uttar Pradesh Orissa Andhra Pradesh Uttar Pradesh

10. Unchahar 11. Talcher Thermal 12. Simhadri 13. Tanda Total (Coal)

Capacity presently under implementation

Talcher II 500 MW Ramagundam III 500 MW

Rihand II 1000 MW Vindhyachal 1000 MW Unchahar 210 MW Kahalgaon Stage II - Phase I 1500 MW - Phase II 1000 MW

Gas/Liq. Fuel Stations Commissioned Capacity (MW) 413 652 645 817 648 350 430 3,955 314 22,249

Gas based

State

14. Anta 15. Auraiya 16. Kawas 17. Dadri 18. Jhanor-Gandhar 19. Kayamkulam 20. Faridabad Total (Gas) Through Joint Venture

Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Kerala Haryana

Grand Total (Coal + Gas + JV) Power Stations Managed by NTPC Managed By NTPC State

Installed Capacity

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(MW) 21. Badarpur Total Delhi 705 705

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POWER STATIONS

[ Singrauli | Korba | Ramagundam | Farakka | Vindhyachal | Rihand ] [ Kahalgaon | NCTPP | Talcher Kaniha | Unchahar | Talcher Thermal | Simhadri | Tanda] [ Anta | Auraiya | Kawas | Dadri Gas | Jhanor-Gandhar | Kayamkulam | Faridabad]

JOINT VENTURES NTPC, with a rich experience of engineering, constructing and operating nearly 20,000 MW of thermal generating capacity, is the largest and one of

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the most efficient power companies in India, having operations that match the global standards. NTPC has identified Joint Ventures, strategic alliances as well as acquisitions and diversifications as viable and desired options for its business development. NTPC looks for opportunity to create such joint ventures and strategic alliances, in the entire value chain of the power business. NTPC as a partner endows the Joint Venture Alliances with a winning edge. Acquisitions and Diversifications in the areas related to the core business not only ensure growth but also add to the robustness of the company. Diversification is carried out either directly or through subsidiaries/JVs.

JOINT VENTURE PARTNERS NTPC -ALSTOM POWER SERVICES PVT. LTD. (NASL) (Incorporated in 1999 and formerly known as NTPC-ABB ALSTOM POWER SERVICES PVT. LTD) UTILITY POWER TECH LTD (Incorporated in 1996) This JV has been promoted with BSES Limited, a private sector Indian power company. POWER TRADING CORPORATION (Incorporated in 1998) This JV has been promoted with Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd (PGCIL), a Government owned transmission major in India. Power Finance Corporation (PFC), a power sector finance company owned by the Government of India and National Hydro Electric Power Corporation Ltd. (NHPC), a Government owned hydro power utility. NTPC-SAIL POWER COMPANY (PVT) LTD (NSPCL) This JV has been formed on 23rd March, 2001 with Steel Authority of India Ltd (SAIL), a Government of India undertaking engaged in the steel manufacturing business and owns four large integrated steel plants in the country. BHILAI ELECTRIC SUPPLY COMPANY LTD (BESCL) This JV has been formed on 22nd March, 2002 with Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), a Government of India undertaking engaged in the steel manufacturing business.

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ACQUISITION Business development through Acquisition serves both NTPC's own commercial interest as well as the interest of the Indian economy Taking over being a part of the acquisition process, is also an opportunity for NTPC to add to its power generation capacity through minimal investment and very low gestation period. NTPC has, over the years, acquired the following three power stations belonging to other utilities/SEBs and has turned around each of them using its corporate abilities. POWER STATIONS TAKEN OVER YEAR ORIGINAL OWNER

2x210 MW FEROZE GANDHI UP RajyaVidyut UNCHAHAR THERMAL 1991 Utpadan Nigam of POWER STATION Uttar Pradesh 4x60 MW + 2x110 MW TALCHER THERMAL POWER STATION 4x110 MW TANDA THERMAL POWER STATION Orissa State Electricity Board

1995

2000

UP State Electricity Board

DIVERSIFICATION To broad-base the business and also to ensure growth, diversification in the areas related to NTPC's core business of power generation such as Hydro power, Distribution, Trading, Coal mining, LNG etc. have been identified as priority areas.

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A. HORIZONTAL DIVERSIFICATION - HYDRO POWER The urgent need for adding peak load stations coupled with shortage of domestic fuels and concern for environmental pollution prompted the Government to lay thrust on adding hydro stations. This has provided NTPC with an opportunity to horizontally diversify and set up hydro electric power stations towards the due need of operating peak load demands and thermal for base load. In 1997 NTPC started the preliminary activities to tap a part of the abundant hydro electric potential of the country by identifying suitable projects for development. Northern Region and more specifically Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh were targeted for initial entry in hydro sector. NTPC's venture in hydro sector became a reality when Koldam Project, a green field Hydro Electric project of 800 MW capacity in the State of Himachal Pradesh, was formally assigned to NTPC on 26th Feb. 2000. An MOU has been signed with Govt. of Uttranchal on 31.12.02 for implementation of Lohari-Nagpala(4x130MW) and Tapovan Vishnugad (360MW)Hydro Electric power Project in the state of Uttaranchal on BOOM basis, subject to techno-commercial viability of the project, and clearance of MOEF. In order to develop small and medium Hydro Electric Power Project up to 250 MW capacity a wholly owned subsidiary company named NTPC Hydro Ltd. has been incorporated on 12th December 2002. More hydro projects are being explored to find out the techno-economic viability for development by NTPC. The company intends to add at least 3000 MW capacity through hydro projects by the end of X Plan. B. VERTICAL (FOREWARD) INTEGRATION - DISTRIBUTION AND POWER TRADING: In order to diversify along the power value chain, NTPC has gone in for distribution and power trading to ensure forward linkages and also enhance revenue channels. To acquire, establish and operate electrical systems etc. for distribution and supply of electrical energy to consumers, a subsidiary company named as NTPC Electric Supply Company Ltd. (NESCL) has been incorporated.

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In order to undertake business of sale and purchase of electric power, a subsidiary company known as NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Ltd. (NVVNL) has also been incorporated. C. VERTICAL (BACKWARD) INTEGRATION - COAL MINING AND LNG BUSINESS: COAL MINING: The policy changes in coal sector provide an opportunity to NTPC to enter captive coal mining business. NTPC is contemplating captive mines in North Karanpura area of Central Coal-fields Ltd (CCL) and Talcher area of Mahandi Coal-fields Ltd (MCL). Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Ltd (CMPDIL) (a subsidiary of Coal India Ltd), Ranchi is being appointed as a consultant for assisting and guiding NTPC in various activities of captive mining. COAL WASHERIES: NTPC is intending to set up coal washeries in the following three coal mine areas: Amlori area under Northern Coal-fields Ltd. (NCL) Talcher area under Mahandi Coal-fields Ltd. (MCL) North Karanpura under Central Coal-fields Ltd. (CCL) Feasibility studies for Amlori area is already completed in December 2002. NTPC has appointed Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Ltd. (CMPDIL) (a subsidiary of Coal India Ltd), Ranchi, India as the consultant for the feasibility studies. LNG: NTPC is contemplating procurement of LNG fuel/Natural Gas for expanding its gas based power projects at Anta, Auraiya, Kawas & Jhanor - Gandhar in North India with cumulative capacity addition of 2600 MW and at Kayamkulam in South India by 1950 MW. Fuel requirement for North India is approximately 3.0 MMTPA and for South India is 2.0 MMTPA. Accordingly LNG fuel/Natural Gas terminals have been planned, one each in North India and in South India, to be commissioned by prospective suppliers.

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NTPC intends to keep options for 26% equity stake in regasification terminal and may seek 10% equity in liquefaction terminal. D. STEP TOWARDS GLOBALISATION NTPC is exploring the possibility of setting up a Gas Based Combined Cycle Power Plant in Bangladesh through Joint Venture with Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and Petro Bangla. NTPC has signed an MOU with Black and Veatch (USA) for rendering services in the areas of Engineering, Project Management, Operation and Maintenance, Quality Assurance etc. NTPC and BHEL have joined hands to work as consortium partners to set up a 500MW integrated water and power project with 30MGD of desalination plant in Oman on BOO basis.

CONSULTANCY From concept to commissioning and beyond NTPC, as a consultant in power business, follows an integrated approach to problem solving for business organisations from all over the world. Combining the technical, managerial and financial skills, and keeping in mind the cross-functional implications, it provides the holistic solution for organizations in power and related infrastructure organisation in power and related infrastructure sector.

An entire gamut of services is offered in the areas mentioned above. These are :

Owner's Engineer Services Lender's Engineer Services Environment Engineering and Management Procurement Services Project Management Quality Assurance and Inspection Services

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Materials Management Construction Management, Erection and Commissioning Financial Systems and Modeling Operation and Maintenance Restoration, Efficiency Improvement and Renovation and Modernization HRD and Training Research and Development Information Technology Management Consultancy

Largest Power Utility in South Asia In 25 years since its inception, NTPC has emerged as the largest power utility in South Asia, owning 13 Coal based Super Thermal Power Stations and 7 Gas based Combined Cycle Power Plants, with a approved capacity of 23,955 MW and has total installed capacity of 19,435 MW. In a survey carried out by MarketLine International Ltd, London, NTPC has been ranked as the 6th Largest Thermal Power Generating Company in the World and the 2nd most efficient in capacity utilization amongst these thermal power generators.

Integrated Project Management NTPC follows a systems approach to Project Management integrating the various functions such as Engineering, Procurement, Quality Assurance & Inspection, Construction Management, Operations Management etc. in all facets of project construction from Concept to Commissioning. In recognition of the systems adopted by NTPC and quality of services provided, NTPC has received ISO 9000 accreditation for most of its divisions at Corporate Centre including Consultancy Wing and its various Power Stations.

Expertise from Concept to Commissioning NTPC has the capability and expertise to provide the total range of services

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from Concept to Commissioning of Power Stations covering areas such as feasibility & EIA studies, design, engineering, QA&I, construction supervision, testing, commissioning, operation and maintenance and training etc.

Expertise based on rich O&M experience NTPC has developed rich experience in engineering and O&M of conventional fossil fuel fired Power Plants based based on Coal/Oil as well as Gas/liquid fuel by way of implementation of its own Power Plants covering 32 units of 200/210 MW & 16 units of 500 MW of Coal/Oil fired Plants and 7 Gas based Combined Cycle Power Plants

O&M feedback incorporated in designs Being a power utility itself, NTPC has the unique advantage of receiving regular feedback on various operational and maintenance aspects from its generating plants. This feedback is suitably incorporated for improvement in future designs.

State-of-the-art equipment/systems procured through ICB Most of the NTPC power plants have been funded by International Funding Agencies like the World Bank, KfW, ADB, JBIC, etc. These plants incorporate state-of-the-art equipment and systems generally procured through International Competitive Bidding (ICB).

Experience of various Equipment/Systems NTPC has the varied and rich experience of working with Plant & Equipment sourced from different parts of the world such as USA, UK, France, Germany, Japan, Italy, Russia, etc.

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Registered with World Bank & other Funding Agencies NTPC is registered as a Consultant with the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank and other international funding agencies. Experience of working with International Consultants NTPC engineers have had the opportunity of working in close association with several international consultants viz. Black and Veatch Intl., USA; UE&C, USA; British Electricity International, U.K.; EDF, France; Gilbert Commonwealth, USA and many more. Experience of working overseas NTPC has experience in working overseas in countries of West Asian countries (middle east), SAARC countries and Africa. Familiarity with Environment Regulations With funding from International Funding Agencies, NTPC is fully familiar with the requirements of various Environment Control Regulations imposed by statutes and the funding agencies. Performance comparable to best performing utilities During the year 2000-2001 NTPC stations have generated 130 Billion units of electricity, which is about 26% of the total annual generation in the country. NTPC coal based Stations recorded an impressive Plant Load Factor (PLF) of above 80%. Due to successful implementation of modern management systems, NTPC power plants could achieve performance level comparable to most efficient power plants of the World. Largest pool of qualified manpower NTPC has a vast pool of over 24,000 qualified technical and managerial manpower. This include over 6800 executives, well supported by highly trained staff and other infrastructure facilities for providing services for its own Power Plants as well as to its distinguished Clients in various areas. Training facilities NTPC has full-fledged facilities in Power Management Institute (PMI), Noida, for providing training in all aspects of Management and Systems for power sector. NTPC also has Training Simulators both for Coal as well as

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Gas based Stations for training personnel in Operation and Maintenance of Power Plants. Research & Development NTPC has set up full-fledged Research & Development facilities in its R&D Centre, Noida with the objective of resolving O&M problems through applied research using analytical tools. The R&D centre is fully equipped with most of the new ultramodern testing & laboratory equipment. The main functions are to carry out applied research work to help achieve improvement in reliability, to provide laboratory test services, to undertake scientific studies in environmental pollution and waste utilization, etc. NTPC NOIDA Training Services NTPC has full fledged facilities at the Power Management Institute, NOIDA for providing training in all aspects of power Plant Management and Systems. It also has Full Scope Replica Training Simulators both for Coal as well as Gas based Stations for training personnel in Operation and Maintenance of power plants.

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Introduction
In order to broaden my technical knowledge and enhance my industrial exposure I was provided with an opportunity to undergo summer training at NTPC Noida. I was assigned to the office of corporate quality assurance and inspection (CQA & I). This department is further divided into five separate departments namely, QA-mechanical, QA-electrical, QA-civil, Inspection and Special division. Of these five departments I was assigned with the QA-electrical which basically deals with the quality program pertaining to the electrical side of a power plant. As a power plant consists of numerous equipments, hence to cater to this requirement QA-electrical is further divided into subgroups System and protection Transformer and busduct Switchyard Turbine-Generator Switchgear

Before any power plant comes into existence a feasibility study is carried out by the competent NTPC authorities so as to assess the power plant capacity, fuel availability, production cost, transportation, water supply access etc. The size of site required depends on several factors like the fuel used and its mode of delivery to the site, the area to be provided for the fuel storage, cooling towers, switchyards, space needs for store yards, workshops, etc. generally a 1000 MW fossil fuel fired station will be requiring a 90 to 200 acre site. The following factors are to be taken into account : Station building Coal store and siding Cooling towers Switch yard compound Surrounding area and approaches

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Site requirement
Geology: The geology of the side should be reasonable as these effects the costs of the foundations. Modern power plants with their heavy structure impose a heavy load on the subsoil and hence are to be supported with suitable foundations. Water for power stations: The water requirements for thermal stations come under two categories, the first requirement is the water required for steam generation and the second requirement is for cooling purposes. The requirement of water in steam cycle is of the order 3 to 4 tons/hr/MW and make up quantity is 2 to 3 % of the same. This can be met from a small canal, city supply system. The quality of water is of prime concern. If the water is very hard the dematerializing cost will be very high and will require a large water treatment plant. Direct cooling is possible only if perennial rivers, canals, or huge lakes are available. The closed circuit cooling system involving cooling towers is utilized when water is not perennial, in such system only 3% (which consists of 1% as losses on account of evaporation and 2% for purging the salts) of makeup water is required. Coal for power plant: As the quality of coal available in India is high on ash content, hence the economic and efficient utilization of such coals for thermal power generation calls for special consideration. The location of thermal power plant burning high ash coals is of great importance as 50 to 60% of the cost of generation of electrical power is due to the delivery cost of coal at the generating stations. Hence its imperative that the plant is located near the coal washeries. Transport In case of thermal power stations, the problem of transportation is to be considered mainly from the view point of fuel and for initial erection of the plant. Modes of transport are also to be considered but may not be over riding factor in decision regarding feasibility. At this stage possibility of rail or road connections capable of taking heavy and over dimensioned loads of machine is taken in consideration. Disposal of effluents

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The major effluents in case of thermal station are ash and the flu gases. The disposal of chemically treated water generated in the water treatment plant is also an effluent, which requires attention for disposal. The disposal of the gases and concerns mainly the atmosphere and environment and that of water is concerned with the effect on the marine life of rivers and canals. It is in this connection that the requirement of large area of waste lands for effluent disposal plays a decisive role in location. 100 MW unit will produce about 400 to 450 tonnes of fly ash per day on full load. Transmission: A route must be provided for the transmission lines from site to the nearest grid system or major load point on the area board system, which can accept the station output. The selection of underground cable depends upon the location; economic merit has to be concerned as underground cable costs 16 times more than overhead lines of equivalent capacity. Climatic condition: Climatic conditions of a place play a significant part in the economics of capital investment. The tropical climate exists in most part of the country, calls for special attention to the ventilation and cooling arrangements. The insulation of electrical machinery has different standards and is costly because of the tropical climate. Further the modern stations use telemetering and control hence the sensitive electronic equipment are required to be located in air conditioned rooms. Proximity of airfields: Before the site is selected, its proximity to air fields must be studied. The chimney height now go on upto 500-600 ft. and the boiler house structure upto 200 ft. these present obstacles in air navigation particularly during landing and takeoff. The air safely regulation musts be taken into account before locating the power house. Fisheries and marine life: The intake of large volume of water from rivers and consequent throw at higher temperature after being treated with chlorine will affect the fish. The effluent discharge from water treatment plant has to be treated suitably before discharging it to the river

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Technical specification
After the site has been selected and the capacity of the plant has been decided, the requirement for the power plant is worked out. The electrical system/equipment to be installed in the plant are ascertained and their detailed specification is prepared for each an every set of equipment, this is called the technical specification of that equipment. The technical specification is prepared largely by the Power Engineering department (PE), which is again divided into PE-Electrical and PEmechanical. These specifications are then reviewed by CQA&I and the final draft is prepared for each and every equipment. This serves as the bid document and all the bidders bidding for manufacturing a particular instrument has to adhere to this specification. These specifications mostly are in accordance with the latest international standards (IEC), or the Indian standards, but again NTPC may include some more clauses in accordance with their requirement. I was provided with technical specifications for power transformers package of the Vallur Thermal Power Project to facilitate the understanding of power transformers. The specifications largely contain the following information: Part-A: Project information: it basically consists of the project background, its capacity, detailed information about the location and meteorological data. Scope of supply and services: this covers the design, engineering, manufacture, testing at works, short circuit testing on one transformer of each rating, transportation to site, receipt, handling and storage at the site, reaction and commissioning of various transformers and reactors. Terminal points and exclusion: these contains specific exclusions from the scope of contractor. Functional guarantees & liquidated damages: it basically consists the directives from NTPC to the bidder on various guarantees which the bidder must provide on the equipment. It also directs the bidder to

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furnish a declaration in the manner which the instrument is manufactured. Testing requirements: it directs the bidder to conduct various type tests as listed in the specification. The type tests are to be carried out in the presence of employers representative and his approval for the type test procedure has to be obtained by the contractor before conducting the same. Part-B: This is the most important part of the specification document as it contains all technical parameters about the equipments to be purchased in the package. The power transformer package contains the following equipments: Generator transformer Station transformer Unit transformer Bus reactor Maintenance testing and monitoring equipment Apart from this it also contains the quality assurance section which mentions various checks to be carried out to make sure the equipment is in accordance with the specified standards.

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TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static piece of apparatus used for transferring power from one circuit to another without a change in frequency. It can raise or lower the voltage with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. In its simplest form, a transformer consists of two conducting coils having a mutual inductance. The primary is the winding that receives electrical power, and the secondary is the winding which may deliver it. The coils are wounded on a laminated core of magnetic material.

Constructional features
Transformers used in practice are of extremely large variety depending upon the end use. In addition to the transformers used in power systems, in power transmission and distribution, a large number of special transformers are in use in applications like electronic supplies, rectification, furnaces, traction etc. Here the focus is on power transformers only .The principle of operation of these transformers also is the same but the user requirements differ. Power transformers of smaller sizes could be air cooled while the larger ones are oil cooled. These machines are highly material intensive equipments and are designed to match the applications for best operating conditions. Hence they are tailor made to a job. This brings in a very large variety in their constructional features. Here more common constructional aspects alone are discussed. These can be broadly divided into Core construction Winding arrangements Cooling aspects

Core construction

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Core construction in progress Transformer core for the power frequency application is made of highly permeable material. The high value of permeability helps to give a low reluctance for the path of the flux and the flux lines mostly confine themselves to the iron. Relative permeability r well over 1000 are achieved by the present day materials. Silicon steel in the form of thin Laminations are used for the core material. Over the years progressively better magnetic properties are obtained by going in for Hot rolled nonoriented to Hot rolled grain oriented steel. Later better laminations in the form of cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO), -High B (HiB) grade became available. The thickness of the laminations progressively got reduced from over 0.5mm to the present 0.25mm per lamination. These laminations are coated with a thin layer of insulating varnish, oxide or phosphate. The magnetic material is required to have a high permeability and a high saturation flux density, a very low remanence Br and a small area under the B-H loop-to permit high flux density of operation with low magnetizing current and low hysteresis loss. The resistivity of the iron sheet itself is required to be high to reduce the eddy current losses. The eddy current itself is highly reduced by making the laminations very thin. If the lamination is made too thin then the production cost of steel laminations increases. The steel should not have residual mechanical stresses which reduce their magnetic properties and hence must be annealed after cutting and stacking.

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In the case of very small transformers (from a few volt-amperes to a few kilo volt-amperes) hot rolled silicon steel laminations in the form of E & I, C & I or O as shown in Fig. 1are used and the core cross section would be a square or a rectangle. The percentage of silicon in the steel is about 3.5. Above this value the steel becomes very brittle and also very hard to cut. The saturation flux density of the present day steel lamination is about 2 Tesla. Broadly classifying, the core construction can be separated into core type and shell type. In a core type construction the winding surrounds the core. A few examples of single phase and three phase core type constructions are shown in Fig. 2. In a shell type on the other hand the iron surrounds the winding. In the case of very small transformers the conductors are very thin and round. These can be easily wound on a former with rectangular or square cross section. Thus no special care is needed for the construction of the core. The cross section of the core also would be square or rectangular. As the rating of the transformer increases the conductor size also increases.

Figure 1 E and I,C and I and O Type Laminations

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Figure 2
Core and Shell Type Construction

Electrical Flat conductors are preferred to round ones. To wind such conductor on a rectangular former is not only difficult but introduces stresses in the conductor, at the bends. From the short circuit force with stand capability point of view also this is not desirable. Also, for a given area enclosed the length of the conductor becomes more. Hence it results in more load losses. In order to avoid all these problems the coils are made cylindrical and are wound on formers on heavy duty lathes. Thus the core construction is required to be such as to fill the circular space inside the coil with steel laminations. Stepped core construction thus becomes mandatory for the core of large transformers. Fig. 3 shows a few typical stepped core constructions. When the core size increases it becomes extremely difficult to cool the same (Even though the core losses are relatively very small). Cooling ducts have to be provided in the core. The steel laminations are grain oriented exploiting the simple geometry of the transformer to reduce the excitation losses. The iron losses in the lamination, when the flux is oriented in the direction of grain orientation, are about 30% of that in the normal direction.

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Figure 3

Stepped Core Construction

Figure 4 (a) (b)

Typical stacked Core and wound core Construction

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Another important aspect to be carefully checked and monitored is the air gaps in series in the path of the main flux. As the reluctance of air path is about 1000 times more than that of the steel, an air path of 1mm will require a mmf needed by a 1 meter path in iron. Hence butt joints between laminations must be avoided. Lap joints are used to provide alternate paths for flux lines thus reducing the reluctance of the flux paths. Some typical constructional details are shown in Fig. 4. In some power transformers the core is built up by threading a long strip of steel through the coil in the form of a toroid. This construction is normally followed in instrument transformers to reduce the magnetizing current and hence the errors. Technology Madras Large cores made up of laminations must be rendered adequately stiff by the provision of stiffening plates usually called as flitch plates. Punched through holes and bolts are progressively being avoided to reduce heating and melting of the through bolts. The whole stack is wrapped up by strong epoxy tapes to give mechanical strength to the core which can stand in upright position. Channels and angles are used for the frame and they hold the bottom yoke rigidly.

Windings

Winding in progress

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Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding transformer two windings would be present. The one which is connected to a voltage source and creates the flux is called as a primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is induced by induction is called a secondary. If the secondary voltage is less than that of the primary the transformer is called a step down transformer. If the secondary voltage is more, then it is a step up transformer. A step down transformer can be made a step up transformer by making the low voltage winding its primary. Hence it may be more appropriate to designate the windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The winding with more number of turns will be a HV winding. The current on the HV side will be lower as V-I product is a constant and given as the VA rating of the machines. Also the HV winding needs to be insulated more to withstand the higher voltage across it. HV also needs more clearance to the core, yoke or the body. These aspects influence the type of the winding used for the HV or LV windings. Transformer coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and sandwiched coils Fig. 5. The former are very common with core type transformers while the latter one are common with shell type transformers. I

Figure 5(a) n Institute of Technology MadConcentric coil

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Figure 5(b) Sandwich coil In the figure the letters L and H indicate the low voltage and high voltage windings. In concentric arrangement, in view of the lower insulation and clearance requirements, the LV winding is placed close to the core which is at ground potential. The HV winding is placed around the LV winding. Also taps are provided on HV winding when voltage change is required. This is also facilitated by having the HV winding as the outer windingThree most common types of coils viz. helical, cross over and disc coils are shown in Fig 6.

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Figure 6

Disc, Crossover and Helical Coil Construction

Helical Windings
One very common cylindrical coil arrangement is the helical winding.This is made up of large cross section rectangular conductor wound on its flat side.The coil progresses as a helix. This is commonly used for LV windings. The insulation requirement also is not too high. Between layers no insulation (other than conductor insulation) is needed as the voltage between layers is low. The complexity of this type of winding rapidly increases as the current to be handled becomes more. The conductor cross section becomes too large and difficult to handle. The eddy current losses in the conductor rapidly increases. Hence two or more conductors have to be wound and connected in parallel. The parallel circuits bring in problems of current sharing between the circuits. Transpositions of the parallel paths have to be adopted to reduce unequal current distribution.

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The modern practice is to use continuously transposed and bunched conductors.

Cross over coils

The second popular winding type is the cross over coil. These are made of circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross section. These are used for HV windings of relatively small transformers. These turns are wound in several layers. The length and thickness of each block is made in line with cooling requirements. A number of such blocks can be connected in series, leaving cooling ducts in between the blocks, as required by total voltage requirement.

Disc coils
Disc coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form at the same place spiraling outwards. Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the center. Sectional discs or continuous discs may be used. These have excellent thermal properties and the behavior of the winding is highly predictable. Winding of a continuous disc winding needs specialized skills.

Sandwich coils
Sandwich windings are more common with shell type core construction. They permit easy control over the short circuit impedance of the transformer. By bringing HV and LV coils close on the same magnetic axis the leakage is reduced and the mutual flux is increased. By increasing the number of sandwiched coils the reactance can be substantially reduced.

Insulation
The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a transformer is varnish or enamel in dry type of transformers. In larger transformers to improve the heat transfer characteristics the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper or cloth and the whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank containing transformer oil. The transformer oil thus has dual role. It is an insulator and also a coolant. The porous insulation around the conductor helps the oil to reach the conductor surface and extract the heat. The conductor insulation may be called the minor insulation as the voltage

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required to be withstood is not high. The major insulation is between the windings. Annular bakelite cylinders serve this purpose. Oil ducts are also used as part of insulation between windings. The oil used in the transformer tank should be free from moisture or other contamination to be of any use as an insulator.

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Cooling of transformers
In power transformer, the oil serves a dual purpose as an insulating medium as well as a cooling medium. The heat generated in the transformer is removed by the transformer oil surrounding the source and is transmitted either to atmospheric air or water. This transfer of heat is essential to control the temperature within permissible limits for the class of insulation, thereby ensuring longer life due to less thermal degradation.

ONAN Type of cooling

The generated heat can be dissipated in many ways. In case of smaller ratings of transformers, its tank may be able to dissipate the heat directly to the atmospheric air, whilst bigger ratings may require additional dissipating surface in the form of tubes/radiators connected to the tank or in the form of radiator bank. This form of cooling is known as ONAN (oil natural, air natural) types of cooling.

ONAF Type Cooling

For further augmenting the rate of dissipation of heat, other means such as fans blowing air onto the cooling surfaces are employed. The forced air takes away the heat at a faster rate, thereby better cooling rate than natural air. This type of cooling is called ONAF (oil natural, air forced) type of cooling. In this cooling arrangement, additional rating under ONAN condition viz. after shutting off fans, is available, which is of the order of 70-75%.

OFAF Type Cooling

Still better rate of dissipation could be obtained if in addition to force air, means to force circulate the oil are also employed. The oil can be forced within the closed loop of transformer tank and the cooling equipment by means of oil pumps. This type of cooling is called OFAF (oil forced, air forced) type of cooling, viz. OFAF, ONAF and ONAN. OFAF cooling can be obtained by using OFAF compact coolers. These coolers after the advantage that they occupy less space. The disadvantage of OFAF compact coolers is that, there is no ONAN rating available in case of

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failure of fans and pumps, thereby necessitating provision of a stand by cooling equipment for switching in, immediately upon receipt of failure signal. Continuity of auxiliary supply of fans and pumps is to be ensured for uninterrupted power flow.

OFWF cooling
Since the ambient temperature of water is always less than the atmospheric air, it is possible to use water is always less than the atmospheric air, it is possible to use water as a better heat exchanger media. Such an arrangement employs oil to water heat exchangers. A prerequisite for such an arrangement is the availability of a source of sufficient quantity of water. In most of the transformers for hydropower stations, this type of cooling is used. Such a cooling is called OFAW (oil forced, water forced) type of cooling.

Forced Directed oil Cooling

Additional means of improving the heat dissipation rate are also employed on higher ratings for transformer. These comprise arrangements which direct the transformer oil in the windings through predetermined paths. This directed oil flow type of cooling is utilized with advantage in case of forced oil system. The cool oil entering the transformer tank from the cooler/radiators is passed through the windings in a predetermined manner ensuring faster rate of heat transfer. This type of cooling is called ODAF (oil directed, air forced) or ODWF (oil directed, water forced) type. Fig. 7 shows a typical arrangement used for directing the oil in the winding.

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(a)

(b)

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(c)

Some Typical Cooling Arrangement

Figure 7

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Parts Of An Oiled Filled Transformer

As part of the training curriculum I was assigned to study the various parts of an oil filled transformer as they are widely used in most of the plants across the country. The parts along with their function is briefly discussed below

Tank
Tanks are used to house the transformers, these structurally robust enough to withstand the loading such as full vacuum during processing of transformers, oil pressure and concentrated point loads of lifting hauling, jacking etc.The tank sizes reach the transportable limits and call for a lot of ingenuity in the design to meet such stringent conditions as minimum electrical clearances from high voltage points of windings and leads, and proper shaping to wagons transportable weight, etc. From these designs consideration transformer tanks are structurally quite complicated.

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Rectangular tanks are simpler in fabrication. But for larger ratings of transformer design has to be conformed to transportable profile. Shaping is provided by rounded corners at the ends, truncation of lower portion of the walls from consideration of loading in well wagon grider and on the covers to reduce the height. To minimize the tank oil, the tank profile may closely follow the electrical clearances along the coils. Transformer tanks are classified as: Plain tanks Shaped tanks Bell shaped tanks Corrugated tanks Stub end type tanks

Core
It is made up of laminated sheets which provide the magnetic circuit for the flow of magnetic flux. The constructional feature of core has been discussed in the earlier section, the salient features of transformer core are: To facilitate smaller magnetizing current To increase total flux linkage High ratio of mutual to leakage flux resulting in reduction of stray losses The desired properties of steel used in core are as follows: Maximum magnetic induction to obtain a high induction amplitude in an alternating field Minimum specific core loss for low no load loss Low apparent power input for low no load current Low magnetostriction for low noise level High grade surface insulation Good mechanical processing properties

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Windings
Windings form the electrical circuit of the transformer the constructional features have been discussed in the earlier section, the function of windings are as follows: It should be electrically and mechanically strong to withstand both over voltages under transient surges, and mechanical stress during short circuit, and it should not attain temperature beyond the limit under the rated and over load condition For core type transformers windings are cylindrical, and are concentric Circular coil offer greater resistance to the radial computation of electromagnetic forces Types of windings: a. Distributed crossover windings Suitable for current less than 20A Used in HV windings of small transformers in distribution range b. Spiral winding Used for voltages greater than 33kV and low current rating May be made of single or multiple layer c. Helical winding Used in low voltage and high current ratings Conductors are made in parallel to form one turn May be single or double or multiple layer d. Continuous disc windings Used for voltages between 33 and 132 kV and medical current ratings

Insulating oil
It forms a very important part of the transformer insulation system and has the important function of acting as an electrical insulation as well as coolant to dissipate heat losses. The basic raw material for the production of transformer oil is a low viscosity lube termed as transformer oil base stock (TOBS), which is normally obtained by fractional distillation and subsequent

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treatment of crude petroleum. TOBS is further refined by acid treatment process to yield transformer oil.

Properties of the transformer coil

Even though the basic functions of the oil used in transformers are a) heat conduction and b) electrical insulation, there are many other properties which make a particular oil eminently suitable. Organic oils of vegetative or animal origin are good insulators but tend to decompose giving rise to acidic by products which attack the paper or cloth insulation around the conductors. Mineral oils are suitable from the point of electrical properties but tend to form sludge. The properties that are required to be looked into before selecting an oil for transformer application are as follows: Insulting property This is a very important property. However most of the oils naturally fulfils this. Therefore deterioration in insulating property due to moisture or contamination may be more relevant. Viscosity It is important as it determines the rate of flow of the fluid. Highly viscous fluids need much bigger clearances for adequate heat removal. Purity The oil must not contain impurities which are corrosive. Sulphur or its compounds as impurities cause formation of sludge and also attack metal parts. Sludge formation Thickening of oil into a semisolid form is called a sludge. Sludge formation properties have to be considered while choosing the oil as the oil slowly forms semi-solid hydrocarbons. These impede flows and due to the acidic nature, corrode metal parts. Heat in the presence of oxygen is seen to accelerate sludge formation. If the hot oil is prevented from coming into contact with atmospheric air sludge formation can be greatly reduced. Acidity

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Oxidized oil normally produces CO2 and acids. The cellulose which is in the paper insulation contains good amount of moisture. These form corrosive vapors. A good breather can reduce the problems due to the formation of acids. Flash point And Fire point Flash point of an oil is the temperature at which the oil ignites spontaneously. This must be as high as possible (not less than 160C from the point of safety). Fire point is the temperature at which the oil flashes and continuously burns. This must be very high for the chosen oil (not less than 200C). Inhibited oils and synthetic oils are therefore used in the transformers. Inhibited oils contain additives which slow down the deterioration of properties under heat and moisture and hence the degradation of oil. Synthetic transformer oil like chlorinated biphenyl has excellent properties like chemical stability, non-oxidizing, good dielectric strength, moisture repellant, reduced risk due fire and explosion. It is therefore necessary to check the quality of the oil periodically and take corrective steps to avoid major break downs in the transformer.

Bushing
It is used to bring the low and high voltage leads of the transformer tank, to be able to make connections between transformer and generator or transmission lines. A bushing is a hollow insulator allowing conductor to pass along its centre and connect at both ends to other equipment.

Bus duct
These are required to handle large current especially above 3000A, these are used between transformer mains to main PDB/PCC panels.

Common marshaling box (CMB) and cooler control cabinets (CCC)

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These are the control panel for the transformer and the cooler unit. The CMB is for housing oil temperature indicator (OTI) and water temperature indicator (WTI). The CCC houses all the cooler control.

Cooling equipments
Depending on the type of cooling and rating of transformer, the cooling equipments can be arranged in various ways. Some of the commonly used are as follows: Radiators These are commonly used for ONAN, ONAF/ONAN and OFAF/ONAF/ONAN types of cooling. Fig. shows a typical radiator. Radiators consist of elements joined to top and bottom headers. Elements shown in Fig.7(a) are made by welding two previously rolled and pressed thin steel sheets to form a number of channels or flutes through which oil flows. These can be mounted directly on a transformer tank or in the form of a bank and connected to the tank through the pipes the surface area is multiplied many folds by using various elements in parallel. As oil passes downwards, either due to natural circulation or force of a pump in the cooling circuit, heat is carried away by the surrounding atmosphere. Types of radiators a) Tank mounted radiators These are used for smaller rating of transformer for ONAN or ONAF/ONAN type of cooling. The radiators are connected to the tank with an interposing valve at the bottom. The hot oil enters the radiator from the top and after dissipating the heat to the surrounding air it goes back in the tank from the bottom. The radiators are arranged on the tank such that its centre line is always at a level higher than the transformer winding centre line. This difference in the height is called the thermal head and is responsible for the circulation of the oil. b) Banked radiators

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This is necessitated when transformer rating is higher and the total number of radiators, required to dissipate the losses are more. Under such condition its not physically possible to mount the radiators. The radiators are mounted on the headers, which are supported from the ground. In case of tank mounted radiators, the available thermal head cannot be adjusted much, whereas in case of banked radiators, supports for the headers can be adjusted in height to give adequate thermal head enabling better cooling under natural circulation also. Transformer oil pump OFAF and OFWF type of cooling requires the oil circulating pumps in the cooling circuit in the transformer. These pumps circulate comparatively cold oil through the windings and carry away the heat generated quickly, to keep hot spot temperature in the windings within permissible limits. This is a closed circuit operation and the pumps are required to develop enough pressure, to overcome the frictional head loss during the flow of oil in pipe work, cooling equipment and winding, etc. Propeller type fans Fans constitute an important part of the radiator type cooling equipment. The fans are suitable for outdoor duty and are required to give large air deliveries at slow at moderate speeds with low power consumption and noise level. The fan blades are bolted on to the hub and the assembly called impeller is properly balanced to minimize the wear of bearings, vibration and noise level. The direction of air flow, also referred to as form of running, is generally away from the motor. The blades are covered from both top and bottom sides with wire guards, and the whole assembly is supported on a steel structure when fans are mounted below the radiators.

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Assembly of transformer

Tap changers
To cater for the voltage regulation in the transformer and system voltage variation, off-circuit/on load tap changer is provided. Off circuit tap switch is provided when tap changing is required only occasionally. Generally generator transformers are provided with off circuit tap switch. When tap changing is required under loaded conditions, on load tap changers are provided. Generally unit auxiliary transformers, station transformers and system transformers are provided with on load tapchangers. The choice of tap changers is governed by following factors: Tapping range Number of steps Step voltage Current rating Location of tapping Design of tapping winding i.e. linear, reversing, coarse and fine Insulation level Type of voltage variation, i.e. constant flux, variable flux and mixed flux

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Power flow requirement, i.e. unidirectional or bidirectional

Pressure relief valves

The pressure relief valves play a significant role in the protection of power transformer systems. A major fault inside the transformer causes instant vaporization of the oil, leading to extremely rapid buildup of gaseous pressure. If this pressure is not relieved within a few milliseconds, the transformer tank gets ruptured, spilling oil over wide area. The consequent damage and the fire hazard possibilities are obvious. A pressure relief device provides instantaneous reliving of dangerous pressure.

Conservator tank
It is fitted in transformer to allow for changes in volume due to temperature variations.

Assembled transformer

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Test requirement for transformers

Scope: These requirement procedure and criteria for transformer are defined in National and international standard i.e. IS2026 Publication 60076 in general. These sections describes specific requirement for performing tests specified in IEC publication 60076, IS2026 and other standard applicable to distribution, power and regulating transformers. It is intended for use as a guide and reference for testing of transformer and procedure for correction when ideal test condition cannot be achieved. Necessity of tests on transformer When all manufacturing process has been completed, tests are performed on transformer at the manufacturers works to ensure the following purpose: To prove that the transformer meets the customer specification and design expectation. To check that the quality requirement have been met and the performance is within the tolerances guaranteed. Test performed for the former purpose is referred to as the type tests and that for the latter purpose are referred to as routine test (carried out on every unit) Special tests may be performed to obtain information useful to the user during operation or maintenance of the transformer.

Types of test on transformer

Preliminary tests : These tests are carried out in the works at different stages, prior to the core and coil assembly of transformer is placed in its tank. These checks help in detecting any fault at an early stage. a) Core insulation: This is checked by Megger and by application of a 2 kV r.m.s. or 3 kV DC test voltage on completion of erection of the core. These checks are repeated following replacement of the top yoke after fitting the windings. A similar test is applied to any electrostatic shield and across any insulated breaks in the core frames.

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b) Core-loss measurement: If there are any novel features associated with a core design or if the manufacturer has any other reason to doubt whether the guaranteed core loss will be achieved, then this can be measured by the application of temporary turns to allow the core to be excited at normal flux density before the windings are fitted. c) Winding resistance test : This is nothing but the resistance measurement of the windings by applying a small d.c voltage to the winding and measuring the current through the same. The ratio gives the winding resistance, more commonly feasible with high voltage windings. For low voltage windings a resistance-bridge method can be used. From the d.c resistance one can get the a.c. resistance by applying skin effect corrections. d) Voltage ratio and polarity test : Measurements are made on every transformer to ensure that the turns ratio of the windings, tapping positions and winding connections are correct. The BS tolerance at no-load on the principal tapping is the smaller of either: (a) 0.5% of the declared ratio, or (b) a percentage of the declared ratio equal to one-tenth of the actual percentage impedance voltage at rated current. These measurements are usually carried out during assembly of both the core and windings, while all the connections are accessible, and finally when the transformer is fully assembled with terminals and tap changing mechanism. In order to obtain the required accuracy it is usual to use a ratiometer rather than to energies the transformer from a lowvoltage supply and measure the HV and LV voltages. e) Polarity Test This is needed for identifying the primary and secondary phasor polarities. It is a must for poly phase connections. Both a.c. and d.c methods can be used for detecting the polarities of the induced emfs. The dot method discussed earlier is used to indicate the polarities. The transformer is connected to a low voltage a.c. source with the connections made as shown in the fig. 7(a). A supply voltage Vs is applied to the primary and the readings of the voltmeters V1, V2 and V3 are noted. V1 : V2 gives the turns ratio. If V3 reads V1V2 then

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assumed dot locations are correct (for the connection shown). The beginning and end of the primary and secondary may then be marked by A1 A2 and a1 a2 respectively. If the voltage rises from A1 to A2 in the primary, at any instant it does so from a1 to a2 in the secondary. If more secondary terminals are present due to taps taken from the windings they can be labeled as a3, a4, a5, a6. It is the voltage rising from smaller number towards larger ones in each winding. The same thing holds good if more secondaries are present.

Figure 8 Polarity Test

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Final tests:
Final works tests for a transformer fall into three categories: a) Tests to prove that the transformer has been built correctly. These include ratio, polarity, resistance, and tap change operation. b) Tests to prove guarantees. These are losses, impedance, temperature rise, noise level. c) Tests to prove that the transformer will be satisfactory in service for at least30 years. The tests in this category are the most important and the most difficult to frame: they include all the dielectric or overvoltage tests, and load current runs.

Routine tests:
All transformers are subjected to the following tests: 1. Voltage ratio and polarity. 2. Winding resistance. 3. Impedance voltage, short-circuit impedance and load loss. 4. Dielectric tests. (a) Separate source AC voltage. (b) Induced overvoltage. (c) Lightning impulse tests. 5. No-load losses and current. 6. On-load tap changers, where appropriate.

Type tests:
Type tests are tests made on a transformer which is representative of other transformers to demonstrate that they comply with specified requirements not covered by routine tests. 1. Temperature rise test. 2. Noise level test.

Special tests:
Special tests are tests, other than routine or type tests, agreed between manufacturer and purchaser, for example: 1. Test with lightning impulse chopped on the tail. 2. Zero-sequence impedance on three-phase transformers. 3. Short-circuit test. 4. Harmonics on the no-load current. 5. Power taken by fan and oil-pump motors.

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The requirement for type or special tests to be performed, or for any tests to be performed in the presence of the purchaser or his representative, must be determined for particular contracts. These tests are briefly described for three-phase transformers in the following text. The procedure is generally similar for single-phase units. Resistance of windings: The DC resistances of both HV and LV windings can be measured simply by the voltmeter/ammeter method, and this information provides the data necessary to permit the separation of I2R and eddy-current losses in the windings. This is necessary in order that transformer performances may be calculated at any specified temperature. The voltmeter/ammeter method is not entirely satisfactory and a more accurate method such as measurement with the Wheatstone or Kelvin double bridge should be employed. It is essential that the temperature of the windings is accurately measured, remembering that at test room ambient temperature the temperature at the top of the winding can differ from the temperature at the bottom of the winding. Care also must be taken to ensure that the direct current circulating in the windings has settled down before measurements are made. Load-loss test and impedance test These two tests are carried out simultaneously, at reduced current level to ensure that losses are within guaranteed limit. The two-wattmeter method can be employed for measuring the load (copper) loss of a three-phase transformer, one instrument normally being used, the connections from which are changed over from any one phase of the transformer to any other by means of a double pole switch.

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Major transformers in a power station

Generator transformers
The generator is connected to this transformer buy means of isolated bus ducts. This transformer is used to step up the generating voltage of around 15kV to grid voltage. This transformer is generally provided with OFAP cooling. It also provides with off/circuit on load taps on the high voltage side. This transformer has elaborate cooling system consisting of number of oil pumps and cooling fans apart from various accessories.

Unit auxiliary transformer

The UAT draws its input from the main busduct connecting generator to the generator transformer. The total KVA capacity of unit auxiliary transformer required can be determined by assuming 0.85 pf and 0.9 efficiency for total auxiliary motor load. It is safe and desirable to provide about 20% excess capacity then circulate so as to provide for miscellaneous auxiliaries and possible increase in auxiliary load. With higher unit ratings and higher steam conditions, the auxiliary power required also increases and limitations imposed by switchgear voltage available, indicate the maximum size of auxiliary unit transformer that can be installed.

Station transformers
The station transformer generally supplies the power station auxiliary system for starting up the boiler/turbine generator unit or gas turbine/generator and for supplying those loads which are not specifically associated with the generating unit, for example lighting supplies, cranes, workshops and other services. In addition, in order to provide a diversity of supplies to certain plant, the station switchboard is used as a source of supply for certain large drives which are provided on a multiple basis for each unit, for example the gas circulators of a nuclear reactor and the circulating water pumps for the main condensers of a steam turbine generator. A minimum of two station transformers will normally be provided in order to provide diversity of supplies with all units shut down. In a four-unit station each transformer will probably have the capability of starting up two units simultaneously while also supplying a proportion of the power station load. The station transformer will usually therefore have larger rating than that of the unit transformer. The station transformer is usually the

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first major connection to be made with the transmission system for a power station under construction, providing supplies for the commissioning of the plant.