THE STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES) TECHNICAL REPORT DONE AT TICAL CONSTRUCTION LIMITED ALONG SECRETARIATE

ROAD, ARROMA ROUNDABOUT, AWKA. SUBMITTED BY EMENZE UGOCHUKWU STANLEY REG NO. 2007224736 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA ANAMBRA STATE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF B.ENG DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

MARCH, 2011.

INTRODUCTION These involve the techniques and industry involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily those used to provide shelter. Building construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate. Constructed shelters were one means by which human beings were able to adapt themselves to a wide variety of climates and become a global species. The first shelters were dwellings, but later other functions, such as food storage and ceremony, were housed in separate buildings. Some structures began to have symbolic as well as functional value, marking the beginning of the distinction between architecture and building. The history of building is marked by a number of trends. One is the increasing durability of the materials used. Early building materials were perishable, such as leaves, branches, and animal hides. Later, more durable natural materials such as clay, stone, and timber and, finally, synthetic materials such as brick, concrete, metals, and plastics were used. Another is a quest for buildings of ever greater height and span; this was made possible by the development of stronger materials and by knowledge of how materials behave and how to exploit them to greater advantage. A third major trend involves the degree of control exercised over the interior environment of buildings: increasingly precise regulation of air temperature,
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light and sound levels, humidity, odours, air speed, and other factors that affect human comfort has been possible. Yet another trend is the change in energy available to the construction process, starting with human muscle power and developing toward the powerful machinery used today. The present state of building construction is complex. There is a wide range of building products and systems which are aimed primarily at groups of building types or markets. The design process for buildings is highly organized and draws upon research establishments that study material properties and performance, code officials who adopt and enforce safety standards, and design professionals who determine user needs and design a building to meet those needs. The construction process is also highly organized; it includes the manufacturers of building products and systems, the craftsmen who assemble them on the building site, the contractors who employ and coordinate the work of the craftsmen, and consultants who specialize in such aspects as construction management, quality control, and insurance.

CHAPTER ONE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS

Building Construction are procedures involved in the erection of various types of structures. They are techniques and industries involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily those used to provide shelter. There are three phases involved in building construction, they include; Site investigation Design programming Design development Actual construction Maintenance

Site investigations A preliminary site investigation is part of the feasibility study, but once a plan has been adopted a more extensive investigation is usually imperative. Money spent in a rigorous study of ground and substructure may save large sums later in remedial works or in changes made necessary in constructional methods. Since the load-bearing qualities and stability of the ground are such important factors in any large-scale construction
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Design programming The design of a building begins with its future user or owner, who has in mind a perceived need for the structure, as well as a specific site and a general idea of its projected cost. The user, or client, brings these facts to a team of design professionals composed of architects and engineers, who can develop from them a set of construction documents that define the proposed building exactly and from which it can be constructed. Building design professionals include those licensed by the statesuch as architects and structural, mechanical, and electrical engineerswho must formally certify that the building they design will conform to all governmental codes and regulations. Architects are the primary design professionals; they orchestrate and direct the work of engineers, as well as many other consultants in such specialized areas as lighting, acoustics, and vertical transportation. The design professionals draw upon a number of sources in preparing their design. This includes the parts of physical theory that relate to building, such as the elastic theory of structures and theories of light, electricity, and fluid flow. There is a large compendium of information on the specific properties of building materials that can be applied in mathematical models to reliably project building performance. There is also a large body of data on criteria for human comfort in such matters as thermal environment, lighting levels, and sound levels that influence building design.

In addition to general knowledge of building science, the design team collects specific data related to the proposed building site. These include topographic and boundary surveys, investigations of subsoil conditions for foundation and water-exclusion design, and climate data and other local elements. Concurrently with the collection of the site data, the design team works with the client to better define the often vague notions of building function into more precise and concrete terms. These definitions are summarized in a building space program, which gives a detailed written description of each required space in terms of floor area, equipment, and functional performance criteria. This document forms an agreement between the client and the design team as to the expected building size and performance.

Design development The process by which building science, site data, and the building space program are used by the design team is the art of building design. It is a complex process involving the selection of standard building systems, and their adaptation and integration, to produce a building that meets the client's needs within the limitations of government regulations and market standards. These systems have become divided into a number of clear

sectors by the building type for which they are intended. The design process involves the selection of systems for foundations, structure, atmosphere, enclosure, space division, electrical distribution, water supply and drainage, and other building functions. These systems are made from a limited range of manufactured components but permit a wide range of variation in the final product. Once the systems and components have been selected, the design team prepares a set of contract documents, consisting of a written text and conventionalized drawings, to describe completely the desired building configuration in terms of the specified building systems and their expected performance. When the contract documents have been completed, the final costs of the building can usually be accurately estimated and the construction process can begin.

Construction Construction of a building is usually executed by a specialized construction team; it is normally separate from the design team, although some large organizations may combine both functions. The construction team is headed by a coordinating organization, often called a general contractor, which takes the primary responsibility for executing the building and signs a contract to do so with the client. The cost of the contract is usually an agreed lump sum, although cost-plus-fee contracts are sometimes used on large projects for which construction begins before the contract documents
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are complete and the building scope is not fully defined. The general contractor may do some of the actual work on the building in addition to its coordinating role; the remainder of the work is done by a group of specialty subcontractors who are under contract to the general contractor. Each subcontractor provides and installs one or more of the building systems e.g., the structural or electrical system. The subcontractors in turn buy the system components from the manufacturers. During the construction process the design team continues to act as the owner's representative, making sure that the executed building conforms to the contract documents and that the systems and components meet the specified standards of quality and performance.

Maintenance The contractor maintains the works to the satisfaction of the consulting engineer. Responsibility for maintenance extends to ancillary and temporary works where these form part of the overall construction. After construction a period of maintenance is undertaken by the contractor, and the payment of the final installment of the contract price is held back until released by the consulting engineer. Central and local government engineering and public works departments are concerned primarily with maintenance, for which they employ direct labour.

CHAPTER 2 CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES Processes involved in building construction may differ depending on the size and purpose of the project. It may involve all or some of the following processes; Site preparation Setting out operation Excavation and foundation The structure Roofing Installation of other building elements and finishes

SITE PREPARATION This involves the initial clearing of the site to be worked on. This may include activities like cutting of grasses, grubbing out of trees and stumps, removal of unwanted existing structures, removal of unwanted soil type, cutting and filling of areas necessary, extermination of termites and ants. Site preparation can be done using simple hand tools in the case of small projects while other heavier machines can be used during heavy projects and constructions. Among the typical hand tools used includes spades,

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shovels, cutlass, hoe, axe, chain saw while mechanical plants includes graders, bulldozers and tractors. SETTING OUT OPERATION

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CHAPTER TWO ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

The major elements of a building include the following: Building loads Foundation The structure The interior partitions The exterior partitions and roofs Environmental control Communications and power systems Vertical transportation systems Water supply and waste disposal

Building Loads The loads imposed on a building are classified as either dead or live. Dead loads include the weight of the building itself and all major items of fixed equipment. Dead loads always act directly downward, act constantly, and are additive from the top of the building down. Live loads include wind pressure, seismic forces, vibrations caused by machinery, movable furniture, stored goods and equipment, occupants, and forces caused by temperature changes. Live loads are temporary and can produce
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pulsing, vibratory, or impact stresses. In general, the design of a building must accommodate all possible dead and live loads to prevent the building from settling or collapsing and to prevent any permanent distortion, excessive motion, discomfort to occupants, or rupture at any point. Foundations The foundation is the most important part of any engineering structure which transmits the loads of the structure to the underlying soil. The structural design of a building depends greatly on the nature of the soil and underlying geologic conditions and modification by man of either of these factors. Types of Foundations The most common types of foundation systems are classified as shallow and deep. Shallow foundation systems are several feet below the bottom of the building while deep foundations extend several dozen feet below the building. The foundation chosen for any particular building depends on the strength of the rock or soil, magnitude of structural loads, and depth of groundwater level.

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Shallow foundations Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface; generally where the founding depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but merely guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a foundation it is 'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts. Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc. These include;

Pad foundations Strip foundations Raft foundations

Pad foundations Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as that due to a structural column. They may be circular, square or rectangular. They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or haunched if they are required to spread the load from a heavy
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column. Pad foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.

Strip foundations Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a loadbearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where column positions are so close that individual inappropriate. pad foundations would be

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Raft foundations Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used when column loads or other structural loads are close together and individual pad foundations would interact. A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation. Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area. Deep foundations Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated foundations using deep basements and also deep pad or strip foundations. Deep foundations can be

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used to transfer the loading to deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface. Deep foundations include; Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for economic, constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow foundations. In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces. Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed insitu in a deep excavation. Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson. Compensated foundations are deep foundations in which the relief of stress due to excavation is approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the foundation. The net stress applied is therefore very small. A compensated foundation normally comprises a deep basement.

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Piles Piles are often used because adequate bearing capacity cannot be found at shallow enough depths to support the structural loads. It is important to understand that piles get support from both end bearing and skin friction. The proportion of carrying capacity generated by either end bearing or skin friction depends on the soil conditions. Piles can be used to support various different types of structural loads. Types of pile

End bearing piles Friction piles Settlement reducing piles Tension piles Laterally loaded piles Piles in fill

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End bearing piles End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard, relatively impenetrable material such as rock or very dense sand and gravel. They derive most of their carrying capacity from the resistance of the stratum at the toe of the piles

Friction piles Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or adhesion. This tends to occur when piles do not reach an impenetrable stratum but are driven for some distance into a penetrable soil. Their carrying capacity is derived partly from end bearing and partly from skin friction between the embedded surface of the soil and the surrounding soil.

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Tension piles Structures such as tall chimneys, transmission towers and jetties can be subject to large overturning moments and so piles are often used to resist the resulting uplift forces at the foundations. In such cases the resulting forces are transmitted to the soil along the embedded length of the pile. The resisting force can be increased in the case of bored piles by under-reaming. In the design of tension piles the effect of radial contraction of the pile must be taken into account as this can cause about a 10% - 20% reduction in shaft resistance.

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Laterally loaded piles Almost all piled foundations are subjected to at least some degree of horizontal loading. The magnitude of the loads in relation to the applied vertical axial loading will generally be small and no additional design calculations will normally be necessary. However, in the case of wharves and jetties carrying the impact forces of berthing ships, piled foundations to bridge piers, trestles to overhead cranes, tall chimneys and retaining walls, the horizontal component is relatively large and may prove critical in design. Traditionally piles have been installed at an angle to the vertical in such cases, providing sufficient horizontal resistance by virtue of the component of axial capacity of the pile which acts horizontally. However the capacity of a vertical pile to resist loads applied normally to the axis, although significantly smaller than the axial capacity of that pile, may be sufficient to avoid the need for such 'raking' or 'battered' piles which are more expensive to install. When designing piles to take lateral forces it is therefore important to take this into account.

Piles in fill Piles that pass through layers of moderately- to poorly-compacted fill will be affected by negative skin friction, which produces a downward drag along

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the pile shaft and therefore an additional load on the pile. This occurs as the fill consolidates under its own weight.

Factors influencing choice of pile There are many factors that can affect the choice of a piled foundation. All factors need to be considered and their relative importance taken into account before reaching a final decision.

Location and type of structure Ground conditions Durability Cost

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1. Location and type of structure For structures over water, such as wharves and jetties, driven piles or driven cast-in-place piles (in which the shell remains in place) are the most suitable. On land the choice is not so straight forward. Driven cast-in-place types are usually the cheapest for moderate loadings. However, it is often necessary for piles to be installed without causing any significant ground heave or vibrations because of their proximity to existing structures. In such cases, the bored cast-in-place pile is the most suitable. For heavy structures exerting large foundation loads, large-diameter bored piles are usually the most economical. Jacked piles are suitable for underpinning existing structures.

2. Ground conditions Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground containing boulders or in clays when ground heave would be detrimental. Similarly, bored piles would not be suitable in loose water-bearing sand, and under-reamed bases cannot be used in cohesionless soils since they are susceptible to collapse before the concrete can be placed.

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3. Durability This tends to affect the choice of material. For example, concrete piles are usually used in marine conditions since steel piles are susceptible to corrosion in such conditions and timber piles can be attacked by boring mollusks. However, on land, concrete piles are not always the best choice, especially where the soil contains sulphates or other harmful substances.

4. Cost In coming to the final decision over the choice of pile, cost has considerable importance. The overall cost of installing piles includes the actual cost of the material, the times required for piling in the construction plan, test loading, the cost of the engineer to oversee installation and loading and the cost of organization and overheads incurred between the time of initial site clearance and the time when construction of the superstructure can proceed.

The Structure The structural systems of buildings may vary depending on the type and purpose of the building.

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