Pre-Christian Background

(Dates on this page are B.C.)

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5509 This year was the starting point for the apo ktiseos kosmou (AKK) or anno mundi (AM)
chronological system commonly employed by East Roman (Byzantine) scholars from about
the fifth century. In this system, then, 1 A.D. corresponds to the year of the world
5509/5510. 2001 A.D. is thus 7509/7510, 7509 through 31 August and 7510 thereafter,
since the East Roman year began with 1 September. (A variant system, known as the
Alexandrian era and attributed to the fifth century monk Panodorus, began on August 29,
5493 B.C.)
5199 In the Anno Mundi chronological system attributed to Eusebius and common in the
West before the adoption of the Anno Domini system, this year was the starting point.
4004 The year of the creation according to Bishop Ussher (1581-1656), an Anglo-Irish
(Protestant) priest.
776 First Olympic games held. (Important for dating purposes only.)
753 The year of the founding of Rome. Used in the A.U.C. (Anno Urbis Conditae) system.
754 A.U.C. = 1 A.D. The Roman year began with the Kalends of March (1 March).








~537 Return of Jewish exiles under
Sheshbazzar, with Zerubabbel (grandson
of Jehoiachin, the last of David's ancestors
to enjoy political power) and Jeshua (Ezra
2.2).
536 Rebuilding of the temple begun (Ezra
3.8).


722 The fall of Israel to Shalmanesser V and
Sargon II of Assyria.
586 Jerusalem destroyed by
Nebuchadnezzar's forces after a two year
siege.
539 Cyrus (559-530) captured Babylon in
October. Soon thereafter, he proclaimed that
the temple in Jerusalem should be rebuilt.
About 50,000 Jews returned.





522 Darius I (522-486) king of Persia.
520 Haggai and Zechariah began preaching
520 Rebuilding of the temple reinitiated
under during Darius' second year (Ezra
4.24).
516 Temple completed in Darius' sixth
year (Ezra 6.15).


458 Ezra traveled from Babylon to
Jerusalem. He called an assembly - the
people separated themselves from their
foreign wives (Ezra 10).


445 Nehemiah travels to Jerusalem as
governor and oversees the reconstruction
of the city's wall (Nehemiah 6.15). Ezra
read the Law aloud to the people near the
Water Gate (Neh. 8.3).




250 The Septuagint translation of the
Torah accomplished in Alexandria, Egypt,
about this time under Ptolemy
Philadelphus.



166-142 The Maccabean revolt, led by
Mattathias. Judea became independent of
the Seleucids. The Hasmonean dynasty
(Mattathias' descendants).
around this year.


486 Reign of Xerxes (486-465), king of
Persia.
465 Reign of Artaxerxes (465-424), king of
Persia.



445 Artaxerxes' command to rebuild
Jerusalem's walls (Neh. 2.4-8). Many begin
Daniel's prophecy of the seventy weeks from
this date (Dan. 9.25).
433 Malachi likely written when Nehemiah
briefly returned to Persia during this year and
the people again disregarded the Law.
332 Alexander the Great conquered Palestine.

198 Rule of Palestine transferred from the
Ptolemies (Egypt) to the Seleucids (Syria).
175 Antioches Epiphanes (175-164) came to
power as Seleucid ruler of Palestine. He
attempted to Hellenize the Jews.


63 Pompey conquered Jerusalem for Rome.

44 Caesar assassinated, 15 March.
43 Octavian (Caesars nephew, later known as Augustus), Mark Antony, and Leupidus rule
Rome as a triumvirate.
42 The Senate recognized Julius Caesar as a god.
37 Herod the Great (ruled 37-4? BC) became king of Judea, appointed by the senate of
Rome.
30 In August, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria after their defeat by
Octavians forces. In spite of the fact that Herod had backed Antony, Octavian confirmed
him as king of Judea.
20 Construction began on the Herods temple in Jerusalem.
9 The Julian calendar adopted in Asia Minor. There, the civil year began on 23 September,
IX Kalendarum Octobris, Augustus birthday.


The First Century
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14 Augustus died on August 19. On September 17, the Senate in Rome decreed
that Augustus Caesar was one of the gods, and it named Tiberius emperor. (If
Luke 3.1 dates the reign of Tiberius Caesar from this year, his fifteenth year
was 28/29 A.D.)
30, 33? Jesus was crucified and resurrected.
39/40 Philo of Alexandria (15/10 BC - 45/50) led an embassy of Jews from
Alexandria to the emperor Caligula (37-41) in Rome. The Jews of Alexandria
were then the subject of a Roman pogrom, which Philo and his companions
hoped to end. Caligula, however, cut Philo off as he spoke. Philo later told his
fellow ambassadors that God would punish Caligula, who was soon
assasinated.
Philo was a theologian who sought to harmonize Jewish theology with Greek
(largely Platonic) philosophy. Many ideas found in later Christian theology are
present in Philo, though sometimes in a form unacceptable to the Church. Philo
taught that Greek philosophy had been plagiarized from Moses. He believed
that the Greek translation of the Old Testament (the Septuagint, dating from the
third century BC) was divinely inspired. Philo referred to the Logos (the
residence of the Platonic Ideas) as the first-begotten Son of God - though, in his
view, the Logos was definitely below God, distinct from the Godhead. He
interpreted the theophanies of the Old Testament as appearances of the Logos
(as for the Fathers they were Christophanies). He stressed the allegorical
interpretation of scripture, though this must be balanced. With the later Eastern
mystical theologians, Philo discussed the incomprehensibility of God in essence,
and how knowledge of God can be attained in an ecstatic state.
In some ways, Philo was more akin to the Gnostics and Manichaeans. For
instance, like Plato, Philo viewed the body as the prison for the soul. This
reveals a distinctly non-Christian view of matter.
41 Jerusalem expanded. New city walls were built, bringing the site of Jesus
crucifixion within the city.
42 James, the brother of John, was beheaded (Acts 12.2).
43 The emperor Claudius (41-54) conquered Britain.
Barnabas brought Saul to Antioch (Acts 11.25-26).
44 Death of Herod Agrippa I, King of Judea and Samaria (Acts 12.23).
45 The church in Antioch sent famine relief to the Christians of Judea by the
hands of Saul and Barnabas (Acts 11.29).
47-49 First missionary journey of Saul and Barnabas (Acts 13-14).
49 According to the Roman historian Suetonius (70-122) in his The Twelve
Caesars, Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome since they rioted constantly at
the instigation of Chrestus.
49/50 The council of Jerusalem was held (Acts 15). As a result, Gentiles were
not required to be circumcised.
Death of Helena, queen mother of the kingdom of Adiabene, a Jewish state in
northern Mesopotamia. Adiabene was frequently allied with Persia in wars
against Rome.
The emperor Claudius promoted the cult of the Great Mother (Magna Mater) of
the Gods and her consort Attis. The two had been introduced into the Roman
pantheon around 200 B.C.
50 Pauls second missionary journey began, with Silas (Acts 15.40). Paul and
Silas visited Philippi (Acts 16.11-40), meeting Lydia, the seller of purple, and
being rescued from prison, with the consequent conversion of the Philippian
jailor (Acts 16.33); Thessalonica, where there was a riot on their behalf (Acts
17.5); Boroea, where the Jews willingly examined the Old Testament prophecies
of the Messiah (Acts 17.11); Athens, where Paul preached in the Areopagus
(Acts 17.22-31); Corinth, where he met Aquila and Priscilla, refugees because of
Claudius expulsion of the Jews from Rome (Acts 18.2); and Ephesus, Caesarea,
and Jerusalem before returning to Antioch (Acts 18.22).
51 Paul wrote the epistles to the Thessalonians, from Corinth.
53 Pauls epistle to the Galatians written from Antioch (?). Beginning of
the third missionary journey. Paul in Ephesus, 53-55/56. (Acts 19)
55 Paul wrote 1 Corinthians, from Ephesus.
55/56 Paul departed Ephesus (Acts 20.1), visiting Macedonia and
Corinth. 2Corinthians written from Macedonia.
57 Paul wrote Romans from Corinth. Departed Greece (Acts 20.3), and after
passing through Troas (Acts 20.7-12), and preaching to the presbyters of the
church in Ephesus (Acts 20.18-35), came to Jerusalem (Acts 21.17), ending the
third missionary journey.
57-59 Paul imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23.33-26.32), under Felix and Festus.
60 Paul arrived at Rome (Acts 28.16).
61/62 Paul wrote the epistles entitled Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians and
Philippians.
62 According to tradition, James the Just, bishop of Jerusalem, was killed in the
temple by an angry mob, apparently struck in the head with a sledgehammer.
Tradition has it Bartholomew was martyred in Kalyana, a city state on the west
coast of India, near modern-day Bombay. Bartholomew was skinned alive and
crucified.
Paul tried and acquitted in Rome.
63-66 Paul traveled to Macedonia, Asia Minor, Crete, and possibly Spain. 1
Timothy and Titus written.
64 1st Persecution of Christians, under Nero. When Rome burned for six
days, Nero (54-68) blamed the Christians. In 62, Nero had married Poppea
Sabina, a proselyte to Judaism. Of Neros persecution, Tacitus wrote, First
Nero had self-acknowledged Christians arrested. Then, on their information,
large numbers of others were condemned. ...Their deaths were made farcical.
Dressed in wild animals skins, they were torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or
made into torches to be ignited after dark as substitutes for daylight. Suetonius
was more succinct: Punishments were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect
professing a new and mischievous religious belief.
A third century legend has it that Simon Magus (Acts 8.9-24) and St. Peter had
confrontations in Rome. Simon, wishing to gain an advantage over Peter and to
impress Claudius with his ability to fly, fell to his death from the top of the
Roman Forum.
64 The church in Alexandria founded by St. Mark, the disciple of Peter.
64 Herods temple in Jerusalem completed. See 20 BC and 66.
66 Jewish rebellion began and war between the Romans and Jews
ensued. Jerusalem was taken in 70 and destroyed, as was Herods temple.
Later, in the second century, Justin Martyr would teach that this destruction was
the judgment of God upon a nation that had rejected its Messiah and failed to
discern that, under the new dispensation, the temple sacrifices were abrogated.
67 Some date the book of Revelation to this year. Most place it toward the end
of Diocletians reign (81-96).
Pauls second trial in Rome. 2 Timothy written.
66 First known public reference to Mithraism in Rome. King Tiridates of
Armenia visited Nero in Rome. To Nero he said, I have come to thee, my god,
to worship thee as I do Mithras.
67/68 St. Paul martyred on the road from Rome to Ostia. Beheaded by the
sword. About this same time St. Peter also martyred, crucified upside down.
69 According to tradition, St. Andrew was crucified in Patrae, on the
Peloponnesus peninsula.
69 Ignatius became bishop of Antioch in Syria.
69 Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was born. He died in around 157. Irenaeus
stated that Polycarp had known St. John at Ephesus. Polycarp was martyred
and was noted for doing nothing to provoke the authorities, but waiting quietly
for them to come arrest him. Irenaeus wrote, Polycarp also was not only
instructed by the Apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but
was also by Apostles in Asia, ordained Bishop of the Church in Smyrna, whom I
also saw in my early youth, having always taught the things which he had
learned from the Apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which
alone are true.
70 Near this date, R. Jochanan ben Zaccai founded a rabbinical school in Jamnia
(Palestine).
Matthew and Marks gospels were probably written shortly after this
year. Lukes gospel may have been composed as late as 80.
72 Tradition has it Thomas was stabbed to death by Brahman priests in
Mylapore, India.
79 According to tradition, Jude and Simon were torn apart by a Persian mob
after this date. Simon had joined forces with Jude after a trip to Britain. Jude
had been in Armenia.
80 The Coliseum at Rome opened.
90 The Jewish Synod of Jamnia established the Hebrew canon, the modern
Protestant Old Testament. Esther, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, and
Ezekiel were nearly left out of the canon, while Sirach was a strong but
unsuccessful contender for inclusion. Rabbis at Jamnia also articulated the
theory that every letter in the Hebrew has a meaning. It is thought by many
that, as a natural consequence of this view of scripture, a standard text was
chosen around this time and non-standard readings were suppressed.
The language of the early church was Greek, and the version of the Old
Testament in use among both Christians and Jews of the diaspora was
the Septuagint. The Septuagint contains books (sometimes termed the
Apocrypha) not included in the Jamnian canon. As the Septuagints
prophecies of the Messiah frequently were used polemically by Christians, the
translation fell out of favor among the Jews. In time, non-Palestinian Jews
accepted the decisions of Jamnia. New translations of the Old Testament
scriptures were made based on the Jamnian standard text.
90 According to tradition, Philip was crucified upside down (like Peter) in
Hierapolis, Asia Minor. (Some say that Philip the apostle and Philip the
evangelist were two distinct individuals, and it was Philip the evangelist who
was buried at Hierapolis.)
90 According to Hippolytus, Matthew died a natural death, in Hierees, Persia.
92 Clement elected bishop of Rome. Served through 100. He wrote a letter to
the Corinthian congregation which had deposed its old clergy and replaced
them with new men. He asked that they retain the former clergy on the grounds
that these stood in due succession from the apostles. The Apostles knew
through our Lord Jesus Christ that contentions would arise about the office of
the Episcopate; and for this reason, being endued with perfect foreknowledge,
they appointed those already mentioned, and handed down a succession, so
that when they should depart, other approved men should succeed to their
ministry. (~97.)
In 2 Clement, which may be a second century document, it is written, Brethren,
we ought so to think of Jesus Christ as of God ... for if we think meanly of him,
we shall hope only to receive some small things from him.
93 2nd Persecution of Christians, under Domitian (81-96). The apostle John
banished to Patmos.
Flavius Josephus (37/38-100) published his Antiquities of the Jews. Book 18 refers
to Jesus Christ. Scholars believe the statement was tampered with by Christians
at a later date, because it refers to Christ as divine. Josephus had been a leader
of troops against the Romans in Galilee during the war (66-70). When captured,
he predicted that Vespasian would become emperor, a move that saved his life.
Josephus wrote a history of the war, and, because of the favoritism he received
from the Roman emperors, was detested by his fellow Jews as a traitor.
100 Around this time St. John died at Patmos. (Eusebius, Irenaeus and Clement
of Alexandria agree that John lived into the reign of Trajan, which began in 98.)
The Didache, written in this era, indicates worship was on Sunday: Assemble
on the Lords day, and break bread and offer the eucharist; but first make
confession of your faults, so that your sacrifice may be a pure one. Note also
the implication that the communion was regarded as a sacrifice.
100? Around this time the heretic Cerinthus flourished. He taught that the
world was made, not by God himself, but by a lower being. He also claimed
that Jesus was simply the natural son of Joseph and Mary, and that a separate
supernatural being, the Christ, came upon Jesus at his baptism and departed at
his crucifixion. According to the third century bishop Dionysius of Alexandria,
the doctrine he taught was this: that the kingdom of Christ will be an earthly
one. Cerinthus was himself devoted to the pleasures of the body and
altogether sensual in his nature. In Dionysius day, some claimed that
Cerinthus wrote the book of Revelation.
The Second Century
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105 Justin Martyr born. Died 165.
107 3rd Persecution of Christians, under Trajan (98-117). Ignatius of
Antioch martyred in Rome. According to Severus, after Trajan discovered that
Christians were guilty of no great crimes, he forbade any additional cruelty
against them.
Ignatius stressed the role of the local bishop as the focus of unity. He claimed
that the bishop was Gods representative on earth. By Ignatius time, the
churches of Asia Minor were ruled by monarchial bishops, assisted by
presbyters and deacons. In a letter to the Ephesians, Ignatius wrote, Be ye
subject to the Bishop and Presbytery ... For even Jesus Christ, our inseparable
Life, is the manifest Will of the Father; as also Bishops, to the uttermost bounds
of the earth, are so by the will of Jesus Christ. Ignatius is the first writer
known to apply the adjective Catholic to the Church: "Wheresoever the bishop
shall appear, there let the people also be: as where Jesus Christ is, there is the
Catholic Church." (Smyrneans.)
From various letters (written around the year 107):
On the deity of Christ: "...being united and chosen through his true passion,
according to the will of the Father, and Jesus Christ our God." (Ephesians)
"There is one physician, both fleshly and spiritual, made and not made; God
incarnate; true life in death; both of Mary and of God; first passible, then
impassible; even Jesus Christ our Lord." (Ephesians.)
"...God himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal
life." (Ephesians)
On the identity of the Son and the Logos: "God has manifested himself by Jesus
Christ his Son; who is his eternal word." (Magnesians.)
On the Trinity: "Be subject to your bishop, and to one another, as Jesus Christ to
the Father, according to the flesh: and [as] the Apostles [were subject] both to
Christ, and to the Father, and to the Holy Ghost." (Magnesians.)
On baptism: For our God Jesus Christ ... was born and baptized, that through
his passion he might purify water, to the washing away of sin. (Ephesians.)
On the eucharist: ... obeying your bishop and the presbytery with an entire
affection; breaking one and the same bread, which is the medicine of
immortality; our antidote that we should not die, but live forever in Christ
Jesus..." (Ephesians.)
I desire the bread of God which is the flesh of Jesus Christ (of the seed of
David), and the drink that I long for is his blood, which is incorruptible love."
(Romans.)
For there is but one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ; and one cup in the unity
of his blood; one altar... (Philadelphians.)
On Sunday: For if we still continue to live according to the Jewish law, we do
confess ourselves not to have received grace. ... no longer observing Sabbaths,
but keeping the Lords day in which also our life is sprung up by him...
(Magnesians.)
Ignatius was martyred under Trajans persecution in 107. He warned influential
Christians in Rome not to try to obtain his release from prison. That would
deprive him of suffering in union with the Lord.
In his Ecclesiastical History (Book VI, Chapter 8), Socrates reported that Ignatius
introduced responsive chants into the church in Antioch after a vision of angels
"hymning in alternate chants the Holy Trinity."
We know from the second century account The Martyrdom of Ignatios that
Ignatius' relics were revered, even at that early date. For there it is written,
only the harder portions of his holy remains were left, which were conveyed to
Antioch and wrapped in linen, as an inestimable treasure left to the holy Church
by the grace which was in the martyr.
Hegesippus (see 170 below) related that Symeon, son of Clopas, when 120 years
of age, suffered martyrdom under Trajan. Symeon, reportedly, was a son of the
Lord's uncle, and had been bishop after James the Just.
Hegesippus also indicated that it was about this time that the heretics moved
with vigor to corrupt the Church, the last of the apostles having died. He also
listed many of these heretical groups: the Simoniani, Cleobiani, Dorithiani,
Gortheani, Masbothaei, Menandrianists, Marcionites, Carpocratians,
Valentinians, Basilidians, and Saturnalians - many of whom were resisted by
second century apologists such as Irenaeus and Hippolytus.
110 Marcion, leader of a heretical sect, born. Died 165. Marcion rejected the
Old Testament God, the creator of this miserable world, and hence he rejected
the Old Testament also. He believed it impossible that Jesus, the redeemer of
mankind, had been born of a woman.
Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, lived in this era. He is the source of the
tradition that Mark's gospel was based on Peter's testimony. Papias was a
chiliast. Eusebius of Caesarea was of the opinion that Papias learned his
millennialism from a certain John the presbyter. According to this view, others
(including Irenaeus - see 177 below) understood Papias - incorrectly - to have
gotten his view from the apostle John, and so were convinced there would be a
literal millennium.
112 Pliny the Younger (61/62 - 113), governor of Bithynia, wrote a letter to the
emperor Trajan. He stated that the Christians "are accustomed on a stated day
to meet before daylight, to sing antiphonally a hymn to Christ as to God, and to
bind themselves by a sacrament not to commit any wickedness."
115 Trajan narrowly survived an earthquake that devastated Antioch.
115 Revolt of the Jews of Cyrene.
116 Hadrian expelled the Jews from Cyprus after suppressing their revolt, in
which many (traditionally 240,000) Greek inhabitants of the island were
massacred.
118 4th Persecution of Christians, under the emperor Hadrian (117-138).
According to Severus, Hadrian set up images of demons on the temple mount
and Golgotha. Hadrian also set guards to prevent Jews from approaching
Jerusalem.
122-7 Building of Hadrians wall.
124 The anonymous Epistle to Diognetus, an apology for Christianity written to a
pagan, "my lord Diognetus." The author made it plain that the the Word is not
"some servant of" God's, or "some angel or prince." In fact, the Word was God:
"as God he sent him, as man to men he sent him" who was "the artificer and
constructor" of creation. The author contrasts the "transient flame" of
martyrdom Christians sometimes experience with the unending torment those
who have been unable to see through "the deceit and error of this world" will
endure.
125 Papyrus 52 was written around this time. It is the oldest extant New
Testament fragment, containing parts of John 18:31-33 and 37-38.
126 Quadratus wrote an apology for the Christian faith, addressed to the
emperor Hadrian (as did Aristides around the same time). In his apology,
Quadratus mentioned that some of those healed by Jesus were still living.
127-42 Ptolemy, an astronomer, geographer, and mathematician flourished in
Alexandria. His earth-centered model of the universe held the field until 1542,
when Copernicus supplied a solar-centered model. Ptology's estimate of the
earth's circumference was 30 percent below the actual value.
130 (132?) The emperor Hadrian (117-138) rebuilt Jerusalem, calling it Aelia
Capitolina (after himself - Aelius Hadrian). He erected a temple to Jupiter
there. A special tax was levied on the Jews to pay for the upkeep of the temple
Jupiter Capitolinus.
130 A certain Aquila produced a new, very literal Greek translation of the Old
Testament. Aquila was a disciple of the Rabbi Akiba and a proselyte to
Judaism. The purpose of his translation was to supplant the Septuagint.
(Incidentally, Rabbi Akiba supported Bar-Cocheba, believing that he fulfilled
Messianic prophecies.)
130 The Epistle of Barnabas was written sometime between the fall of Jerusalem
(70) and this date. Known only in a Latin version for most of history, the
complete Greek text was brought to light in 1859 with the discovery of Codex
Sinaiticus. The epistle explains Old Testament events and practices in an
allegorical manner, applying them to Christ and the Church. Barnabas
identifies the one who became incarnate for our salvation with him to whom
God said, "Let us make man in our image."
135 Another Jewish rebellion began, this one led by Bar-Cocheba. According
to Justin, In the recent Jewish war, Bar-Cocheba ... ordered that only the
Christians should be subjected to dreadful torments, unless they renounced and
blasphemed Jesus Christ.
136 Second conquest and destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. More than
500,000 put to the sword. The emperor Hadrian forbade the Jews to return to
the Jerusalem, and they dispersed over the earth.
In this year the Alexandrian philosopher Valentinus, a baptized Christian, but
Gnostic thinker, moved to Rome. He left the Christian community in 140, when
another was chosen bishop of Rome. After departing Rome around 160,
Valentinus continued to develop his religious philosophy, reportedly
writing The Gospel of Truth. His system, like other Gnostic views, supposed a
fundamental dualism between good and evil and salvation through gnosis. He
was refuted by Irenaeus and Hippolytus.
Basilides was another Gnostic philosopher from Alexandria. The school he
founded, known as the Basilidians, still existed in Alexandria in the fourth
century. Basilidians are thought to be the first to celebrate Jesus' baptism on
January 6 (or Jan 10), keeping an all-night vigil. Basilides used the term
"Abraxas" (thought to have magical significance) for God.
Still another Gnostic group saw Simon Magus (Acts 8.9-24) as the true God or
Father. God had generated the first thought (Ennoia) to create the angels, who,
in turn, were to create the universe. Through jealousy, the angels imprisoned
Ennoia in human flesh, and she was doomed to transmigrate to a new body
upon the death of the old one. To free her, God had entered creation in the form
of Simon, and he offered salvation to mankind in exchange for their recognition
of his deity.
Mithraism became increasingly popular within the Roman empire, particularly
among soldiers, from around this year. In 307, Diocletian dedicated a temple to
Mithra at Carnuntum on the Danube. Mithra was a sun god, and his faith
emphasized loyalty to the emperor. After the emperors became Christians,
Mithraism faded. Mithra had been the most important Persian god prior to
Zoroaster's time. Mithric sanctuaries were caverns. Only men attended the
ceremonies of this faith, and there was, apparently, no religious hierarchy.
140 Justin Martyr wrote his Apology to the emperor Antonius Pius (138-61). He
gave a description of the Sunday service:
On the day called the Feast of the Sun, all who live in towns or in the country
assemble in one place, and the memoirs of the Apostles or the writings of the
Prophets are read as time permits. Then, when the reader has ended, the
President instructs and encourages the people to practice the truths contained in
the Scripture lections. Thereafter, we all stand up and offer prayers together ...
Our prayers being ended, we salute one another with a kiss. Then bread, and a
cup of wine mixed with water, are brought to him who presides over the
brethren. He, taking them, offers praise and glory to the Father of all through
the Name of the Son and the Holy Spirit, and giving thanks at great length for
that we have been counted worthy to receive these gifts from God; and when he
finishes the prayers and thanksgivings all the people present cry aloud, Amen.
Amen in the Hebrew tongue means, So be it.
After the President has given thanks and all the people have said Amen, those
among us who are called deacons give to all present, sharing it among them, the
bread and wine mixed with water over which thanks has been given, and carry
it also to those who are absent. And this food is called eucharist by us, of which
it is not right for any one to partake save only he who believes that the things
taught by us are true, and is washed with the washing that is for the forgiveness
of sins and regeneration, and so lives as Christ commanded us.
Justin rejected pagan mythology, but respected Greek philosophy. He believed
in free will, and so was critical of the Gnostic doctrine that predestination was
independent of morality. He also believed that the fulfillment of Old Testament
prophecy was a strong proof that Jesus is the Messiah, and so rejected Marcions
negative view of the Jewish scriptures. Justin believed in a literal thousand-year
reign of Christ on earth, accepting the canonicity and literal interpretation of the
Apocalypse.
Justin viewed baptism as a bath of repentance and knowledge of God, through
which the Spirit is imparted, a replacement for circumcision, and the doorway to
the remission of sins. The eucharist is the new sacrifice foretold by Malachi. He
interpreted the words Do this to mean offer this. He associated the
eucharist with Christs passion and he believed in the Real Presence: We do
not receive these as common bread or common drink. But just as our Savior
Jesus Christ was made flesh through the Word of God and had both flesh and
blood for our salvation, so also we have been taught that the food that has been
eucharistized by the word of prayer from Him (that food which by process of
assimilation nourishes our flesh and blood) is the flesh and blood of the
incarnate Jesus.
Justin regarded the Septuagint as the only reliable Old Testament text. He
viewed Mary as the antithesis of Eve. Our fall was through a disobedient virgin,
but our salvation is through an obedient one.
140 Aristo of Pella wrote his Disputation of Papiscus and Jason, a dialogue
between a Jew and a Christian regarding the truth of the Christian faith. This
work is now known only through second-hand references.
144 Marcion (see 110) excommunicated by the presbyters in Rome. Marcion, a
wealthy shipper, had donated 22,000 sesterces to the church in Rome. It was
returned to him as he left.
155 Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome and found the Romans did not
celebrate Easter as it was done in the East (see year 190). This was when
Anicetus was bishop of Rome.
157 Polycarp was burned at the stake in Smyrna. A year later, the anniversary
of Polycarps martyrdom was celebrated. The first saints day thus began.
157 Montanus, leader of a heretical sect, flourished. He was a Phrygian.
Together with two women, Prisca and Maximilla, he entered ecstatic states and
spoke as moved by the Holy Spirit. They were chiliasts, believing that the new
Jerusalem would land in Phrygia. They taught that disagreement with their
ecstatic utterances was blasphemy against the Spirit. The sect he founded
continued to exist at least until 722.
160 By this year, the grave of Peter was marked by a shrine.
The annual celebration of Easter may have began in Rome around this year (see
190). It had been celebrated in Asia Minor much earlier.
Tertullian was born. He died in roughly 230.
Claudius Apollinaris bishop of Hierapolis in Asia (160-180). Apollinaris related
that an army of the Emperor Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius) (161-180) was sent
rain on account of the prayers of Christians, while the enemy force was struck
by lightning bolts.Apollinaris also remarked that the Lord was crucified on the
Passover, the 14th of Nisan, not on the day after. The Last Supper, he stated,
occurred before the Passover, as John relates (John 13.1).
During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, a certain Alexander the Paphlagonian
generated a mystery spectacle involving a holy serpent named Glycon.
165 Death of Justin Martyr.
Tatian. Sometime before Justins death, a native of Mesopotamia (called an
Assyrian) named Tatian converted to Christianity after an investigation into
philosophy. His conversion may have occurred in Rome, where he met Justin.
Tatian authored a harmony of the gospels, known as the Diatessaron, and an
apologetic Address to the Greeks. After Justins death, Tatian became enamored of
an ascetic Gnostic sect known as the Encratites, or the self-controlled, which
had apparently arisen about the year 166. Tatian moved to Antioch and
attracted disciples to this heresy until his death in 172.
165-180 The Plague of Antoninus. Smallpox was introduced into the western
part of the Roman empire, possibly by Roman soldiers. According to Galen,
one-fourth to one-third of the polulation of Italy died of smallpox during this
period.
167 According to the Venerable Bede, the bishop of Rome, Eleutherus,
received a request for baptism from a British king in this year.
168 Theophilus (died 181 or 188) became bishop of Antioch. Though reportedly
the author of commentaries on the gospels and the book of Proverbs, his sole
surviving work is apologetic in character, addressed to his pagan friend
Autolycus. (Theophilus also seems to have written a chronology of the world,
based on Biblical dates. The historian John Malalas (d. 538) cited a Theophilus,
whose identity is otherwise uncertain, as a source in his historical writings.)
170 Melito of Sardis (died 177, under Aurelius' persecution) traveled to
Palestine where he obtained a list of books in the Hebrew Old Testament. His
list omits Esther.
That Melito believed in the deity of Christ is evident. He wrote, "...our Lord
Jesus Christ ... is perfect reason, the Word of God; He who was begotten before
the Light; He is creator together with the Father; He who is the fashioner of man;
He who is all in all; ...in the Father, the Son; in God, God."
For there is no need, to persons of intelligence, to attempt to prove, from the
deeds of Christ subsequent to his baptism, that his soul and his body, his human
nature like ours, were real, and no phantom of the imagination. For the deeds
done by Christ after his baptism, and especially his miracles, gave indication
and assurance to the world of the Deity hidden in his flesh. For, being at once
both God and perfect man likewise, he gave us sure indications of his two
natures: of his Deity, by his miracles during the three years that elapsed after
his baptism; of his humanity, during the thirty similar periods that preceded his
baptism, in which, by reason of his low estate as regards the flesh, he concealed
the signs of his Deity, although he was the true God existing before all ages.
Melito derived the word Pascha from the Greek paschein, to suffer. In his Peri
Pascha, which dates to approximately 165, he wrote, He came on earth from
heaven for suffering man, becoming incarnate in a virgins womb from which he
came forth as man; he took on himself the sufferings of suffering man through a
body capable of suffering, and put an end to the sufferings of the flesh, and
through his spirit incapable of death he became the death of death which is
destructive of man ... this is he who in the virgin was made incarnate, on the
cross was suspended, in the earth was buried, from the dead was resurrected, to
the heights of heaven lifted up.
170 Hegesippus flourished around this time. He was an early chronicler of
Church history.
170 Dionysius of Corinth wrote, it was the custom of the Romans ... from the
beginning ... to assist all the brotherhood in various ways and send
contributions to churches in every city, thus relieving the want of the needy.
Dionysius mentioned the martyrdom of both Peter and Paul in Rome.
~175 In the latter half of the second century, the Epistula Apostolorum was
written. The work depicts Jesus commanding his followers to observe the
Pascha until I return from the Father with my wounds. The Pascha in view
appears to have been observed on 14/15 Nisan.
177 5th Persecution of the church, under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180).
About this time also Gnostic heretics disturbed the churches of the Rhone
valley. These churches were largely Greek, having close connections with the
churches of Asia Minor. The Gnostics provoked much of the work of Irenaeus
of Lyons.
177 Irenaeus, a pupil of Polycarp, was elected bishop of Lyons, then called
Lugdunum, in Gaul. Born in 130. Died 200. Irenaeus believed that the plan of
the new covenant is the recapitulation of the original creation: by Adams sin,
the likeness to God had been lost, but the image had been retained. By faith in
Christ, man may recover the lost likeness. For him, the history of salvation is a
progressive education in which God has gradually brought man forward in a
long process by the gospel. Irenaeus, like Justin Martyr, believed that Christ
will reign on earth for a thousand years, and he vehemently protested against
attempts to allegorize away the millenarian proof texts. Irenaeus argued against
the Gnostic doctrine of a secret teaching by appealing to apostolic succession --
if there had been such a teaching, the apostles would have passed it on to their
successors. The apostles, he claimed, taught the Rule of Faith (very similar to
our Apostles Creed).
Irenaeus wrote, The tradition of the Apostles is manifest throughout the whole
world; and we are in a position to reckon up those who were, by the Apostles,
ordained bishops in the churches, and the succession of those men to our own
time. If the Apostles had known hidden mysteries, they would have delivered
them, especially to those to whom they were committing the churches
themselves. For they were desirous those men should be very perfect and
blameless in all things, whom also they were leaving behind as their successors,
delivering up their own place of government to these men.
Irenaeus viewed baptism as the seal of eternal life and new birth unto God,
through which the Holy Spirit is imparted. He wrote, ... he came to save all
persons himself; all, I mean, who by him are regenerated unto God: infants and
little ones and children and youths and older persons. (Since infants are said to
be born again, this seems to be a reference to infant baptism.) For Irenaeus the
eucharist was the new oblation of the new covenant offered to God
throughout the world. Irenaeus associated the eucharist not closely with
Christs passion, as Justin did, but sees it primarily as an offering of first fruits.
But Irenaeus did identify the bread and wine with Christs body and blood.
Irenaeus held that Mary was not sinless. He is the earliest source for the
churchs observance of Pentecost as a special feast day.
With regard to the deity of Christ, Irenaeus wrote, The sacred books
acknowledge with regard to Christ, that as He is the Son of man, so is the same
Being not a [mere] man; and as He is flesh, so is He also spirit, and the Word of
God, and God.
But since it would be too long to enumerate in such a volume as this the
successions of all the Churches, we shall confound all those who, in whatever
manner, whether through self-satisfaction or vainglory, or through blindness
and wicked opinion, assemble other than where it is proper, by pointing out
here the successions of the bishops of the greatest and most ancient Church
known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious
Apostles, Peter and Paul, that Church which has the tradition and the faith
which comes down to us after having been announced to men by the Apostles.
For with this Church, because of its superior origin, all Churches must agree,
that is, all the faithful in the whole world; and it is in her that the faithful
everywhere have maintained the Apostolic tradition. St. Irenaeus, Against
Heresies (3,3,2). The last line in that passage may also be translated, "For to this
Church, on account of more potent principality, it is necessary that every
Church (that is, those who are on every side faithful) resort; in which Church
ever, by those who are on every side, has been preserved that tradition which is
from the apostles." This expresses the idea that the church of Rome is faithful
because of the faithful everywhere.
He does state that Peter had been in Rome, and that Linus had been the first
bishop there, having been jointly ordained by Peter and Paul.
Irenaeus mentioned a group of Gnostics who honored images, giving the
impression that the use of images was relatively unknown in the Church in his
location and time. He affirmed that the charismata were still active in his day,
noting that demons were expelled, the future predicted, and the dead raised by
members of the Church. In refuting one of the Gnostics' peculiar interpretations
of scripture, Irenaeus related the tradition he had received from those who had
known John (and other apostles) to the effect that Jesus had been nearly fifty
years old when he was crucified.
179 Conversion of Bardesanes (154-222) to Christianity. Unfortunately, he was
influenced by Gnostic thought, denying the immediate creation by God of the
universe and Satan, introducing a series of intermediate beings instead.
Bardesanes thus became a leading figure in Syrian Gnosticism.
Mandaeanism originated sometime during the first three centuries in the
Middle East. In this religion, salvation is of the soul alone, through esoteric
knowledge. There is a system of intervening spiritual beings (Archons) between
the soul and God. In these points, Mandaeanism is similar to Gnosticism.
Unlike many Gnostic systems, however, sexual promiscuity is forbidden and
marriage is encouraged. Mandaeans consider Jesus a false messiah, but they
have great respect for John the Baptist.
180 Before this time, Christianity was established in North Africa, as witnessed
by the Latin Acts of the Martyrs of Scillium, written around 180.
Rhodon, about whom little is known, wrote works against the Cataphrygians
and the Marcionites.
Theophilus, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, attested that the churches in
Palestine and Alexandria observed Easter on a Sunday - which contrasts with
the practice of the churches in Asia Minor (see 190 below).
185 Tertullian (160-230), a native of Carthage, converted to Christianity.
According to Jerome, he was a priest. Yet it is clear that he was married.
Tertullian was the first Christian theologian to write in Latin. In contrast to
Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian held that Marys womb was
opened at Christs birth, believing this to have been prophesied in Exodus 13:2.
He assumed that Mary had normal sexual relations with Joseph and that Jesus
brothers were the children of her union with Joseph.
Tertullian regarded the 2nd commandments provision against graven images
as binding upon Christians. However, he does admit that some images are
innocent and are not idols - such as the bronze serpent, which was symbolic of
the cross (On Idolatry).
In a letter written sometime between 200 and 206, Tertullian argued against
infant baptism. His reason was not that infant baptism is not of apostolic
origin. Instead, he seems to hold that there is no forgiveness of sins committed
after baptism. He argued that the unmarried should put off baptism until they
marry; that single persons should delay baptism until old age; that widows and
widowers should wait until they remarry or are confirmed in continence.
From the Catholic Encyclopedia article on baptism: The threefold immersion is
unquestionably very ancient in the Church and apparently of Apostolic origin.
It is mentioned by Tertullian (De cor. milit., iii), St. Basil (De Sp. S., xxvii), St.
Jerome (Dial. Contra Luc., viii), and many other early writers.
Tertullian believed in the literal millennium, lasting for a literal 1000 years,
centered in the new Jerusalem which will come down from heaven.
He used the phrase Vicar of Christ, but his reference is to the Holy Spirit (The
Prescription Against Heretics, Chapter 28). In reference to the Matthew 16,
Tertullian wrote (op. cit., Chapter 22), Was anything withheld from the
knowledge of Peter, who is called the rock on which the church should be
built, who also obtained the keys of the kingdom of heaven, with the power of
loosing and binding in heaven and on earth? Was anything, again, concealed
from John, the Lord's most beloved disciple, who used to lean on His breast to
whom alone the Lord pointed Judas out as the traitor, whom He commended to
Mary as a son in His own stead? Notice that Tertullian made no distinction
between Peter and John in the degree of their knowledge. He also makes no
claim for Peters supremacy.
Tertullian taught that the Son derived his substance from the Father and that the
Spirit proceeded from the Father through the Son. In a work against a certain
Praxeas, who taught that the Father, Son and Spirit were one person, he
described the Trinity as being "susceptible of number without division." In the
same work, Tertullian indicated that the bishop of Rome (Victor) initially
"acknowledged the prophetic gifts of Montanus, Prisca and Maximilla" but was
persuaded by Praxeas to follow the example of the former bishop of Rome.
Praxeas himself was persuaded to renounce his patripassionism, but he soon
returned to teaching that error.
In The Prescription Against Heretics, Tertullian warned against arguing Scripture
with heretics, because they will never be convinced. The guide to true
interpretation, and confidence in doctrine, is to be found in the transmission of
the apostolic tradition through the Church.
In a work sometimes attributed to Tertullian, the author identified March 25 as
the date of Jesus crucifixion, stating, in agreement with Johns chronology, that
the date was also 14 Nisan.
In his On the Apparel of Women, Tertullian argued for the inclusion of the Book of
Enoch (1 Enoch) in the canon.
Tertullian became a Montanist in ~200. Jerome wrote, After remaining a
presbyter of the church until he had attained the middle age of life, Tertullian
was, by the envy and contumelious treatment of the Roman clergy, driven to
embrace the opinions of Montanus. (See 157 above.)
185 Maximus, bishop of Jerusalem (185-196). He wrote a work on the origin of
evil.
189 Victor became bishop of Rome. Died 199. Victor was the first Latin bishop
of Rome. During Victors tenure, the Monarchian controversy arose as a revolt
against the Logos theology of Justin Martyr. Justin had taught that the Logos
was another God, meaning another in number, not in will. Christians had
argued against Gnostics that there was only one first principle, the creator God,
a single monarchia, but the Logos theology prejudiced this argument. To
circumvent Justins incipient ditheism,Sabellius propagated the view that the
Father and the Son are one and the same, the distinction being in name only.
Sabellius doctrine is often called modalism, because the Father, Son and Spirit
are modes of the same being. In the West, it was called Patripassianism,
meaning that the Father suffers.
190 Victor demanded conformity from the churches of the East in the date of
Easter. He claimed his method for setting the date for Easter was established by
Peter and Paul. The churches of Asia Minor regarded this as autocratic and took
offense. Polycrates (130-196), bishop of Ephesus, wrote to Victor, supporting his
Paschal practice by citing the example of the evangelist Philip, the apostle John,
the martyred bishop Polycarp, and others. He added, I, therefore, brethren,
who have lived sixty-five years in the Lord, and have met with the brethren
throughout the world, and have gone through every Holy Scripture, am not
affrightened by terrifying words. For those greater than I have said, We ought
to obey God rather than man.
Irenaeus of Lyons also wrote to Victor: And those presbyters who governed
the church before Soter, and over which you now preside, I mean Anicetus
[(155-66)] and Pius [(140-55)], Hyginus [(136-40)] and Telesphorus [(125-36)] and
Xystus [(115-25)], neither did themselves observe, nor did they permit those
after them to observe it. ...Neither at any time did they cast off any for the sake
of the form. But those very presbyters before thee who did not observe it, sent
the eucharist to those of the churches who did. And when the blessed Polycarp
went to Rome, in the time of Anicetus, and they had a little difference among
themselves likewise respecting other matters, they immediately were reconciled,
not disputing much with one another on this head. For neither could Anicetus
persuade Polycarp not to observe it, because he had always observed it with
John the disciple of our Lord ... and neither did Polycarp persuade Anicetus to
observe, who said he was bound to observe the practice of the presbyters before
him.
Irenaeus also pointed out that the difference in observance of the Pascha (Easter)
resulted in differences in fasting. The ability to disagree on the question of the
fast but to live in peace, he wrote, confirms the agreement in the faith.
The distinction between the churches that did observe it and those that didnt
may refer to the practice of observing Easter on a Sunday: the churches in Asia
Minor (known as Quartodecimans) observed the 14th of Nissan as Easter,
regardless of the day of the week that fell on. There is disagreement over the
precise meaning of Irenaeus words to observe. In one interpretation of the
events (proposed by Karl Holl in 1927), Pascha was not observed in any form or
on any date in Rome in Anicetus time (circa155), but was introduced in about
165 when Soter was bishop. [Some historians argue that Victor did not
excommunicate the churches in Asia minor, but Roman congregations that
followed Asian practice, based on the unlikelihood that Victors predecessors
sent the eucharist all the way to Asia Minor.]
190 About this time, of Clement of Alexandria became head of the catechetical
school in Alexandria, and served there through 203. Born about 150. Died
about 215. Clement was a lay theologian. The central principle of his theology
was the doctrine of creation. Because creation was good, God has implanted the
seeds of truth in all creatures. Hence, there was much to learn from the Greek
philosophers. Clement's Stromata describe the attributes of the Christian
gnostic. He held that marriage is not an inferior spiritual state to celibacy, and
he rejected demands that all Christians be teetotalers or vegetarians. In his
view, the church is a school where the lapsed can be restored. Clement saw the
spiritual life as a never-ending process -- education does not end with death,
and all will need to be purified before entering Gods presence. Clement
rejected the millennial interpretations of Irenaeus and Justin. (According to
Gwynnes The Christian Year, Clement mentioned that Christs birthday was
observed in his time. This observance may have been on January 6, in
distinction to the December 25 observance begun in Rome in the fourth century.)
192 In a work from around this year, Tertullian mentioned the observance of the
Easter vigil.
198 A council meeting in Caesarea of Palestine, led by Theophilos of Caesarea
and Narcissos of Jerusalem, with Kassis of Akkar and Karos of Akka present,
discussed the issue of the Pascha (Easter). They determined to celebrate Pascha
on a Sunday, and wrote to other churches to inform them of their decision: The
day we celebrate, those in Alexandria also celebrate. We have exchanged
letters with them so that we may celebrate together on this holy day. In the
early church, it was common in Asia, Cilicia, northern Syria, and Mesopotamia
to observe the Lords crucifixion on the 14th of Nisan (April), using the Hebrew
lunar calendar, and his resurrection on the 16th. But churches in Greece, Italy,
Africa, Egypt, Palestine, and Pontus commemorated the passion always on a
Friday, and the resurrection on a Sunday. (See 190.)
198 Zephyrinus became bishop of Rome. Died 217. The Monarchian
controversy continued. Hippolytus opposed Sabellius with the doctrine that the
Father and Son are two distinct persons. Callistus, an emancipated slave and
archdeacon of the church, had been exiled to the mines of Sardinia sometime
between 188 and 193. The emperor Commodus (d. 193), at the urging of his
Christian concubine Marcia, ordered a general release for all Christians exiled to
Sardinia. So Callistus was allowed to return. (In those days, the Church
considered concubinage marriage as long as the Christian concubine acted as if
it were.) Apparently at Callistus urging, Zephyrinus attempted to steer a
middle course between the Monarchians and the adherents of the Logos
theology. He stated, I know one God, Christ Jesus, and beside him I know no
other who was begotten and passible and the Father did not die but the Son.
Hippolytus is said to be the last Roman theologian to write in Greek. The
transformation of the West from Greek to Latin was complete by the time of
Constantine. (But see below, year 366.)
In his The Apostolic Tradition, written sometime between 215 and 217, we read,
And first baptize the little ones; and if they can speak for themselves, they shall
do so; if not, their parents or other relatives shall speak for them. Then baptize
the men, and last of all the women; they must first loosen their hair and put
aside any gold or silver ornaments that they are wearing: let no one take any
alien thing down to the water with them. This clearly indicates the practice of
the time at Rome to have been infant baptism, and the mode was probably
immersion.
Hippolytus also gave an account of the preparation of candidates for baptism
before Easter. These preparations were the root of the later Lenten fast. Baptism
itself was by triple immersion: one immersion for the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit, following a confession of each. Confirmation involved both the
laying on of hands by the bishop (while he invoked the Holy Spirit to fill those
just baptized) and the application of oil (chrismation).
The Apostolic Tradition shows the influence of Judaistic prayer forms on early
Christian worship. It was probably written in opposition to Zephyrinus lax
regard for traditional ceremony. Hippolytus comments somewhere that his
archenemy Callistus and his followers, at least, held to the apostolic tradition.
That the eucharist was not understood to be mere symbolism is seen from the
command to keep it safe from animals and the unbaptized. For it is the body of
Christ to be eaten by them that believe and not to be thought lightly of.
The Apostolic Tradition also contains apparent references to the sign of the cross:
when tempted always reverently seal thy forehead. For the sign of the passion
is displayed and made manifest against the devil if thou makest it in faith.
And it states that the bishop was chosen by all the people.
Hippolytus defended millenarianism. In the face of the growing reaction
against this doctrine at Rome, which may have been led by the priest Caius,
Hippolytus explained that the thousand years of Revelation 20.2-5 are not to be
taken literally, but are symbolic of the splendor of the kingdom.
Caius is the source for the following information about Cerinthus (see 100?
above) millennialism: By means of revelations which he pretends were written
by a great apostle, [Cerinthus] brings before use marvelous things which he
falsely claims were shown him by angels; and he says that after the resurrection
the kingdom of Christ will be set up on earth, and that the flesh dwelling in
Jerusalem will again be subject to desires and pleasures. And, being the enemy
of the Scriptures of God, he asserts, with the purpose of deceiving men, that
there is to be a period of a thousand years for marriage festivals. This passage
has been interpreted to imply that Caius believed Cerinthus was the author of
the book of Revelation.
Caius also engaged in a dispute with the Montanist Proclus. In that debate,
Caius mentioned the existence of memorial chapels to Peter and Paul in Rome.
In a commentary on Daniel, Hippolytus stated that Jesus was born on
Wednesday, December 25, in the 42nd year of the Emperor Augustus (2 BC?).
He identified March 25 as the date of Christs crucifixion, believing this to have
occurred on Nisan 14, following Johns chronology.
Hippolytus is also the first author to state that Peter had been bishop of Rome.
His lost Chronicon is quoted to that effect by Eusebius.
200 The Muratorian Canon, a Latin list of the books of the New Testament, was
drawn up in this period. The beginning of the manuscript is missing, and the
first book listed as canonical is Luke, followed by John, Acts, Corinthians (two
books), Galatians, Romans, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians
(two books), Philemon, Titus, and Timothy (two books), Jude, two epistles of
John, Wisdom of Solomon, Revelation, and the Apocalypse of Peter. Hebrews
and the two epistles of Peter are absent. The Shepherd of Hermas is mentioned
as being appropriate for private reading. See also 1740 below.
200 Serapion (died ~211), eighth bishop of Antioch, wrote that the Gospel of
Peter should be rejected on the grounds that it had not been "handed down to
us."
200? Papyrus 66: 2nd Bodmer, John, 1956, "Alexandrian/Western" text-types:
Jn 1:1-6:11, 6:35-14:26, 29-30; 15:2-26; 16:2-4, 6-7; 16:10-20:20, 22-23; 20:25-21:9
P46: 2nd Chester Beatty, "Alexandrian" text-type: Rom 5:17-6:3; 6:5-14; 8:15-25;
8:27-35; 8:37-9:32; 10:1-11:22; 11:24-33; 11:35-15:9; 15:11-16:27; 1Cor 1:1-9:2; 9:4-
14:14; 14:16-15:15; 15:17-16:22; 2Cor 1:1-11:10; 11:12-21; 11:23-13:13; Gal 1:1-8;
1:10-2:9; 2:12-21; 3:2-29; 4:2-18; 4:20-5:17; 5:20-6:8; 6:10-18; Eph 1:1-2:7; 2:10-5:6;
5:8-6:6; 6:8-18; 6:20-24; Phil 1:1; 1:5-15; 1:17-28; 1:30-2:12; 2:14-27; 2:29-3:8; 3:10-21;
4:2-12; 4:14-23; Col 1:1-2; 1:5-13; 1:16-24; 1:27-2:19; 2:23-3:11; 3:13-24; 4:3-12; 4:16-
18; 1Th 1:1; 1:9-2:3; 5:5-9; 5:23-28. Heb 1:1-9:16; 9:18-10:20; 10:22-30; 10:32-13:25.
P46 is notorious for scribal errors, having the highest percentage on record.
P32: J. Rylands Library: Titus 1:11-15; 2:3-8
P64 (+67): Mt 3:9,15; 5:20-22; 5:25-28; 26:7-8, 10, 14-15, 22-23, 31-33
P90: Jn 18:36-19:1; 19:2-7
P98: Rev 1:13-20
It is thought that the liturgy was translated into Syriac and Coptic during this
century. In contrast with the West, the Eastern practice has always been to
conduct the church service in the vernacular.
200 In this era, the population of Rome may have been as much as 1,000,000.
Alexandria and Antioch may have had populations of 300,000. The population
of Rome fell dramatically in the late fifth and early sixth centuries. (See 552.)
The Third Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


201 A flood destroyed the Christian church in Edessa.
202 6th Persecution of the Church, under Septimius Severus (198-211). Leonides,
the father of Origen (see 211 below) was martyred and his property confiscated.
Alban, a Roman soldier, killed in Verulamium during this persecution, in 209.
First British martyr. Executed for sheltering a Christian priest.
203 Perpetua, her slave girl Felicitas and four male slaves martyred at Carthage,
killed by wild beasts. All but one had been catechumens when arrested and
were baptized in prison. Felicitas gave birth there. Perpetua and one male
slave, Saturus, experienced visions while imprisoned.
210 Minucius Felix, a North African, wrote his Octavius. An apology for the
Christian faith, the Octavius is noted for its excellent Latin.
211 Origen Adamantius became head of the catechetical school in
Alexandria. He left the school in 232 or 233. Born in Alexandria around 185,
Origen had been taught by Ammonius Saccas, the same person who later taught
Plotinus (see 244 below). Many speculate that Ammonius was the originator
of Neoplatonism. Later, Origen had been instructed by Clement of Alexandria.
Origen died in Tyre in 253 or 254. His death was largely due to the harsh
treatment he received in prison in Tyre during the Decian persecutions (from
about 249).
Origin compiled the Hexapla, six translations of the Old Testament in parallel
columns including the Hebrew, a transliteration of the Hebrew into Greek, and
the four main Greek versions. He considered the Old Testament canon to
consist of those books in the Greek Bible, but since this included books not
available in Hebrew, Origen advised that the additional scriptures not be cited
in disputations with the Jews. His method of interpreting scriptures was largely
allegorical and conveyed spiritual truth -- the literal sense was of little moment
to him. Like Clement, he rejected a literal millennium.
He believed that all souls existed before they united with the flesh. All souls but
one fell away from God; and it was this one faithful soul that God chose to unite
with his Logos to form the Son of Man. Origen believed in the freedom of the
will, and did not exclude the possibility that the redeemed may fall away, even
in heaven. On the other hand, Origen held that the devil himself will be saved.
Many of his views, particularly on the pre-existence of souls and universal
redemption, were condemned at the Fifth Ecumenical Council in 553. Eusebius
of Caesarea later reported that Origen had castrated himself, but Origens own
commentaries on Matthews gospel make that seem very unlikely.
Origen was opposed to Monarchianism, either in its modalistic form, or in the
view that the Son was simply a holy man filled to a unique degree with the
Spirit. He taught that while the Father and the Son are one in power and will,
they are two distinct realities (similar to Justins Logos theology). They are
distinct as the archetype and the flawless image. But, in Origen, the Son is
lower in being than the Father and is subordinate to him. The Son is begotten,
not made, and his generation is eternal, not in time. He is the mediator between
the created world and the Supreme Father.
Origen insisted Mary needed redemption from her sins, like all other humans.
Unlike Tertullian, he believed Mary remained a virgin for the rest of her life. He
believed Jesus brothers are Josephs sons, not hers.
About words: Much of the debate concerning the Trinity and Christology
centered on the meaning of the words hypostasis and ousia. They were
synonyms originally, the former Stoic and the latter Platonic, meaning real
existence or essence. But Origen frequently used hypostasis in the sense of
individual subsistence or individual existent.
In his Commentary on Romans, written between 233 and 244, Origen wrote, It
is also due to this [hereditary sin] that the church has a tradition from the
apostles to give baptism even to infants.
Origens interpretation of Mt 16.17-18 is at variance with papal claims to
supremacy over the church. Origen saw the Rock as Christ (1 Cor 10.4), and all
who have faith in Christ like Peter as rocks. According to Ep 2.2, all the
apostles (and the prophets) are the foundation on which the church is built.
Eusebius reported (Book VI, Chapter 33) that Origen was instrumental in
correcting the Christology of Beryllus, the bishop of Bostra in Arabia. Beryllus
teachings had occasioned discussion with other bishops and eventually resulted
in a conference, which Origen attended. Apparently, Beryllus had taught that
the Son did not exist before his human life and did not possess divinity of his
own.
Origen both stated that The Book of Enoch (1 Enoch) did not circulate in the
Churches as divine (Against Celcus, Book V, Chapter LIV) and quoted it as
Scripture (De Principiis, Book IV, 35).
211 Apollonius, an opponent of Montanism, flourished.
212 Full citizenship extended to all free inhabitants of the empire.
216 The emperor Caracalla (211-217) took vengeance on the city of Alexandria.
His wrath was fiercest against the literary community there, because of certain
sarcastic verses that had been written about him for murdering his brother Geta.
217 Callistus (217-222) became bishop of Rome, to Hippolytuss horror. At
some time and in some fashion that is now obscure to us, Hippolytus was also
ordained bishop of Rome - speaking in an anachronistic manner, he was an
anti-pope. Yet he was, soon after his martyrdom, considered a saint of the
Church.
The Monarchian controversy continued. Tertullian, in Africa, argued that God
is one substance consisting in three persons (terminology eventually adopted by
most of the church).
Callistus was the first bishop of Rome known to have quoted the Rock
passage in Matthew as applicable to his own office, around the year 220. Some
believe that Tertullians On Modesty was written as a response to an order by
Callistus that penance be imposed on those who committed sexual sins, in
preparation for their restoration to communion. Writing as a Montanist,
Tertullian was opposed to their restoration, and in On Modesty he put an
argument based on Mt. 16.18 into Callistus mouth. Tertullian did not have
Callistus claiming a primacy over the church, however, but simply that bishops
(every Church akin to Peter) had the power to forgive sins. Tertullian argued
that this power was personal, belonging to Peter alone. The interpretation of the
passage was further developed by Siricius (384/5).
220 Around this date, Hippolytus established the date of Christs birth as Dec.
25 (see 198). In the East, January 6 was the date assigned for this event. The
East adopted the Western view during the fourth century.
The emperor Elagabalus (218-222) introduced the cult of the Syrian sun god Sol
to Rome in around this year.
222 Hippolytus introduced a method for computing the date of Pascha (Easter)
that involved a 112-year cycle.
222 Julius Africanus went on an embassy to the emperor Severus to gain his
support for the building of Nicopolis in Palestine (formerly Emmaus).
Africanus is best known for his chronology, in which he states that the time
from Adam to the sixteenth year of Tiberius (29/30 A.D.) is 5531 years. It would
thus seem that 1 A.D. is year of the world 5501 in Julius chronology.
Nevertheless, the chronographer George Synkellos (see 808-10) stated that
Africanus dated the creation of the world to 1 A.M. (anno mundi, year of the
world -- 5501 B.C.), the Flood to 2262 A.M. (3240 B.C.), the Exodus to 3707 A.M.
(1795 B.C.), the Incarnation to 5500 A.M. (2 B.C.), and the crucifixion to 5531
A.M. (30 A.D.).
Africanus was also architect for the library Severus built in the Pantheon in
Rome, completed in around 227, and he corresponded with Origen, arguing that
the book of Susanna (included in the Septuagint text of Daniel) was spurious.
225? Papyrus 45: 1st Chester Beatty, Gospels (Caesarean), Acts (Alexandrian):
Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41-26:39;
Mk 4:36-40; 5:15-26, 38-6:3, 16-25, 36-50; 7:3-15, 25-8:1, 10-26, 34-9:9, 18-31; 11:27-
12:1, 5-8, 13-19,24-28;
Lk 6:31-41,45-7:7; 9:26-41, 45-10:1, 6-22, 26-11:1, 6-25, 28-46, 50-12:12, 18-37, 42-
13:1, 6-24, 29-14:10, 17-33;
Jn 10:7-25, 30-11:10, 18-36, 42-57;
Ac 4:27-36; 5:10-21, 30-39; 6:7-7:2, 10-21, 32-41, 52-8:1, 14-25, 34-9:6, 16-27, 35-10:2,
10-23, 31-41; 11:2-14, 24-12:5, 13-22; 13:6-16, 25-36, 46-14:3, 15-23; 15:2-7, 19-27,
38-16:4, 15-21, 32-40; 17:9-17
Papyrus 967: Chester Beatty 9, Greek Ezekiel 11:25-end, ~Codex Vaticanus
230 From about this year, the bishops of Rome were interred in the Catacomb of
San Callisto (the crypt of the popes) on the Appian Way.
231 A private house in the city of Dura-Europas on the Euphrates was adapted
for Christian worship. This is the earliest known example of a church
with religious pictures on the walls. The art appears to have been influenced by
similar work in a synagogue in the same city. Depicted on frescoes are Adam
and Eve, the Good Shepherd and his flock, the Samaritan woman at the well,
Christ walking on the water, the raising of Lazarus, the resurrection of Christ,
the healing of the paralytic and Davids victory over Goliath.
232 Dionysius, later to become bishop of Alexandria, succeeded Heraclus as
head of the catechetical school in Alexandria.
235 Persecution under the emperor Maximin (235-238). At this time, the bishop
of Rome, Pontian, and Hippolytus were exiled to Sardinia. Pontian died soon
thereafter, and Hippolytus in about 238.
240 The Pythian games had been introduced into many cities of the Roman
Empire by this year. These were athletic contests held every four years in honor
of Apollo, and were originally associated with the oracle at Delphi.
241 End of the records of the Fratres Arvales. This was a pagan priesthood or
college in Rome which offered annual sacrifices for the fertility of farmlands.
244 Plotinus, a pagan from Egypt, opened a school in Rome. Plotinus
philosophy emphasized the transcendence of God, and His incomprehensibility
(due to His simplicity). Nous is emanated from God and contains ideas of both
classes and individuals. The two Souls (corresponding to Platos World Soul)
proceed from the Nous. [The interpretation of Plotinus which sees Nous and
Soul as emanated has been questioned by modern philosophers - in particular,
see Lloyd Gersons Plotinus.] Material creation exists at the bottom of this chain
and is the principle of evil. Curiously, Plotinus criticized the Gnostics for their
contempt for material reality, considering it worthy of high value as the image
of intelligible reality. Plotinus taught that the soul can rise to union with God
through purification, the rejection of sense perception in favor of philosophy
and science, a stage which is beyond discursive thought, and a final stage of
mystical union which is beyond separation. Vladimir Lossky points out that
whereas Plotinus viewed union as simplicity and the removal of distinction,
Christian mysticism sees Gods incomprehensibility as due not to His simplicity,
but as absolute, and thus union with God is a going forth from being as such.
Plotinus died in 269 or 270. His chief disciple was Porphyry, a critic of
Christianity, who offered Neoplatonism as a cultured alternative to Christianity
among the upper classes.
247 The 1000
th
year of Rome celebrated.
247 Dionysius, a former pupil of Origen, became bishop of Alexandria (247-
64).
248? Late in this year or early in 249, pagans in Alexandria initiated a
persecution of Christians in Alexandria. Some historians theorize that this
spontaneous persecution may have been caused by the emperor Philips (244-49)
unpopular tax reform, and his [possible] association with Christians: Philip
purportedly attended Holy Week services at Antioch, where bishop Babylas had
him stand among the penitents.
248 Cyprian, a lawyer who converted to Christianity in 246, became bishop of
Carthage. His rapid elevation to the episcopate aroused opposition, led
by Novatus, a presbyter. Novatus arranged to have Felicissimus, a deacon,
ordained as bishop of Carthage. Felicissimus tended to be more lenient than
Cyprian toward those who lapsed during persecution.
249 In around this year, a council in Smyrna determined that heretics must be
rebaptized before they could enter the Church.
249-51 7th Persecution of the Church, under the emperor Decius (249-251). The
bishops of Rome (Fabian (236-50)), Antioch (Babylas), and Jerusalem were
martyred.
Decius killed the emperor Philip in 249, then, by mid-December of that year,
promulgated an edict requiring sacrifice to the gods. It is possible that Decius
was distancing himself from Philips pro-Christian stance, thus demonstrating
his loyalty to the empires traditional sacred rites. He required that everyone
possess a certificate proving he had sacrificed to the gods (Jews, however, were
excepted from this requirement, and from the edict requiring sacrifice). Many
Christians either sacrificed or purchased certificates of sacrifice from
commissioners, which some consider just as bad.
250 In about this year, Babylas, bishop of the church in Antioch, was martyred.
250 In a letter to Paul of Samasota, Dionysius of Alexandria frequently referred
to the Theotokos Mary (q ucotoko Moio).
Diophantos of Alexandria flourished around this year. He was the first to
introduce symbolism into algebra.
250? Papyrus 72: Bodmer 5-11+, pub. 1959, Alexandrian text-type: Nativity of
Mary; 3Cor; Odes of Solomon 11; Jude 1-25; Melitos Homily on Passover;
Hymn fragment; Apology of Phileas; Ps 33,34; 1Pt 1:1-5:14; 2Pt 1:1-3:18; Jude 1-
25
Papyrus 77: Mt 23:30-39
Papyrus Chester Beatty: #5:R962: Gn 8:13-9:2; Gn 24:13-46:33, Enoch 91-105;
#7: I 8:18-19:13,38:14-45:5,54:1-60:22;
#8: Jr 4:30-5:24;
#10: Dn 1-12:13 (+Add), Bel 4-39, Sus 5-end, Esther 1:1a-8:6(+Add)
The uncial 0189: Ac 5:3-21
250 Gothic raids into Asia minor.
251 A plague, most likely measles, arrived in the western Roman empire. It
continued for about 15 years, though the worst was over by 260. At one point
5000 people died of measles a day in Rome.
251 Two rival candidates vied for the vacant see of Rome. Novatian, a priest
who had been prominent in the church since Fabians death, held that the
church cannot forgive or accept those guilty of murder, adultery or
apostasy. Cornelius, (251-53, reportedly a less capable man) held that the
bishop could remit even grave sin. Novatians view was foreshadowed by that
of Hippolytus and Tertullian against Callistus (see 217). Cornelius had
precedence in Pauls treatment of the incestuous Corinthian and in Irenaeus
view that an adulterous Christian woman could be restored by repentance.
Cornelius won the election (and this was, apparently, an election by the
congregation), and the followers of Novation formed their own communities,
which eventually withered away. Cyprian of Carthage, after initial hesitation,
ended in communion with Cornelius.
In his On the Unity of the Catholic Church, written on behalf of Cornelius, Cyprian
interpreted Matthew 16.18 as giving no special privilege to Peter. In his view,
Christ singles Peter out as a symbol of unity. The other apostles were exactly
what Peter was. Cyprian himself was constantly entitled, Most glorious and
most blessed Pope.
In writing to Cornelius, bishop of Rome, Cyprian referred to him as brother,
as did Cornelius in reply. The bishops of Rome did not begin calling their
fellow bishops sons until Damasus time.
In Letter XL, Cyprian indicated that the laity had a role in the election of
bishops: nor shall we cease to command them to lay aside their pernicious
dissensions and disputes, and to be aware that it is an impiety to forsake their
Mother; and to acknowledge and understand that when a bishop is once made
and approved by the testimony and judgment of his colleagues and the people,
another can by no means be appointed. This is from a letter to Cornelius,
newly elected bishop of Rome, in which Cyprian described how he dealt with
the followers of Novatian. See also Letter LI.
Cyprian, at least, enjoyed a limited monarchy as bishop: Since I have made it a
rule from the beginning of my episcopate not to decide things on my own
account without consulting you [the presbyters] and having the agreement of
the people.
In a work entitled The Lapsed, Cyprian recounted the story of a young (nursing)
Christian girl who was made to partake of a pagan sacrifice. Thereafter, the girl
was no longer physically able to keep down the bread and wine of the
eucharist. This is early evidence of paedocommunion.
With a false bishop appointed for themselves by heretics, they dare even to set
sail and carry letters from schismatics and blasphemers to the chair of Peter and
to the principal Church, in which sacerdotal unity has its source; nor did they
take thought that these are Romans, whose faith was praised by the preaching
Apostle, and among whom it is not possible for perfidy to have entrance. For,
as it has been decreed by all of us - and is equally fair and just -that the case of
every one should be heard there where the crime has been committed; and a
portion of the flock has been assigned to each individual pastor, which he is to
rule and govern, having to give account of his doing to the Lord; it certainly
behooves those over whom we are placed not to run about nor to break up the
harmonious agreement of the bishops with their crafty and deceitful rashness,
but there to plead their cause, where they may be able to have both accusers and
witnesses of their crime St. Cyprian, Letter to Cornelius of Rome, LIV,14.
251 In May, Cyprian of Carthage presided over a council of African bishops held
in Carthage. The council dealt with the question of how to deal with Christians
who had sacrificed to idols or who had procured certificates (libelli) proving
they had done so. The council determined that those who had sacrificed were to
do extended penance, and to be readmitted to communion on their
deathbeds. Those who procured libelli were also to do penance for varying
periods. (Cyprian had gone into hiding during the Decian persecution. In his
absence, some of those who had stood firm in the church (the confessors)
reconciled those who had apostasized on relatively easy terms.) The council
also condemned Felicissimus, the rival bishop of Carthage.
252 A plague struck North Africa. The Christians feared that this would be
interpreted by the pagans that the gods were angered and would lead to a
renewal of Decius persecution.
252 In May, Cyprian presided over a council of 66 bishops in Carthage. One
question before the council is obscure, but the council determined that the
mercy and the grace of God is not to be refused to anyone born of man. Later,
Cyprian responded to a query from Fidus, a rural bishop, who asked whether
infant baptism should be delayed until the eighth day. Cyprian replied that
there should be no delay. He saw no reason to run the risk of the childs eternal
damnation. Fidus seems to have been motivated to delay baptism because of
the impure appearance of newborn infants! (Epistle LVIII.)
From the epistle: But if anything could hinder men from obtaining grace, their
more heinous sins might rather hinder those who are mature and grown up and
older. But again, if even to the greatest sinners and to those who had sinned
much against God, when they subsequently believed, remission of sins is
granted and nobody is hindered from baptism and from grace how much
rather ought we to shrink from hindering an infant who, being lately born, has
not sinned, except in that, being born after the flesh according to Adam, he has
contracted the contagion of the ancient death through his very birth, and he
comes, therefore, the more easily to the reception of the remission of sins in that
it is not his own but the sins of another that are remitted. Infant
communion, as well, was the custom at Carthage.
The larger question the council faced was again how to deal with Christians
who had sacrificed to idols or who had procured certificates (libelli) proving
they had done so. The council determined that peace is to be given to those
who have not withdrawn from the Church of the Lord, but have not ceased
from the first day of their lapse to repent, and to lament, and to beseech the
Lord (Letter 53, from the bishops to to Cornelius their brother). The council
thought this course wise given the probability of renewed persecution under the
emperor Gallus (251-53).
254-6 Stephen bishop of Rome. Stephen was a member of the Julian family. He
decided that Spanish congregations in Merida and Leon should receive as their
bishop one who had lapsed during Decius persecution. The congregations
appealed from Stephen to Cyprian of Carthage (bishop 248-58). Cyprian called
a council which decided in favor of the Spanish.
When the Novatianist bishop of Arles refused to give the sacraments to the
lapsed who had later repented, Stephen failed to act against him. The bishop of
Lyons wrote to Cyprian about the matter, and Cyprian asked Stephen to
excommunicate the bishop of Arles. Stephen resented Cyprians interference.
255 A compilation on the bishops of Rome, known as the Liberian Catalogue, had
been written by this time.
255? Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, met with the presbyters and teachers of
the Church in the district of Arsinoe for three consecutive days to discuss
chiliasm. A certain Coracion, under the influence of a bishop Nepos of Egypt,
had been the chief local proponent of a millennium of bodily luxury upon this
earth [Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 7.24]. After the discussion, Coracion
confessed himself to have been in error and completely convinced by the
arguments presented against chiliasm.
Dionysius later wrote a book entitled On the Promises, directed against Nepos
teachings, which presented his own view thatRevelation was not written by John
the Beloved. Dionysius stated that some reject the book, pronouncing it
without sense or argument, and claim that Cerinthus the heretic was its author,
but that he himself could not reject it, as many brethren hold it in high
esteem. He added, I do not reject what I cannot comprehend.
256 Cyprian held a council of 86 bishops in September of this year which held
that baptism performed by the Novatianists was ineffective. (This was the third
council on this topic, the first having been held in the autumn of 255.) Stephen
of Rome argued against Cyprian in favor of the validity of baptism administered
by wicked persons. To bolster his authority, Stephen invoked the Thou art
Peter... text to affirm his position as Peters successor (the first time this was
done -- but see Callistus above and Siricius, 384/5 below). (The attribution of
such a statement to Stephen was clearly made by Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea
in Cappadocia, in a letter to Cyprian (Epistle 74).) Cyprian held a different
opinion: In the person of one man he gave the keys to all, that he might denote
the unity of all; the rest, therefore, were the same that Peter was, being admitted
to an equal participation in honor and power, but a beginning is made from
unity that the church of Christ may be shown to be one.
(Firmilian compared Stephen, bishop of Rome, to Judas, complained of his
audacity and pride, and ridiculed his claim to be the successor of Peter, on
whom the foundations of the Church were laid.)
Book 6, section 15 of the Apostolic Constitutions agrees with Cyprians council of
256. Nor indeed are those who are baptized by them initiated, but they are
polluted, not receiving the remission of sins, but the bond of impiety.
256 The Franks crossed the Rhine.
256 The Persians under Shapur I sacked Antioch in Syria.
257 8th Persecution of the Church, under Valerian (253-259). Edicts were
published demanding outward conformity with paganism and Christians were
forbidden to hold worship services, under penalty of death. In 258, Valerian
began to put the clergy to death - St. Cyprian was martyred in that year. He also
attacked prominent laymen, but remitted the death penalty in exchange for a
denial of Christ. The persecution continued through 260. Given the troubles of
the day, Valerian had sought to foretell the future via human sacrifice and other
rites. When his efforts failed, blame fell on the Christians within the imperial
family. Thus, his desire to restore the efficacy of pagan religious efforts
motivated Valerians persecution.
257 On August 30, the proconsul Aspasius Paterus sent Cyprian into exile at
Curubis (Kurba) on the Gulf of Hammamet.
258 On June 29 of this year, the remains of Sts. Peter and Paul were transferred
to the ad Catacumbos on the Appian way. The feast of Saints Peter and Paul in
the Roman calendar dates from this year and commemorates this event.
258 Cyprian was brought back from exile, tried, and executed.
258 Xystus II (Sixtus II), bishop of Rome (257-58), was arrested while saying
mass in the catacombs. He was executed, along with his deacons. As he was
being arrested, Xystus charged St. Lawrence with care of the poor. Lawrence
was subsequently arrested himself. In prison, he converted a baptised a blind
man, pouring water from a vessel three times over the mans body. The blind
man was healed. Lawrence, refusing to sacrifice to idols, was burned with hot
irons, beaten, and laid on a hot iron sheet, where he died.
258 The Alemanni pushed through the Alps into the Po River valley. As a
result, Verona, Como and Aquileia were fortified with stone from tombs.
258 From this year, a feast of Peter and Paul was celebrated in Rome on June 29.
258 Bishop Anatolius of Laodicea published the first known Paschal (Easter)
table used in the East to be based on the 19-year Metonic cycle.
259 Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, became involved in a dispute in Libya
between adherents of the Logos theology (see above, year 189) and some
modalistic Monarchians. Dionysius argued that the Son and the Father are as
different as a boat and a boatman, and denied they are of the same substance.
The Libyans appealed to Dionysius of Rome (260-68), who assembled a synod to
consider the issue. He rebuked the Sabellians and those who separate the
Godhead into three gods or consider the Son a creature or work. In his Defense
of the Nicene Definition, Athanasius quotes Dionysius of Alexandria to say, And
I have written in another letter a refutation of that false charge they bring
against me, that I deny that Christ was one in essence with God. Dionysius did
repent of using the expressions the Son was made, and that He is not
eternal.
Writing against the Sabellians, Dionysius of Rome gave the following
exposition of the Trinity:
Next, I may reasonably turn to those who divide and cut to pieces and destroy
that most sacred doctrine of the Church of God, the Divine Monarchy, making it
as it were three powers and partitive subsistences and god-heads three. I am
told that some among you who are catechists and teachers of the Divine Word,
take the lead in this tenet, who are diametrically opposed, so to speak, to
Sabelliuss opinions; for he blasphemously says that the Son is the Father, and
the Father the Son, but they in some sort preach three Gods, as dividing the
sacred Monad into three subsistences foreign to each other and utterly separate.
For it must needs be that with the God of the Universe, the Divine Word is
united, and the Holy Ghost must repose and habitate in God; thus in one as in a
summit, I mean the God of the Universe, must the Divine Triad be gathered up
and brought together. For it is the doctrine of the presumptuous Marcion, to
sever and divide the Divine Monarchy into three origins, - a devils teaching, not
that of Christs true disciples and lovers of the Saviors lessons, for they know
well that a Triad is preached by divine Scripture, but that neither Old Testament
nor New preaches three Gods. Equally must one censure those who hold the
Son to be a work, and consider that the Lord has come into being, as one of
things which really came to be; whereas the divine oracles witness to a
generation suitable to Him and becoming, but not to any fashioning or
making. A blasphemy then is it, not ordinary, but even the highest, to say that
the Lord is in any sort a handiwork. For if He came to be Son, once He was not;
but He was always, if (that is) He be in the Father, as He says Himself, and if the
Christ be Word and Wisdom and Power (which, as ye know, divine Scripture
says), and these attributes be powers of God. If then the Son came into being,
once these attributes were not; consequently there was a time, when God was
without them; which is most absurd. And why say more on these points to you,
men full of the Spirit and well aware of the absurdities which come to view from
saying that the Son is a work? Not attending, as I consider, to this circumstance,
the authors of this opinion have entirely missed the truth, in explaining,
contrary to the sense of divine and prophetic Scripture in the passage, the
words, The Lord created me a beginning of His ways unto His works. (Prov.
8.22) For the sense of He created, as ye know, is not one, for we must
understand He created in this place, as He set over the works made by Him,
that is, made by the Son Himself. And He created here must not be taken for
made, for creating differs from making. Is not He thy Father that hath bought
thee? hath He not made thee and created thee? (Dt. 32.6) says Moses in his great
song in Deuteronomy. And one may Say to them, O reckless men, is He a work,
who is the First-born of every creature, who is born from the womb before the
morning star, (Col. 1.15 and Psalm 110.3) who said, as Wisdom, Before all the
hills He begets me? (Prov. 8.25) And in many passages of the divine oracles is
the Son said to have been generated, but nowhere to have come into being;
which manifestly convicts those of misconception about the Lords generation,
who presume to call His divine and ineffable generation a making. Neither then
may we divide into three Godheads the wonderful and divine Monad; nor
disparage with the name of work the dignity and exceeding majesty of the
Lord; but we must believe in God the Father Almighty, and in Christ Jesus His
Son, and in the Holy Ghost, and hold that to the God of the universe the Word is
united. For I, says He, and the Father are one; and, I in the Father and the
Father in Me. For thus both the Divine Triad, and the holy preaching of the
Monarchy, will be preserved.
260 The emperor Valerian taken prisoner by the Persian emperor Shapur I. The
prince of Palmyra (who had gained independence after Valerians defeat) seized
control of the Eastern provinces of the empire until 272, when they were
regained by the emperor Aurelian.
260 Paul of Samosata became bishop of Antioch in Syria. He disdained the
Logos theology, and spoke of Jesus as a mere man who was uniquely inspired at
his baptism (Adoptionism). In his view, the Word and the Spirit were
manifestations of the Father. According to Simeon of Beit Arsam, Paul had
said, I too, if I wish, shall be Christ since I and Christ are of one and the same
nature. Theodore of Mopsuestia quoted Paul as follows: I do not envy Christ
because he has been made God. For what he was made, I was made, since it is
in my nature. It was reported that at Antioch psalms were sung in praise of
Paul rather than of God.
Paul was condemned by a synod in Antioch in 268 (264?) presided over by
Helenus, bishop of Tarsus. Dionysius of Alexandria and Firmilius of Caesarea
were invited to attend the synod. Paul held onto his power because he was
favored by the Palmyra government. When Aurelian (270-75) regained control
of the Eastern provinces, he declared the church building to be the legal
property of whomever the bishops of Italy and Rome should decide. It appears
that Aurelians concern was loyalty on the part of the Antiochian bishop, and he
chose to employ the bishop of Rome to guarantee that loyalty. Paul has been
viewed as the ancestor of Arianism.
Gregory Thaumaturgus (213-270) was present at the council which condemned
Paul of Samosata. Though a student of Origen, Gregorys view of the Trinity
was orthodox. His Exposition of Faith is considered a forerunner of the Nicene
Creed:
There is one God, the Father of the living Word, who is His subsistent Wisdom
and Power and Eternal Image: perfect Begetter of the perfect Begotten, Father of
the only-begotten Son. There is one Lord, Only of the Only, God of God, Image
and Likeness of Deity, Efficient Word, Wisdom comprehensive of the
constitution of all things, and Power formative of the whole creation, true Son of
one Father, Invisible of Invisible, and Incorruptible of Incorruptible, and
Immortal of Immortal, and Eternal of Eternal. And there is One Holy Spirit,
having His subsistence from God, and being made manifest by the Son, to wit to
men: Image of the Son, Perfect Image of the Perfect; Life, the Cause of the
Living; Holy Fount; Sanctity, the Supplier, or Leader, of Sancitification; in whom
is manifested God the Father, who is above all and in all, and God the Son, who
is through all. There is a perfect Trinity, in glory and eternity and sovereignty,
neither divided nor estranged. Wherefore there is nothing either created or in
servitude in the Trinity; nor anything superinduced, as if at some former period
it was non-existent, and at some later period it was introduced. And thus
neither was the Son ever wanting to the Father, nor the Spirit to the Son; but
without variation and without change, the same Trinity abideth ever.
261 The emperor Gallenius proclaimed toleration for Christians by edict. This,
in response to petitions from Christian bishops, also restored confiscated
churches and cemeteries. Before this time, churches could not own property,
since Christianity was illegal. Churches now began to receive money and
property bequeathed in wills.
262 The temple of Artemis in Ephesus destroyed by Gothic invaders.
262/3 Porphyry became a disciple of Plotinus in Rome about this year. He
arranged Plotinus writings into six books of nine chapters each, the Enneads.
Porphyry placed great stress on Plotinus doctrine of salvation as an ascetic
process involving turning ones attention from the lower to the higher, ending in
the knowledge of God. Porphyry stressed the need for asceticism - abstinence
from meat, celibacy, avoidance of frivolous entertainment, etc. Porphyry also
wrote fifteen books against Christianity, answered by Methodius, Eusebius of
Caesarea, and others, and burned in 448. Socrates, the fifth century church
historian, states that Porphyry was an apostate from Christianity.
268 The Juthurigi and the Alemanni advanced to within 70 miles of Rome in
this year, and again in 270. In consequence, a high wall was built around Rome.
269 The Goths invaded the Balkans. Romans defeated them at Naissus.
270 Goths were permitted to settle in Dacia (that is, the territory north of the
Danube). The emperor Aurelian withdrew Roman rule from Dacia.
274 Born in southern Babylonia, Mani (216-274) died after being imprisoned by
the Persian emperor, Bahram I, at the instigation of Zoroastrian priests. Mani
was the founder of Manichaeanism, a religion which was to rival Christianity
for adherents, reaching Rome early in the fourth century. A gnostic religion,
Manichaeanism held that matter is intrinsically evil, the prison of the soul.
Salvation was through gnosis, an inner illumination in which the soul gained
knowledge of God. The righteous went to paradise at death, but the wicked
(those who procreate, own possessions, drink wine, etc.) are reborn. Good and
evil were independent principles, and both were held to continue indefinitely.
274-5 The Emperor Aurelian (270-75) promoted Sun worship as the official cult
of the empire.
275? Papyrus 47: 3rd Chester Beatty, ~Sinaiticus, Rv9:10-11:3,5-16:15,17- 17:2
283 A fifteen-year-old girl named Pelagia, living in Antioch, threw herself off a
rooftop to preserve her virginity.
284 Diocletian became emperor. Ruled through 305, when he abdicated.
286 St. Anthony (251-356) began the first monastic community, in Egypt.
286 On February 6, Julian of Homs (Emessa) was martyred. A Christian
physician, Julian slipped into prison to attend to Bishop Silouan and two
disciples, who had been imprisoned and tortured for forty days. Julians
activity was reported to his father, as a staunch pagan, who turned him over to
the governor. Julian was tortured for eleven months, during which time his
father sent many to entice him away from the faith. But Julian persevered in the
truth, converting those who had came to convert him. Finally, his father hired a
blacksmith to drive nails into his feet and head. Julian died in a cave outside the
city where he had gone to pray. His relics were removed to Emessa, where they
were rediscovered in the 1970s.
286 Diocletian divided the empire into East and West. He appointed Maximian
Augustus in the West. The capital in the East was Nicomedia; in the West,
Milan. A subordinate, called a Caesar, was appointed for each Augustus. Their
cities were Trier in the West and Salonica in the East.
During Diocletians reign, the civil diocese of Italy was divided in two. Milan
was made capital of the northern diocese. The church accommodated itself to
this civil change, and the bishop of Milan assumed jurisdiction over northern
Italy (Italy annonaria). Romes jurisdiction was limited to the southern diocese.
286 The Forum in Rome burned. It was restored under Diocletian.
300? Other 3rd century NT papyri:
P1: Mt 1:1-9, 12, 14-20
P4: Lk 1:58-59; 1:62-2:1; 2:6-7; 3:8-4:2; 4:29-32: 4:34-35; 5:3-8; 5:30-6:16
P5: Jn 1:23-31, 33-40; 16:14-30; 20:11-17, 19-20, 22-25
P9: 1Jn 4:11-12, 14-17
P12: Heb 1:1
P15: 1 Cor 7:18-8:4
P20: Jm 2:19-3:9
P22: Jn 15:25-16:2; 16:21-32
P23: Jm 1:10-12, 15-18
P27: Rm 8:12-22, 24-27; 8:33-9:3; 9:5-9
P28: Jn 6:8-12, 17-22
P29: Ac 26:7-8, 20
P30: 1 Th 4:12-13, 16-17; 5:3, 8-10, 12-18, 25-28; 2 Th 1:1-2
P38: Ac 18:27-19:6, 12-16 (P38 dates from late in the third century, ~300 AD)
P39: Jn 8:14-22
P40: Rm 1:24-27; 1:31-2:3; 3:21-4:8; 6:4-5:16; 9:16-17:27
P45 (Chester Beaty): Mt 20:24-32; 21:13-19; 25:41-26, 39; Mk 4:36-40; 5:15-26; 5:38-
6:3; 6:16-25; 6:36-50; 7:3-15; 7:25-8:1; 8:10-26; 8:34-9:9; 9:18-9:31; 11:27-12.1; 12:5-8,
13-19, 24-28; Lu 6:31-41; 6:45-7:7; 9:26-41; 9:45-10:1; 10:6-22; 10:26-11:1; 11:6-25;
11:28-46; 11:50-12:12; 12:18-37; 12:42-31:1; 13:6-24; 13:29-14:10; 14:17-33; Jn 4:51,
54; 5:21, 24; 10:7-25; 10:30-11:10; 11:18-36, 42-57; Acts 4:27-36; 5:10-21, 30-39; 6:7-
7:2; 7:10-21, 32-41; 7:52-8:1; 8:14-25; 8:34-9:6; 9:16-27; 9:35-10:2; 10:10-23, 31-41;
11:2-14; 11:24-12:5; 12:13-22; 13:6-16, 25-36; 13:46-14:3; 14:15-23; 15:2-7, 19-27;
15:38-16:4; 16:15-21, 32-40; 17:9-17
P47 (Chester Beaty) Rev 9:10-11:3; 11:5-16:15; 16:17-17:2
P48: Ac 23:11-17, 25-29
P49: Ep 4:16-29; 4:32-5:13
P53: Mt 26:29-40; Ac 9:33-10:1
P65: 1 Th 1:3- 2:1, 6-13
P69: Lk 22:41, 45-48, 58-61
P70: Mt 2:13-16; 2:22-3:1; 11:26-27; 12:4-5; 24:3-6, 12-15
Papyrus 75: Bodmer 14-15, Luke & John, earliest extant Luke; Lk 3:18-22; 3:33-
4:2; 4:34-5:10; 5:37-6:4; 6:10-7:32; 7:35-39; 7:41-43; 7:46-9:2; 9:4-17:15; 7:19-18:18;
22:4-end; Jn 1:1-11:45; 11:48-57; 12:3-13:10; 14:8-15:10. P75 is extremely close to
Vaticanus (B).
P80: Jn 3:34
P87: Phm 13-15, 24-25
P91: Act 2:30-37; 2:46-3:2
The following uncials:
0171: Mt 10:17-23, 25-32; Lk 22:44-56, 61-64
0220: Rm 4:23-5:3; 5:8-13
0212 (Diatessaron): Mt 27:56-57; Mk 15:40-42; Lk 23:49-51, 54; Jn 19:38
The earliest Syriac translations of the gospels were made during the third
century: Syrus Curetonianus and Syrus Sinaiticus. Known collectively as Vetus
Syra, Syrus Curetonianus appears to be a revision of Syrus Sinaiticus. They
differ in style from the Peshitta, which dates from about a century later (see 400
above).
300 Early in the fourth century the celebration of 25 December, the Sun gods
birthday at mid-winter, as Christs birthday began somewhere in the West (see
336 below). Also, St. Peters basilica was built on the site of Peters grave (see
330).
300?The Apostolic Constitutions were written around this time. Ecclesiastical
canon 35 gave an indication of the role of the bishop within the Church: The
bishops of every nation must acknowledge him who is first among them and
account him as their head and do nothing of consequence without his consent;
but each may do those things which concern his own parish and the country
places which belong to it. But neither let him who is the first do anything
without the consent of all. For so there will be oneness of mind and God will be
glorified through the Lord in the Holy Spirit.
Ecclesiastical canon 85 gave the following list of the canon of Scripture: Let
the following books be esteemed venerable and holy by you, both of the clergy
and laity. Of the Old Covenant: the five books of Moses-Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; one of Joshua the son of Nun, one of the
Judges, one of Ruth, four of the Kings, two of the Chronicles, two of Ezra, one of
Esther, one of Judith, three of the Maccabees, one of Job, one hundred and fifty
psalms; three books of Solomon-Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs;
sixteen prophets. And besides these, take care that your young persons learn
the Wisdom ofthe very learned Sirach. But our sacred books, that is, those of the
New Covenant, are these: the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John;
the fourteen Epistles of Paul; two Epistles of Peter, three of John, one of James,
one of Jude; two Epistles of Clement; and the Constitutions dedicated to you the
bishops by me Clement, in eight books; which it is not fit to publish before all,
because of the mysteries contained in them; and the Acts of us the Apostles.
[Note that Revelation is absent from the New Testament canon.]
The 27
th
ecclesiastical canon of the Constitutions prohibits most clergy from
marrying after ordination: Of those who come into the clergy unmarried, we
permit only the readers and singers, if they have a mind, to marry afterwards.
The 50
th
ecclesiastical canon required triple immersion for baptism: If any
bishop or presbyter does not perform the three immersions of the one
admission, but one immersion, which is given into the death of Christ, let him
be deprived.
Book 6, section 15 of The Apostolic Constitutions urges infant baptism: Do ye
also baptize your infants, and bring them up in the nurture and admonition of
the Lord. The Apostolic Constitutions also contain clear evidence that infant
communion was practiced in the church.
300 Before about 300, most books were in the form of scrolls. Scrolls had severe
limitations. For instance, a book the size of Matthews gospel would fit on a
scroll. A codex, formed by folding sheets of papyrus or vellumin the middle
and sewing them together at the spine, could contain much larger
works. Codices also eased the task of locating a given passage. Around 600, the
words in books were separated by a space -- a development associated with the
Irish. In around 800, the Carolingians introduced punctuation marks.
The Fourth Century
Part 1
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


301+ During this century, the Eastern Church began singing the Gloria in
excelsis in the Daily Offices. The hymn was originally written in Greek. It was
adopted for use in the West, often during Matins. The Gloria was first
introduced to Rome by Symmachus (498-514). When the Roman liturgy spread
throughout the Western Church during the eighth century, the Gloria came to be
used exclusively in the mass.

301 Early in this century, an 84-year paschal (Easter) cycle emerged in the West.
This method was employed by many in the West, though Rome itself generally
followed the calculations made in Alexandria until 457, when it adopted the
paschal tables of Victor of Aquitaine.
301 Diocletian set the stage for the Middle Ages with an edict which forced
tradesmen to remain in their trades and their descendants to follow in their
footsteps. Tenants were compelled to remain on their land for life.
303 9th Persecution of the Church, under Diocletian. When augurs could no
longer find the usual signs on the livers of sacrificed animals, Diocletian
consulted the oracle of Apollo at Miletus. The god blamed the Christians. On
23 Feb 303, the Christian cathedral in Nicomedia was torn down. The next day,
an edict declared all churches were to be destroyed, all Bibles and liturgical
books surrendered, sacred vessels confiscated, and all meetings for (Christian)
worship forbidden. A few months later, an edict limited to the East required the
arrest of all clergy who refused to sacrifice to the gods.
303 Two Roman army officers serving on the Syrian frontier, Sts. Sergios and
Bacchus, both Christians, refused to sacrifice to Jupiter. Maximian demoted
them, then shamed them by marching them through the streets dressed as
women. Next, they were scourged in Risafe, Syria, where Bacchus died from his
wounds. Boards were nailed to Sergios feet, and he was forced to walk on
them. Afterwards, he was beheaded. (See 431 below.)
303 The council of Elvira (Illiberis, near Granada). Nineteen bishops and 24
priests met at this first council of the Church in Spain. The council adopted 81
canons, 34 of them dealing with marriage and sexual misconduct. No
reconciliation with the Church was permitted for those who committed the sins
of idolatry, divorce, incest, or repeated adultery. Punishment for lesser sins was
exclusion from the eucharist, for periods as long as 10 years. [B]ishops, priests,
deacons and all members of the clergy connected with the liturgy must
abstain from their wives and must not beget sons (see Siricius, 385-6). Canon
43 emphasizes the importance of celebrating the day of Pentecost, and it seems to
be directed against those who would close Pentecost on the fortieth day after
Pascha. At any rate, this canon is the first Christain use of Pentecost as
referring to a specific day and not to the full fifty-day period. The exact date of
the council is not known. The range 300-303 and the year 309 have scholarly
support.
304 All citizens of the empire required to sacrifice to the gods under pain of
death. In practice, this was limited to the East.
304 Marcellinus, bishop of Rome (296-304), fell away into apostasy during this
persecution. He gave up copies of the Scriptures and offered a sacrifice to the
pagan gods.
Martyred this year was St. George. A native of Cappadocia and child of
Christian parents, George became a tribune in Roman army regiment.
Diocletian honored him with the rank of trophy-bearer for his bravery. When
the persecution began, George voluntarily confessed his Christian faith to the
emperor. Diolcetian commanded him to sacrifice to the gods. When George
refused, he was stretched out supine with a heavy stone on his chest. The next
day, George again refused to sacrifice, and Diocletian had him attached to a
great wheel which tore at his flesh with an assortment of barbs. When George
again refused to abjure Christ, Diocletian had him beheaded.
Another martyr during this persecution was Pelagia of Tarsus. One of
Diocletians sons fell in love with her, but she had dedicated herself to God
instead. Diocletians son killed himself when he realized he couldnt have her.
Diocletian then had Pelagia burned.
305 St. Panteleimon, a physician of Nicomedia, martyred. Panteleimon had
given his services freely. His relics were later moved to Constantinople and a
church was built there and dedicated to him. This church was rebuilt by
Justinian in 532.
305 On May 1, Diocletian, and his co-emperor Maximian, abdicated.
306 Flavius Constantius, Caesar in the West, died at York (Eburacum, in
Britain). (Constantius had been Maximians subordinate caesar in the West,
becoming caesar augustus in the West upon Maximians abdcation.) The army
proclaimed his son Constantine Emperor.
306 A dispute arose between Peter, bishop of Alexandria, and Meletius, bishop
of Lycopolis. Peter had Meletius deposed for fomenting discord: Meletius was
critical of the light penances Peter imposed on those who lapsed during
Diocletians persecution. Persecution began again in 308, and Meletius was
exiled to the mines in Palestine. He returned in 311, and led a schism after being
excommunicated by Peter. The Meletians were to become allies of the Arians
against Athanasius.
311 The Emperor Galerius issued an edict allowing Christianity the right to exist
and Christians to form assemblies.
311 Death of Methodius, once bishop of Olympus and Patara in Lycia. A
theologian in the Asiatic tradition of Irenaeus, he attacked Origens doctrines of
the preexistence of souls, matter as a prison for the spirit, and the non-physical
nature of the resurrected body. Methodius became bishop of Tyre before his
martyrdom at Chalcis in Syria (southwest of Aleppo). (Some, however, think he
died at Chalcis in Greece.)
311 Caecelian elected bishop of Carthage. Because one of the bishops who
consecrated him had turned over copies of the Scriptures during Diocletians
persecution (those who did so were known as traditors), Caecelian was
immediately opposed. By tradition, the primates of Numidia had the right to
consecrate the bishop of Carthage. Secundus of Tigisi, primate of
Numidia,came to Carthage with 70 other bishops, declared the bishopric of
Carthage vacant, and elected the lector Majorinus in Caecelians place.
312 An exegetical school founded at Antioch by Lucian. Lucian was also
martyred in 312. His edition of the New Testament is thought by some to be the
ancestor of the Majority Text. Lucian was born at Samosata, and was under
suspicion for a period of sharing Paul of Samosatas heretical views.
Lucian opposed the allegorical interpretation of Scripture, popular at
Alexandria, with a literal methodology. Lucians Christology is suspect: he
apparently held that the Word was a creature through whom all other creatures
were formed. Many major leaders of the Arian movement Arius, Eusebius of
Nicomedia, Maris and Theognis were trained by Lucian.
312 Constantine defeated his rival Maxentius at the battle of the Milvian bridge
outside Rome. The legend is, on the way to this battle, he saw a cross in the sky
one afternoon with the words Hoc vince (by this conquer), and he adopted the
cross as his standard. He was emperor in the West. The following year, Licinius
consolidated power in the East. The Lateran palace was turned over to the
bishop of Rome, Miltiades, as an episcopal residence.
312 This was the initial year for a 15-year cycle of property taxes, known as the
indiction. The Indiction of Constantinople was used as a dating system in the
East. The year between 1 Sep 312 and 31 Aug 313 was the first year of the
indiction, as was the year from 1 Sep 327 to 31 Aug 328. The Imperial,
Caesarean, or Western Indiction is similar, but begins each year with 24
September. Apparently this is due to an error made by the Venerable Bede (see
731), who mistook 24 Sep for the autumnal equinox.
313 Constantine issued the Edict of Milan: Christianity was given a legal status
equal to paganism.
313 Constantine ordered the bishop of Rome, Miltiades, to investigate the
controversy in Carthage. On October 2, a group of Italian and Gaulic bishops
under Miltiades found Caecelian innocent of all charges and
excommunicated Donatus (who had succeeded Majorinus). Constantine had
been prompted to act by a letter from the Donatist bishops of Africa, who had
asked him to appoint bishops from Gaul to determine the rightful bishop of
Carthage.
313 Alexander became bishop of Alexandria. Served through 328. Opponent of
Arius, one of his presbyters. From this time, the bishop of Alexandria was the
Pope, emphatically beyond all others, and he retains that title to this day. The
bishops of Rome began to use the title around the year 400 see Siricius below,
year 384.
314 On 1 August, Constantine, Emperor of the West, called the Council of
Arles (Arelate), a general council of the Western church, presided over by the
bishops of Arles and Syracuse. Caecilian, the compromising bishop of Carthage,
had been challenged by the election of a rival bishop, Majorinus, who held to the
Cyprianic theology. Majorinus was succeeded by Donatus. Donatuss followers
appealed to Constantine for a decision in their favor, and Constantine
responded by calling this council. The council decided the quarrel in favor of
Caecilian. Since these latter only remain in communion with the churches
outside Africa, they were henceforth known as Catholics. Donatus followers
were termed Donatists, and this sect persevered until the Arab invasion.
Donatism was proscribed in 412 (see below). Three British bishops are reported
to have attended the Council of Arles. Showing deference to Sylvester, bishop
of Rome (314-35), the council asked him to circulate its decisions.
314 An Egyptian named Pachomius left the Roman Army this year and joined
the hermit Palemon near Tabennisi on the east bank of the Nile, near Thebes.
He built the first monastic enclosure and formulated a rule for daily work and
prayer. By the time of his death in 346, St. Pachomius had founded 11
monasteries with more than 7000 monks and nuns. Pachomius is said to have
destroyed a book by Origen, whom he considered a heretic, by throwing it into
the Nile. He would have burned the book had it not contained the name of the
Lord.
314 St. Gregory the Illuminator converted King Tiridates III (298-330) of
Armenia to the Christian faith. Armenia thus became a Christian nation.
During the following century, the liturgy was translated into and conducted in
Armenian.
315 The forty holy martyrs of Sebastea. The emperor Licinius (307-324) ordered
all Christians in the army to sacrifice to idols. Forty soldiers serving in Sebastea,
Armenia, refused. During winter, they were made to stand in the extremely
cold Lake Sebastea with their hands tied behind their backs. After some time,
one of the forty left the lake, but fell dead when he was placed in a warm bath.
One of the guards then had a vision of forty crowns descending over the lake.
He understood the vision to mean that he was to become the fortieth martyr,
and he rushed into the lake with the remaining thirty-nine. (Sebastea, now
known as Sivas, is in central Turkey.)
315 Constantine called upon Lactantius (260-330) to educate his son Crispus.
Lactantius is the author of the Divine Institutes, a comprehensive apology for
Christianity and exposition of the faith.
315 Constantines coins began to carry the Chi Rho symbol (a Greek monogram
for Christ).
316 In November, Constantine made the decision in favor of Caecelian as bishop
of Carthage final. See 314 above.
318 Arius, a presbyter of the Alexandrian church, began to teach the heresy that
goes by his name. He did not believe that the incarnate Son is one with the
transcendent first cause of creation. The Son who is tempted, suffers, and dies,
however exalted he may be, is not to be equal to the immutable Father beyond
pain and death; if he is other than the Father, he is inferior. The Logos,
therefore, is inferior to the Father. Arius had powerful supporters in Eusebius
bishop of Palestinian Caesarea and in Eusebius bishop of Nicomedia (the
imperial residence in Bithynia).
320 Constantine bridged the Danube above its confluence with the river Olt.
321 Constantine required all subjects of the Roman Empire to observe the Lords
day as a day of rest and also to honor Friday, the day of Christs death. He
allowed Christian soldiers leave to attend church on Sunday, and even enjoined
pagan soldiers to pray on Sunday. (Note that this in no way implies that
Constantine invented Christian worship on Sunday.) Prior to this time, the seven
day week had not been officially observed by the Roman Empire. Instead, the
days of the month were denoted by counting down toward the Kalends, the
Nones, and the Ides of each month.
321 In May, Constantine granted toleration to the Donatists.
323 Constantine won the battle of Chrysopolis. Defeated Licinius, and became
sole Roman emperor.
323 In September, a synod in Alexandria condemned Arius. Eusebius of
Nicomedia held a synod at Bithynia in October which cancelled Ariuss
excommunication.
325 Birth of St. Gregory Nazianzus.
In January, a synod held in Antioch provisionally excommunicated Eusebius of
Caesarea, Theodotus of Laodicea, and Narcissus of Naronias in Cilicia for
adherence to the Arian heresy.
325 First Ecumenical Council, held at Nicaea (Nicea). Called by Constantine to
settle the dispute over Arius doctrines on the person of Christ. Hosius, bishop
of Cordova, presided. The legates from Rome were given the position fourth in
honor. 218 of 220 bishops present agreed to a creed the council drew up, though
there was diversity in interpretation.
The creed of the council of Nicaea:
"We believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of all things, visible and
invisible;
"And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-
begotten, that is, from the substance of the Father, God from God, light from
light, true God from true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the
Father, through Whom all things came into being, things in heaven and things
on earth, Who because of us men and because of our salvation came down and
became incarnate, becoming man, suffered and rose again on the third day,
ascended to the heavens, and will come to judge the living and the dead;
"And in the Holy Spirit.
"But for those who say, There was when He was not, and, Before being born
He was not, and that He came into existence out of nothing, or who assert that
the Son of God is from a different hypostasis or substance, or is created, or is
subject to alteration or change - these the Catholic Church anathematizes."
The statement in the creed that the Son is of the same substance (homoousios)
with the Father caused the greatest controversy in the subsequent battle with the
Arians. At Nicaea, the Arians were able to agree to just about every other
formula that indicated the divinity of the Son. They simply interpreted these
formulae in an Arian manner. But the homoousios was unacceptable to them.
InDe Decretis, Athanasius wrote: The Council wishing to do away with the
irreligious phrases of the Arians, and to use instead the acknowledged words of
the Scriptures, that the Son is not from nothing but `from God,' and is `Word'
and `Wisdom,' and not creature or work, but a proper offspring from the Father,
Eusebius [of Nicomedia] and his fellows, led by their inveterate heterodoxy,
understood the phrase `from God' as belonging to us, as if in respect to it the
Word of God differed nothing from us, and that because it is written, `There is
one God, from whom, all things (1 Cor 8.6);' and again, `Old things are passed
away, behold, all things are become new, and all things are from God (2 Cor
5.17).' But the Fathers, perceiving their craft and the cunning of their irreligion,
were forced to express more distinctly the sense of the words `from God.'
Accordingly, they wrote `from the essence of God,' in order that `from God'
might not be considered common and equal in the Son and in things originate,
but that all others might be acknowledged as creatures, and the Word alone as
from the Father.
Again, when the Bishops said that the Word must be described as the True
Power and Image of the Father, in all things exact and like the Father, and as
unalterable, and as always, and as in Him without division (for never was the
Word not, but He was always, existing everlastingly with the Father, as the
radiance of light), Eusebius and his fellows endured indeed, as not daring to
contradict, being put to shame by the arguments which were urged against
them; but withal they were caught whispering to each other and winking with
their eyes, that `like,' and `always,' and `power,' and `in Him,' were, as before,
common to us and the Son, and that it was no difficulty to agree to these. As to
`like,' they said that it is written of us, `Man is the image and glory of God (1 Cor
11.7):' `always,' that it was written, `For we which live are alway (2 Cor 4.11):' `in
Him,' `In Him we live and move and have our being (Acts 17.18):'`unalterable,'
that it is written, `Nothing shall separate us from the love of Christ (Rom 8.35):'
as to `power,' that the caterpillar and the locust are called `power' and `great
power (Joel 2.25),' and that it is often said of the people, for instance, `All the
power of the Lord came out of the land of Egypt (Ex 12.41):' and there are others
also, heavenly ones, for Scripture says, `The Lord of powers is with us, the God
of Jacob is our refuge (Psalm 96.7).' ... But the Bishops discerning in this too their
dissimulation, and whereas it is written, `Deceit is in the heart of the irreligious
that imagine evil (Prov 12.20),' were again compelled on their part to collect the
sense of the Scriptures, and to re-say and re-write what they had said before,
more distinctly still, namely, that the Son is `one in essence' with the Father: by
way of signifying, that the Son was from the Father, and not merely like, but the
same in likeness, and of shewing that the Son's likeness and unalterableness was
different from such copy of the same as is ascribed to us, which we acquire from
virtue on the ground of observance of the commandments. For bodies which
are like each other may be separated and become at distances from each other,
as are human sons relatively to their parents (as it is written concerning Adam
and Seth, who was begotten of him that he was like him after his own pattern
(Gen 5.3)); but since the generation of the Son from the Father is not according to
the nature of men, and not only like, but also inseparable from the essence of the
Father, and He and the Father are one, as He has said Himself, and the Word is
ever in the Father and the Father in the Word, as the radiance stands towards
the light (for this the phrase itself indicates), therefore the Council, as
understanding this, suitably wrote `one in essence,' that they might both defeat
the perverseness of the heretics, and shew that the Word was other than
originated things. For, after thus writing, they at once added, `But they who say
that the Son of God is from nothing, or created, or alterable, or a work, or from
other essence, these the Holy Catholic Church anathematizes.'
Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch had traditionally exercised jurisdiction outside
of their respective cities: Rome over southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, for
instance; and Alexandria over Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis. (The sphere of
Antioch appears to have been Coele-Syria and Cyprus.) These churches, with
special privileges outside their provinces, exercising direct control to the
exclusion of the ordinary power of the metropolitans bishops, came to be
termed patriarchates. The council also gave special honor to Jerusalem, without
prejudicing the privileges of Caesarea. This was the first step toward the
creation of a patriarchate of Jerusalem in the next century, at Ephesus (431).
The bishop of Alexandria was given the privilege of announcing the date of
Easter. This to guard against disagreement over the date. Announced in the
annual festal letter. The date was to be calculated according to the custom in
Egypt, Palestine and the West. The churches in Asia Minor, prior to this
decision, had held Easter on Passover. Alexandria may have been selected
because of its superior astronomers.
Canon 5 decreed that synods be held in each province twice yearly, once before
Lent, and once in the autumn. The length of Lent (whether as a 40-day period or
otherwise) was not mentioned. Canon 20 forbade kneeling on Sundays or
during Pentecost, since these are times of joy.
There is no sound historical evidence that the council established a canon of
scripture. The legend that the council placed a collection of books near the altar,
prayed, and found the approved works atop the altar, with the rejected works
beneath, has no support prior to the ninth century. See 877 below, Vetus
Synodicon.
326 The first St. Peters Basilica was begun in Rome. It was finished roughly 30
years later. The church was demolished early in the sixteenth century and a
new church was erected (see 1506).
327 Eusebius of Caesarea, in response to a letter from the emperors sister
Constantia asking for a picture of Christ, took it for granted that only pagan
artists would make such a representation. However, in his Ecclesiastical
History (Book 7, Ch 18), he reported the existence of a miracle-working statue,
thought to be of Christ, in Caesarea Philippi. That was the home city of the
woman healed of an issue of blood (Matt 9.20 and following). The statue
depicted this woman (known to tradition as St. Berenice) stretching out her
hand to Jesus. Eusebius also stated, without condemnation, that the painted
likenesses of Peter, Paul, and Christ had also been made, "according to the habit
of the Gentiles."
Also of note: Eusebius saw the conversion of Constantine as an act of God to
further the spread of the good news.
In his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius listed the New Testament books. The
genuine books: the four gospels, the epistles of Paul, 1 John, 1 Peter, and
Revelation. Disputed: James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, and 2 Peter. He also
mentioned Hebrews as a book with which those of the Hebrews who have
received Christ are particularly delighted.
Eusebius theology was influenced by Origen. This was somewhat typical of the
Conservatives or Semi-Arians in the East during the Arian conflict. Although
defended as orthodox by Socrates in the fifth century, Eusebius theological
views are questionable. In De Synodis, Athanasius wrote, Eusebius of Caesarea
in Palestine, in a letter to Euphration the bishop, did not scruple to say plainly
that Christ was not true God. He had been condemned by the synod of
Antioch in 325, initially supported the Arians, and then, though firmly adhering
to orthodoxy after Nicaea, he was willing to facilitate Constantine's wish to
tolerate the return of the Arians to communion with little evidence their position
had changed. Eusebius was eventually condemned at the second council of
Nicae in 787, being described as double-minded.
Using the same basic methodology as Julius Africanus had employed (see 222
above), Eusebius arrived at the date 5232 anno mundi (year of the world, 33A.D.)
for the crucifixion. Adam was born in 1 A.M. (5199 B.C.), the flood occurred in
2242 A.M. (2958 B.C.), the Exodus in 3689 A.M. (1511 B.C.) and the nativity of
the Lord in 5199 A.M. (1 B.C.). Eusebiuss Chronikoi Kanones was popularized
in the West through Jeromes Latin translation, known to the Venerable Bede.
328 Athanasius succeeded Alexander as bishop of Alexandria. He served
initially through 335, when he was dislodged by the maneuverings of Eusebius
of Nicomedia on behalf of Arius.
Athanasius interpreted the effect of the incarnation using a Platonic view of
human nature: it is an ideal each of us participates in as a human being. By his
incarnation, Christ infuses fallen human nature with his divinity. Although it
might seem natural, therefore, that all men would be saved, Athanasius did not
draw this conclusion, but instead held that only those who are in union with the
Holy Spirit participate in the divine nature.
In his Statement of Faith, Athanasius wrote: But the Holy Spirit, being that
which proceeds from the Father, is ever in the hands of the Father Who sends
and of the Son Who conveys Him, by Whose means he filled all things. The
Father, possessing His existence from Himself, begat the Son ... as a river from a
well and as a branch from a root, and as brightness from a light ... and did not
create Him.
It has been stated that the essential difference between Athanasius and the
Conservatives [also called Semiarians the Easterners who were largely
orthodox but wished to replace the Nicene formula] ... [was that Athanasius
understood] the insufficiency of the formulae of the third century to meet the
problem of the fourth. (Introduction to Athanasius De Sententia Dionysii)
328 (331?) Eustathius, recently elected bishop of Antioch, was deposed by an
Arian council which met in that city. The Arians hired a woman to say
Eustathius had sired her child. Eustathius had been an able defender of
orthodoxy. But he had reportedly spoken disrespectfully of the emperors
mother, Helena, in 326 when she was on pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
Eustathius was a noted critic of Origen.
328 Eusebius of Nicomedia presented a confession of faith and was allowed to
return from exile.
329 Birth of St. Basil the Great.
330 Founding of the city of Constantinople. The University of Constantinople
was founded at about the same time and educated students until 1453.
Also about this year, Arius returned from exile, after Eusebius of Nicomedia
interceded for him with the emperor. Eusebius then wrote to Athanasius asking
him to restore Arius to communion, but Athanasius refused.
Old Saint Peters Basilica was dedicated by Constantine. It was located over
the traditional burial site of Saint Peter the Apostle in Rome on Vatican Hill.
Death of Iamblichus (250-330) founder of the Syrian school of Neoplatonism.
Iamblichus' modified Ploninus' philosophy in the direction of a syncretic
religion, which may have provided the framework for Justinian's religious
views.
332 The Tervingi, a Gothic tribe, were defeated in battle and became clients to
the Romans.
335 A mosaic image of Christ, depicted without a beard, was set in a floor in
Hinton St. Mary in Dorset, England.
335 The Despositio Martyrum, a calendar of Roman martyrs, had been written by
this year.
335 According to Eusebius of Caesarea in his biography of Constantine,
the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem wasdedicated in this year. On
the way to the dedication, about 150 bishops met in council in Tyre. Eusebius of
Caesarea presided. Among the charges against Athanasius was that he had had
Arsenius, the Meletian bishop of Hypsele, murdered, then procured one of his
hands for magical purposes. Athanasius produced Arsenius at the council and
refuted this charge, Arsenius being alive with two hands intact. The party of
Eusebius of Nicomedia prevailed, however, and Athanasius fled to
Constantinople. The council passed a resolution deposing Athanasius.
At the dedication in Jerusalem, Arius was received into communion on the
strength of a confession of faith he had presented to Constantine previously.
Word arrived that the emperor wanted to discuss the events at Tyre, and
Eusebius of Caesarea accompanied the Arian bishops to make a further charge
against Athanasius. He was accused of threatening to starve Constantinople by
stopping the grain shipments from Egypt. Athanasius was banished to Treveri,
starting his journey around February of 336.
That same winter there was a council at Constantinople which deposed
Marcellus of Ancyra for heresy and nominated a Basil to the see of Ancyra.
Marcellus had been a critic of the theological tradition of Origen, which had
emphasized the independence of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Marcellus
was accused of teaching that the distinction between the Father and the Son was
only temporary - the Logos will eventually merge with the Father. The excuse
for deposing Marcellus was his failure to attend the ceremonies reconciling
Arius at the dedication ceremony in Jerusalem the previous year.
335 A Palestinian named Epiphanios (see 375) founded a monastery at
Eleutheropolis in Judea.
336 The first notice of the Feast of the Nativity of Christ (Christmas) occurred in
a Roman almanac (the Chronographer of 354, orPhilocalian Calendar), which
indicates that the festival was observed by the church in Rome by the year 336.
In one of his letters, John Chrysostom mentioned that Julius I (337-52), bishop of
Rome, had the Imperial records of the Roman census examined and confirmed
the observance of Christs birthday on December 25. See Hippolytus, year 198.
(It is interesting that in the East Jesus birth, the adoration of the Magi, and
baptism were all observed on January 6. It is possible that Julius records review
was conducted to bring the East into conformity with Rome.) Some historians
suggest that Christmas, the feast of the Incarnation, was introduced (and gained
popularity) as a liturgical strike at Arianism.
Death of Arius. He died suddenly on the day before he was to be received back
into communion with the church. The aged bishop Alexander of
Constantinople had prayed that God would take either him or Arius away
before such an outrage to the faith could be perpetrated. He died attending to a
call of nature, apparently of heart failure. There is the possibility that he was
poisoned.
During this year, Eusebius of Caesarea wrote two works accusing Marcellus,
bishop of Ancyra, of Sabellianism.
337 Constantine was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia, and died, May 22.
Constantine delayed baptism until the point of death as was common in the
fourth century, but considered himself a Christian from 313. Upon
Constantines death, he was succeeded by his three sons: Constantine II in the
West, Constans in Italy, Illyricum, and North Africa, and Constantius in the
East. In 340, Constantine II was killed during a war against Constans.
Constantius tended to be guided by Eusebius of Nicomedia in religious matters,
while Constans supported the Western bishops, who were largely orthodox.
On June 17, 337, Constantine II sent a letter to the people and clergy of
Alexandria, announcing that Athanasius was being restored as their bishop. He
stated that this had been Constantines intention, and that Athanasius had been
removed to Treveri for his protection.
337 Constantius became emperor in the East. Served through 361. Athananius
returned from exile in November, and stayed for 1 year and 4 to 5 months.
Eusebius of Nicomedia was translated to Constantinople at about this time.
Alexander, the orthodox bishop of Constantinople, had died (336?), and he was
succeeded by his secretary Paul, a native of Thessalonica. According to
Sozomen (3.4), The adherents of Arius desired the ordination of Macedonius,
while those who maintained that the Son is consubstantial with the Father
wished to have Paul as their bishop. This latter party prevailed. After the
ordination of Paul, the emperor, who chanced to be away from home, returned
to Constantinople, and manifested much displeasure at what had taken place as
though the bishopric had been conferred upon an unworthy man. Through the
machinations of the enemies of Paul, a synod was convened, and he was
expelled from the church. It handed over the church of Constantinople to
Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia.
Eusebius of Constantinople presented the case to Constantius that Athanasius
and other orthodox bishops, (and Marcellus of Ancyra) had been restored to
their sees uncanonically. Eusebius position was not unpopular with Eastern
conservatives who had begun to see a danger in state determination of
ecclesiastical affairs.
337 Soon after Constantines death, the Persians under Shapur II (325-79)
crossed the Tigrus and attacked the Roman Empire in an attempt to regain
Mesopotamia and Armenia. From this year until about 350, Rome and Persia
were at war. Viewing Christians as a fifth column, Shapur began persecuting
them. This persecution continued for about 50 years. In about 342, St.
Aphraat (290-370) fled the Persians to Edessa. Aphraat later preached the
Orthodox faith to the Arian emperor Valens.
338 In order to test the Western reaction, Eusebius of Constantinople sent two
deacons to Julius, bishop of Rome, to lay charges against the deposed bishops
(Athanasius, Marcellus, etc.). They also argued that Pistus, whom the Eusebians
had sent to Alexandria, should be recognized as bishop there.
338/9 Athanasius composed a letter dealing with the charges against him and
sent it with two presbyters to Rome. The Eusebian deacons then asked Julius to
call a council to settle the issue. Julius agreed to this. He in turn sent two
presbyters to Antioch to invite the Eusebians to a council.
339 In January, the Eusebians met in council in Antioch, where Constantius, the
eastern emperor, was spending the winter. They repeated their deposition of
Athanasius and appointed Gregory the Cappadocian, not Pistus, to succeed
him. The Roman presbyters arrived after this council, and were detained until
340.
339 In March, Athanasius fled Alexandria, the Eusebian party having again
succeeded in having his deposed. Athanasius visited Rome, accompanied by
Egyptian monks. Thus monasticism began in the West.
340 Death of Constantine II. He had laid claim to Constans territories of Italy
and North Africa, and had invaded Italy. He was killed by Constans forces
near Aquileia.
340 Julius, bishop of Rome (337-352) welcomed Athanasius and Marcellus to
communion: The presbyters whom Julius had sent to Antioch returned in the
spring with an acrimonious note from the Eusebians. Julius convoked a council
of Italian bishops. The council pronounced Athanasius innocent of all charges.
All other exiles were restored by this synod, including Marcellus, who was
simply required to affirm the Roman baptismal creed. Julius then sent a letter to
the Eusebians in the name of the synod. Julius pointed out that, without his
consent, no decision could be considered universal. He based his claim to be
consulted on matters dealing with the see of Alexandria on the precedent of
Dionysius (see 259).
As the exiles had been excommunicated by Greek synods, the East was miffed.
340 Death of Eusebius of Caesarea. Eusebius was succeeded by Acacius, who
was to become the leader of the Arians in the East. In fact, the Arians were
sometimes called Acacians.
340 Birth of St. Ambrose.
341 Eusebius of Constantinople, an Arian (see year 318, above) consecrated
Ulfila as bishop to the Goths. Ulfila held to the Nicene creed until the council of
Rimini (Arminum) in 359.
341 In the summer, Eastern bishops met in synod at the occasion of a cathedral
(Constantines Golden Church) dedication in Antioch. Julius letter from the
recent council at Rome was considered. The Eastern bishops denied that Rome
had a right to judge decisions reached in the East.
The assembled Eastern bishops drew up three creeds. The first had a preface
denying that they were followers of Arius. This creed does not seem to have
been widely favored.
The second creed is referred to as the Creed of the Dedication or
the Lucianic creed, alleged to have been written by Lucian the Martyr (see
312). The Lucianic creed omitted the homoousion, but maintained the exact
likeness of the Son to the Fathers essence. Its anathemas permitted an Arian
interpretation. Against Marcellus, it insisted on the generation of the Son before
time. The Lucianic creed (as given by Athanasius in his de Synodis):
We believe, conformably to the evangelical and apostolical tradition, in One
God, the Father Almighty, the Framer, and Maker, and Provider of the Universe,
from whom are all things.
And in One Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, Only-begotten God (John 1.18), by
whom are all things, who was begotten before all ages from the Father, God
from God, whole from whole, sole from sole, perfect from perfect, King from
King, Lord from Lord, Living Word, Living Wisdom, true Light, Way, Truth,
Resurrection, Shepherd, Door, both unalterable and unchangeable; exact Image
of the Godhead, Essence, Will, Power and Glory of the Father; the first born of
every creature, who was in the beginning with God, God the Word, as it is
written in the Gospel, `and the Word was God' (John 1.1); by whom all things
were made, and in whom all things consist; who in the last days descended
from above, and was born of a Virgin according to the Scriptures, and was made
Man, Mediator between God and man, and Apostle of our faith, and Prince of
life, as He says, `I came down from heaven, not to do Mine own will, but the
will of Him that sent Me' (John 6.38); who suffered for us and rose again on the
third day, and ascended into heaven, and sat down on the right hand of the
Father, and is coming again with glory and power, to judge quick and dead.
And in the Holy Ghost, who is given to those who believe for comfort, and
sanctification, and initiation, as also our Lord Jesus Christ enjoined His
disciples, saying, `Go ye, teach all nations, baptizing them in the Name of the
Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost' (Matt. 28.19); namely of a Father who
is truly Father, and a Son who is truly Son, and of the Holy Ghost who is truly
Holy Ghost, the names not being given without meaning or effect, but denoting
accurately the peculiar subsistence, rank, and glory of each that is named, so
that they are three in subsistence, and in agreement one.
Holding then this faith, and holding it in the presence of God and Christ, from
beginning to end, we anathematize every heretical heterodoxy. And if any
teaches, beside the sound and right faith of the Scriptures, that time, or season,
or age, either is or has been before the generation of the Son, be he anathema. Or
if any one says, that the Son is a creature as one of the creatures, or an offspring
as one of the offsprings, or a work as one of the works, and not the aforesaid
articles one after another, as the divine Scriptures have delivered, or if he
teaches or preaches beside what we received, be he anathema. For all that has
been delivered in the divine Scriptures, whether by Prophets or Apostles, do we
truly and reverentially both believe and follow.
The third creed, that of Theophronius of Tyana, added to the second creeds
insistence on the Sons pretemporal generation, his hypostatic pre-existence and
eternal kingdom. It had an anathema against Marcellus and all who
communicated with him or his supporters (directed at the Italians).
A fourth creed was drawn up several months after the council had closed, in the
autumn of 341. Julius had referred Athanasius case to Constans, who requested
Constantius send oriental bishops to state their case against Athanasius. A few
bishops therefore reassembled to send a deputation to Constans. The creed they
drew up became the basis for subsequent Arian confessions. Marcellus was not
mentioned, but the eternal reign of Christ was affirmed. The Nicene anathemas
were modified to attack Marcellian and admit Arian interpretations of the
divine Sonship. The fourth creed, as given by Athanasius in de Synodis:
We believe in One God, the Father Almighty, Creator and Maker of all things;
from whom all fatherhood in heaven and on earth is named. (Eph. 3.15.)
And in His Only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, who before all ages was
begotten from the Father, God from God, Light from Light, by whom all things
were made in the heavens and on the earth, visible and invisible, being Word,
and Wisdom, and Power, and Life, and True Light; who in the last days was
made man for us, and was born of the Holy Virgin; who was crucified, and
dead, and buried, and rose again from the dead the third day, and was taken up
into heaven, and sat down on the right hand of the Father; and is coming at the
consummation of the age, to judge quick and dead, and to render to every one
according to his works; whose Kingdom endures indissolubly into the infinite
ages; for He shall be seated on the right hand of the Father, not only in this age
but in that which is to come.
And in the Holy Ghost, that is, the Paraclete; which, having promised to the
Apostles, He sent forth after His ascension into heaven, to teach them and to
remind of all things; through whom also shall be sanctified the souls of those
who sincerely believe in Him.
But those who say, that the Son was from nothing, or from other subsistence
and not from God, and, there was time when He was not, the Catholic Church
regards as aliens.
In the short run, the Arians made use of the fourth creed (see Sirmium, 351).
The Semi-Arians, or Eastern Conservatives, increasingly relied on the Lucianic
creed.
One might have thought that the phrase before all ages was begotten would
militate against the Arian position that the Son was created. Yet, Eusebius of
Nicomedia was able to hold that the Son was begotten before time, yet not co-
eternal with the Father. These creeds admitted of an orthodox interpretation, as
Hilary noted in his De Synodis, but were an insufficient filter against Arianism.
342 The Eastern bishops from the dedication council of Antioch were refused an
audience with Constans, emperor in the West. Apparently, Constans had
already decided that the way to deal with the situation was with a council, to
meet in Sardica.
342 A council at Gangra in Asia Minor disapproved of monks who abandoned
church attendance.
342 Eusebius of Constantinople died. The Eusebian party was temporarily
leaderless. Two rivals, Paul and Macedonius (see 337 on Eusebiuss translation
to Constantinople), vied for his see. With Eusebiuss death, Paul was re-
introduced to the city as its rightful bishop. However, a group of Arians
(Theognis, bishop of Nicaea, Maris of Chalcedon, Theodore of Heraclea in
Thrace, Ursacius of Singidunum, and Valens of Mursa) ordained Macedonius.
A riot ensued in which the general Hermogenes was killed. Constantius
banished Paul, and allowed Macedonius to continue as bishop.
342/3 The council of Sardica. The Easterners were outnumbered by the
Westerners. A dispute arose immediately over the admission of the deposed
bishops. The Eastern bishops withdrew to Philippopolis, then condemned
Hosius, Julius, Athanasius, etc., and re-issued the fourth creed from Antioch
(341) with additional anathemas against Marcellus.
The Western bishops asserted the right of Julius of Rome to hear appeals from
bishops under censure in their own provinces. They also published (to
Athanasius regret) a naive theological tract to cover their admission of
Marcellus. All charges against the exiles were dismissed, and they also
denounced Valens of Mursa and Ursacius of Singidunum (among others), who
were attending the Eastern synod, and who had been companions to Arius
during his exile.
In the wake of Sardica, Constantius (emperor in the East) harshly persecuted the
Nicene bishops in the East.
343 Photinus, bishop of Sirmium in Pannonia, began teaching his heresy. He
denied the existence of the Son prior to the incarnation, claiming that the Son
and the Logos are distinct. He viewed Christ's divinity as something he attained
through moral growth, similar to the view of Paul of Samosata.
344 Constans, emperor in the West, sent two bishops from the Sardican majority
to Constantius to urge him to restore the deposed bishops. Stephen, bishop of
Antioch, attempted to discredit the envoys, but his deception was found out.
(He had a naked prostitute introduced into one of the envoys rooms, but she,
seeing a bishop asleep, refused to attempt to seduce him, and accused Stephen.)
A council was summoned, which deposed Stephen.
The council then sent an enlarged version of the fourth creed from the
dedication council of 341 to Italy by way of a deputation. This is sometimes
referred to as the Lengthy Creed. The council also mildly condemned certain
Arian phrases, but condemned Marcellus and Photinus, and criticized the
Nicene creed for giving support to their heresies. Photinus was condemned by
the council of Sirmium in 351. The fourth (revised) article of the creed, from
Athanasius de Synodis:
But those who say, (1) that the Son was from nothing, or from other subsistence
and not from God; (2) and that there was a time or age when He was not, the
Catholic and Holy Church regards as aliens. Likewise those who say, (3) that
there are three Gods: (4) or that Christ is not God; (5) or that before the ages He
was neither Christ nor Son of God; (6) or that Father and Son, or Holy Ghost, are
the same; (7) or that the Son is Ingenerate; or that the Father begat the Son, not
by choice or will; the Holy and Catholic Church anathematizes.
Understanding that his brother considered it a cause for war, Constantius
discontinued his persecution of the Nicene bishops.
345 Delegates from the last council of Antioch attended a council held in Milan.
The Milanese synod agreed to condemn Photinus, but not Marcellus. On being
asked to condemn Arianism outright, the Eastern delegates retired in anger.
Valens and Ursacius, in danger of having their Sardican depositions enforced,
submitted. They admitted that the charges against Athanasius had been
invented.
346 Under strong pressure from Constans, Constantius readmitted Athanasius
to his see in Alexandria, while the West dropped the cause of Marcellus.
(According to Sozomen, Marcellus was also restored to the bishopric in Ancyra,
and Basil was deposed.)
Paul, bishop of Constantinople, was allowed to return from exile (see 337,
342). He remained in the city until 351. According to Sozomen (3.24),
Immediately after the return of Paul to Constantinople, Macedonius retired,
and held church in private.
Socrates (2.22) gives the text of Constans letter to his brother Constantius:
Athanasius and Paul are here with me; and I am quite satisfied after
investigation that they are persecuted for the sake of piety. If, therefore, you
will pledge yourself to reinstate them in their sees, and to punish those who
have so unjustly injured them, I will send them to you; but should you refuse to
do this, be assured, that I will myself come thither, and restore them to their
won sees, in spite of your opposition.
347 Birth of St. John Chrysostom.
347 Two monks living in Antioch, Flavian and Diodore, promoted the practice
of singing the Psalms with short responsory choruses: the first Christian
litanies. Diodore later became bishop of Tarsus (378), while Flavian became
bishop of Antioch (381).
347 In August, the Western emperor Constans exiled Donatus and other
Donatist leaders to Gaul. Donatus died there in 355. The emperor Julian
allowed the Donatists to return to Africa in 361.
347/8 Ulfila, the translator of the Bible into Gothic (this was the first time
Christians translated the Scriptures for a people living outside the Roman
empire), left the Gothic lands when the ruler of the Tervingi, a Gothic tribe,
began a persecution of Christians. Ulfila brought a large body of Christians into
the empire with him, settling near Nicopolis (Moesia/Bulgaria) on land donated
by the emperor Constantius.
350 Frumentius became bishop of Axum in Ethiopia. He was ordained by
Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Frumentius was the author of the Life of St.
Anthony. Christianity also spread eastward, as is attested by the fact that
Theophilus of Soccotra in the Gulf of Adem became bishop to the Christians of
southern Arabia in about this year.
350 At around this time Codex Sinaiticus (S, or Aleph) was written. It consists
of the Septuagint (without 2-3 Maccabees, the Psalms of Solomon, or Psalm 151)
plus the 27 New Testament books, plus Barnabas and Hermas (though it is
missing Hermas 31:7 to the end of the book). Sinaiticus is of the Alexandrian
family, but is regarded as transmitting a Western text.
Codex Vaticanus (B) also dates from this era. It includes the LXX without 1-4
Maccabees, Psalm 151, or the Psalms of Solomon. Gen 1-46:28 and Psalm 105:27-
137:6 are missing. It also includes the 27 New Testament books, except for 1
Timothy through Philemon, and Hebrews 9:14 through the end. As with
Sinaiticus, it is an Alexandrian document.
Before 300, most books were in the form of scrolls. Scrolls had severe
limitations. For instance, a book the size of Matthews gospel would fit on a
scroll. A codex, formed by folding sheets of papyrus or vellumin the middle
and sewing them together at the spine, could contain much larger works.
Codices also eased the task of locating a given passage.
The earliest extant Old Latin manuscript - designated as "a" - dates from this
period also.
350 Constans, emperor in the West, murdered by the usurper Magnus
Magnentius. Constantius was sole emperor by the fall of 351.
350 Around this time (348-50) Cyril of Jerusalem (elected bishop in 350)
produced the Mystagogical Catecheses for new believers. He described the church
service as follows:
Then having sanctified ourselves by these spiritual hymns, we call upon the
merciful God to send forth his Holy Spirit upon the gifts lying before him: that
he may make the bread the body of Christ, and the wine the blood of Christ, for
whatever the Holy Spirit has touched is sanctified and changed. Then after the
spiritual sacrifice is perfected, the bloodless service upon that sacrifice of
propitiation, we entreat God for the common peace of the Church, for the
tranquility of the world, for kings, for soldiers and allies, for the sick, for the
afflicted; and in a word for all who stand in need of succour we all supplicate
and offer this sacrifice. Then we commemorate also those who have fallen
asleep before us, first patriarchs, prophets, apostles, martyrs, that at their
prayers and intervention God would receive our petition. Afterwards, also on
behalf of the holy fathers and bishops who have fallen asleep before us, and in a
word of all who in past years have fallen asleep among us, believing that it will
be a very great advantage to the souls, for whom the supplication is put up,
while that holy and most awful sacrifice is presented.
Cyrils Old Testament canon was the Hebrew Old Testament plus Baruch and
the Epistle now included as the last chapter of Baruch. However, he also
quoted from Wisdom and Sirach as though he considered them Scripture. His
New Testament list omits only Revelation, and includes no books not now
accepted.
Cyril was Orthodox, as is clear from his teachings on the Trinity in
the Mystagogical Catecheses. He was temporarily deposed through the intrigues
of Acacius (the Arian bishop of Caesarea) around the year 357, but seems to
have been reinstated by the council of Seleucia in 359. Cyril attended the
Council of Constantinople in 381, recognized as one of the leaders of the
orthodox.

The Fourth Century
Part 2
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


351 Battle of Mursa (the see of Valens), September 28. Constantius defeated
Magnentius.
351 First Council of Sirmium. Sirmium was an important border town in
Illyria, near the Danube. As such, the emperor Constantius was often in
residence there to conduct border wars. This council ousted Photinus, bishop of
Sirmium. In opposition to Photinus doctrine that the Son of God did not exist
before the Son of the Virgin, the council asserted that the Old Testament
theophanies were appearances of the pre-incarnate Christ. Gen 19.24 was
mentioned in particular the Lord (the Son) rained down fire from the Lord (the
Father). The council also issued a version of the fourth creed from Antioch
(341).
351 With Constans death, the emperor Constantius had a free hand to act
against the Nicene bishops. He deposed Marcellus of Ancyra and reinstated
Basil. Simularly, he replaced Paul (337, 342, 346) with Macedonius, sending
Paul into exile to Cucusus in Cappadocia , where he was murdered. According
to Athansius (History of the Arians, 1.7), Paul was strangled by Philip, the
prefect of Cucusus.
352 Liberius (bishop from 352-366) became bishop of Rome.
353 Hilary became bishop of Poitiers. He violently denounced people who
held that Mary had not remained a virgin after Jesus birth, and maintained that
Jesus brothers were Josephs children by an earlier marriage.
353 The emperor Constantius felt that the way to oust the Nicene bishops,
Athanasius in particular, was to have the Western bishops, historically
Athanasius supporters, condemn him. At Constantius wish, a council was
held at Arles to consider the old charges against Athanasius. The council was
run by the Arian bishop of Arles, Saturninus. Athanasius was found guilty by
nearly all present. However, Constantius was too busy with a war on the
frontiers of Gaul to proceed further against Athanasius at that time.
354 St. Augustine was born in Thagaste, Numidia (now Algeria).
354/5 The emperor Constantius had a council meet at Milan to condemn
Athanasius. Three bishops who disagreed with Constantius desired verdict of
guilty were sent into exile.
In this year, Hilary of Poitiers began to induce bishops of Gaul to withdraw
from communion with Saturninus of Arles, and with Ursacius and Valens, the
disciples of Arius who were now influential with Constantius. Hilary also
wrote a letter to Constantius protesting that Athanasius had been found
innocent by councils long before, and the Arians guilty so it was egregious for
the condemned to be allowed to intrigue against the innocent.
356 Hilary of Poitiers exiled to Asia after being found guilty of some
unspecified misconduct by a council at Beziers, presided over by Saturninus.
Many Western bishops who refused to condemn Athanasius were sent East
during this period.
Athanasius was again removed from his see in Alexandria. George, a radical
Arian, became bishop of Alexandria, entering the city on February 24, 357.
356 The emperor Constantius sent a letter to the rulers of Axum (Ethiopia)
requesting they replace bishop Frumentius with an Arian. Natives of Tyre,
Frumentius and his brother Aedesius had been shipwrecked off the Ethiopian
coast. When rescued, they became slaves of the king of Axum, and used their
respective positions as treasurer and cup-bearer to spread the gospel. When the
king died, the brothers were freed. Aedesius returned to Tyre and became a
priest. Frumentius traveled to Egypt, seeking a bishop for the Ethiopians; the
patriarch there, Athanasius, appointed Frumentius himself their bishop.
Frumentius returned to Ethiopia and labored for Christ among that people. He
died around 370.
356 Between this year and 362, Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria, wrote
his Life of St. Anthony (see 285). This work includes twovisions of the afterlife.
The first tells of how Anthony, while a thirteen day journey from Nitria, where
the monk Amun had lived, saw Amuns soul ascend into heaven. It was later
verified that the vision coincided with the moment of Amuns death. In the
second, Anthony was caught up in the spirit: He stood and saw himself, as it
were, from outside himself, and that he was led in the air by certain ones. Next
certain bitter and terrible beings stood in the air and wished to hinder him from
passing through. But when his conductors opposed them, they demanded
whether he was not accountable to them. And when they wished to sum up the
account from his birth, Antonys conductors stopped them, saying, The Lord
hath wiped out the sins from his birth, but from the time he became a monk, and
devoted himself to God, it is permitted you to make a reckoning. Then when
they accused him and could not convict him, his way was free and unhindered.
And immediately he saw himself, as it were, coming and standing by himself,
and again he was Antony as before. The picture of angels leading the souls
upward, and demons accusing it of sins, occurs again in Diodachos (see 486).
357 Liberius, bishop of Rome, was also exiled at about this time (the dates are
somewhat uncertain - 355 is another possibility). In a conference with
Constantius, Liberius refused to condemn Athanasius, and was exiled to
Thrace. Liberius returned to Rome in 358 when Basil of Ancyra gained
Constantius confidence, temporarily ousting Valens. Liberius subscribed to a
statement condemning Athanasius, but under duress. Athanasius wrote of
Liberius fall with sympathy and compassion (History of the Arians, Part V).
After Constantius banished Liberius, an archdeacon became Felix II, bishop of
Rome. Upon Liberius return, Felix was forced to remove to Porto. At one time,
Felix was listed as a Roman Catholic saint. His feast day fell on July 29.
357 Under the influence of Valens, the Second Council of Sirmium was held, at
which Hosius and Potamius composed their blasphemy. This creed insisted
upon the unique Godhead of the Father and deplored both
the homoousion (Athanasius and the West) and homoiousion (Basil of Ancyra
and most of the East), along with all discussion of essence, as unscriptural. The
blasphemy, from Athanasius de Synodis:
The Blasphemy of Hosius: Whereas it seemed good that there should be some
discussion concerning faith, all points were carefully investigated and discussed
at Sirmium in the presence of Valens, and Ursacius, and Germinius, and the
rest. It is held for certain that there is one God, the Father Almighty, as also is
preached in all the world.
And His One Only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, generated from Him
before the ages; and that we may not speak of two Gods, since the Lord Himself
has said, `I go to My Father and your Father, and My God and your God' (John
20.17). On this account He is God of all, as also the Apostle taught: `Is He God of
the Jews only, is He not also of the Gentiles? yea of the Gentiles also: since there
is one God who shall justify the circumcision from faith, and the uncircumcision
through faith' (Rom. 3.29, 30); and every thing else agrees, and has no
ambiguity.
But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in
Latin `Substantia,' but in Greek `ousia,' that is, to make it understood more
exactly, as to `Coessential,' or what is called, `Like-in-Essence,' there ought to be
no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this
reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written
about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's
understanding; and because no one can declare the Son's generation, as it is
written, `Who shall declare His generation' (Is. 53. 8)? for it is plain that the
Father only knows how He generated the Son, and again the Son how He has
been generated by the Father. And to none can it be a question that the Father is
greater for no one can doubt that the Father is greater in honour and dignity and
Godhead, and in the very name of Father, the Son Himself testifying, `The
Father that sent Me is greater than I' (John 10.29, 14.28). And no one is ignorant,
that it is Catholic doctrine, that there are two Persons of Father and Son, and
that the Father is greater, and the Son subordinated to the Father together with
all things which the Father has subordinated to Him, and that the Father has no
beginning, and is invisible, and immortal, and impassible; but that the Son has
been generated from the Father, God from God, Light from Light, and that His
origin, as aforesaid, no one knows, but the Father only. And that the Son
Himself and our Lord and God, took flesh, that is, a body, that is, man, from
Mary the Virgin, as the Angel preached beforehand; and as all the Scriptures
teach, and especially the Apostle himself, the doctor of the Gentiles, Christ took
man of Mary the Virgin, through which He has suffered. And the whole faith is
summed up, and secured in this, that a Trinity should ever be preserved, as we
read in the Gospel, `Go ye and baptize all the nations in the Name of the Father
and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost' (Matt. 28.19). And entire and perfect is the
number of the Trinity; but the Paraclete, the Holy Ghost, sent forth through the
Son, came according to the promise, that He might teach and sanctify the
Apostles and all believers.
The blasphemy was too shocking for most Eastern bishops. In the view of some
historians, this council began the collapse of the Arian cause.
357 Eudoxius became bishop of Antioch.
357 The controversy over the place of the Holy Spirit in the Godhead reached
center stage. Macedonius of Constantinople led a group opposed to the
divinity of the Spirit. These became known as Pneumatomachi, or Spirit
Fighters (also known as Macedonians). Athanasius wrote Letters to Serapion, in
which he argues for the Spirits divinity.
358 The Sirmium blasphemy was hailed by the Homoeans, assembled at
Antioch. Under the pretext that Western bishops had denounced
the homoousion and the homoiousion at Syrmium, Eudoxius advocated
the anomoios (dissimilar) theology of the laymanAetius: Jesus was not divine at
all. Those who advocated this view are referred to as Anomoeans.
358 Constantius brought Liberius of Rome from exile in Thrace to Sirmium.
Liberius subscribed to one of the dedication creeds of 341, and was allowed to
return to Rome.
358 On report of the strong influence of Aetius in Antioch, Basil of Ancyra held
a council with local bishops during Lent and drafted a synodical letter which
asserted the essential likeness (homoion kat ousion) of the Son to the Father. He
proceeded to the court of Sirmium, gained the Constantius support, and the
approval of the formula at a council.
The anathemas of the council of Antioch (from Hilary, De Synodis): (1) If any
one hearing that the Son is the image of the invisible God, says that the image of
God is the same as the invisible God, as though refusing to confess that He is
truly Son: let him be anathema. (2) And if any one hearing the Son say, As the
Father hath life in Himself, so also hath He given to the Son to have life in
Himsel (John 5.26), shall say that He who has received life from the Father, and
who also declares, I live by the Father (John 6.57), is the same as He who gave
life: let him be anathema. (3) And if any one hearing that the Only-begotten Son
is like the invisible God, denies that the Son who is the image of the invisible
God (whose image is understood to include essence) is Son in essence, as though
denying His true Sonship: let him be anathema. (4) And if any one hearing this
text, For as the Father hath life in Himself so also He hath given to the Son to
have life in Himsef (John 5.26); denies that the Son is like the Father even in
essence, though He testifies that it is even as He has said; let him be anathema.
For it is plain that since the life which is understood to exist in the Father
signifies substance, and the life of the Only-begotten which was begotten of the
Father is also understood to mean substance or essence, He there signifies a
likeness of essence to essence. (5) If any one hearing the words formed or
created it and begat me spoken by the same lips (Prov 8.22), refuses to
understand this begat me of likeness of essence, but says that begat me and
formed me are the same: as if to deny that the perfect Son of God was here
signified as Son under two different expressions, as Wisdom has given Us to
piously understand, and asserts that formed me and begat me only imply
formation and not sonship: let him be anathema. (6) And if any one grant the
Son only a likeness of activity, but rob Him of the likeness of essence which is
the corner-stone of our faith, in spite of the fact that the Son Himself reveals His
essential likeness with the Father in the words, For as the Father hath life in
Himself, so also hath He given to the Son to have life in Himself, as well as His
likeness in activity by teaching us that What things soever the Father doeth,
these also doeth the Son likewise (John 5.19), such a man robs himself of the
knowledge of eternal life which is in the Father and the Son, and let him be
anathema. (7) And if any one professing that he believes that there is a Father
and a Son, says that the Father is Father of an essence unlike Himself but of
similar activity; for speaking profane and novel words against the essence of the
Son and nullifying His true divine Sonship, let him be anathema. (8) And if any
one understanding that the Son is like in essence to Him whose Son He is
admitted to be, says that the Son is the same as the Father, or part of the Father,
or that it is through an emanation or any such passion as is necessary for the
procreation of corporeal children that the incorporeal Son draws His life from
the incorporeal Father: let him be anathema. (9) And if any one, because the
Father is never admitted to be the Son and the Son is never admitted to be the
Father, when he says that the Son is other than the Father (because the Father is
one Person and the Son another, inasmuch as it is said, There is another that
beareth witness of Me, even the father who sent Me (John 5.32) ), does in anxiety
for the distinct personal qualities of the Father and the Son which in the Church
must be piously understood to exist, fear that the Son and the Father may
sometimes be admitted to be the same Person, and therefore denies that the Son
is like in essence to the Father: let him be anathema. (10) And if any one admits
that God became Father of the Only-begotten Son at any point in time and not
that the Only-begotten Son came into existence without passion beyond all
times and beyond all human calculation: for contravening the teaching of the
Gospel which scorned any interval of times between the being of the Father and
the Son and faithfully has instructed us that In the beginning was the Word, and
the Word was with God, and the Word was God (John 1.1), let him be
anathema. (11) And if any one says that the Father is older in times than His
Only-begotten Son, and that the Son is younger than the Father: let him be
anathema. (12) And if any one attributes the timeless substance (i.e. Person) of
the Only-begotten Son derived from the Father to the unborn essence of God, as
though calling the Father Son: let him be anathema.
Basil supported the homoiousion (of like nature) party, which constituted the
majority of Eastern churchmen. They are sometimes referred to as the
Conservative party, and sometimes as Semiarians. These bishops were
concerned that the Nicene homoousion led to Sabellianism. They saw the
insertion of the iota as a means of avoiding a theological confusion of the
persons in the Godhead.
This was Constantius theology at the moment as well. In a letter sent to the
clergy at Antioch, after condemning their bishop Eudoxius, Constantius wrote:
Recall to your recollection the words of which we made use, when we first
made a declaration of our belief; for we confessed that our Savior is the Son of
God, and of like substance with the Father.
Valens of Mursa endorsed the Anomoean theology. He sought a formula to
replace the Nicene homoousion, which would permit this dissimilarity. He did so
by advocating the Homoean view, that the Son is like (homoion) the Father, but
not in essence. This likeness, not being essential, would be in Valens view an
essential dissimilarity
359 For about a year, Valens and Basil of Ancyra had vied for influence with the
emperor. Valens pushed for his formula, which stated that the Son is like the
Father without qualification, while Basil argued for the homoousion position.
The two reached a compromise (essentially, Basil buckled): at the Third
Council of Sirmium a creed was drafted, known as the dated creed from the
fact that it bears the date May 23, 359. The creed was written in preparation for
the council to be held at Rimini (Ariminum) and Seleucia, as a trial solution. It
held that the Son is like the Father, according to the scripture, but prohibited the
use of the termousia. This statement did not specify that the likeness is essential,
which is the maneuvering room Valens desired; but it also didnt claim that the
Son was unlike the Father a position Constantius would not agree with. The
dated creed, according to Socrates in his Ecclesiastical History:
The catholic faith was expounded at Sirmium in presence of our lord
Constantius, in the consulate of the most illustrious Flavius Eusebius, and
Hypatius, on the twenty-third of May.
We believe in one only and true God, the Father Almighty, the Creator and
Framer of all things: and in one only-begotten Son of God, before all ages, before
all beginning, before all conceivable time, and before all comprehensible
thought, begotten without passion: by whom the ages were framed, and all
things made: who was begotten as the only-begotten of the Father, only of only,
God of God, like to the Father who begat him, according to the Scriptures:
whose generation no one knows, but the Father only who begat him. We know
that this his only-begotten Son came down from the heavens by his Father's
consent for the putting away of sin, was born of the Virgin Mary, conversed
with his disciples, and fulfilled every dispensation according to the Father's will:
was crucified and died, and descended into the lower parts of the earth, and
disposed matters there; at the sight of whom the (door-keepers of Hades
trembled): having arisen on the third day, he again conversed with his disciples,
and after forty days were completed he ascended into the heavens, and is seated
at the Father's right hand; and at the last day he will come in his Father's glory
to render to every one according to his works.
[We believe] also in the Holy Spirit, whom the only-begotten Son of God Jesus
Christ himself promised to send to the human race as the Comforter, according
to that which is written: I go away to my Father, and will ask him, and he will
send you another Comforter, the Spirit of truth. He shall receive of mine, and
shall teach you, and bring all things to your remembrance. As for the term
substance, which was used by our fathers for the sake of greater simplicity, but
not being understood by the people has caused offense on account of the fact
that the Scriptures do not contain it, it seemed desirable that it should be wholly
abolished, and that in future no mention should be made of substance in
reference to God, since the divine Scriptures have nowhere spoken concerning
the substance of the Father and the Son. But we say that the Son is in all things
like the Father, as the Holy Scriptures affirm and teach.
359 Constantius called an ecumenical council to meet in two locations: the
West in Italy at Rimini (Ariminum), and the East atSeleucia in Asia Minor
(Isauria). At Seleucia, 160 bishops attended. It is estimated that of them were
Conservatives orSemiarians (Basils party), while the remaining quarter were
either uncompromising Arians or loyal to the Nicene creed. The Lucianic creed
of the Council of Dedication (341) was adopted. The Arians were
excommunicated, and a successor was named for the Arian bishop Eudoxius of
Antioch.
The council at Rimini endorsed the Nicene formula. Each council sent a
deputation to Constantius.
At Nike in Thrace, Valens hoodwinked the deputation from the Western council
into signing a version of the dated creed, saying that the Son is `like the Father
in all things, as Scripture says.' The statement, apparently, was what
Constantius wanted - a broad statement that everyone could interpret as he
liked and agree to. Valens thus regained Constantius favor, at Basil of Ancyra
and the Semiarian partys expense. The creed of Nike, as given by Athanasius
in de Synodis:
We believe in One God, Father Almighty, from whom are all things;
And in the Only-begotten Son of God, begotten from God before all ages and
before every beginning, by whom all things were made, visible and invisible,
and begotten as only-begotten, only from the Father only, God from God, like to
the Father that begat Him according to the Scriptures; whose origin no one
knows, except the Father alone who begat Him. He as we acknowledge, the
Only-begotten Son of God, the Father sending Him, came hither from the
heavens, as it is written, for the undoing of sin and death, and was born of the
Holy Ghost, of Mary the Virgin according to the flesh, as it is written, and
convened with the disciples, and having fulfilled the whole Economy according
to the Father's will, was crucified and dead and buried and descended to the
parts below the earth; at whom hades itself shuddered: who also rose from the
dead on the third day, and abode with the disciples, and, forty days being
fulfilled, was taken up into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of the
Father, to come in the last day of the resurrection in the Father's glory, that He
may render to every man according to his works.
And in the Holy Ghost, whom the Only-begotten Son of God Himself, Christ,
our Lord and God, promised to send to the race of man, as Paraclete, as it is
written, `the Spirit of truth' (John 16.13), which He sent unto them when He had
ascended into the heavens.
But the name of `Essence,' which was set down by the Fathers in simplicity,
and, being unknown by the people, caused offence, because the Scriptures
contain it not, it has seemed good to abolish, and for the future to make no
mention of it at all; since the divine Scriptures have made no mention of the
Essence of Father and Son. For neither ought Subsistence to be named
concerning Father, Son, and Holy Ghost But, we say that the Son is Like the
Father, as the divine Scriptures say and teach; and all the heresies, both those
which have been afore condemned already, and whatever are of modern date,
being contrary to this published statement, be they anathema.
The Semi-Arianswere defeated by Valens influence at court, swept from their
sees and replaced by Homoeans.
Jerome wrote of the council of Rimini, the world groaned to find itself Arian.
359 The Persians under Shapur II attacked Amida on the upper Tigris,
beginning the war that ended with the death of Julian the Apostate in 363.
360 A council in Constantinople, called to celebrate the dedication of the
church of Sancta Sophia, promulgated a creed (a version of the Nike creed of
359) that stated the Son is like the Father, without further qualification. (Aetius,
who could not agree to say that the Son is like the Father in any way, was
exiled.) Soon thereafter, Basil and Macedonius of Constantinople (see 337, 342,
346) were deposed on charges of misconduct. Though Macedonius was
deposed, the Pneumatomachi were clearly marked off as a party.
Eudoxius of Antioch became bishop of Constantinople (see year 357).
360 Athanasius, head of the homoousios party, realized that he and
the homoiousios (like in substance) party (led by Basil of Ancyra) were really
allies. He wrote, Those who accept the Nicene creed but have doubts about
the term homoousios must not be treated as enemies... He pointed out that
though properties may be alike, essences cannot be, but are either the same or
different. When the homoiousians realized this, he believed, they would come
over to his side.
360 Meletius, formerly bishop of Sebastea, was elected bishop of Antioch when
Eudoxius was translated to Constantinople. Within a few weeks, Meletius, who
expressed too much sympathy for the Nicene position, was banished by
Constantius, and replaced by Euzoios, an Arian.
360 By this year, the church in Edessa observed a festival of All Martyrs on May
13th.
361 Constantius died, November 3, 361. Julian the Apostate became
emperor. He died in 363 during a campaign against the Persians. Julian
proclaimed his paganism and, in hopes of further disrupting the church,
published an edict recalling all bishops exiled by Constantius. Julian also gave
permission and provided funds for the Jews to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem.
This project was terminated by an earthquake.
Ambrose mentions (Letter 40) that the Jews burned two basilicas in Damascus,
others in Gaza, Ascalon, Berytus and Alexandria during Julians reign.
361 First mention of Epiphany in the West. Its observance in Gaul was noted by
Ammianus Marcellinus, a pagan. Curiously, there is no record of December 25
observance in transalpine Gaul during the fourth century.
362 On Feb 9, Julian published an edict that recalled the bishops who had been
exiled by Constantius.
362 Athanasius restored to his see. End of his third and last exile prolonged
exile. Athanasius was to be forced to depart from Alexandria for short periods
in 362/3 and 365 also.
362 Beginning of the schism in Antioch. A famous ascetic named Paulinus was
elected bishop of Antioch. He was ordained by Lucifer of Caralis (Cagliari,
Sardinia), a strict adherent to the Nicene formula. The party supporting
Paulinus were known as Eustathians after the pro-Nicene bishop Eustathius,
whom the Arians had deposed in 328. Meletius was already bishop of Antioch.
He had been banished (see 360) by Constantius, then returned soon after Julians
edict of February 9.
362 A new group, known as the Tropici, appeared in the Nile delta. They
denied the deity of the Holy Spirit, terming him simply a ministering spirit, and
were condemned at the council in Alexandria.
362 Athanasius called a council in Alexandria to deal with (1) terms under
which to accept the Arians back into communion and (2) to sort out the
succession at Antioch (see below). It was decided to accept the Arians on the
grounds of their subscription to the Nicene formula and their repudiation of
Arianism, including the doctrine that the Holy Spirit is a creature. This council
was of key importance. Jerome said that by its judicious conciliation it
snatched the world from the jaws of Satan. Exiles returned across the empire
(see year 356) and the example of this council was followed, reunion being
accomplished on Nicaean, not Homoean, grounds.
There were three rival bishops in Antioch, two of whom are anti-Arian, Meletius
and Paulinus. In the course of the council, Athanasius began to act on the
principle that orthodoxy is a matter of intentions, not of formulas. One
logomachy dealt with the use of the term hypostases. The anti-Sabellian
tradition following Origen had spoken of three hypostases, meaning three
entities existing in their own right, as a safeguard against the notion that the
Father, Son and Spirit are just descriptions of different divine attributes. But, to
some, three hypostases seemed like tritheism. Meletius spoke of three
hypostases, but Paulinus of one. Based on loyalties, Rome and Athanasius
recognize Paulinus as rightful bishop of Antioch, but they considered Meletius
orthodox.
362 The colossal statue of Apollo in Antioch of Syria, made of gold with jewels
for eyes, was destroyed by fire.
363 On 26 June, the emperor Julian died during a battle with the Persians.
363 The council of Laodicea (in the Lycus valley, Phrygia) enumerated the
canon of scripture in Canon 60, which is of doubtful authenticity. The New
Testament canonical books were those we now receive, with the exception of
Revelation, which Laodicea did not accept.
The Old Testament agreed with the modern Protestant Old Testament, with the
addition of Baruch and the Epistle. (Unlike Athanasius, Laodicea included
Esther.)
Theologians of the Alexandrian school generally agreed with Athanasius: Cyril
of Jerusalem, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Epiphanius, for example. The
Antiochene school (e.g., John Chrysostom and Theodoret) was more favorable
towards the "Apocrypha." Though the East was generally hesitant about the
Apocrypha, the West was favorable.
The synods fifty-nine other canons affirmed the lawfulness of receiving the
remarried and contrite to communion; determined that Montanists who
converted were to be baptized; and forbade Christians from praying in the
graveyards of heretics, honoring heretical martyrs instead of faithful ones,
receiving the blessings of heretics, praying with heretics or schismatics,
marrying their children to heretics, holding love feasts in the church,
judaizing by resting on Saturday, receiving portions from the feasts of heretics
or Jews, or clubbing together for drinking entertainments. The council also
passed various canons regarding propriety in the worship service and the
Lenten season. It addressed the travel of bishops for synods and forbade the
travel of priests and other clergy without the bishops permission. It forbade the
clergy from being magicians, from manufacturing magic amulets, and from
seeing plays at weddings and banquets.
The exact date of this synod is not known. It has been placed as early as 343 and
as late as 381.
363 A council met in Antioch in this year. By this time, the Arians were split
into three groups: the Acacians who, following Acacius, said that the Son was
like the Father , without making further clarification; the Semiarians, or
homoiousions; and the Aetians, who held that the Son was unlike the Father.
Later, the Aetians would by termed Eunomians. This council of Antioch has
been termed an Acacian synod.
364 Valentinian I (364-75) became Emperor. He restored the division of the
empire, taking the West and entrusting the East to his brother Valens (364-78).
Valens wife swayed him in favor of Eudoxius, the Arian bishop of
Constantinople, and then in favor of his Arian successor, Demophilus.
364 Basil, later bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, ordained to the priesthood.
About this time he wrote his books againstEunomius. Eunomius was a follower
of Aetius, who formed an ecclesiastical sect centered in Constantinople.
Eunomius was condemned at the second ecumenical council in Constantinople
in 381 and died ~394.
According to Sozomen (vi, 26), Eunomius was accused of being the first to
baptize with single immersion. Theodoret adds that he also abandoned the
invocation of the Trinity at baptism.
364 At a council in Lampsacus, the Semiarians opposed the councils of
Arminium (359) and Constantinople (360), reissuing instead the Lucianic creed
of Antioch (341). They also deposed Acacius of Caesarea in Palestine.
365 On May 5, the emperor Valens sent the bishops whom Julian had permitted
to return to their sees (see 362) back into exile.Meletius, one of three rival
bishops in Antioch, remained in that city.
366 Semiarian deputies sent to Liberius in Rome from the council of Lampsacus.
They subscribed to the Nicene creed, thus demonstrating their orthodoxy.
366 Liberius, bishop of Rome, died. He had subscribed to an Arian creed (see
year 358), but continued to govern the church in Rome. Damasus and Ursinus
battled for the bishopric of Rome. At the end of one day, 137 corpses were
counted in the Liberian basilica. Damasus won and ruled through 384. In
Damasus time, Latin was used in the Roman liturgy for the first time.
Damasus wrote that Rome was the first see of the apostle Peter and the
apostolic see. He began the habit of using the plural of majesty in his
writings, and he addressed his fellow bishops for the first time as sons,
instead of the traditional brothers. Damasus claimed to be the exclusive
inheritor of all, and more than all, that the New Testament tells us of the
prerogative of St. Peter. He also claimed that the authority of the council of
Nicaea was based on its acceptance by Sylvester, his predecessor. Much of this
verbiage may have been induced by the pretensions of Constantinople (see 381).
That the bishop of Rome enjoyed temporal power in this time is illustrated by
the pagan official Praetextus words to Damasus: Make me bishop of Rome
and I will turn Christian.
367 The council of Tyana accepted the restitution of the Semiarian bishops.
(Was this an ecclesiastical validation of Julians edict of 362?)
367 In his annual festal letter, Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, listed the
canon of scripture. His canon was very close to the modern Protestant Bible,
listing the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Esther (!), Judith, and
Tobit specifically as outside the canon. It is probable, however, that he meant to
include the Greek additions to the Hebrew books in the canon. He does not
mention the books of Maccabees. (Athanasius listing is identical to that of
Laodicea, 363, except for his inclusion of the book of Revelation.) This was the
first listing of the 27 books of the modern New Testament as being canonical,
without also including certain books not considered canonical in our time.
367 Epiphanios (Epiphanius) became bishop of Salamis in Cyprus. Served
through 403. Found a curtain in a church porch in Palestine decorated with a
picture of Christ or some saint. He tore it down and lodged a vehement protest
with the bishop of Jerusalem. [This may be an apocryphal account, invented by
iconoclasts.]
Epiphanios stated that Mary, not Eve, is the mother of all living. He neither
affirmed nor denied her death. Most Eastern theologians believed that Mary
was sinful, in need of redemption.
367 Britain raided by a combined force of Irish, Scots and Saxons.
367 The West Roman emperor Valentinian I (364-75) gave the bishop of Rome
the right to judge cases against other bishops.
367-9 Christians in Gaul persecuted during the Eastern emperor Valens Gothic
war.
368 Probable year of John Chrysostoms baptism. Meletius, bishop of Antioch,
probably presided. John served as Meletiuss aide during the period 368-371.
370 The Cappadocian Fathers came to the forefront of the post-Nicene
debate. Basil became metropolitan of Caesarea, the metropolis of Cappadocia.
He replaced Eusebius and served through 379. Basil set about to build a solid
Nicene party in Cappadocia by appointing orthodox candidates to vacant sees.
Associated with Basil were his younger brother Gregory, who became bishop of
Nyssa (372-75, 375-395), and his friend Gregory whose father [Gregory] (see
year 381) was bishop of Nazianzus before him.
Gregory of Nazianzus is also known as Gregory the Theologian. Basil
supported the cause of Meletius at Antioch - they agreed on the three
hypostases formula. (His father had been persuaded to accept Christianity
through the efforts of his wife (Gregorys mother) Nonna, and soon afterwards
became bishop of Nazianzus. Gregory was born after his fathers conversion
and ordination.) In his writings, Gregory mentioned the story of a virgin who
implored Mary to help her in her time of peril. He related it as if there is
nothing strange about it, indicating this may have been a common practice by
this time.
<>St. Gregory of Nyssa wrote, concerning the state of the dead: When he has
quitted his body and the difference between virtue and vice is known he cannot
approach God till the purging fire shall have cleansed the stains with which his
soul was infested. That same fire in others will cancel the corruption of matter,
and the propensity to evil.

Basil supported the cause of Meletius at Antioch - they agreed on the
three hypostases formula. He was instrumental in curbing the excesses of
individualism among the ascetics. Basil stressed obedience, even over poverty
and chastity, in the monasteries in his province.
When criticizing Epiphanios, Basil implied that the view that Mary had children
with Joseph after Jesus was born is not unorthodox. Gregory of Nyssa (as well
as Athanasius) held that Mary was a virgin before, during, and after Christs
birth. Gregory also held that Mary and her virginity ended the reign of death.
In a passage that bears upon the Palamite controversy of the fourteenth century
(see 1333), Basil wrote, The energies are various, and the essence simple. But
we say that we know our God from His energies, but do not undertake to
approach near His essence. His energies come down to us, but His essence
remains beyond our reach. (Letter 234.1)
370 By imperial decree, clerics were forbidden to visit the houses of rich widows
or heiresses.
371 St. Martin became bishop of Tours. A child of pagan parents, Martin had
become a Christian when he was 10 years old. He was forced into the Roman
army, but petitioned the Emperor Julian the Apostate, and was eventually
discharged. He then became an evangelist, working in Pannonia and Illyricum.
In 360, he joined Hilary of Poitiers in that city, then founded the first monastery
in Gaul, at Liguge (near Poitiers). As bishop, Martin continued to act as an
evangelist, especially in Touraine and the countryside where the faith was little
known.
371 When the emperor Valens set up headquarters in Antioch, Meletius was
forced into exile. He returned to his home in the region of Armenia (perhaps
near Sebastea, along the river Halys). Meletius remained in exile until Gratians
edict of toleration, after the battle of Adrianople in 378.
372 The Eastern emperor Valens reduced Basil of Caesareas power by dividing
Cappadocia in two. He directed that Tyana be considered the chief town in the
new province. A canon of Nicaea had tied ecclesiastical provinces to civil
provinces, so the division diminished Basils jurisdiction as metropolitan of
Cappadocia.
372 Basil made Gregory Nazianzus bishop of the tiny village of Sasima. For
Basil, this was a tactical move to assist him against the rival bishop of Tyana.
Antithimus, bishop of Tyana, argued that he should have privileges equal to
Basils.
373 Athanasius died. Apollinarius of Laodicea in Syria, his friend, asserted a
Christology in which the Logos replaced the human mind of the Son.
This implied that Christ was not fully human, which has unwanted implications
for soteriology. Christologies of the Word-Flesh type (like that of
Apollinarius) were common coming from Alexandria, while Antioch
championed a Word-Man theology. The former type had the potential to do
disservice to Christs humanity, while the latter had difficulty with the fusion of
the two natures, human and divine, into one person.
373 (374?) Upon the death of Auxentius, an Arian, Ambrose became bishop of
Milan. Served through 397. Ambrose believed in Marys perpetual virginity,
though, at first, he was reluctant to do so. Ambrose wrote that St. Peter had a
primacy of confession, not of office; a primacy of faith, not of rank. During
Ambroses time, the capital in the West was at Milan, and Ambrose had
considerable influence over the emperor. The bishop of Rome was forced to
surrender control of the church in northern Italy to the bishop of Milan. (Milan
had originally become the capital of the West in 286 when Diocletian divided
the empire. But the imperial court had resided for some time at Trier before
returning to Milan in 383.)
374 St. Epiphanios, bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, published his Ancoratus. It
contained two creeds, the first of which is nearly identical to that of
Constantinople (381). It included the phrase, the Holy Spirit, the Lord and
giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son
together is worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.
374 When Auxentius, the Arian bishop of Milan, died, Ambrose was elected
bishop in his stead - though only a catechumen at the time. St. Ambrose sent a
deputation to St. Basil to collect the body of St. Dionysius, the late Catholic
bishop of Milan.
374 For his opposition to Arianism, St. Macarius (d. 390) the Egyptian was
banished to an island in the Nile by bishop Lucius of Alexandria. Macarius had
become a hermit in the desert of Scete in around 330, and lived there for much of
the following 60 years. Macarius had gifts of healing and prophecy. He was the
author of 50 Spiritual Homilies, which describes the ascent of the spirit, through
work, discipline, and meditation, toward the vision of light.
375 Basil of Casarea published his On the Holy Spirit. His argument in favor of
the Spirits divinity was based largely on tradition in baptism and doxology.
375 Epiphanios (see 335), bishop of Salamis in Cyprus (367-403), launched an
attack on the orthodoxy of Origen. He wanted to bring Origen (or, rather, his
corpse) to trial, and he was troubled by the influence of Origens writings on
certain Egyptian monks, namely, Ammonius and three brothers, known
collectively as the Tall Brothers. Evagrius moved to Egypt and put himself
under Ammonius direction, where he became the Tall Brothers literary
spokesman.
Epiphanios was a scholar. According to Jerome, he knew Greek, Hebrew,
Syriac, Coptic, and some Latin. He was also an energetic defender of the
Orthodox faith. His chief written works are the Panarion, written by about 377,
which describes 80 heresies, and the Ancoratus, a compendium of church
teachings dating to 374. In his works, Epiphanios denounced a sect called the
Collyridians, which worshipped Mary. He also described a group of
Quartodecimans in Asia Minor who taught that Jesus was crucified on March 25
and who celebrated Easter invariably on that date.
In the Panarion, also known as the Refutation of all the Heresies, Epiphanios wrote,
The Savior was born in the 42nd year of Augustus, emperor of the Romans ...
on 8 before the Ides of January (January 6). He asserted that the wedding in
Cana occurred on the same date, but held that Christs baptism was on
November 8. Palestine excepted (and Epiphanios was from there), the East held
6 January as the date of the Lords baptism also.
375 The western emperor Valentinian I (364-75) died of a stroke. His sixteen-
year-old son Gratian, then at Trier, was proclaimed emperor. The legions on the
Danube proclaimed Gratians four-year-old half-brother Valentinian II co-
emperor.
376 Upon the death of the Arian bishop of Antioch, Euzozios, he was succeeded
by Dorotheos, another Arian.
377 The Eastern emperor Valens allowed Visigoths to cross the Danube into the
empire. As part of the deal worked out by Valens and the Gothic leader
Fritigern (according to the historian Sozomen), Fritigern agreed to adopt the
emperors Arian faith and to persuade his followers to do likewise. Other tribes
- Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Sueves, and Vandals - also adopted Arianism after
entering imperial territory. The Huns were a driving force behind the migration
of the Ostrogoths, who pressured the Visigoths across the Danube.
377 Jerome visited Evagrius in Antioch. Evagrius won him over to the party of
bishop Paulinus (who was opposed by the supporters of Meletius, including
Basil of Caesarea) in the contention over the see of Antioch. The overwhelming
majority of Christians in Antioch supported Meletius. (See 362).
377 Damasus realized the implications of Apollinarius Christology and held a
council that condemned his teachings. Its sentence was confirmed by synods in
Alexandria in 378 and Antioch in 379.
378 Paulinus ordained Jerome a priest in Antioch. Jerome became a disciple of
Gregory of Nazianzus.
378 Gratian (375-83), emperor in the West, supported the bishop of Romes claim
to authority over other bishops in the West. At Gratians request, Ambrose
wrote the first two books of De Fide.
378 On 9 August, the Eastern emperor Valens died in the battle of
Adrianople against Fritigern and his Goths. More than 2/3 of Valens army was
slain. Valens nephew Gratian, a supporter of Nicaea, promptly published an
edict recalling exiled bishops. Meletius of Antioch returned to his see after a
seven-year exile (371-78).
As Valens left Constantinople to battle the Goths, he was confronted by Isaac, a
monk from Syria, who prophesied that the emperor would not return unless he
restored the churches to the Orthodox. (The majority in Constantinople were
Arians at that time.) Isaac was jailed, but released by by the emperor
Theodosius I (see 379). Isaac later became a bitter enemy of John Chrysostom
(see 398), whose authority he rejected.
378 Diodore became bishop of Tarsus. Served through 390. Teacher of John
Chrysostom. Diodore (from the Word-Man school) came into conflict with
Apollinarius over the nature of Christ. Apollinarius suspected Diodore of
believing that Jesus was simply a uniquely inspired man. Diodore refused to
call Mary Theotokos unless it was balanced by saying Mary was the mother of
man as well.
379 On January 1, St. Basil the Great died.
379 Theodosius (379-95) became Eastern Roman emperor. Ruled through 395.
Christianity became an ingredient of good citizenship, and many pagan temples
were closed. Pagans themselves were generally tolerated. Through
Theodosiuss influence, an imperial edict (3 August 379) was issued which
condemned heretics of all kinds.
Theodosius made it clear that he wanted conformity with the creed of Nicaea.
Bishops not in communion with Pope Damasus and Athanasius successor at
Alexandria, Peter, would not be recognized. He soon discovered, however, that
Meletius of Antioch was capable of bringing the Greek world to unity. Paulinus
refused to be co-bishop with Meletius, so he was abandoned. Meletius later
presided at the council of Constantinople (381).
379 The small Orthodox community in Constantinople invited Gregory of
Nazianzen (see 370) to lead the church until a bishop should be chosen. He
converted a room in the house where he stayed there into the Anastasia
(Resurrection) chapel, where he preached his Five Theological Orations. Jerome
visited this chapel and heard Gregory preach. A certain Maximus the Cynic,
supported by a group of Egyptian bishops, had himself consecrated bishop of
Constantinople while Gregory was ill. When the congregation learned of this,
they forced Maximus and his compatriots out of the city.
379 A shrine to St. Babylas was erected in Antioch. See 250.
380 In an edict promulgated on 28 February, Theodosius recognized the
bishops of Rome (Damasus) and Alexandria (Peter) as the guardians of the
true faith. He reserved the title Catholic Christians to those who espoused
their doctrines (the Nicene theology). When Theodosius entered Constantinople
in this year, the Arian bishop Demophilus was deposed, the Arians were
refused use of the citys churches, and Gregory of Nazianzen and his
congregation moved to the Great Church (likely the former church on the site of
Hagia Sophia).
380 The canons of the synod of Saragossa (Caesaraugusta), Spain, made the first
mention of Advent as a season of preparation for Epiphany. The council also
condemned the teachings of Priscillian, later bishop of Avila, Spain. From about
375 Priscilliantaught that bodies were created by the Satan, that souls were
imprisoned in bodies as punishment for sins, and that angels and human souls
were emanations from the Godhead. Eleven sermons ascribed to Priscillian
were published in 1889. They teach that the Son differs from the Father in name
only.
380 About this year, Christmas was celebrated on December 25 for the first
time in Antioch. (Some historians conclude Christmas was first observed there
in 386.)
381 Second Ecumenical Council, held at Constantinople - practically, the end
of the battle against Arianism. The emperor Theodosius made Meletius of
Antioch president (note that Meletius was not in communion with the bishop of
Rome, who had backed Paulinus for the contested episcopacy at Antioch). No
representatives from Rome were present. The homoousios was reasserted. The
council recognized the bishop of Constantinople as second in standing to Rome,
because Constantinople is the new Rome (Canon 3).
The creed of the Council of Constantinople, popularly known as the Nicene
creed, sometimes known as the Creed of the 150 Fathers, may not have been
adopted at the council at all. That is, however, the tradition, and it was the
understanding of the Council of Chalcedon. The creed:
We believe in one God, the Father All Governing, creator of heaven and earth,
of all things visible and invisible;
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten from
the Father before all time, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten
not created, of the same essence as the Father [homoousion to patri], through
whom all things came into being. Who for us men and for our salvation came
down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary
and became man. He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered
and was buried, and rose on the third day, according to the Scriptures, and
ascended to heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father, and will come
again with glory to judge the living and the dead. His kingdom shall have no
end.
And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and life-giver, Who proceeds from the Father,
Who is worshipped and glorified together with the Father and Son, Who spoke
through the prophets; and in one, holy, catholic and apostolic church. We
confess one baptism for the remission of sins. We look forward to the
resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.
The influence of Basil of Caesarea is seen in the phrase Who is worshipped and
glorified together with the Father and Son, and in the fact that the Son is
begotten, while the Spirit proceeds.
The addition by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary was a bulwark against
Apollinarius heresy (see 373). Apollinarius denied the human nature of Christ,
believing his human soul to have been replaced by the Divine Logos and his
flesh to have come, not from the Virgin, but directly from heaven.
In addition to his unorthodox Christology, Apollinarius wrote about the
resurrection from a mythical, or rather Jewish, point of view; urging that we
shall return again to the worship of the Law, be circumcised, keep the Sabbath,
abstain from meats, offer sacrifices to God, worship in the Temple at Jerusalem,
and be altogether turned from Christians into Jews (Basil, L263.4). Since
Apollinariuss heresies were condemned in Canon 1 of the Second Ecumenical
Council, no Orthodox eschatology can contain any of these elements.
The first canon of the council: The faith of the three hundred and eighteen
fathers assembled at Nicaea in Bithynia shall not be set aside, but shall remain
firm. And every heresy shall be anathematized, particularly that of the
Eunomians or Eudoxians, and that of the semi-Arians or Pneumatomachi, and
that of the Sabellians, and that of the Marcellians, and that of the Photinians, and
that of the Apollinarians.
381 In one of its first acts, the council installed Gregory of Nazianzus as bishop
of Constantinople (in the face of an angry, Arian majority). After the death of
Meletius, he presided over the council -- until he was deposed on a technicality,
probably through the influence of Timothy, bishop of Alexandria. Nectarius,
the city prefect, who was only a catechumen at the time, became bishop of
Constantinople (381-97). Gregory returned to property his family owned in
Arianzus (near Nazianzus) where he lived as an ascetic until 389). In his later
life, he worked against the Apollinarian heresy.
Continuation of the Schism at Antioch. Gregory of Nazianzus had hoped that
Paulinus would be appointed bishop of Antioch after Meletiuss death, and so
end the schism at Antioch and mollify the west. Instead, the council appointed
Flavian, whom Meletius had appointed to the priesthood. As an ascetic layman
associated with Diodore (later bishop of Tarsus see 378),Flavian had been a
leader among the three hypostases party at Antioch. Socrates reports that
the bishops of Egypt, Arabia, and Cyprus combined against Flavian, and
insisted on his expulsion from Antioch; but those of Palestine, Phoenicia, and
Syria contended with equal zeal in his favor (Book V, Chapter X). The bishop
of Rome refused to recognize Flavian as bishop and excommunicated those
involved in his ordination.
381 The emperor Theodosius I had the relics of Paul, former bishop of
Constantinople, returned to the city from Cucusus. He placed them in a church
which Pauls Arian successor Macedonius had built.
381 A council, called by the western emperor Gratian, was held at Aquileia,
which condemned the doctrines of Palladius and Secundianus. Ambrose of
Milan was present. About this time, Ambrose completed his De Spiritu Sancto,
in three books. The council also sent a letter to Theodosius in support of
Damasus (against Ursinus -- see 366).
382 The emperor Theodosius settled the Tervingi, a Gothic tribe that had been
allowed into the empire in 376 (377?), in Moesia. These Goths had defeated
Valens at Adrianople in 378. The head of the embassy requesting this settlement
was Ulfila, Arian bishop of the Goths.
382 Jerome (340-420) became an adviser to Damasus in Rome. Jerome initially
rejected Marys virginity in childbirth, which he later came to accept, along with
her perpetual virginity thereafter. Jerome was responsible for the theory that
Jesus brothers were actually cousins, and that Joseph as well as Mary was a
virgin. He attacked the view that virginity and marriage are to be valued
equally.
Jerome wrote: It is not the case that there is one church at Rome and another in
all the world beside. Gaul and Britain, Africa and Persia, India and the East
worship one Christ and observe one rule of truth. If you ask for authority, the
world outweighs its capital. Wherever there is a bishop, whether it be at Rome
or at Engubium, whether it be Constantinople or at Rhegium, whether it be at
Alexandria or at Zoan, his dignity is one and his priesthood is one. Neither the
command of wealth nor the lowliness of poverty makes him more a bishop or
less a bishop. All alike are successors of the apostles. (Letter CXLVI to
Evangelus)
However, Jeromes principle for solving ecclesiastical and theological problems
was unity with the bishop of Rome. He is the earliest authority for the claim
that Peter was bishop of Rome for 25 years.
Jerome believed that the Devil and those who have denied God will be tortured
for eternity, but that reprobate Christians will eventually be saved.
Jerome created a new translation of the Bible into Latin (now known as the
Vulgate). Unlike the Old Latin version, Jeromes Vulgate relied on the Hebrew
Old Testament rather than the Septuagint. His translation was declared
authoritative at the council of Trent (Fourth Session, 1546). Jerome began work
on this translation during a stay in Rome (382-85) when Damasus was bishop,
working initially on the psalms and the New Testament. He completed his
translation, the Vulgate, while living in Bethlehem, in 405.
Medieval artwork sometimes portrays Moses with horns. This depiction derives
from Jeromes mistranslation of verses in Exodus 34. Verse 29: he knew not
that his face was horned from the conversation of the Lord. Verse 30: And
Aaron and the children of Israel seeing the face of Moses horned, were afraid to
come near. Verse 35: And they saw that the face of Moses when he came our
was horned. Rather than being horned Moses face shone, as in the Old
Latin and the Septuagint.
382 Gratian ordered the removal of the image of Victory from the forum in
Rome.
382 A council meeting at Rome stated that Roman primacy is not founded on
synodical decisions (referring to Constantinople, 381), but on the promise of
Christ to Peter. It asserted a hierarchy: the prime see is at Rome, the second at
Alexandria, and the third at Antioch. Rome did recognize Constantinople as
second in rank in 869, at the synod held to condemn Photios (Photius).
382/3 In around this time, Isaac of Syria (see 378) and a certain Dalmatios
began the first orthodox monastery in Constantinople.
383 In June, the emperor Theodosius I called a meeting of the various sects of
Christianity to promote universal agreement. Arians, Eunomians, and
Macedonians (Pneumatomachians) were represented. On the advice of the
Novatians (the Novatian bishop Angelios, but principally his reader Sisinnios),
Nectarios, bishop of Constantinople, confronted the sectaries with writings of
the fathers, who flourished before schism distracted the church, Socrates
(5.10) wrote that the emperor Theodosius perceived by their confusion that
their sole confidence was in subtle arguments, and that they feared to appeal to
the expositions of the fathers on the question of the Sons deity. Theodosius
approved only the homoousion view of the Trinity. The Novatians were
rewarded, as the emperor gave them privileges equal to the Orthodox. [The
Novatians had broken away from the church in 251 over the question of
whether those whose lapsed under persecution could be restored to the faith.
They answered in the negative. They agreed with the Orthodox in all other
points, and plainly regarded the Arian view as a novelty.]
383 On August 25, the western emperor Gratian was murdered at Lyon (France).
384 Siricius (384-99) became bishop of Rome. He was the first Roman bishop
to use the title pope. Siricius claimed for his rescripts and decretals the same
binding force as synodal decrees, since the care of all the churches was
committed to him. He threatened sanctions against those who disobeyed him.
384 A synod meeting in Bourdeaux (Burdigala, Aquitania), attended by Martin
of Tours, condemned Priscillianism (see 380, Saragossa). Though Martin
opposed the killing of heretics, the Emperor Magnus Maximus (383-88) had
Priscillian executed.
385 After Damasus death, and under fire for his criticism of the Roman clergy,
lax monks, and hypocritical virgins, and for his correction of the gospel texts,
Jerome left Rome for the Holy Land, and settled in Bethlehem.
385 The Pilgrimage of Sylvia, written about this time, described the journey to
Palestine by a devout lady (Sylvia, or Etheria) from Gaul. Silvia stated that on
Ascension Day (40 days after Easter) there was a solemn procession to the
Mount of Olives. The procession ended at the church of the Ascension built on
the mount by the Empress Helena. The Pilgrimage also mentions theFeast of
Purification (or Hypapante, now celebrated on February 2) as being then
observed in Jerusalem on 14 February, forty days after Epiphany, the date on
which Christs birth was celebrated. Hypapante came to be
called Candlemas because of the words of Simeon (Luke 2.32). See 542.
Also this year, a new basilica was consecrated in Milan.
385-6 The bishop of Rome, Siricius (384-99), wrote a letter to Himerius of
Tarragona (Tarraco, Spain) criticizing the practice of performing baptisms at
times such as Christmas, Epiphany, and the festivals of saints and martyrs. By
this time, in Rome, baptism was performed on Pascha and Pentecost only. In
the letter, Siricius also commanded celibacy for priests. This was the first
decree on the subject. In support of his position, Siricius quoted Romans 8.8:
those who are in the flesh cannot please God. The letter to Himerius contains
a reference to Matthew 16.18-19 as supporting papal rights. This is the earliest
such interpretation of that passage extant.
385 St. Theophilus (385-412) became bishop of Alexandria. The Roman practice
of Easter baptism was unknown in Alexandria at this time.
385 According to a letter written by St. Ambrose, the Metonic cycle (used in
calculating the date of Easter, named after an Athenian astronomer named
Meton who died circa 433) was in use at this time.
386? Flavian, bishop of Antioch, ordained John Chrysostom to the priesthood.
At about this time, John gave a sermon in which he asserted that contact with
(or even proximity to) saints shrines can result in miracles.
387 A riot broke out in Antioch over new taxes. Flavian, the bishop of Antioch,
traveled to Constantinople and interceded with the emperor.
387 A certain John succeeded Cyril as bishop of Jerusalem.
387 St. Ambrose baptized St. Augustine in Milan.
388 Ambrose, bishop of Milan, rebuked the emperor Theodosius for punishing
rioters who had destroyed a Jewish synagogue.
388 Death of Paulinus of Antioch. On his deathbed, he ordained Evagrius as his
successor. The schism in Antioch thus continued. (Evagrius was the same
person who had associated with Jerome in 377.) As they had recognized
Paulinus before him, Rome and Alexandria acknowledged Evagrius as bishop of
Antioch, in spite of his irregular ordination.
389 St. Gregory of Nyssa composed his Commentary on the Canticle of Canticles.
In this commentary, in his Life of Moses, and in other works, Gregory enunciated
his mystical theology. Against the pagan notion that change is imperfection -
which had led, in Origen, to the notion that men might fall into sin again, even
in the future life - Gregory described the perfection of man as an eternal ascent
into ever-increasing holiness. No changeless state is achievable, because God is
wrapped in an impenetrable divine darkness - no created being can ever know
him completely.
390 (391?) Theodosius had thousands of Thessalonicans massacred for killing a
barbarian army commander. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, brought the emperor to
public penance.
390 Symeon the Stylite born. Died 459. Lived on top of a column at the
monastery in Telanissos in Syria. He became so prestigious that his assent was
required to the verdicts of the councils of Ephesus in 431 and Chalcedon in 451.
His imitator, Daniel (409-493), lived for 37 years atop a column near
Constantinople.
390 Death of St. Gregory Nazianzus. Death of St. Ephraim the Syrian (303-390).
Many of Ephraims theological works are in the form of hymns.
390 At the Synod of Side in Pamphylia, the Messalian heresy was condemned
(they were then called Adelphians). The Messalians believed that Satan was
Christs elder brother. On account of his pride, he had rebelled against the
Father and created the material world, which they considered wicked. Each
persons soul was held to be inhabited by a demon, which the Messalians sought
to eject in the form of mucous or saliva through prayer. The only prayer they
said, however, was the Our Father. Those who succeeded in expelling the
demon could be unified with the Holy Spirit and behold God. When they had
reached this state, sin was impossible for them: Messalians had a reputation for
licentious behavior. They refused to reverence the cross or the Virgin Mary,
since the cross was the instrument of Jesuss death, and Mary was simply the
mother of a human, Jesus, whom the Holy Spirit later inhabited. Effectively,
Jesus was reduced to a teacher or example. Epiphanios (Ephanius) reported that
if a Messalian were asked, Are you a Patriach? Prophet? Angel? Jesus
Christ? he would always respond with Yes. Messalians were also known as
Euchetes (praying people) or Enthusiasts.
391 In two edicts issued this year and in 392,Theodosius made Christianity the
official religion of the empire. Paganism was proscribed.
391 Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, had the temple of Serapis (the
Serapeum) dismantled. In doing so, he was enforcing recent imperial legislation
suppressing pagan temples. The Serapeum was the world's largest temple to
Serapis, a god of the sun, healing, and fertility. Gnostics sometimes identified
Serapis with the godhead.
392 Theodore (392-429) became bishop of Mopsuestia in the Cilician plain.
Served through 428. Theodore developed Diodores Christology. His concern
was to protect Christs human nature, which he considered necessary to human
redemption. He taught Christ as one person (prosopon) in two natures.
Diodore and Theodore are representative of the Word-Man Christology.
Theodore became spiritual head of the exegetical school at Antioch. Instead of
the allegorical interpretive method employed at Alexandria, Theodore stressed
the literal sense. He argued that those who interpret Scripture allegorically
turn everything backwards, since they make no distinction in divine Scripture
between what the text says and dreams....
Though influenced by Origen, Theodores exegesis of Mt 16.17-18 did not
identify the Rock with Christ, but with Peters confession of faith. According to
Theodore, the church is built on Peters confession of faith (Rom 10.9). So also
Chrysostom (see 398 below). Theodore and John Chrysostom had been fellow
pupils in Libanioss school of rhetoric in Antioch.
393 A council at Hippo set the canon along the lines approved by Augustine -
including the Deuterocanonical books. Augustines Old Testament list:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, the
four books of Kings (Samuel and Kings), the two books of Chronicles, Job,
Tobias, Esther, Judith, two books of the Maccabees, two books of Esdras (Ezra
and Nehemiah), Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom,
Ecclesiasticus, the twelve minor prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezekiel.
Augustines New Testament agreed with the modern listing.
393 Jerome and Epiphanius of Salamis attacked John of Jerusalem for adhering
to the views of Origen. Epiphanius incited the monks of Palestine to anti-
Origenism. John refused to baptize their converts or bury their dead.
393 A council meeting in Caesarea (Palestine) supported Flavians claim to the
see of Antioch. Siricius, bishop of Rome, had advised the council not to support
Evagrius, due to his irregular consecration. But Siricius took no positive action
to end the schism.
393/4 Death of Evagrius, head of the Eustathian party in Antioch. (See 362.)
Evagrius had succeeded Paulinus in 388. According to Socrates, No other was
constituted in his [Evagriuss] place, Flavian having brought this about.
However, the schism in Antioch was not healed, as those who disliked Flavian
held their assemblies apart.
394 Siricius of Rome arbitrated a dispute within the Arabian church over the
bishopric of Bosra (Bostra).
394 The emperor Theodosius defeated a usurper named Eugenius at the battle of
the Frigidus River in northeastern Italy (near Aquileia). Also, it was probably in
this year that Theodosius appointed Flavius Stilicho (whose father had been a
Vandal) as regent for his younger son Honorius, Augustus in the West.
394 Olympic games abolished.
395 Death of the emperor Theodosius. Arcadius became emperor in the East
(395-408), Honorius in the West, and Stilicho assumed the role of guardian for
both.
395 Augustine bishop of Hippo (in North Africa). Died 430. Author of
the Confessions, the City of God, etc. Apart from being the most influential
Western theologian of the early church, Augustine was a strong exponent of
Marys permanent virginity. He held that Mary was sinless, though not through
her own will (as the Pelagians would have it) but by virtue of a special grace.
Mary had, however, been born subject to original sin like all other humans. But
she had been delivered from its effects by the grace of rebirth.
Augustine commented on Matthew 16.18: All were asked, but Peter alone
answers, Thou art the Christ; and it is said to him, I will give thee the keys; as if
he alone had received the power of loosing and binding; whereas he both spoke
for all, and received in common for all, being, as it were, the representation of
unity. This recalled Cyprians interpretation.
Augustine on infant baptism: If anyone should ask for divine authority in this
matter, though that which the whole church practices and which has not been
instituted by the councils -- but was ever in use -- is very reasonably believed to
be no other than a thing delivered by the authority of the apostles, yet we may
besides take a true estimate, how much the sacrament of baptism does avail
infants, by the circumcision which Gods former people received.
On infant communion: If then, as so many divine testimonies do agree, neither
salvation nor eternal life is to be hoped for by any, without baptism and the
body and blood of our Lord, it is in vain promised to infants without
them. From all this it follows, that even for the life of infants was His flesh
given, which He gave for the life of the world; and that even they will not have
life if they eat not the flesh of the Son of man [which eating Augustine
identifies with the sacrament of His own holy table]. (On Forgiveness of Sins, and
Baptism, Chapters 33, 27 and 26.)
Augustine wrote On the Trinity, in which he argued that the Spirit proceeds
from the Father and the Son. In Latin translations of the Creed of
Constantinople (381), this filioque clause was inserted eventually. It was
thought to be an indispensable anti-Arian proposition.
Augustine held that damnation for the lost is eternal, but that the torture of
unbaptized children will be the most mild of all. Christians who have become
entangled with earthly delights will have to undergo a purification by fire.
At some point in his career, Augustine attended a council at Milevita (see 419
below). The council excommunicated those who carry appeals beyond the seas.
Representatives from Rome produced fraudulent copies of the declarations of
Nicaea (325) which purported to give Rome the right to hear appeals from
Africa. The African bishops sent to Constantinople for copies of the canons of
Nicaea, and discovered the Roman deception.
395 The Huns crossed the Caucasus Mountains and raided Mesopotamia and
Syria. Jerome wrote (Letter 60.16, written in 396), For twenty years and more
the blood of Romans has been shed daily between Constantinople and the Julian
Alps The Roman world is falling In the year just gone by the wolves
were let loose upon us from the remotest fastnesses of Caucasus and in a short
time overran these great provinces. What a number of monasteries they
captured! What many rivers they caused to run with blood! They laid siege to
Antioch and invested other cities on the Halys, the Cydnus, the Orontes, and the
Euphrates. They carried off troops of captives. Arabia, Phoenicia, Palestine and
Egypt, in their terror fancied themselves already enslaved.
395 Disgruntled at not having been given a high military command after
assisting Theodosius win the battle of the Frigidus (394), Alaric led the Visigoths
on a raid into Macedonia and Thessaly. Stilicho, at the head of forces from both
the western and eastern sections of the empire, moved into position to crush
him in Thessaly. The eastern emperor Arcadius, however, suspected Stilicho
intended to annex the Balkans to the western empire, ordered Stilicho to send
his eastern forces on to Constantinople and return west with the remainder.
Alaric was allowed to escape.
396 Jerome published a scathing attack on John of Jerusalem. The occasion was
the visit of Epiphanius to Jerusalem. Epiphanius preached against Origenism,
while John vocalized against Anthropomorphism - the opposite extreme. A
breach resulted between the two, and Jerome took Epiphanius side. In the
period from roughly 393-403, the condemnation of Origenism was widespread.
The quarrel between Jerome and John was short-lived. [These events may have
occurred in 393 - see note above.]
397 Ninian established a monastery on Whithorn Island in Scotland with a
whitewashed stone church - the Candida Casa (White House) - said to be the
only church in Britain built from stone. From that base, he labored for the
conversion of the Picts and Celts. Ninians school on Whithorn was the only
educational institution in the north of Britain. Born in Scotland in about 360,
Ninian had traveled to Rome in around 380, where he eventually met bishop
Siricius and Jerome. Siricius commissioned him to evangelize Scotland, and
provided him priests as companions, along with vestments, relics, books and
sacred vessels. Along the road back to Scotland, Ninian met Martin of Tours.
397 Jerome and John of Jerusalem were reconciled through the mediation of
Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria. John became neutral on the Origen issue,
while argument continued between Jerome and his former colleague,
Tyrannius Rufinus. Theophilus himself now opposed Origenism.
397 By this time, Alaric and his Visigoths had taken Megara, Corinth, Argos,
and Sparta in Greece. Stilicho crossed the Adriatic and confronted Alaric at Elis
in northwestern Peloponnese. Alarac escaped into Epirus, and the eastern
emperor Arcadius ordered Stilicho to return to the West.
398 Death of Didymus the Blind (~313-398). Blind from birth, Didymus was
appointed by St. Athanasius to head the catechetical school in Alexandria. He
was an opponent of Arianism, but certain of his teachings may have been
condemned by the Fifth Ecumenical Council in its tenth anathema directed
against Origen (see 553). The ancient epitome of the Quinisext councils (see
691) first canon mentions Didymus together with Origen and Evagrios (see 399)
as denying the resurrection of the flesh, teaching that hell will be temporary,
and other innumerable insane blasphemies. Didymus may also have been the
author of certain works formerly attributed to Basil the Great (pseudo-Basil).
398 On 26 February, John Chrysostom, a priest under bishop Flavian of
Antioch, became bishop of Constantinople. He served through 404.
Although Siricuis of Rome had withdrawn support for Evagrius in 393, he and
Theophilus of Alexandria had still not reconciled with Flavian of Antioch. Soon
after his consecration as bishop of Constantinople, John sent a delegation to
Rome to announce his ordination and to heal the breach with Antioch. It
appears he did so with the cooperation of Theophilus. The delegation was
successful, and the breach between Rome-Alexandria and Antioch was healed.
(But see 412 and 414 below.)
John Chrysostom had been a student of Didore (see 347, 378), later bishop of
Tarsus, as had his companion Theodore (later bishop of Mopsuestia). Like
Diodore, Chrysostom tended to stress the literal sense of scripture.
He held that Mary was not without fault. In commenting on Matthew 12.46-49,
for instance (Homily 44 on Matthew), Chrysostom wrote, For in fact that which
she had essayed to do was of superfluous vanity, in that she wanted to show the
people that she has power and authority over her Son. Then, later, He both
healed the [in the context, her] disease of vainglory, and rendered the due honor
to His mother, even though her request was unreasonable.
Chrysostoms view of Peters place in the church was complex. Writing on the
Rock passage, he said (Homily 54 on Matthew):
What then saith Christ? Thou art Simon, the son of Jonas; thou shalt be called
Cephas. Thus since thou hast proclaimed my Father, I too name him that begat
thee; all but saying, "As thou art son of Jonas, even so am I of my Father." Else it
were superfluous to say, Thou art Son of Jonas; but since he had said, Son of
God, to point out that He is so Son of God, as the other son of Jonas, of the
same substance with Him that begat Him, therefore He added this, And I say
unto thee, Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my Church; that is, on
the faith of his confession. Hereby He signifies that many were now on the
point of believing, and raises his spirit, and makes him a shepherd.
He was not at all concerned with the continuing primacy of the See of Peter.
Instead, he defended the dignity and majesty of the Christ:
Seest thou how He, His own self, leads Peter on to high thoughts of Him, and
reveals Himself, and implies that He is Son of God by these two promises? For
those things which are peculiar to God alone, (both to absolve sins, and to make
the church incapable of overthrow in such assailing waves, and to exhibit a man
that is a fisher more solid than any rock, while all the world is at war with him),
these He promises Himself to give; as the Father, speaking to Jeremiah, said, He
would make him as a brazen pillar, and as a wall; but him to one nation only,
this man in every part of the world.
I would fain inquire then of those who desire to lessen the dignity of the Son,
which manner of gifts were greater, those which the Father gave to Peter, or
those which the Son gave him? For the Father gave to Peter the revelation of the
Son; but the Son gave him to sow that of the Father and that of Himself in every
part of the world; and to a mortal man He entrusted the authority over all things
in Heaven, giving him the keys; who extended the church to every part of the
world, and declared it to be stronger than heaven. For heaven and earth shall
pass away, but my word shall not pass away. How then is He less, who hath
given such gifts, hath effected such things?
Although the Arians could no longer use churches inside the city (see 380), they
processed through the city at dawn, chanting hymns that ridiculed Orthodox
belief, then met outside the city walls. Chrysostom staged Orthodox
processions that were even more spectacular, and the Arians soon ceased their
efforts to win over the city this way. The Orthodox processions, however,
continued until the 440s at least. John also worked to convert the Goths to
Orthodoxy, providing them a church in the city and land for a monastery, and
sending missionaries to the tribes in Moesia.
399 On 27 August a law was published in Constantinople that banned
spectacles, horse racing, and threatrical shows on Sundays. The law may have
been due to John Chrysostoms recent criticism of spectacles competing with
Sunday church attendance.
399 After initially supporting the Tall Brothers criticism of
the Anthropomorphites, Theophilus of Alexandria expelled the Origenists.
They moved to Constantinople and made their case to John Chrysostom. (Recall
that Alexandria was jealous of Constantinoples elevation by the council of
Constantinople in 381.) In 400, a council convened at Theophilus behest
condemned Origen.
399 Death of Evagrios of Pontus (known as the Solitary). Evagrios, born
around 345, had been ordained reader by St. Basil the Great and deacon by St.
Gregory of Nazianzen. After attending the council at Constantinople in 381, he
went to Egypt in 383 to become a monk. Evagrios, like St. Gregory of Nyssa,
believed in the eventual salvation of all - a position later condemned at the Fifth
Ecumenical Council in 553. He also wrote on practical matters, such as the
spiritual discipline of the Desert Fathers. John Cassian was a disciple of
Evagrios - though Cassian rejected his universalist error.
399 When Yezdegerd I ascended the throne of Persia in this year, he halted the
persecution of Christians in his realm. Yezdegerd was influenced to do so by
Maruta, bishop of Martyropolis (Mayferqat) in Mesopotamia, whom the
emperor Arcadius sent as an ambassador. Yezdegerd gave Maruta permission
to build churches wherever he wished.
400 The first consolidated edition of canon law published about this time (in the
East). Comprised the canons of many fourth century councils. (See 545 below.)
400 The Peshitta, a translation of the Bible into Aramaic, was completed around
this time. (This statement is disputed by George Lamsa, who claims that it is far
more ancient.) The Old Testament contains the so-called Apocryphal books.
The New Testament lacks 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation.
~400 Chrysostom referred to a feast of All Martyrs being celebrated in Antioch
on the Sunday after Pentecost.

The Fifth Century
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401 By this date, the population of Constantinople may have
been 500,000.

401 Augustine wrote On the Work of Monks against the notion that monks
needed to do no work, and could live on alms.
401 Augustine stated (Letter 61) that, although the Donatists had been
baptized, their baptisms did not avail them because they were beyond
the pale of the church. Instead, the baptism they possessed was for
their destruction. In like manner, baptism, ordination, asceticism, and
faith in the Trinity did not profit the Donatist clergy, but served to
condemn them. They were like branches cut off from the root (the
Catholic Church), doomed to be cast into the fire unless God should graft
them in again. Yet their errors were dissent from the unity and truth of
the Catholic Church, not remaining in peace with the people of God,
which is spread abroad throughout the world, and refusing to
recognize the baptism of Christ in those who have received it.
401 Alaric, now military commander of Illyricum and chieftain of the
Visigoths, invaded Italy and surrounded Milan.
401 Innocent I (401-17) became bishop of Rome. He wrote to the African
churches that it has been decreed by a divine, not a human authority,
that whatever action is taken in any of the provinces, however distant or
remote, it should not be brought to a conclusion before it comes to the
knowledge of this see, so that every decision may be affirmed by our
authority. Innocent may have been the son of Anastasius I, his
predecessor.
402 The capital in the West was moved from Milan to Ravenna. Ravenna,
situated among marshes and canals, was more easily defended. Milan
had been the capital in the West since 286.
402 Epiphanios of Salamis traveled to Constantinople to campaign
against John Chrysostom, who was sheltering four Origenist monks
(three of them being the Tall Brothers; see 375, 399. He became convinced
of Chrysostoms orthodoxy, set sail for Salamis, but died en route.
402 On Easter (April 6), Stilicho defeated the Visigoths under Alaric at
Pollentia in northwest Italy. Alaric and most of his soldiers escaped. The
Visigoths moved back into Illyricum. Stilicho had withdrawn troops
from the Rhine and Britain to defeat Alaric, and it appears he never
permitted them to return. Hence the Rhine border defenses were
weakened in 406/7 when the Germanic tribes invaded the empire.
403 Synod of the Oak. John Chrysostom made a tactical error in
alienating the empress Eudoxia by calling her a Jezebel. Theophilus of
Alexandria took occasion of the issue over the Tall Brothers to have a
council meeting at the palace of the Oak near Chalcedon depose John.
The emperor ratified the decision. An earth tremor the following day
caused the emperor to recall him. John was reluctant to do so, since
canon 4 of the Dedication Council (designed as a weapon against
Athanasius) forbade a bishop who had been deposed by a council to
resume his office unless a subsequent council cleared him. But the
emperor insisted. John, however, soon thereafter compared Eudoxia to
Herodias, and Theophilus denounced John as Satan. Chrysostom was
finally deposed. However, a large portion of the congregation in
Constantinople (and in other cities where Johns supporters were
subsequently deposed) would not enter the church and accept Johns
successor, Atticus.
404 In the spring, John Chrysostom wrote to the patriarch of Rome,
Innocent I, and to Venerius of Milan and Chromatius of Aquilei, detailing
the events of the quarrel with Theophilus of Alexandria.
404 On June 20, John Chrysostom left Constantinople, going into exile in
Cucusus, southeast of Caesarea in the Cilician Taurus mountains
(western Anatolia).
404 On 6 October, the empress Eudoxia died after suffering a miscarriage.
403 Alarics Visigoths again invaded Italy, attacking Verona. Stilicho
chased them off, but failed to win a decisive victory.
405 In a letter to Exsuperius, bishop of Toulouse, Innocent I, patriarch of
Rome, listed the canon of scripture. His canon included the Apocrypha.
405 St. Moses the Ethiopian, at the age of 75, died a martyr for Christ
during a barbarian invasion. He had been leader of a band of robbers in
the Nile valley before being converted to Christianity through an
encounter with St. Isidore.
405 By this time, the acts of the Synod of the Oak were available in the
west, and they convinced Pope Innocent I that the charges against John
Chrysostom were trivial and that the synod had been packed with Johns
enemies. The pope assembled a synod of Italian bishops, which refused
to admit the charges against John Chrysostom delivered at the Synod of
the Oak. The Italians requested the two emperors to convene a council to
meet in Thessalonica and settle the questions surrounding John. The
western emperor Honorius wrote a letter to his brother Arcadius to
request him to arrange such a council. The pope sent a delegation of five
western bishops and four eastern bishops who supported John to carry
Honoriuss letter to Constantinople.
405 In a letter to Jerome regarding the controversy between Paul and
Peter (Galatians 2), Augustine wrote (Letter 82): I have learned to yield
this respect and honor only to the canonical books of Scripture: of these
alone do I most firmly believe that the authors were completely free from
error. And if in these writings I am perplexed by anything which
appears to me opposed to the truth, I do not hesitate to suppose that
either the manuscript is faulty, or the translator has not caught the
meaning of what was said, or I myself have failed to understand it.
405-6 A largely Ostrogothic group under Radagaisus crossed the Danube
and ravaged the Po valley and Tuscany. Stilicho massacred the Visigoths
at Fiesole (August 406).
406 The papal delegation carrying Honoriuss letter (see 405) reached
Constantinople. They were detained outside the city, and Arcadius
refused to meet with them. They were offered a bribe of 3000 gold pieces
each to drop Johns case. When they refused, the western bishops were
sent home, the eastern bishops into exile.
406-7 On December 31, 406, Vandals, Alans and Suevi crossed the
frozen Rhine and invaded Gaul. (The emperor Julian had settled a
group of Franks in Taxandria, just south of the Rhine estuary. The Salian
Franks emerged here after the 406/7 invasion. See 480-81 below. The
term Ryperian Franks refers to a group that settled near Cologne.)
407 On September 14, John Chrysostom died in Bizeri (modern Turkey),
while being transported from Cucusus to Pityus on the eastern coast of
the Black Sea.
408 The Vandals invaded Spain.
408 With the death of the emperor Arcadius, Theodosius II (408-50)
became emperor in the East. Stilicho, regent in the West, was executed in
the same year upon the rumor that he planned to have his own son
proclaimed emperor in the East.
408 An imperial decree issued in May of this year forbade Jews from
burning crosses during the festival of Purim.
409 The Roman legions departed Britain, leaving the island undefended.
At that time, Britain and Gaul were under the control of a usurper named
Constantine, rather than the western emperor Honorius.
409 The Vandals, Suebi, and Alans, who had invaded Gaul in 406/7,
crossed the Pyrennes into Spain.
410 The Visigoths under Alaric sacked Rome (24 August). They had
been settled by Valens (see year 377) in Moesia and Illyria (the
Ostrogoths were still beyond the Danube).
410 St. Honoratus founded a monastery on the island of Lerins (on the
Mediterranean coast of France, near Antibes). The monastery became the
training ground for bishops in southern Gaul. By 434, eight bishoprics in
southern Gaul were ruled by men from Lerins. In Gaul and Spain in this
era many bishops came from the Roman provincial aristocracy. Used to
exercising power, their background suited them to representing the cities
before the Visigoths (see 412), managing charitable activities, and
ransoming serfs. Most bishops in the East, Italy, or North Africa were
from the middle strata of society and chosen from among the clergy. In
Gaul, bishops tended not to rise through the clerical ranks, but came
directly from the aristocracy.
411 Pelagius visited Rome on his way to the Holy Land. Pelagius denied
that mans will has any intrinsic bias against doing good. He also denied
any inward action on the part of God on the soul. He believed that a man
can observe Gods commandments without sinning, if he wills it.
Augustine entered into vehement conflict with Pelagianism. Augustine
held that, as a result of original sin, we are enslaved to ignorance,
concupiscence, and death. We have lost the liberty Adam had to avoid
evil and do good. So, to do good, Gods grace must be at work within us
- purely external aids will not do. Thus, it is for God to determine who
will receive grace, and who will not. Augustines doctrine had little
influence in the East.
411 The council of Carthage. Catholics and Donatists met with an
imperial arbitrator (the imperial tribune Marcellinus). The Catholics
were victorious. In 412, the emperor Honorius proscribed Donatism by
edict, imposing fines and confiscating property. The Donatist movement
lingered into the seventh century.
411 According to a calendar from this year, Christians in the eastern part
of Syria observed a feast of All Saints on the Friday of Easter week.
412 Alexander patriarch of Antioch (412-416). He ended the schism over
Eustathius (see 362, 393/4). He also won over the Johnites, those who
still defended the reputation of St. John Chrystom, deposed patriarch of
Constantinople. Alexander did so by including Johns name in the
diptychs. By making peace with the Eustathians (whom Rome had long
supported) and the Johnites, Alexander pleased the bishop of Rome, who
re-established communion with Antioch in 414.
412 After sacking Rome (410) the Visigoths moved south, intending to
invade Africa and cut Rome off from her supply of grain. A storm
destroyed the Goths fleet, and Alaric died soon thereafter. The
Visigoths (now led by Ataulf) then traveled north andmoved into Gaul,
arriving early this year.
412 Augustine wrote his treatise On the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins
and On the Baptism of Infants, a polemic work against the Pelagians. In
that work, he argued that each person is guilty of Adams sin. Because of
original sin, he stated, infants who are not baptized cannot be saved. He
mentioned that the Christians of Carthage called baptism salvation and
the Lords Supper, life. He added, Whence, however, was that
derived, but from the primitive, and I suppose, and apostolic tradition,
by which the Churches of Christ maintain it to be an inherent principle
that without baptism and partaking of the Lord it is impossible for any
man to attain either to the kingdom of God or to salvation and
everlasting life? neither salvation nor eternal life can be hoped for by
any man without baptism and the Lords Supper. The implication is
that infant communion was practiced by the African churches of this
era. See 395 above.
412 Cyril became patriarch of Alexandria. Served through 444. Cyril
was Theophilus nephew. His Christology (sometimes called Word-
Flesh) was opposed to that of Theodore of Mopsuestia (Word-Man),
fearing Theodores Christology (two natures after the incarnation)
implied that Christ was just an inspired man. Cyril shared his
uncles animosity toward John Chrysostom, and considered the
proceedings at the Oak (403) to have been legitimate.
412/13 The emperor Theodosius II (408-450) began building a new wall
west of Constantinople. It was complete in 447.
414 Innocent I, bishop of Rome, acknowledged Alexander as bishop of
Antioch, thus ending the Meletian schism. (See 362 and multiple entries
following.)
415 At about this time St. John Cassian, a Scythian, settled at a monastery
in Marseilles, and organized monastic communities of men and women
after the Eastern model. In Marseilles, he wrote two works -
the Conferences (426), and the Institutes of the Monastic Life (420) - that
were to have immense influence on Benedict (see year 529 below) and
medieval monasticism in the West. Cassian was looked upon an
authority because of his intimate familiarity with monasticism in Egypt.
He also wrote a work against Nestorius - On the Incarnation (about the
year 430) at the request of bishop Leo I of Rome. Although Cassian did
not enter into direct controversy with Augustine (410-430) over the
doctrine of arbitrary predestination, he is regarded by some as the leader
of those in southern Gaul who considered the doctrine antithetical to
exhortations and punishment. Against Augustine, they held that
predestination is in the light of Gods foreknowledge, for those who
perish do so against Gods will. Mans will is not dead, only sick.
Cassian thus emphasized the need for human effort along with Gods
grace.
415 Early in the year the Visigoths moved from southern Gaul to Spain
(near Barcelona).
415 John of Jerusalem received Pelagius. Jerome and an emissary from
Augustine of Hippo denounced Pelagius as heretical at a synod in
Jerusalem in July. John devised a compromise formula and, at the
metropolitan Council of Diospolis in December, Pelagius was declared
free of doctrinal error. Soon thereafter, John tacitly permitted the
Pelagians to sack the anti-Pelagian monastery at Bethlehem.
415 Hypatia, a Neoplatonist philosopher, was brutally murdered in
Alexandria. A mob dragged her from her chariot, stripped her, and
carried her to a church where she was murdered by Peter the Reader.
Her flesh was stripped from her bones with oyster shells. Christians in
Constantinople, at least, were horrified.
415 The bones of St. Stephen were discovered in Palestine in this year.
416-18 The western emperor Honorius employed the Visigoths in Spain
to war upon the Vandals, Suebi, and Alans. Apart from a minority who
joined the Suebi, the Vandals and Alans were crushed. The Suebi were
settled as federates in northwestern Spain. In return, the Visigoths were
allowed (418) to settle in Aquitaine.
416 Two African synods met (one in Carthage, one in Mileve). They
condemned Pelagius and Coelestius (one of his disciples). Each synod
sent a letter to Innocent I of Rome, asking that he support their actions.
417 Pelagius excommunicated by Innocent I, bishop of Rome, on 27
January.
417 Zosimus (417-18), bishop of Rome, approved an heretical
confession, denying original sin. [From the Patriarchical Encyclical of
1895.] Zosimus at first wrote a letter to the bishops of Africa, requiring
them to appear before him within two months to state their charges
against Pelagius, or else drop them. Later (in September) he declared
Pelagius and Coelestius (one of his followers) to be orthodox, and
criticized the Africans for their actions.
417-39 The liturgy in Jerusalem in this period is preserved in the Old
Armenian Lectionary.
417/418 A council of African bishops, meeting in Carthage, replied to
Zosimus of Rome. The council maintained that Pelagius and Coelestius
should be condemned until the two unequivocally affirmed the necessity
of Gods grace.

418 Zosimus of Rome replied to the Africans, stating that he was still
willing to hear their case, but that he had declared Coelestius orthodox
after mature consideration of the matters involved. 418 On 30 April, an
imperial edict was sent from Ravenna. It banished Pelagius, Coelestius,
and all who held their opinions, from Rome.
418 On May 1, another council of Carthage (consisting of more than 200
bishops) condemned Pelagianism, though it did not thoroughly endorse
Augustines doctrine (see above, year 411). It held that (a) death was not
a necessity attached to human nature, but a penalty due to Adams sin;
(b) original sin inherited from Adam is present in every man and even
newly born children need baptism to be cleansed from this taint of sin;
and (c) grace is absolutely necessary, for Without me you can do
nothing.
Canon 1: That whosoever says that Adam, the first man, was created
mortal, so that whether he had sinned or not, he would have died in
body -- that is, he would have gone forth of the body, not because his sin
merited this, but by natural necessity, let him be anathema.
Canon 2: Likewise it seemed good that whosoever denies that infants
newly from their mothers wombs should be baptized, orsays that
baptism is for remission of sins, but that they [infants] derive from Adam
no original sin, which needs to be removed by the layer of regeneration,
from whence the conclusion follows, that in them the form of baptism for
the remission of sins, is to be understood as false and not true, let him be
anathema.
For no otherwise can be understood what the Apostle says, By one
man sin is come into the world, and death through sin, and so death
passed upon all men in that all have sinned (Romans 5.12), than the
Catholic Church everywhere diffused has always understood it. For on
account of this rule of faith (regulam fidei) even infants, who could have
committed as yet no sin themselves, therefore are truly baptized for the
remission of sins, in order that what in them is the result of generation
may be cleansed by regeneration.
Canon 3: Likewise it seemed good, that whoever should say that the
grace of God, by which a man is justified through Jesus Christ our
Lord, avails only for the remission of past sins, and not for assistance
against committing sins in the future, let him be anathema.
Canon 4: Also, whoever shall say that the same grace of God through
Jesus Christ our Lord helps us only in not sinning by revealing to us and
opening to our understanding the commandments, so that we may know
what to seek, what we ought to avoid, and also that we should love to do
so, but that through it [grace] we are not helped so that we are able to do
what we know we should do, let him be anathema. For when the
Apostle says: Wisdom puffeth up, but charity edifieth (1 Corinthians
8.1) it were truly infamous were we to believe that we have the grace of
Christ for that which puffeth us up, but have it not for that which
edifieth, since in each case it is the gift of God, both to know what we
ought to do, and to love to do it; so that wisdom cannot puff us up while
charity is edifying us. For as of God it is written, Who teacheth man
knowledge (Psalm 94.10), so also it is written, Love is of God (1 John
4.7).
Canon 5: It seemed good that whosoever should say that the grace of
justification was given to us only that we might be able more readily by
grace to perform what we were ordered to do through our free will; as if
though grace was not given, although not easily, yet nevertheless we
could even without grace fulfil the divine commandments, let him be
anathema. For the Lord spake concerning the fruits of the
commandments, when he said: Without me ye can do nothing (John
15.5), and not Without me ye could do it but with difficulty.
Canon 6: It also seemed good that as St. John the Apostle says, If we
shall say that we have no sin we deceive ourselves and the truth is not in
us (1 John 1.8), whosoever thinks that this should be so understood as to
mean that out of humility, we ought to say that we have sin, and not
because it is really so, let him be anathema. For the Apostle goes on to
add, But if we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our
sins and to cleanse us from all iniquity (1 John 1.9), where it is
sufficiently clear that this is said not only of humility but also truly. For
the Apostle might have said, If we shall say we have no sins we shall
extoll ourselves, and humility shall have no place in us; but when he
says, we deceive ourselves and the truth is not in us he sufficiently
intimates that he who affirmed that he had no sin would speak not that
which is true but that which is false.
Canons 7 and 8 are similar in thrust to Canon 6. These canons oppose
those who deny that the words Forgive us our trespasses in the Lords
Prayer apply to them, and those who believe the words are said only out
of humility.
These canons were adopted in the East at the Council in Trullo (692).
418 To avoid banishment in accordance with the imperial decree of 30
April, or else because he became convinced of their errors from reading
Pelagiuss commentary on Romans, Zosimus condemned and
excommunicated Pelagius and Coelestius and concurred with the
African synods conclusions regarding death, original sin, and the
necessity of grace.
418 Upset by the bishop of Constantinoples attempt to interfere in Illyria,
the bishop of Rome, Boniface I (418-22), wrote that the Roman church
stood to the churches of the world as the head to its members. He
admitted that all bishops hold one and the same episcopal office but
advised that all should recognize those to whom for the sake of
ecclesiastical discipline they ought to be subject.
418 (416?) The western emperor Honorius allowed the Gothic Tervingi,
who had begun to refer to themselves as Visigoths by this time, under
their king, Wallia, to settle as allies and dependents of the empire in
western Gaul (Aquitane). From there they spread across the Pyrenees
into Spain, ostensibly to re-establish Roman authority there. The Vandals
fled to Mauretania (see 429 below).
418 By about this year, Cyril of Alexandria had complied with the
condition originally laid down by Pope Innocent I, that to re-establish
communion with Rome John Chrysostom be mentioned in the diptychs.
419 In May, a synod met at Carthage to establish a code of canon law for
the church in North Africa. St. Augustine of Hippo was in attendance.
Pope Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, presided. As the proceedings began,
a certain Faustinus, legate of the Roman church, asked that the council
acknowledge the right of deposed bishops to appeal to Rome. Faustinus
claimed that this right had been granted by the council of Nicaea. Pope
Aurelius sent to Constantinople for copies of the acts of the council of
Nicaea, and found no such canon. Subsequently, he wrote a letter to
Pope Celestine of Rome (our most honorable brother) explaining that
the African church was not obliged to allow disputed cases to be
referred to Rome. In addition, he warned Celestine against hearing
such cases - how shall we be able to rely on a sentence passed beyond
the sea, since it will not be possible to send thither the necessary
witnesses - and against receiving those who had been
excommunicated in Africa into communion in Rome.
Canons 25 and 70 instructed bishops, priests, and deacons to abstain from
their wives.
Canon 28 instructed the lower clergy (priests, deacons, etc.) dissatisfied
with the judgments of their bishops to appeal to neighboring bishops, to
primates, or to universal councils in turn. It then added the
following: But whoso should think good to carry an appeal across the
water shall be received to communion by no one within the boundaries of
Africa.
The African code established by this synod was adopted in the East at the
Council in Trullo (692). It includes the canons against Pelagius and
Coelestius adopted in May 418.
420 Death of Jerome, in Bethlehem. Though he was initially buried near
the Grotto of the Nativity, his remains were later transferred to the
Church of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.
420 In about this year, a Christian priest in Persia destroyed a Zoroastrian
fire temple. Because of this and other, perhaps less violent, acts of
proselytism, Yezdegerd allowed the Christians to be persecuted. Some
fled into the Roman Empire. The Persians demanded their extradition;
the Romans refused, and war ensued. In 422, after a Roman victory, a
treaty was signed to ensure peace for 100 years and put a stop to the
persecution of Christians.
421 Julian (380-455), bishop of Eclanum, banished from Italy. He had
refused to agree to Zosimus condemnation of Pelagianism, demanding
that an ecumenical council consider the question. Julian was condemned
by the council of Ephesus in 431.
422 The Vandals and Alans who had gained refuge from the Visigoths
among the Suebi moved south into Andalusia.
423 Theodoret (bishop 423-49, 51-58) (393?-458?, author of the Religious
History) became bishop of Cyrrhus, near Antioch. LikeTheodore of
Mopsuestia, Theodoret followed the historo-critical school of biblical
interpretation. His Christology was of the Word-man type, but he agreed
that Christ is properly called Theotokos, and he denied that his doctrine
divided the Son into two Sons. According to some historians, there is
likely a connection between the interpretive methods of the schools of
Antioch and Alexandria and their respective Christologies. Alexandrians
tended to read the gospels as allegories, and so interpret statements
regarding Jesus suffering, temptation, etc., in a spiritual sense. The
Antiochians, reading literally, emphasized Jesus as human, as well as
divine.
423 Celestine (423-32), bishop of Rome, laid it down as a principle that
No bishop is to be appointed against the will of the people. On the
churchs canons, he wrote, The rules rule us; we do not stand over the
rules: Let us be subject to the canons. Celestine also introduced the
Introit psalm with antiphon into the mass.
427 Augustines City of God published. In chapter 26 of book 21 he
speculated that sinful Christians may pass through a cleansing fire on
Judgment Day. He refused to contradict the thought that such a
cleansing could occur in the interval of time between the death of the
body and that last day of judgment (as is said to occur in purgatory). In
the same passage, Augustine identified this fire with tribulation, and
refused to oppose the view that the death of the body is itself part of the
cleansing tribulation. He also implied that persecutions in this life meet
the description given in 1 Corinthians 3.12-15 of a purifying fire.
427 The Persians went to war against the Ephthalites or White Huns, a
Turanian people who had conquered the land between the Caspian Sea
and the Indus River. The Persians were distracted by numerous wars
against the Ephthalites until 557, thus reducing their threat to the Roman
Empire.
428 Nestorius (Nestorius), a monk of Antioch, became patriarch of
Constantinople. Nestorius was a follower of Theodore of Mopsuestia,
and raised the ire of Cyril of Alexandria by criticizing the use of
Theotokos. Nestorius was concerned to maintain that the incarnation
cannot have involved the divine Word in any change or suffering.
Therefore, he could not agree with Cyrils hypostatic union (see 553 for
the triumph of this doctrine), under which the Word would suffer. Also,
he thought that mans redemption required that the second Adam had to
be a real man, not a creature dominated by or fused with the divine.
Christ must have had a genuine human life of growth, temptation and
suffering.
According to some, Nestorius was misunderstood to teach that Christ
was two persons, one human and one divine. In actuality, they say, he
taught a prosopic union. In Greek, prosopon refers to the self-manifestation
of an individual by means of other things - a painter includes his brush
within his own prosopon. Nestorius taught that the Logos used manhood
for his self-manifestation. Manhood was included in his prosopon.
Early in his episcopate, Nestorius alienated many potential supporters in
Constantinople: monks and many of the citys aristocrats. Military
leaders disliked Nestorius closing of the last Arian chapel in
Constantinople, since many German auxiliaries were Arian.
428 On 26 September, St. John Chrysostom was solemnly commemorated
in the liturgy at Constantinople.
429 The Vandals invaded Northern Africa.

429 Celestine, bishop of Rome, sent Saints Germanus of Auxerre and
Lupus of Troyes to Britain, to combat Pelagianism.
430 Under the influence of Cyril of Alexandria, Celestine, patriarch of
Rome, commissioned John Cassian to write a letter to Nestorius,
demanding recantation. (Nestorius had unadvisedly entertained some
Pelagians recently, which didnt help his image in the West.) Cyril also
wrote to Nestorius, sending him his Twelve Anathemas, which he had
not coordinated with Rome, and which Nestorius believed exposed Cyril
as an Apollinarian. Nestorius confidently awaited the council of
Ephesus.
Cyrils twelve anathemas (stated positively): (1) Mary is Theotokos; (2) the
Word is united hypostatically to the flesh; (3) no separation of hypostases
after the union or any attempt to link them merely by association based
on dignity, honor or power - they are in a natural union; (4) statements
about Christ should not be distinguished as though some referred to the
Word and others to the man; (5) the description God-inspired man is
repudiated; (6) the divine Word is not Christs God or Lord, because He
is simultaneously God and man; (7) Jesus was not moved by the Word or
clothed in His glory, because there is no distinction between Him and the
Word; (8) the man assumed does not deserve to be worshipped along
with the Word (as Nestorius liked to put it) because there is no
separation; (9) the Spirit was not an alien power enabling Jesus to work
miracles, because the Spirit was his very own; (10) our high priest is not a
man distinct from the Word, but the very Word himself; (11) the Lords
flesh is the very flesh of the Word, possessing thereby quickening power;
and (12) the Word suffered, was crucified, and died in His flesh.
Theodoret of Cyrrhus composed twelve anti-anathemas and accused
Cyril of Apollinarianism.
~430 Death of Neilos the Ascetic. An abbot of a monastery near Ankyra,
Neilos is the first writer to make a plain reference to the Jesus Prayer. He
was also author of the Ascetic Discources later published in the
Philokalia.
431 Third Ecumenical Council, was held at Ephesus. Called by the
emperor Theodosius II. Held in the first church building known to have
been dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. Led by Cyril, patriarch of
Alexandria (412-444), an extreme Antiochene (Word-Man) Christology,
taught by Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, was condemned.
Nestorius was understood to teach that the man Jesus is an independent
person beside the divine Logos and that therefore Mary may not
therefore properly be called theotokos (God bearer). Nestorius was
excommunicated. Pelagianism was condemned. Cyprus was granted
ecclesiastical independence, and Jerusalem was made a patriarchate (both
at Antiochs expense). The council also resolved that no additions should
be made to the Nicene creed:
Let no one be permitted to bring forward, or write or compose a
different faith besides that defined by the Holy Fathers who assembled
with the Holy Spirit in the city of Nicaea. And whoever dares compose a
different faith, or present, or offer [one] to those wishing to turn to the
knowledge of the truth ... let such, if they be bishops or belong to the
clergy, be alien bishops from the episcopate, and clerics from the clergy --
and if they be laymen, let them be given over to anathema.
The action at Ephesus was not harmonious. John, patriarch of Antioch,
held a simultaneous rival synod. Theodosius II decided to have both
John and Cyril arrested, and he ordered the bishops in Ephesus to
depart. They refused, and when the news that Cyril had been arrested
resulted in a riot in Constantinople. In the end, Theodosius II ruled in
favor of Cyril. Cyril was not completely victorious, however, as his
Twelve Anathemas were not approved.
Nestorius went into exile and died in 451. His doctrine lived on,
however. The church in Persia adopted it to obtain the protection of their
rulers -- after all, their religion was now in conflict with the faith of the
their Roman enemies.
At the urging of Valerian and Amphilochius, the bishops of Iconium and
Side, the council also condemned the Messalians (which, it said, had
been condemned at Constantinople in the time of Sisinnius). In addition,
the council anathematized the filthy book of this heresy, which is called
the Asceticon. (See 390.)
431 A certain Palladius was sent by Celestine, bishop of Rome, to
Christians in Ireland.
431 The Vandals under Genseric took Hippo, the year after Blessed
Augustines death.
431 The metropolitan of Hierapolis, Alexander, restored the church in
Risafe that had been built over St. Sergioss grave (see 303 above).
Shortly afterward, Risafe was made a bishopric. Justinian later changed
the name of Risafe to Sergiopolis. Risafe became the destination of
pilgrimages. Sergios and Bacchus were considered protectors of the
Roman army. Many Eastern churches were dedicated to them.
432 Christmas celebrated in Alexandria on 25 December for the first
time about this year. Paul of Emessa preached in Cyrils presence.
432 Sixtus III (432-40) became patriarch of Rome. He wrote to the
patriarch of Antioch regarding Nestorius: Therefore, because, as the
Apostle says, the faith is one, - evidently the faith which has obtained
hitherto, - let us believe the things that are to be said, and say the things
that are to be held. ...Let no license be allowed to novelty, because it is
not fit that any addition should be made to antiquity. Let not the clear
faith and belief of our forefathers be fouled with any muddy admixture.
432 St. Patrick began his mission to Ireland.
433 Cyril of Alexander and John of Antioch were reconciled. The
instrument of reconciliation, the Symbol of Union, employed largely
Antiochene terminology, but Cyril assented to it as containing, beneath
this terminology, what he really fought for in his Christology:
We confess, therefore, our Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of
God, perfect God and perfect man composed of a rational soul and body,
begotten before the ages from His Father in respect of His divinity, but
likewise in these last days for us and our salvation from the Virgin Mary
in respect of His manhood, consubstantial with the Father in respect of
His divinity and at the same time consubstantial with us in respect of His
manhood. For a union of two natures has been accomplished. Hence we
confess one Christ, one Son, one Lord. In virtue of this conception of a
union without confusion we confess the holy Virgin as Theotokos
because the divine Word became flesh and was made man and from the
very conception united to Himself the temple taken from her. As for the
evangelical and apostolic statements about the Lord, we recognize
theologians employ some indifferently in view of the unity of the person
but distinguish others in view of the duality of natures, applying the
God-befitting ones to Christs divinity and the humble ones to His
humanity.
Cyrils more militant followers were not pleased.
434 Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople (434-46). St. John of Damascus
states that, while Proclus was patriarch, a calamity threatened the city. A
boy was taken up from the people and taught by angels to say
the Trisagion hymn: Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have
mercy on us. When he returned to earth and told what he had learned,
the people sang the hymn and the calamity was averted.
434 St. Vincent of Lerins wrote his Commonitory as a guide for
distinguishing the Catholic faith from heresy. Although he was a
Westerner, he made no mention of the papacy as the center for faith. He
refers to the bishop of Rome as the Head, but doesnt employ this
headship in his theory. From the Commonitory:
But here some one perhaps will ask, Since the canon of Scripture is
complete, and sufficient of itself for everything, and more than
sufficient, what need is there to join with it the authority of the
Churchs interpretation? For this reason, - because, owing to the depth
of Holy Scripture, all do not accept it in one and the same sense, but one
understands its words in one way, another in another; so that it seems to
be capable of as many interpretations as there are interpreters. For
Novatian expounds it one way, Sabellius another, Donatus another,
Arius, Eunomius, Macedonius, another, Photinus, Apollinaris, Priscillian,
another, Iovinian, Pelagius, Celestius, another, lastly, Nestorius another.
Therefore, it is very necessary, on account of so great intricacies of such
various error, that the rule for the right understanding of the prophets
and apostles should be framed in accordance with the standard of
Ecclesiastical and Catholic interpretation.
Moreover, in the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be
taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere,
always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense Catholic,
which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare,
comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow
universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we
confess that one faith to be true, which the whole Church throughout the
world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those
interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy
ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we
adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the
least of almost all priests and doctors.
In another section, St. Vincent took up the question of the development of
doctrine: But the Church of Christ, the careful and watchful guardian
of the doctrines deposited in her charge, never changes anything in
them, never diminishes, never adds, does not cut off what is necessary,
does not add what is superfluous, does not lose her own, does not
appropriate what is anothers, but while dealing faithfully and
judiciously with ancient doctrine, keeps this one object carefully in view,
- if there be anything which antiquity has left shapeless and rudimentary,
to fashion and polish it, if anything already reduced to shape and
developed, to consolidate and strengthen it, if any already ratified and
defined to keep and guard it. Finally, what other object have Councils
ever aimed at in their decrees, than to provide that what was before
believed in simplicity should in future be believed intelligently, that what
was before preached coldly should in future be preached earnestly, that
what was before practiced negligently should thenceforward be practiced
with double solicitude? This, I say, is what the Catholic Church, roused
by the novelties of heretics, has accomplished by the decrees of her
Councils, - this, and nothing else, - she has thenceforward consigned to
posterity in writing what she had received from those of olden times only
by tradition, comprising a great amount of matter in a few words, and
often, for the better understanding, designating an old article of the faith
by the characteristic of a new name.
435 The church in Armenia was compiling in its own language a
collection of patristic writings. The question of whether the works of
Theodore of Mopsuestia should be included in the collection caused strife
in the church in Syria. Acacius of Melitene and Rabulla of Edessa were
firm in opposing Theodore of Mopsuestias inclusion, though Rabullas
successor, Ibas, was equally stalwart in his support of Theodore. The
Armenians carried the question to Proclus, patriarch of
Constantinople. Proclus Tome to the Armenians contained a digest of
objectionable Christological passages, gathered from Theodore of
Mopsuestia, though the Tome avoided mentioning Theodore by
name. The Tome argued in favor of theopaschite language in reference to
Christ: Though Christ did not suffer in his divinity, he did do so
according to the flesh.
435 A certain Romanus retired to Condat near the Jura mountains in
eastern Gaul, intending to live as a hermit. Soon, many others followed
him and formed several monastic communities. Among them was
Eugendus, famous for exorcisms.
438 The laws of the Roman Empire since the time of Constantine were
collected in chronological order into a single codex, calledthe Theodotian
Code after the emperor Theodosius II (408-450).
438 On January 27, St. John Chrysostoms body was returned to
Constantinople. The emperor Theodosius II, son of Arkadius and
Eudoxia, who had deposed John, received the reliquary and bowed low
before it, praying that John forgive his parents.
439 The Vandals captured Carthage.
440 Leo I (440-461) became patriarch of Rome. Exhorted his congregation
to observe the Ember fasts, and discouraged them from mixing
Christianity with Sun worship. Rebuked his flock for paying reverence
to the Sun god on the steps of St. Peters before entering the basilica. He
unearthed an infiltration of Manichees into the congregation. In a letter
to the emperor, he stated that by the Holy Spirits inspiration the
emperor needs no human instruction and is incapable of doctrinal error.
On the other hand, Leo was the first bishop of Rome to claim the
plenitude of power over the church, which was to play such a large
role in the development of the papal monarchy over the Medieval
church.
Leos sermons made the first mention of the observance of Ember Days.
Their observance was widespread in the West by the eighth century. The
Ember days are a time of prayer and fasting, occurring on the
Wednesday, Friday and Saturday after the first Sunday in Lent, after
Whitsunday (Pentecost), after September 14, and after December 13. The
name Ember comes from a German word, quatember, which is a
corruption of the Latin quatuor tempora, or four seasons.
444 After Cyril died on 27 June, Dioscorus (444-451) became patriarch of
Alexandria. Dioscorus was one of the extremist party that regretted
Cyrils compromise of 433. He schemed with the court eunuch
Chrysaphius (influential with the emperor Theodosius II) to impose
Cyrils Twelve Anathemas as the standard of orthodoxy. Chrysaphius
godfather Eutyches challenged the orthodoxy of those who say there are
two natures after the union. When Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople,
condemned Eutyches as an Apollinarian, Dioscorus accused Flavian of
requiring a test for orthodoxy in addition to the Nicene Creed, which the
council of Ephesus had declared incapable of being supplemented. To
resolve these issues, Theodosius II called a council to meet in Ephesus in
449.
Eutyches taught that, after the incarnation, Christ had only one nature
and was not therefore of the same substance as other men, since it had
been deified and subsumed into the divine nature. This was the meaning
of the Cyrillian formula one nature after the union for Eutyches.
445 Valentinian III (425-54), emperor in the West, stated that whatsoever
the authority of the apostolic see has sanctioned, or shall sanction, shall
be law for all. This apparently is quoted from Valentinians Novel 17,
which gave the bishop of Rome authority over the provincial churches.
447 A synod of the Armenian church met at Shahapivan. It decreed
punishments for those who fell into the Messalian heresy (see 390 and
431).
448 Eusebius, bishop of Dorylaeum (Asia Minor), proclaimed Eutyches
Christology heretical. He was (later that year) deposed and
excommunicated by a synod run by patriarch Flavian in Constantinople.
448-84 Sometime between these dates, the monastery of the Sleepless
Monks was founded by Abbot Marcellus at Eirenaion, in the middle
Bosporus, opposite Sosthenion. Their monastery contained a famous
library, built mainly for polemic purposes. The Sleepless Monks emerged
as strong supporters of the council of Chalcedon (451).
449 Robber council held at Ephesus. Leo, patriarch of Rome, was
invited to the council, but sent his Tome instead, which was not read.
The council was run by Dioscorus of Alexandria. Flavian was deposed,
and one of Dioscorus presbyters was made bishop of Constantinople.
The two natures after the union doctrine was condemned. The Symbol
of Union was set aside as going beyond the decisions of Ephesus in 431.
The major dyophysite leaders were deposed. Theodosius II was
determined the councils decisions would stand, in spite of opposition
from Rome. Theodoret of Cyrrhus was declared a heretic and sent into
exile.
450 About this year, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded England.
The Parthenon in Athens was converted to a church in about this year.
450 Near this date, Codex Alexandrinus (A) was written. It contains all
the canonical and Deuterocanonical books of the Roman Catholic Old
Testament, plus 3 & 4 Maccabees and Psalm 151. Affixed to the New
Testament are I and II Clement. The text type appears mixed, with some
portions termed neutral (Alexandrian) and others Syrian
(Byzantine). This version of the Septuagint appears to have been
corrected by the Hebrew. Codex Alexandrinus was the first of the
ancient uncial codices to become known, being sent from Constantinople
to Britain in 1627.
Other documents from this time period include: Codex Bezae (D):
Greek/Latin Gospels + Acts (D contains many readings quoted in both
Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria);
Codex Washingtonianus (W): Greek Gospels; both of Western text-
type: fondness for paraphrase.
Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (C): Greek LXX + 27NT, many gaps
Codex Marchalianus (Q): Greek LXX + Luke + John, many gaps
Codex Ambrosianus (F): Greek Genesis to Joshua
Codex Freer: Greek Deuteronomy and Joshua
Codex Colberto-Sarravianus: Origens Greek Hexapla LXX of Gen-Judg
Codex Palatinus it(e): Latin Gospels, African (Carthage) text-type
Codex Veronensis it(b): Latin Gospels, European/Vulgate text-type
Syr(pal), Palestinian Syriac (Aramaic) Gospels, of Caesarean text-type
450 The Eastern emperor Theodosius II fell from his horse and died. He
was succeeded by Marcian (451-7), a soldier, who married Pulcheria,
Theodosius sister. Both Marcian and Pulcheria sympathized with the
two natures doctrine. Chrysaphius was killed, and Eutyches exiled.
450 The Armenians in Persian territory asked for assistance from the
Roman Empire against their Persian overlords. Yezdegerd II, since his
accession in 438, had attempted to convert the Christian Armenians to
Zoroastrianism. The emperor Marcian, distracted by the Huns, was
unwilling to go to war for the Armenians. The war between the
Armenians and the Persians continued until Yezdegerds death in 453,
when his successor, Firuz, granted them complete toleration.
450 Near this year Auxentios the Persian left his post as a senior
administrator under the emperor Theodosius and founded an influential
monastery in Bythinia.
450 Some estimate that the population of Rome declined from
about 500,000 in this year to roughly 50,000 in 550. See 552 for a similar
estimate.
451 Fourth Ecumenical Council, held at Chalcedon, in the church of St.
Euphemia the martyr. The legates from Rome presided. More than 600
bishops attended. Dioscorus was deposed, though not on doctrinal
grounds. The dyophysite leaders were restored, but Nestorius himself
was condemned as a heretic. (Theodoret of Cyrrhus was restored, on the
condition that he repudiate his anti-anathemas against Cyril.) Leos
Tome was received and pronounced to be orthodox. The council also
accepted two of Cyrils letters, but not his Twelve Anathemas. There was
reluctance in the East to add a new creed, but one was drafted at Leos
representatives insistence.
The creed of the Council of Chalcedon:
In agreement, therefore, with the holy fathers, we all unanimously teach
that we should confess that our Lord Jesus Christ is one and the same
Son, the same perfect in Godhead and the same perfect in manhood, truly
God and truly man, the same of a rational soul and body, consubstantial
with the Father in Godhead, and the same consubstantial with us in
manhood, like us in all things except sin; begotten from the Father from
before the ages as regards his Godhead, and in the last days, the same,
because of us and because of our salvation, begotten from the Virgin
Mary, the Theotokos, as regards his manhood; one and the same Christ,
Son, Lord, only-begotten, made known in two natures without confusion,
without change, without division, without separation, the difference of
the natures being by no means removed because of the union, but the
property of each nature being preserved and coalescing into one
prosopon and one hypostasis - not parted, or divided into two prosopa,
but one and the same Son, only-begotten, divine Word, the Lord Jesus
Christ, as the prophets of old and Jesus Christ Himself have taught us
about him and the creed of our fathers has handed down.
The prosopon is the things external aspect or form as an individual, while
hypostasis is concrete subsistence or existence as an individual. The
phrase without confusion was used by Nestorius, who was concerned
to protect Christs divine nature being viewed as suffering, growing or
changing.
Perhaps because the creed is so Antiochene (it does not use Cyrils phrase
natural union for instance, though one would think one hypostasis
does the same job), a large portion of the Eastern church began to drift
away as Monophysites. The modern Alexandrian (Coptic) church
considers this a misnomer, and prefer something like miaphysites,
believing in one composite nature after the union. They hold that
Chalcedon was unneeded from a theological perspective and was largely
a power play by the emperor and the bishop of Rome.
The bishop of Romes representatives stated they had no instructions
regarding the privileges of Constantinople, and so absented themselves
from discussions on that point. While they were absent, the council
reasserted Constantinoples rights as a patriarchate, with equal
privileges to Rome, second in standing to Rome, because
Constantinople is the new Rome. The patriarch of Constantinople was to
ordain the metropolitan bishops of the dioceses of Pontus, Asia, and
Thrace, and bishops from those dioceses among the barbarians. The
metropolitans, with his provincial bishops, were to ordain new provincial
bishops (Canon 28).
The council also approved the arrangement arrived at by Antioch and
Jerusalem, whereby Antioch retained jurisdiction over the two
Phoenicias and Arabia and Jerusalem over the three Palestines.
(See map.)
451 Theodoric I, commanding a combined Visigothic, Burgundian and
Roman force, repulsed Attila at the battle of Chalons.
452 Mamertus, bishop of Vienne in France, instituted the Rogation
Days after storms, pestilence, and barbarians laid waste to his diocese
and city. The Rogation Days were Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday
before Holy Thursday (Ascension Day), which is the 40th day after
Easter. Rogation means asking, and it is a time for asking Gods
blessings on the crops, for a plentiful harvest.
453 Attila died.
454 Hilary, bishop of Arles, asserted that the church of Gaul was
independent of Rome. The Western emperor Valentinian III told Aetius,
the provincial governor, if any bishop summoned to trial before the
bishop of Rome shall neglect to come, he was to force him.
454 The see at Alexandria was occupied by the Monophysite Timothy
Aelurus (454-477).
455 The Vandals under Genseric (Gaiseric) sacked Rome. Leo I
prevented wholesale destruction and massacre. Afterwards, Leo ordered
silver ornaments in St. Peters cathedral melted down to make chalices
for the citys churches.
456 An army of Visigoths sacked Braga (northern Portugal).
457 Marcian, Eastern Roman emperor, died. Proterius, Dioscoruss
dyophysite successor at Alexandria, was torn to pieces by a violent mob.
Leo I wrote to the new Eastern emperor (Leo I, 457-74) in favor of
Chalcedon and his Tome, adding that through the Spirit of God
dwelling in you, you are sufficiently instructed, nor can any error delude
your faith (Letter CLXII). Nevertheless, Pope Leo felt it necessary to
send representatives to insure that the emperor understood that those
who rejected the decrees of Chalcedon were not Catholics.
The Roman emperor Leo I appears to have been the first emperor to
accept his crown from the hands of the patriarch of Constantinople.
Succeeding emperors also received the crown in this way. Thus the
Roman coronation, previously a secular action, took on a religious
character.
457 The Paschal tables of Victor of Aquitaine were published. These
were widely used in the West, only replaced in Rome by the tables of
Dionsios (Dionysius) Exiguus in Rome in about 630. Victors tables,
based on the 19-year Metonic cycle used in Alexandria, replaced the 84-
year cycle introduced by Augustalis in the early third century. But Victor
did not fully understand the Alexandrian calculations, which caused him
to list eastern and western dates for the first six years of the cycle.
Victors dates for the Pascha also sometimes fell on the vernal equinox
(which should never occur). Victor had undertaken his efforts at the
behest of Leo I, bishop of Rome. Pope Leo was disturbed by the fact that,
in 444 and 455, Alexandrian and Roman methods for computing the
Pascha resulted in different answers. Though Leo had deferred to
Alexandria, he hoped to avoid disagreement in the future.
458 Gennadius (458-71) patriarch of Constantinople. Gennadius had
refuted Cyrils anathemas. After Chalcedon, he interpreted the councils
terminology in an Antiochene fashion, avoiding the terms Theotokos and
using prosopon instead of hypostasis for the union of natures.
459 Death of St. Symeon Stylites. For 30 years he lived on top of a
column at the monastery in Telanissos in Syria, on the main road from
Antioch to the Euphrates.
460 In this decade, Perpetuus, bishop of Tours, built a basilica over the
tomb of St. Martin of Tours (see 371). The inscription read, Here lies
Martin the bishop, of holy memory, whose soul is in the hand of God; but
he is fully here, present and made plain by miracles of every kind.
~465 During the second half of the fifth century, the Roman calendar was
adopted in Constantinople. The beginning of the liturgical year was
moved from 23 September to 1 September.
465 A major fire that swept through Constantinople in this year had been
predicted to the emperor by both Elisabeth of Thrace, abbess of the
convent of St. George, and Daniel the Stylite (d. 493). Elisabeth was a
noted healer and exorcist.
465 Severus born (d. 538). He became the Monophysite bishop of
Antioch. Some have ascribed to him the works of the pseudo-Dionysius.
See year 519 below.
466 Death of Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus. As was common in the period
between the council of Chalcedon and Justinians reign among
Chalcedonians, Theodoret failed to identify the subject of Christs
suffering with the Word because that would imply, as he thought, that
the divine nature suffered. Antiochene interpretations of Chalcedon such
as Theodorets and that of Patriarch Gennadius of Constantinople,
reinforced the suspicion among supporters of Cyrils Christology - and
the fact that Nestorius himself had approved of Leos Tome - that
Chalcedon had been a defeat.
467 Hilary (461-67), bishop of Rome, died. He had set up a body of seven
ecclesiastical singers whose job it was to oversee the music for all services
at which Hilary presided. This group was known as the Schola
Cantorum.
468 The Vandals conquered Sicily.
476 The end of the Western Roman Empire. Flavius Odoacer, a Rugian,
chose to be simply the Eastern emperors lieutenant in the West.
476 Peter the Fuller, Monophysite bishop of Antioch, is said to have
first introduced the recitation of the creed into the liturgyduring his
tenure (476-488). ). He may have intended to thus slight the confession of
the Council of Chalcedon. The first mention of the use of the creed as
part of the mass in the West is in a canon of the Council of Toledo in 589.
Peter is also known for the heretical addition to the Trisagion prayer,
Who was crucified for us. According to St. John of Damascus, the
addition effectively added a fourth person to the Trinity.
478 The tomb of St. Barnabas was discovered at Salamis in Cyprus.
According to tradition, Barnabas had been stoned to death. The feast of
St. Barnabas (June 11) commemorates the discovery of his tomb.
479 War between the Ostrogoths and the Roman empire. The Goths were
generally successful. War ended in 483.
481 Clovis became king of the Salian Franks. He later converted to
Orthodox Christianity under the influence of his wife, Clotilde, a
Burgundian princess, and Remigius, bishop of Rheims. See 508.
482 Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, (471-89) wrote a formula called
the Henoticon, hoping it would end the Monophysite schism. It
approved Cyrils Twelve Anathemas, condemned both Nestorius and
Eutyches (see 444), did not mention the number of natures (whether one
or two), denounced those who make either a division or a confusion or
introduce a phantasm, and condemned any heresy whether advanced
at Chalcedon or elsewhere. It was promulgated on the authority of the
emperor (Zeno the Isaurian, 474-91) alone without a council of bishops,
but was signed by the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch. The
churches of the East were again in harmony.
484 Schism over the Henoticon (484-520). Simplicius, patriarch of
Rome, excommunicated Acacius and the Roman emperor Zeno at a
synod in Rome. Zeno was more concerned with keeping Egypt and Syria
loyal, and Simplicius could rely on the support of the Gothic king
Theodoric (an Arian) in Italy (see 488). The schism over the Henoticon
was ended in 520.
485 Death of Proclus (410-485), the last great pagan Neo-Platonic
philosopher, and head of Platos Academy in Athens.
485 Philoxenus of Mabbug (440-523), supported by Peter the Fuller,
patriarch of Antioch (see 476), became bishop of Hierapolis (Mabbug).
Philoxenus opposed the council of Chalcedon. He wrote, There is no
nature without person, just as there is no person without nature. To
allow Him two natures was, for Philoxenus, equivalent to asserting the
existence of two persons in Christ.
486 Death of St. Diadochos, bishop of Photiki (in Epiros, Greece). Photiki
had been born around 400, and supported the Chalcedonian
Christological position. His On Spititual Knowledge and Discrimination:
One Hundred Texts was later incorporated into the Philokalia (see 1782).
He frequently directs his line of thought against the Messalians (see 390).
In one passage, Diadochos speaks of the souls treatment after death. If
we are afraid then, we will not be able freely to pass by the rulers of the
nether world. ... But the soul which rejoices in the love of God, at the
hour of its departure, is lifted with the angels of peace above the hosts of
darkness. Those who feel fear at the moment of death will be tried by
the fire of judgement and will receive just treatment according to their
works. Diadochoss picture of the afterlife is similar to the seventh
century visions of Fursa (see 630) and Barontus (see 679), which have
been used as evidence that a novel view of death emerged in the West at
that time. It also resembles St. Anthonys visions (see 356).
488 To protect his back as he put down a revolt in Syria, Zeno sold out
Odoacer and turned Italy over to the Ostrogoth Theodoric. (The
Ostrogoths were descended from the Greuthingi.) The patriarch of
Rome was relatively free of the Roman emperor until 536.
492 Gelasius I (492-6) patriarch of Rome. He broke with custom in that
he did not inform the emperor Anastasius of his election to the
papacy. In a letter to the emperor, he wrote, And if the hearts of the
faithful ought to be submitted to priests in general how much more
ought assent to be given to him who presides over that See which the
most high God himself desired to be pre-eminent over all priests, and
which the pious judgement of the whole Church has honored ever
since? Gelasius also claimed that the see of Peter has the right to loose
what has been bound by the decisions of any bishop whatever.
He put an end to an abuse in the churches of Calabria where
communion was being given in only one kind.
Gelasius continued the battle against the Henoticon. In order to keep the
emperor out of church affairs, Gelasius enunciated a political theory in
which the church had auctoritas (legislative) authority, while the
authority of the secular rulers was potestas(executive power). In Roman
law auctoritas was superior to potestas, so Gelasius implied that the church
was superior to the state. In fact, he stated that the imperial potestas was
derived from the papal auctoritas. Gelasius theory was a driving force
behind church-state relations until the Aristotelian rediscovery in the
twelfth century.
The Decretum Gelansianum, as the name implies, is often associated with
Gelasius. But some manuscripts ascribe it to Damasus (366-84), and
others to Hormisdas (514-23). Many modern scholars believe it to have
been composed by a cleric living in the south of Gaul early in the sixth
century. The Decretum contains a list of books approved to be read in the
Church, along with a list of apocryphal works. Tobit, Judith, Wisdom,
Ecclesiasticus, and the first two books of Maccabees are included in the
list of approved works.
Gelasius also introduced a litany of intercession, the Deprecatio, into the
beginning of the mass. He also introduced the Kyrie eleison, which had
long been a response in litanies, into the mass as a processional preface.
Gregory the Great later eliminated theDeprecatio litany itself on non-festal
days, leaving only the responses - Kyrie eleison reducing them to nine in
number, and changing the center three to Christe eleison.
494 Gelasius changed the pagan festival of the Lupercalia into the feast
of the Purification.
495 Macedonius (495-511) patriarch of Constantinople. During his time,
Constantinople was largely isolated - in opposition to the Monophysite
emperor Anastasios (491-518) and the Monophysites of Egypt and Syria,
and disdained by Rome because Acacius was still commemorated in the
liturgy in spite of Simplicius excommunication of him in 484. In alliance
with the Acoematae (non-sleeping monks) Macedonius opposed the
Monophysites interpolation of who was crucified for us into the
Trisagion (see 476 above). [According to Fr. John Meyendorff, the
interpolation does not constitute a problem if the Trisagion is viewed as a
hymn to the incarnate Word. The Chalcedonian opposition to
theopaschite formulae made it easy for the Monophysites to paint them
as Nestorians. In fact, John II, bishop of Rome, called the Acoematea
Nestorians in his correspondence with the emperor Justinian in 533-
34.]
Macedonius condemned Philoxenus of Mabbug (see 485) as a heretic.
Anastasios, however, supported Philoxenus in his effort to replace
Chalcedonian bishops with Monophysites.
496 A decree from Gelasius, bishop of Rome, in this year included a list of
recommended and banned books. This is an early step toward the Index
of Forbidden Books (see 1559). The works of Faustus of Rhegium were
on the list. Faustus had been champion of the semi-Pelagian monks of
Southern Gaul, associated with John Cassian (see 410).
498 Symmachus and Laurentius (Lawrence) fought each other for the
office of bishop of Rome. To limit the bloodshed in Rome, the two
candidates allowed Theodoric, the Arian king of the Ostrogoths who
ruled from Ravenna, to decide. Theodoric chose Symmachus, the
candidate supported by the clergy. Symmachus also happened to be
disposed against Theodorics enemy, the Roman emperor in
Constantinople, and against the Henoticon. Laurentius was supported
by the laity and wished to end the breach over the Henoticon (see
484). Laurentius withdrew his claim in 506. Meanwhile, he served as
bishop of Nuceria.
498 Pope Symmachus (498-514) introduced the Gloria into the liturgy in
Rome. See 301+ above. Its use was limited to liturgies celebrated by
bishops on Sundays and the feast days of martyrs. Priests were
eventually allowed to include it in celebrations of the mass: in the twelfth
century, this freedom was extended to Sundays other than Easter.
500 The population of Constantinople in this year has been estimated
at 500,000. The population of Rome may have fallen to100,000 by this
date (see 450, 552).
500 In about this year, the stirrup was invented, probably in the
grasslands north of the Black or Caspian Seas. It was introduced into
Western Europe by way of contacts between the Lombards and the Avars
between the Danube and Friuli Rivers in the 700s.
500 At about this time, due to the barbarian invasions, the jurisdiction of
the bishop of Rome was effectively confined to central and southern
Italy.

The Sixth Century
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here: Index


501 During this century, inhumation replaced cremation in
Northern France (as seen in evidence from the grave yard at
Hordain).

501 In this century, the Penitentials developed in Ireland.
The Penitentials were a detailed and wide-ranging list of sins and
corresponding penances.
506 At the Armenian council of Dvin, that church rejected the
ruling of Chalcedon on the nature of Christ. From that point on,
the Armenian church was Monophysite in Christology.
There were Monophysite bodies in Egypt (the Copts), Ethiopia and
Syria (later known as the Jacobites - see 542/43) also.
506/7 (508?) The first Monophysite Syriac Bible (known as the
Philoxeniana) was commissioned by Bishop Philoxenus of
Mabbug (Hierapolis - see 485, 495). Philoxenus collaborated with
his auxiliary bishop Polycarp.
At a certain point in his career, Philoxenus wrote to denounce the
opinion of a certain Stephen Bar Sudaili of Ephesus that the
punishment of the wicked was not eternal. Stephen, who spent his
closing years in a monastery near Jerusalem, is thought by some to
have been the moving force behind the resurgence of Origenism in
Palestine during the sixth century. He has also been proposed as
the author of the works of Pseudo-Dionysios.
507 Clovis, king of the Salian Franks (481-511), sent messengers
with gifts to the shrine of St. Martin of Tours, seeking a sign from
heaven. As his men entered the church, the chanter sang, For
thou hast firded me with strength unto battle; thou has subdued
under me those who rose up against me (Psalm 18.39). In the
summer, Clovis defeated Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, at Voille
(near Poitiers). The Catholic nobles of southern Gaul had
supported their Arian king (Alaric). The Visigoths managed to
retain control over a strip of land from the Pyrenees to the Rhone,
with their capital at Narbonne. They spread into Spain, and ruled
there until their kingdom was destroyed by the Saracens in 711.
508 Caesarius, bishop of Arles (502-43) set up a convent built
against the city wall for his sister Caesaria. Around 200 women ,
recruited from the aristocracy, lived in the Convent of St. John.
The holiness of these nuns, kept in total seclusion, was believed to
protect the city. (Caesarius had been trained in the monastery at
Lerins (see 410).)
508 On Christmas Day, Remigius, bishop of Rheims, baptized
Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, and his entire army (as many as
3000 men). The Franks thus accepted Orthodox, rather than
Arian, Christianity.
508/9 The emperor Anastasios (491-518) wrote to Clovis, king of
the Salian Franks, making him an honorary consul. This is
indicative of the east Roman diplomatic efforts among the
Germanic kingdoms during this era (in particular, against the
Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy). Clovis celebrated this honor by
donning the purple costume of consul and tossing coins to a crowd
in Tours as he enacted the Adventus ritual of the Roman
emperors. The occasion for Anastasioss congratulatory letter was
Cloviss victory over the Visigoths at Vouille. (The Salian Franks
had become Orthodox, while the Visigoths were still Arians at this
time.)
508-11 The monk Severus, later patriarch of Antioch, agitated
against Chalcedon in Constantinople.
511 The Monophysite patriarch of Constantinople, Timothy,
following the example set by Peter the Fuller (see 476
above)introduced the Nicene Creed into the liturgy in that city.
511 Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, presided over a church
council at Orleans.
512 Philoxenus of Mabbug was involved in a theological dispute at
a synod that met in Sidon.
512 A collection of forged letters to Peter the Fuller (see 476 above)
was published in this year. The first letter of the collection, in a
fashion that was typical of Chalcedonians of this era, stated that
Christs sufferings could be attributed to his human nature alone.
Chalcedonian denial of theopaschite formulae, in accordance with
Antiochene Christology, continued to provide the Monophysites
with ammunition.
512 Severus became patriarch of Antioch, after the Emperor
Anastasios had deposed the incumbent. Modern theologians
generally hold that Severus (Monophysite) Christology was
simply that of Cyril. Like Cyril, Severus used the terms nature
andhypostasis as synonymns. Christ, he held, was out of two
natures, but the union of the two implied that there is now only
one. Where Chalcedon taught that each nature kept its own way
of being, for Severus such terminology implied that there were two
actual beings in Christ, something he was unwilling to admit.
Severus wrote: One is the agent, the incarnate Word. One is the
activity. But the works - what is done by the activity - are varied.
In his criticism of Chalcedon, Severus pointed out that the council
had failed to identify the hypostasis of the union of natures with the
pre-existent Logos. The fact that many supporters of the council
refused to admit that one of the Trinity suffered in the flesh
reinforced Monophysite rejection of the council. Before he was
deposed as patrarch of Antioch in 518, Severus himself deposed
Epiphanius, the bishop of Tyre, for repeating one of Theodorets
arguments against theopaschism.
Severus criticized the extreme Monophysitism of Julian of
Helicarnassus. One aspect of the dispute dealt with original sin.
In Julians view, original sin involved human nature in corruption,
and his Christology was designed to shield Christ from it. Julian
taught that Christs body was incorrupt from the moment of His
incarnation, not from His resurrection. Christ was homoousios with
unfallen Adam, but not with us in our fallen state. Severus
referred to Julian as a Manichee. For Severus, and the Christian
East as a whole, original sin does not involve the transmission of
guilt, but rather of mortality. It is not, in itself, a state of sin, but a
condition that Christ came to repair.
514-18 An apology for the council of Chalcedon written by John
Philoponus (the Grammarian), an Alexandrian, appeared during
this time. John asserted that Christ must be consubstantial to both
God and man. He maintained that Christs humanity never
existed without his divinity, but that the two together constituted a
single hypostasis - which he also termed nature as Cyril of
Alexandria had done. Without doubt, John admitted Cyrils
theopaschite formulae. As a philosopher, John developed an
interpretation of Aristotle in the light of Christian revelation. He
wrote commentaries on several of Aristotles works.
516 Sigismund (516-23) kind of the Burgundians. During his reign,
the Burgundians renounced the Arian heresy and became
Orthodox.
517 A synod at Epaone in Burgundy forbade the clergy to hunt.
518 Justin I (518-527) became Roman (Byzantine) emperor. Justin,
under the influence of his nephew Justinian, pursued a
reconciliation along Chalcedonian lines. The schism over the
Henoticon ended (519).
518 Severus, Monophysite bishop of Antioch, was deposed. He
removed to Alexandria where he became the leader of a
Monophysite faction. Severus died there between 538 and 542, but
not before a visit to Constantinople that ended in 536.
519 In order to appease Hormisdas, the bishop of Rome, the
emperor Justin I had eastern prelates sign the following statement
(drafted by Hormisdas) in the cathedral of Constantinople on Holy
Thursday, 28 March.
The Formula of Hormisdas: The first point of salvation is that
we should keep the right rule of faith and in no way deviate from
the tradition of the Fathers. For it is impossible to bypass the
determination of our Lord Jesus Christ who said, Thou art Peter,
and upon this rock I will build my Church [Matt. 16:18]. These
words are proven by their effects, for in the apostolic see the
Catholic religion is always kept inviolable. From this hope and
faith we desire not to be separated and, following in all things the
ordinances of the Fathers, we anathematize all heresies, and,
especially, the heretic Nestorius, former bishop of Constantinople,
who was condemned by the Council of Ephesus, by Blessed
Celestine, bishop of Rome, and by the venerable Cyril, bishop of
Alexandria. We likewise condemn and declare to be anathema
Eutyches and Dioscorus of Alexandria, who were condemned in
the holy Council of Chalcedon, which we venerate and follow and
embrace. This Council followed the holy Council of Nicaea and
preached the apostolic faith. And we anamethatize the parricide
Timothy, surnamed Aelurus [the Cat] and also Peter [Mongos]
of Alexandria, his disciple and follower in everything. We also
anathematize Acacius, formerly bishop of Constantinople, who
became their accomplice and follower, and those, moreover, who
persevere in their communion and fellowship. For if anyone
embraces the communion of these persons, he falls under a similar
judgment of condemnation with them. In like manner, we also
condemn and anathematize Peter [the Fuller] of Antioch with his
followers together with all those mentioned above. Wherefore we
approve and embrace all the epistles of blessed Leo, pope of the
city of Rome, which he wrote concerning the right faith. On which
account, as we have said before, following in all things the
apostolic see, we preach all things which have been declared by
her deceased. And consequently I hope that I shall be in one
communion with you, the communion which the apostolic see
preaches, in which is the whole and perfect solidarity of the
Christian religion, promising for the future that at the celebration
of the holy mysteries there shall be no mention made of the names
of those who have been separated from the communion of the
Catholic Church, that is, who are not in agreement with the
apostolic see. But if I attempt even the least deviation from my
profession, I admit that, according to my own declaration, I am an
accomplice to those whom I have condemned. I have signed this
my profession with my own hand and have directed it to you,
Hormisdas, the holy and venerable pope of Rome. [The concern
relative to commemorating those who disagree with Rome could
have been motivated by Macedoniuss actions - see 495 above.]
The Formula of Hormisdas was accepted in Constantinople, being
read with the understanding that the Apostolic See in view is the
common property of Rome and Constantinople. The patriarch of
Constantinople, John II of Cappadocia (518-20), signed only after
affixing his own preamble to the text: Know therefore, most holy
one, that, according to what I have written, agreeing in the truth
with thee, I too, loving peace, renounce all the heretics repudiated
by thee: for I hold the most holy churches of the elder and of the
new Rome to be one; I define that see of the apostle Peter and this
of the imperial city to be one see.
Dorotheus, bishop of Thessalonica, tore the Formula of Hormisdas
in two in front of the people. He was brought to Constantinople
for trial, exiled to Heraclea while his case was being considered,
but then restored to his see in Thessalonica without ever signing
the Formula. The emperor Justin wrote to Hormisdas that many
found it difficult to sign the libellus: they esteem life harder than
death, if they should condemn those, when dead, whose life, when
they were alive, was the glory of their people. In reply, Pope
Hormisdas urged the emperor to use force to compel them to sign.

According to Dennys Papalism (referenced in Mosss The Old
Catholic Movement) the other patriarchates of the East refused to
sign this statement, and were reconciled through a different
agreement. Patriarch John was succeeded by Epiphanius in 520.
Patriarch Epiphanius (520-35) wrote to the pope to explain that
"very many of the holy bishops of Pontus and Asia and, above all,
those referred to as of the Orient, found it to be difficult and even
impossible to expunge the names of their former bishops they
were prepared to brave any danger rather than commit such a
deed. Pope Hormisdas wrote to Patriarch Epiphanius and gave
him authority to act on his behalf in the East. In this letter,
Hormisdas made restoration of communion dependent on
agreeing to a declaration of faith that left unmentioned the claimed
prerogatives of the bishop of Rome.

523 The Jews of Yemen, under Yusuf Dhu Nuwas, massacred the
Christian population of that country. They were revenged
byElesbaan, King of Abyssinia, who conducted a terrible
slaughter of Jews in Yemen.
523 The Roman emperor Justin I issued an edict against Arianism.
524 Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (~470-524) executed at
the order of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric. Boethius may have
been suspected of having conspired with the Justin I, the Orthodox
Roman Emperor, perhaps to end the schism over the Henoticon.
(Theodoric was an Arian, and it was to his advantage that the
Orthodox Roman population of Italy (roughly 90% of the total)
view the Empire to the east as heretical.) While in prison, Boethius
wrote his most important work, The Consolation of Philosophy. It is
said to be the most influential book in the western Church during
the medieval period, after the Bible. TheConsolation transmitted
the main doctrines of Platonic philosophy to the Middle Ages.
Boethius solution to the supposed conflict between Gods
foreknowledge and human freedom, contained in Book Five of
the Consolation, relies upon a distinction between conditional and
simple necessity. It was considered authoritative for centuries.
[T]here are two kinds of necessity: one is simple, as the necessity
by which all men are mortals; the other is conditional, as in the
case when, if you know someone is walking, he must necessarily
be walking. ... God sees as present those future things which result
from human free will. Therefore, from the standpoint of divine
knowledge these things are necessary because of the condition of
their being known by God; but, considered in themselves, they lose
nothing of the absolute freedom of their own natures. Boethius
also tranlated AristotlesOrganon and Porphyrys Introduction to the
Categories of Aristotle into Latin.
525 The Pascal Tables of Dionysios Exiguus (the Small) appeared
about this year. They were an attempt to settle the question of the
date of Easter for both East and West. His tables, predicting
Pascha for the years 532-626, employed a 19-year cycle, and were
grounded in St. Cyril of Alexandrias tables. They eventually
replaced those of Victor of Aquitaine (see 457) in the West. This
occurred at Rome in the 630s. Dionysios, an eastern monk,
Scythian by birth, had come to Rome at the behest of bishop
Gelasius (492-96), and had been employed translating Greek
documents for the papal archive. He also invented the Anno
Domini systemfor counting the years. According to modern
scholarship, his system is in error the birth of Jesus being fixed
variously from 2 to 8 B.C. (See year 731.)
525 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, ordered John I (523-26),
bishop of Rome, to travel to Constantinople as his ambassador,
with orders to convince Justin to retract his 523 edict against
Arianism. John was the first bishop of Rome to visit
Constantinople. When he arrived on 19 April, the emperor Justin
greeted the pope at the twelfth milestone and prostrated himself
before him. Justin agreed to stop persecuting the Arians, and he
returned their churches. But he would not allow the Arians whom
he had converted by force to return to Arianism.
526 When John I came to Ravenna after his unsuccessful mission to
Constantinople, Theodoric imprisoned him, where he died,
probably of starvation.
526 Death of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths.
526 Ephrem of Amida (526-44) became patriarch of Antioch.
Ephrems Christology was similar to that of Leontius of Jerusalem
(see 532 below), and influenced both Justinian and the Fifth
Ecumenical Council. He observed the fact that the Trisagion
(Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us) was
viewed by the Monophysites as a hymn to the Lord Jesus Christ,
while Chalcedonians saw it in reference to the Holy Trinity.
Hence, Peter the Fullers addition (see 476 above) was logical to the
Monophysites and problematic to Chalcedonians.
526 An earthquake struck Antioch in Syria causing widespread
damage.
527 Justinian (527-565) Roman emperor. In one of his edicts,
Justinian referred to the patriarch of Constantinople as the head
of all other churches.
Apparently, the title patriarch began to be used of the bishops
of the larger cities during Justinian's reign - though these bishops
had enjoyed a certain influence over broad areas surrounding their
cities since before the council of Nicaea.
527-32 War between the Persian and Roman empires.
528 The emperor Justinian (527-65) commanded all pagans to
receive baptism within 3 months.
528 Symeon the Younger (521-92) left Antioch at age 7 to live in the
mountains near the city. It was popularly believed that Symeons
sanctity restored paradise to earth, at least to the extent that he,
like Adam, had mastery over the animal kingdom: Symeon was
said to have played safely with mountain lions.
529 Benedict of Nursia founded the monastery at Monte
Cassino in Central Italy. The Lombards destroyed it in 580.
529 The emperor Justinian (527-65) closed the university of
Athens, replacing it with a Christian university. Since all
knowledge was Christian, persons diseased with the insanity of
the unholy Helenes [quoted from Justinians Code] could not
teach it. Damascius, the last Scholarch, travelled to Persia with six
other Neo-Platonic philosophers. They returned to Athens in 533.
The closing of the university signals the end of pagan Neo-Platonic
philosophy. (Justinian's decree had forbidden city council funds to
be used to hire pagans in education.)
529 Council of Orange (Auriculum). Taught that (a) as a result of
Adams transgression both death and sin have passed to all his
descendants; (b) mans free will is so weakened that he cannot
believe in or love God without the assistance of grace; (c) the Old
Testament saints owed their merits to grace, not any natural good;
(d) the grace of baptism enables all Christians to accomplish all
thats needed for salvation; (e) predestination to evil is to be
anathematized; and (f) in every good action the first impulse
comes from God, and it is this impulse that causes us to seek
baptism and, with Gods help, fulfill our duties.
529 Note on the Glory Be. St. John Cassian had mentioned in
his Institutes (Book II), on the subject of nocturnal prayers, that the
custom in Gaul was to repeat the Glory Be at the end of each
Psalm. In the East, it was sung once, at the end of all of the
Psalms. The Greek form of this doxology translates as, Glory to
the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit, now and ever and
unto ages of ages, amen. In this year, the words as it was in the
beginning, is were added just before now by the Council of
Vaison, after the example of the apostolic see.
529 Five thousand people killed due to an earthquake at Antioch in
Syria. The emperor Justinian (527-65) bankrolled the citys
reconstruction.
529 A revolt broke out in Samaria in the summer of this year,
provoked by the destruction of some Samaritan synagogues as
part of Justinians program of repression. The Samaritans, under a
certain Julian, massacred Christians, then attempted
(unsuccessfully) to convince the Persians to invade Palestine.
530 Seven thousand people killed due to an earthquake in
Laodicea. Again the emperor provided funds for reconstruction
from the treasury.
530 The emperor Justinian (527-65) conducted a persecution of
pagans in Constantinople. The property of many of the accused
was confiscated.
During his reign, Justinian also persecuted the Montanists (see
157), greatly reducing their numbers. Their final persecution
occurred in 722.
531 St. Sabbas, the founder of the Laura of Mar-Sabbas, arrived in
Constantinople in April and asked the emperor to intervene
against the current abbot, Nonnus, and his followers, who were
promoting Origenism. Justinian acted in 542 (see below - some
authorities say this was in 543).
St. Sabbas died the following year (532). He had become a monk in
Cappadocia, travelling on pilgrimage to Palestine in 457. In
around 483, he began a monastic community in the Kidron gorge,
northwest of the Dead sea. Altogether, he established 14
monasteries and four hospices in southern Palestine. St. Sabbas
was also an opponent of Monophysite Christology.
531 Abbot Nonnus (see 531 immediately above) principal
lieutenant, Leontius of Byzantium, traveled from the Mar-Sabbas
monastery near Jerusalem, where he had lived since ~520, to
Constantinople, to participate in a synod considering the
Christological dispute. Leontius most famous work, Three Books
Against the Nestorians and the Eutychians, was likely written
between this year and 542, when Justinian condemned Origenism.
For Leontius - as typical with Origenists - Christ was the intellect
that had not fallen before the beginning of creation, the one who
remained in an essential union with the Logos. In his view, the
passion took place in the flesh of Christ after his soul had freely
chosen to take on human nature in order to restore it. He used the
term ousia to refer to simple existence, not the what, not the
how. Thus one according to ousia meant unity of existence,
which is how Leontius understood the union of the divine and
human in Christ. Leontius identified the hypostasis with the
individual - an individual separate from others of the same nature,
but perhaps uniting distinct natures (such as the body and soul in
a human) in a common being. Leontius key contribution to
Christology is the concept of enhypostaton, a thing
existingwithin a hypostasis. Both Nestorians and Eutychians had
assumed that no nature could exist except in a hypostasis that
shared that nature - one hypostasis meant one nature; two natures
meant at least two hypostases. For Leontius, the subject of the
union among the Logos, the unfallen soul, and the fallen human
nature, was the single hypostasis, the incarnate Christ.
531 In the summer of this year, the empress Theodora convinced
Justinian (527-65) to end the persecution of the Monophysites.
Groups of monks were recalled from exile.
532 The Nika Revolt. The original Church of Holy Wisdom
(Hagia Sophia) was burned down by the rioters, along with the
Chalke (the bronze-doored building through which one entered
the Imperial Palace), the Senate House, the Church of Holy Peace,
the Church of Saint Theodore Sphoracius, the Church of Saint
Aquilina, the hospitals of Eubulus and Sampson, and the Baths of
Alexander. The revolt was suppressed when Goth and German
soldiers under Belisarius and Mundus slaughtered 3500 to 4000
rioters in the Hippodrome.
532 Construction began on Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The
project took five years [532-537] to complete, and on December 27,
537, Patriarch Menas consecrated the magnificent church.
532 Leontius of Jerusalem, long misidentified with Leontius of
Byzantium (see 531), wrote on Christology between this year and
536. He completed the thought of Chalcedon by stating that the
same hypostasis, the Word, who unified the two natures in Christ
also suffered - hypostatically, in his human nature. The Logos is
said to have suffered according to the hypostasis, for within
hishypostasis he assumed a passible essence besides his own
impassible essence, and what can be asserted of the essence can be
asserted of the hypostasis.
532 Collatio cum Severianis. Early in his reign (and again, later)
Justinian violently persecuted the Monophysites. But in around
531, he adopted a policy of tolerance. The empress Theodora
arranged a conference, over which Justinian presided, inviting
sixChalcedonian and six Monophysite representatives. The
Monophysites quoted many fathers and Dionysius the
Areopagite, all of whom assert that there is one nature of God the
Logos after the union in support of their position. This is the
earliest known reference to the works of the Pseudo-Dionysius.
Hypatius, bishop of Ephesus, pointed out that these works could
not be genuine. Severus himself had been invited, but declined to
attend. Between 531 and 536, many famous Monophysites visited
Constantinople and were well-received by the royal family.
533 The emperor Justinians general Belisarius defeated the
Vandals in North Africa at Tricameron. The Vandal kingdom was
destroyed.
533 The emperor Justinian (527-65) issued an edict declaring that
one of the Trinity suffered in the flesh. He sought confirmation of
this view from John II, patriarch of Rome (533-35).
534 At Justinians request, John II, patriarch of Rome, condemned
the Sleepless Monks (see 448-84) as Nestorians for their opposition
to Justinians theopaschite formula of 533.
534 The exiled patriarch of Antioch, Severus (see 518), visited
Constantinople at the invitation of the emperor and empress.
535 In June, the patriarch of Constantinople, Epiphanius, died.
The empress Theodora, a staunch Monophysite, maneuvered to
have Anthimus (Anthem of Trebizond) appointed patriarch.
Anthimus, a closet Monophysite, was deposed at a council in 536.
535 On 14 November, at the insistence of the empress Theodora, an
edict was issued that banished pimps and keepers of brothels from
all major cities of the empire.
535 A large volcanic eruption caused temperatures to remain
colder than normal through 550. 535-536 was one unceasing
winter. The volcano responsible for this temporary change in
climate may have been Krakatau.
A drought began in Mongolia. Defeated by the Turks, the Avars
began their trek toward Europe in 552, arriving around 560. Their
migration resulted in the movement of more people into what
remained of the Empire. There is some speculation that the Avar
humiliation at the hands of the Turks was due to the drought,
brought on by the volcanic eruption 535: the Avar economy was
based on horses, which have less efficient digestive systems and
are more susceptible to changesin climate than cattle, raised by the
Turks.
536 The Roman empire recaptured southern Italy and Sicily,
including Rome. The exarchate of Ravenna was established in 568.
536 The church historian Evagrius born (536-600). In his Church
History, he attested to the practice of communion among the very
young: when there remained a good quantity of the holy
portions of the undefiled body of Christ our God, for uncorrupted
boys from among those who attended the school of the
undermaster to be sent for to consume them.
536 On 19 February, the bishop of Rome, Agapetus I (535-
36) visited Constantinople as an ambassador from Theodahad, the
Gothic king of Italy, to avert an impending war between the
Empire and the Goths over the murder of a lady named
Amalasuntha. She had been the only daughter of Theodoric, and
an ally of the emperor Justinian. (Theodahad also wanted
Agapetus to convince Justinian to stop forcibly converting the
Arians of North Africa to Orthodoxy, and to dissuade him from
invading Italy.) Agapetus refused to recognize Anthimus as
patriarch, given the latters support for Monophysitism.
Justinians hands were tied, since he desired the support of the
Roman populace in the upcoming war with the Goths. In March,
Anthimus was deposed. On 21 April, Agapetus died as he
prepared to return to Italy, and the Monophysites in the city
celebrated openly.
Synod endemousa under Patriarch Menas. The new patriarch of
Constantinople, Menas, held a council, which convened on May 2,
to confirm the deposition of Anthimus and to try the leading
Monophysites in the city - Zooras, Peter of Apamena, and Severus.
Anthimus himself couldnt be located. Theodora had hidden him
in the gynaeceum of the Imperial Palace, where none but women
and eunuchs were allowed. He was discovered there after
Theodoras death in 548, and Justinian treated him graciously.
Peter of Apamena and Zooras were anathematized, as was
Severus, on 6 August. He fled to Egypt again in exile. (Synods
had been meeting in Constantinople since before the council of
Chalcedon in 451. They began not as regular but occasional
gatherings, as the emperor would summon the bishops sojourning
(endemousa) in the city. Hence the name Synod endemousa.)
The persecution of Monophysites in Syria resumed, and it began in
Egypt, where Theodoras appointee, Theodosius, patriarch of
Alexandria, was deposed in favor of a monk named Paul, who
brutalized the Monophysites there. Paul set out to remove
heretical bishops from his patriarchate. He was opposed by the
deacon Psoes, whom Rhodon, the Augustal Prefect, had arrested
and tortured. When Psoes died from this treatment, the empress
Theodora initiated an investigation (see 542).
After the death of Pope Agapetus, the empress Theodora
determined to make Vigilius, the papal nuncio in Constantinople,
the next bishop of Rome. She provided him with 200 pounds of
gold and letters to Belisarius and his wife Antonina. Theodora
intended for Vigilius to restore Anthimus and perhaps to
denounce Chalcedon. Unfortunately for her plans, King
Theodahad of the Goths had already forced the election of
Silverius (536-37) to the papacy..
Two Palestinian Origenists, Theodore Ascidas and Domitian,
attended the synod of 536. Domitian was later appointed bishop
of Ancyra. Theodore Ascidas became bishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia and came to exert so much influence over Justinian
that Patriarch Menas and the papal representative, Pelagius,
sought to break it.
537 Belisarius deposed Silverius, bishop of Rome. A document
had been forged to prove that Silverius had conspired with the
Goths. Silverius was given the opportunity to restore Anthimus as
patriarch of Constantinople. When he refused, he was exiled to
Patara in Lycia, and Vigilius became bishop of Rome (March 29,
537).
539 The Goths razed Milan, reportedly killing 300,000 adult males
and giving the women to their Burgundian allies as slaves.
540 Belisarius conquered Ravenna.
540 Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus (490-585) founded a
monastery at Vivarium (in Calabria (southeastern Italy)). He had
his monks copy manuscripts of both Christian and pagan authors.
In 519, Cassiodorus had published his Chronicon, a history of the
world from Adam to 519. His De Anima provides an overview of
scripture and the Church fathers, then describes the seven liberal
arts. This was widely read during the Middle Ages.
540-45 War between the Persian and Roman empires. Much of the
emperor Justinians religious policy directed to reconciling the
Monophysites of Syria, whose support was desired in the conflict
with Persia. He generally ignored the Monophysites of Egypt.
540 The Kutrigurs (a Bulgar tribe) captured thirty-two Roman
fortresses in Illyricum and raided as far as Constantinople.
542 A Monophysite Syrian monk named John (John of Ephesus),
after gaining the favor of the empress Theodora, became bishop of
Ephesus. John wrote an ecclesiastical history in three
volumes (~585), a work on the lives of the Eastern saints, and was
responsible for the baptism of over 70,000 pagans in Asia Minor.
He and his followers built 98 churches and twelve monasteries in
Asia, Caria, Lydia and Phrygia.
542 The patriarch of Antioch, Ephraim, held a synod that
condemned Origens doctrines. The Origenists, in reply,
convinced the patriarch of Jerusalem to strike Ephraims name
from the diptychs. Menas, patriarch of Constantinople, and
Pelagius, the papal representative, convinced Justinian to act,
resulting in Justinians condemnation.
542 The emperor Justinian (527-65) published a condemnation of
Origenism and the mystical speculations of Evagrius (see above,
year 375). This to quell the controversy in Palestine surrounding
the teachings of the Orgenist New Laura community (see 531
above, St. Sabbas), which had become a dispute between the
patriarchates of Antioch and Jerusalem.
Justinians anathemas against Origen: (1) Whoever says or
thinks that human souls pre-existed, i.e., that they had previously
been spirits and holy powers, but that, satiated with the vision of
God, they had turned to evil, and in this way the divine love in
them had died out and they had therefore become souls and had
been condemned to punishment in bodies, shall be anathema; (2) If
anyone says or thinks that the soul of the Lord pre-existed and was
united with God the Word before the Incarnation and Conception
of the Virgin, let him be anathema; (3) If anyone says or thinks that
the body of our Lord Jesus Christ was first formed in the womb of
the holy Virgin and that afterwards there was united with it God
the Word and the pre-existing soul, let him be anathema; (4) If
anyone says or thinks that the Word of God has become like to all
heavenly orders, so that for the cherubim he was a cherub, for the
seraphim a seraph: in short, like all the superior powers, let him be
anathema; (5) If anyone says or thinks that, at the resurrection,
human bodies will rise spherical in form and unlike our present
form, let him be anathema; (6) If anyone says that the heaven, the
sun, the moon, the stars, and the waters that are above heavens,
have souls, and are reasonable beings, let him be anathema; (6) If
anyone says or thinks that Christ the Lord in a future time will be
crucified for demons as he was for men, let him be anathema; (8) If
anyone says or thinks that the power of God is limited, and that he
created as much as he was able to compass, let him be anathema;
(9) If anyone says or thinks that the punishment of demons and of
impious men is only temporary, and will one day have an end, and
that a restoration will take place of demons and of impious men,
let him be anathema.
Anathema to Origen and to that Adamantius, who set forth these
opinions together with his nefarious and execrable and wicked
doctrine and to whomsoever there is who thinks thus, or defends
these opinions, or in any way hereafter at any time shall presume
to protect them.
The patriarch of Jerusalem, who had previously struck Ephraims
name from the diptychs, signed Justinians condemnation of
Origenism.
542 In the summer, the plague appeared in Pelusium, a port on the
Mediterranean that received Indian Ocean and African trade
coming up the Red Sea.
542 (541?) The bubonic plague hit Constantinople. Several tens of
thousands died. Apparently, cooler temperatures due to the
volcanic eruption in 535 allowed the plague to become active in
fleas in Africa. These were carried north with the ivory trade. It
has been estimated that the population of Europe dropped by 50 to
60 percent from 542 to 700 due to successive waves of bubonic
plague. Cities on the Mediterranean coast were hit more severely
than the hinterland. This fact favored the Monophysites in Syria,
whose strength there lay in the villages.
542 A trial was held in Gaza over the Psoes affair (see 536). The
papal representative, Pelagius, presided. Paul, patriarch of
Alexandria, was deposed, and the prefect Rhodon was beheaded,
though he produced 13 letters from the emperor authorizing his
actions.
542 The emperor Justinian (527-65) decreed that the festival of
Hypapante (also known as the Purification of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, the Presentation of the Lord, the Presentation of Christ in
the Temple, and Candlemas) be moved from 14 February (40 days
after Epiphany, on which feast Christs birthday had formerly been
celebrated) to 2 February (40 days after 25 December). See 385,
687.
542/43 Jacob Baradaeus (~490-578) ordained bishop of Syria, with
the support of the empress Theodora. After persecution of the
Monophysites resumed in 536, she received from Sheik Harith ibn
Jabala, king of a small buffer state , who informed her that the
Christians in his realm, mostly Monophysites, were being
destroyed by the imperial commissioners. They were in need of a
bishop to ordain men who had died at the hands of their
oppressors. Theodora chose Jacob because of his ability to disguise
himself as a beggar - the name Baradaeus means rags or
tatters.
Baradaeus was instrumental in organizing those who repudiated
the council of Chalcedon. Hence, they came to be termed
Jacobites. These Monophysites had set up their own rival
patriarch of Antioch. They called the Chalcedonian Orthodox
Melchites, meaning Emperors Men. He is said to have
wandered Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia on foot, ordaining
80,000 priests, 89 bishops, 27 metropolitans, and two patriarchs.
544 Prompted by a suggestion by Theodore Ascidas, the emperor
Justinian (527-65) promulgated the Edict of Three Chapters. (The
Three Chapters later came to refer to the works condemned, not
to this edict.) This edict condemned the Letter of lbas of Edessa to
Maris, praising Theodore of Mopsuestia; the works of Theodore
himself; and the writings of Theodoret of Cyrrhus against Cyril.
To make it plain that Chalcedon was inconsistent with
Nestorianism, it also asserted that the Chalcedonian definition
should be interpreted in this light. Theodoret and Ibas had been
restored to their sees by the council of Chalcedon, so, unlike
Theodore, they were not personally condemned. The theological
effect was to emphasize the unity of Christs nature(s).
544 The emperor Justinian (527-65) sent Belisarius to Italy to fight
the Ostrogoths under Totila. Totila had managed to conquer much
of the land taken by Belisarius prior to 540. But Rome still resisted
the Ostrogoths.
545 Slavic tribes raided Thrace, but were turned back by Narses.
545 The emperor Justinian (527-65) suppressed the Manichaeans.
He attempted to convert those who had been arrested, but they
remained firm in their beliefs. They were then tortured and killed;
their bodies were buried at sea, and their property confiscated.
545 John Scholasticus (~503-77) compiled a collection of canon law
(the Collection of Canons) for the Church in the east. His
compilation is the earliest that has been preserved. John served as
patriarchal legate from Antioch in Constantinople until 565, when
he was named patriarch of Constantinople by Justin II.
545 In November, Pope Vigilius (537-55) was arrested during the
St. Cecelias Day ceremonies. He was taken to Constantinople,
where the emperor Justinian (527-65) pressured him to condemn
the Three Chapters.
546 Totila sacked Rome after a siege of three months. Belisarius
retook Rome after Totila left to do battle in Lucania.
547 After the death of Abbot Nonnus in this year, the Origenists
were split into two camps: the Isochristoi of New Laura, who held
that in the restoration man will be united with God as Christ is;
and the Protoktistai or Tetradites of the Laura of Firminus, about
whom little is known.
547 Cosmas Indicopleustes had finished his Christian
Topography by this year. A merchant and wide traveler, Cosmas
was likely a Nestorian. Taking the Old Testament temple as a
model for the universe, Cosmas Topography presented a planar
earth much larger than the sun, which circled a conical mountain
to the north. This cosmology is said to be in agreement with and
subordinate to Nestorian philosophy. A debate raged in
Alexandria over Cosmas work, and he was refuted by John the
Grammarian (see 514-18) and his views had very little influence.
548 Slavs again raided the Balkans, penetrating to Dyrrachium (on
the Adriatic coast of Albania).
548 In April, Vigilius, patriarch of Rome (537-55), who had been
brought to Constantinople the previous year, signed a
condemnation (known as a Judicatum) of Theodore personally as a
heretic and the Three Chapters - thus agreeing with Justinians
edict of 546. In 551 Vigilius withdrew this condemnation. For his
condemnation of Theodore and the Three Chapters, Vigilius
himself was condemned by the bishops of Milan, Ravenna, and
Aquileja.
Beginning of the Istrian Schism (548-698). The metropolitan of
Aquileja in Istria took advantage of the schism with Rome to
stretch his control over Grado. Istria remained out of communion
with Rome until the council of Pavia in 698. The schism with
Milan lasted 50 years.
548 Death of the empress Theodora.
549 Samaritans and Jews staged a bloody revolt at Caesarea. They
murdered Stephanus, proconsul of Palestine. Their leaders were
subsequently executed. The Samaritans, who had recently been
reported to have adopted Christianity, openly resumed their
traditional worship.
549 John of Ephesus (see 542) denounced a group of senators,
grammarians, sophists, lawyers and physicians. They were
accused of paganism, tortured, whipped, and imprisoned.
549 Seventy-one bishops met at Orleans. They reaffirmed the
bishop of Romes earlier condemnation of Eutyches and Nestorios.
549 Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, again captured Rome. By the
end of 550, Totilas forces had captured all of Sicily and Italy,
except Ravenna and a few towns along the coast.
550 An African council excommunicated Vigilius, bishop of
Rome, for his pronouncement in 548 agreeing with Justinians
Edict of Three Chapters (546).
550 Bodies were buried in the north of France with an east-west
alignment from about this date.
550 Around this time, the tonsure came to be associated with
monasticism.
551 Under pressure from the churches of the West, Vigilius,
bishop of Rome (537-55). withdrew his condemnation of the
Three Chapters. The emperor Justinian responded with a lengthy
condemnation of those documents. Vigilius called a synod of the
bishops present in Constantinople and excommunicated Patriarch
Menas of Constantinople. Imperial troops sought to arrest Vigilius
as he clung to the altar columns in the palace church of Sts. Peter
and Paul, but a crowd prevented them from doing so. Vigilius fled
by night across the Bosphorous to Chalcedon.
551 The Kutrigurs rampaged through the Balkans.
552 Silk worms introduced from China.
552 The emperor Justinian (527-65) gave command of the Italian
campaign to his chamberlain, the eunuch Narses. Narses army
marched around the Adriatic into Italy. In the summer,
he destroyed the Ostrogoth kingdom in the battle of Taginae (near
Fabriano, in the Apennines). The Goths charged the Byzantines
pikemen, while Byzantine archers attacked from the flanks. Totila,
king of the Ostrogoths, was mortally wounded. The long battle for
Italy left the countryside barren and depopulated. Thepopulation
of Rome, estimated to have been 800,000 in 400, fell to 100,000 in
500, and only 30,000 when Totila sacked it in 549. (See 450, 500.)
With Narses victory over the Goths, Justinian had less concern
over Western sensibilities and so was free to act more decisively to
reconcile the Monophysites.
553 Fifth Ecumenical Council held at Constantinople. Eutychius,
patriarch of Constantinople, presided. 164 bishops attended,
including 14 from Africa. The emperor Justinian (527-65), with
Vigilius, bishop of Rome, still captive, succeeded in having the
council condemn Origen and the Three Chapters. In
his Constitution of 24 May, Vigilius withheld assent to the councils
decision regarding the Three Chapters; but on 23 February, he
revoked his Constitution and gave his assent. His nuncio, Pelagius
I (later Pope) deserted him. Vigilius died from gallstones on his
way back to Rome.
From Session VII of the Acts of the Council, addressed to Vigilius:
If your blessedness is willing to meet together with us and the
most holy Patriarchs, and the most religious bishops, and to treat
of the Three Chapters and to give, in unison with us all, a suitable
form of the Orthodox faith, as the Holy Apostles and the holy
Fathers and the four Councils have done, we will hold thee as our
head and primate... if you have condemned them [the Three
Chapters], in accordance with those things which you did before,
we have already many such statements and need no more; but if
you have written now something contrary to these things which
were done by you before, you have condemned yourself by your
own writing, since you have departed from Orthodox doctrine and
have defended impiety. And how can you expect us to receive
such a document from you?
According to Norwich, Justinian sent a decree to the council that
Vigiliuss name should be struck from the diptychs, though he was
careful to stress that he was not severing communion with Rome
itself.
To reinterpret Chalcedon in a way pleasing to the Alexandrians,
the council gave approval to the hypostatic union (Cyrils natural
union?). It also endorsed (in the Tenth Anathema) the
controversial liturgical formula, that our Lord Jesus Christ who
was crucified in the flesh is True God.
The Third Anathema (clarifying that the hypostasis of the Logos is
He Who Suffered - affirming theopaschism):
If anyone shall say that the wonder-working Word of God is one
[Person] and the Christ that suffered another; or shall say that God
the Word was with the woman-born Christ, or was in him as one
person in another, but that he was not one and the same our Lord
Jesus Christ, the Word of God, incarnate and made man, and that
his miracles and the sufferings which of his own will he endured
in the flesh were not of the same [Person]: let him be anathema.
From the Fourth Anathema:
As the word union has many meanings, the followers of the
impiety of Apollinarius and Eutyches, assuming the disappearance
of the natures, affirm a union by confusion. On the other hand the
followers of Theodore and of Nestorius, rejoicing in the division of
the natures, introduce only a union of relation. But the holy
Church of God, rejecting equally the impiety of both heresies,
recognizes the union of God the Word with the flesh according to
synthesis, that is, according to hypostasis. For in the mystery of
Christ the union according to synthesis preserves the two natures
which have combined without confusion and without separation.
The Fifth Anathema (clarifying Chalcedons use of the expression
one hypothesis, and repudiating the Nestorian sense):
If anyone understands the expression only one Person of our
Lord Jesus Christ in this sense, that it is the union of many
hypostases, and if he thus attempts to introduce into the mystery
of Christ two hypostases, or two Persons, and, after having
introduced two persons, speaks of one Person only out of dignity,
honor, or worship, as both Theodosius and Nestorius insanely
have written; if anyone shall calumniate the holy Council of
Chalcedon, pretending that it made use of this expression
[onehypostasis] in this impious sense, and if he will not recognize
rather that the Word of God is united to the flesh hypostatically,
and that therefore there is only one hypostasis or only one Person,
and that the holy Council of Chalcedon has professed in this sense
the one Person of our Lord Jesus Christ: let him be anathema. For
since one of the Holy Trinity has been made man, viz.: God the
Word, the Holy Trinity has not been increased by the addition of
another person or hypostasis.
From the Sixth Anathema:
... if anyone shall call her [the virgin Mary] manbearer or
Christbearer, as if Christ were not God, and shall not confess she is
truly Godbearer [Theotokos]... let him be anathema.
From the Seventh Anathema:
If anyone using the expression in two natures ... shall take the
expression ... so as to divide the parties, or recognizing the two
natures in the only Lord Jesus, God the Word made man, does not
content himself with taking in a theoretical manner the difference
of the natures which compose him (which differences are not
destroyed by the union between them, for one is composed of the
two and the two are in one), but shall make use of the number
[two] to divide the natures or to make of them two Persons
properly so called: let him be anathema.
From the Eighth Anathema:
If anyone confesses that the union took place out of two natures
and speaks of the one incarnate nature of God the Word and does
not understand ... that out of the divine and human natures, when
union by hypostasis took place, one Christ was formed; but from
these expressions tries to introduce one nature or essence of the
Godhead and manhood of Christ; let him be anathema.
The Twelfth Anathema explicitly condemns two interpretations of
scripture. The first condemned interpretation is that Christ, when
he said Receive the Holy Spirit, merely made a sign and did not
actually give the Holy Spirit. The second is that Thomas was
affirming Christs deity when he said, My Lord and my God, but
that he was simply making an exclamation, expressing his wonder
at the resurrection.
Unfortunately for Justinian, and the subsequent history of the
Roman Empire, the Monophysites were not appeased.
Origen was condemned at the Fifth Ecumenical Council, and many
of his doctrines were explicitly listed as cause for anathema: (1)
the pre-existence of souls; (2) that created beings were originally
only rational souls, who later took bodies to themselves because
they tired of the sight of God; (3) that celestial bodies are rational
beings become material through love of evil; (4) that men are such
rational souls in whom the love of God had grown cold, and so
taken bodies, and that demons are like men in this, but more evil;
(5) that humans may become angels or demons; (6) that demons
are either fallen angels or fallen human souls, and that the world
was created not by the Trinity but by a spirit who became Christ
through unfailing devotion to God; (7) that this Christ clothed
himself with the form of all classes of fallen rational beings,
including man, to restore them; (8) that Christ is an intelligence
(nous) united to God the Word, and only called God because he is
united with the Logos, and the Logos is only called Christ because
he is united with the intelligence; (9) that the intelligence was
incarnate, descended into hell and ascended into heaven, and not
the Logos; (10) that Christs resurrection body was ethereal and
shaped like a sphere, and the bodies of all those resurrected will be
as well; (11) that at the future judgment all matter will be
destroyed, leaving only spirit; (12) that all rational beings are
united with God in the same was as the intelligence is, and that the
kingdom of Christ shall have an end; (13) that the Christ is not
different from other rational beings and that all will be placed at
Gods right hand as they were in their pre-existence; (14) that
hypostases and numbers and bodies will disappear and all things
will be united into one; and (15) that, all things will be spirit, and
the life of the spirits in the end will be as in the beginning. [This is
a point of some uncertainty: the fifteen condemnations of Origen
may actually be the product of a local synod held in
Constantinople in 544.]
553 The Franks sent an embassy to Constantinople. This embassy
included Angles in order to impress the emperor with the Frankish
kings influence over Britain. This from the Greek historian
Procopios.
554 Eighteen bishops of the Nestorian church in Persia under
Patriarch Joseph reaffirmed Duophysitism against the Fifth
Ecumenical Councils denunciation of the Three Chapters. Thirty
years later, the Nestorians condemned Justinian as a heretic.
554 A Roman (Byzantine) army landed in Spain and, after fighting
a war against the Visigoths, occupied the southeast corner of the
peninsula.
555? Death of St. Romanos. He had been a deacon in the Church
of the Resurrection in Berytus (Beirut). During the reign of the
emperor Anastasius I (491-518), he moved to Constantinople.
Romanos had a harsh and rasping voice. During a religious retreat
on Christmas Eve, he was given a vision of the Virgin Mary, who
held a scroll, which she told him to eat. Romanos did so, and was
immediately blessed with a wonderful singing voice. He later
composed hymns which were essentially sermons put to music.
Romanos has been termed the greatest ecclesiastical poet of all
ages.
556 Pelagius I became patriarch of Rome. He served through 561.
Pelagius was strongly opposed to the condemnation of the Three
Chapters, but Justinian appointed him patriarch anyway, judging,
rightly, that he would change his mind. Pelagius supported the
decisions of the Constantinople (553).
From the time of Pelagius until 741, the name of the person elected
bishop of Rome was sent to the emperor in Constantinople or to
his exarch in Ravenna for confirmation. The church in Rome
accompanied this name with a large payment, effectively tribute.
557 The Alans relayed to Roman officials in Lazica (the east end of
the Black Sea) an offer of alliance from the Avars, a
Turkic/Mongolian tribe that had moved west into the region north
of the Caucasus, fleeing Turkish enemies in Central Asia.
558-61 A second outbreak of plague in the Roman Empire.
559 Pagans in Constantinople were ridiculed - marched in a mock
procession. Their books were burned.
559 The Kutrigurs crossed the frozen Danube and attacked
Macedonia, Thessaly, Gallipoli and Constantinople. They were
defeated by Belisarius forces and returned to their homeland, near
the Don. The emperor Justinian (527-65) induced the Utigurs, a
rival Bulgar tribe living east of the Don, to attack the Kutrigurs as
they retreated. Both tribes were greatly weakened by the war that
resulted.
560+ The Suevis renounced Arianism and became Orthodox. The
Suevis lived in the northwestern Iberian peninsula.
561 Julius, bishop of Rome (337-352), had founded a certain church
in Rome. In this year, that church was dedicated to St. Philip and
St. James. The dedication ceremony is the origin for the feast day
for those saints - May 1.
561 The Avars (having absorbed the Kutrigurs and Utigurs) moved
to a position north of the lower Danube.
561 Radegund (520-87), the estranged wife of King Chlothar of
Neustria (northwestern Gaul), moved to Poitiers and founded a
convent there. It was known as the convent of the Holy Cross
because the Roman (Byzantine) emperor Justinian (527-65) sent her
a relic of the True Cross. Radegund kept the relic in an chapel
deep within the convent.
563 The Irish monk Columba (520-97) founded a monastery on
Iona. Columba had been educated and ordained to the diaconate
by St. Finnian of Clonard. Before traveling to Iona, Columba had
founded monasteries at Derry, Durrow and, possibly, Kells.
563 A council meeting in Braga decreed against the Priscillianists
(see 380) that Satan was not an uncreated being. It also attacked
the notion that he is the principle and substance of evil. Instead,
the council asserted, he was originally a good angel created by
God.
565 Death of the emperor Justinian (527-65).
565 John Scholasticus named patriarch of Constantinople by the
emperor Justin II (565-78). John first negotiated with the
Monophysites, then acted in accordance with the emperor Justin
IIs desire to repress them.
565 The emperor Justin II (565-78) refused to pay tribute to the
Avars.
565 The emperor Justin II (565-78), at some point during his
reign, decreed that the birth of the Savior should be celebrated on
25 December throughout the empire. It is thought that, at this
time, the church in Jerusalem finally adopted 25 December as
Christmas Day.
567 Allied with the Lombards (who were then living in Pannonia,
west of the Tisza) the Avars defeated the Gepids and conquered
their territory in eastern Pannonia and Dacia.
568 The Lombards took control of northern Italy. The Lombard
movement into Italy was a result of the Avar migration of the
550s. Gregory I, bishop of Rome (590-604) would write of the
Lombards that their flag of truce is the sword and their good
will gestures take the form of atrocities.
The Avars invaded Dalmatia. The emperor Justin II (565-78)
bought peace for 80,000 pieces of silver.
568 The exarchate of Ravenna established. It continued until the
Lombard conquest of 751.
569 In September, the Lombards conquered Milan.
572 The Lombards conquered south-central Italy, creating the
duchies of Spolento and Benevento. The Byzantines retained
control of a corridor between Ravenna and Rome, splitting the
northern Lombard kingdom from its southern duchies.
572 The Monophysite bishop John of Ephesus (507-586) was
imprisoned by the emperor Justin II (565-78). See 542 above.
573 The Persians invaded the Roman Empire, seizing the city of
Dara on the Tigris. Among the 292,000 captives taken were
included 2000 beautiful Christian virgins the Persian emperor,
Chosroes, intended to present to the Turkish Khan. (This is the
first mention of the Turks in the history of the West.) At a river,
the Christian virgins separated from their captors to bathe, then
drowned themselves rather than enter the Khan's harem.
573 Death of Emilian. He had been a hermit in the Spanish Rioja,
then priest in Berceo. Emilian is said to have rid the home of the
nobleman Honorius of an evil spirit who would soil dishes with
the bones and dung of animals. Emilian also cured the nobleman
Sicorius' slave girl of blindness and he exorcised several others of
evil spirits. Emilian's hermitage later grew into a famous
monastery - Saint Emilian of the cowl.
573 Gregory of Tours (Georgius Florentius) became bishop of
Tours (573-94). Gregory authored a History of the Franks.
577 The West Saxon Ceawlin won a battle at Deorham, cutting the
Britons in Wales off from the Britons to the South. There is
speculation that the Britons were driven back in this century due to
a significant population loss. The Celts of Britain remained in
commercial contact with the Roman empire after the withdrawal
of the legions in 409. Apparently, though these contacts, the
plague spread (see 542 above) to Britain.
578 Death of Jacob Baradaeus, Monophysite bishop of Syria (see
542/3).
579 A revolt by the city of Baalbek (between Damascus and
Tripoli) suppressed. Some who were tortured revealed that
several high-ranking officials were involved in pagan cults. The
governor of Edessa, Anatolios, was implicated. He was accused of
having commissioned a portrait ostensibly of Christ, but actually
of Apollo, so that he could surreptitiously worship the pagan god.
The governor in turn accused the patriarch of Antioch, Gregory,
and the patriarch of Alexandrias representative, Eulogios, of
human sacrifice. A recent earthquake at Daphne, near Antioch,
was thought to have been caused by this crime. The patriarch
Gregory traveled to Constantinople and lavished gifts on the
emperor (Maurice (582-602)) and the court. He was permitted to
return to his see. Anatolios, on the other hand, was condemned to
death.
579 When the Lombards besieged Rome in this year, Pope Pelagius
II (579-90) sent the deacon Gregory, who had been responsible for
administering relief work in Romes seventh district, to
Constantinople to request assistance. Gregory remained in
Constantinople as papal nuncio (apocrisiary) until 584, when he
was recalled to assist in ending the Istrian schism (see 548, 698). He
became pope in 590.
580-82 The third outbreak of plague in the Roman Empire.
580 Maximos the Confessor (580-662) born.
580 The Lombards under Duke Zotto destroyed the Benedictine
monastery of Monte Cassino (built in 529). The monks fled to
Rome.
580 At the Council of Berny, Gregory of Tours successfully
defended himself against the charge that he had spread malicious
gossip: that the queen of the Franks had committed adultery with
the bishop of Bordeaux.
580+ The exarch of Ravenna, Smaragdus, launched a raid on the
schismatic Istrians (see 548 above). He captured many of the
clergy and forced them to accept the decrees of the Fifth
Ecumenical council.
581 The emperor Tiberius II Constantine (578-582) established an
elite corp of 15,000 barbarians, which eventually developed into
the Varangian Guards.
581 The Slavs invaded the Balkans.
582 The Avars captured Sirmium by trickery. An inscription from
the ruins of Sirmium reads, Lord Jesus, help the city and smite the
Avars and watch over Romania and the writer. Amen.
582 John the Faster (died 595) became patriarch of
Constantinople. For his works of charity and his ascetic practice,
he is regarded as a saint.
582 Athens was sacked by Slavic invaders.
582 Death of Felix, bishop of Nantes. He was responsible for the
conversion to Christianity of the Saxons in the area north of the
Loire. These Saxons traded with their counterparts in southeastern
England.
584 The exarchate of Ravenna mentioned for the first time. Soon
after that year, the exarch of Ravenna, Smaragdus, launched a raid
on the schismatic Istrians (see 548 above). He captured many of
the clergy and forced them to accept the decrees of the Fifth
Ecumenical council.
584 Singidunum (modern Belgrade) captured by the Avars.
585 The Armenian bishop Kardutsat, with seven priests, went on a
missionary trip to the steppes north of the Caucasians. He
succeeded in baptizing many Huns and in translating books into
their language. Though Kardutsat was very likely a Monophysite,
the Roman emperor sent him supplies. Kardutsats successor, the
bishop Maku, taught the Huns the rudiments of agriculture.
586 The Slavs laid siege to Thessalonica.
587 The Slavs moved into Epirus, Thessaly, Attica, Euboea and the
Peloponnese.
587 The British archbishops of London and York fled to Wales.
587 (588?) A synod meeting in Constantinople ascribed the title
Ecumenical Patriarch to John IV (John the Faster, 582-95) of
Constantinople because it was the capital of the ecumenical
empire.
587-9 The Visigoths renounced the Arian heresy and became
Orthodox, as the Burgundians (see 516) and Suevis (see 560+) had
already done, and as the Lombards were to do (see 619 and 636
below). The Visigoth king Leovigild had repented of Arianism on
his deathbed in 586; his successor, King Recared, then received
instruction in the Orthodox Christian faith. Their conversions
were at least partially due to the efforts of Leander, bishop of
Seville.
Some see a political motive in the decision of the Visigoth kings to
convert. Under the emperor Justinian (527-65), the Roman
(Byzantine) empire had conquered land along the coast of
southern Spain (554). The presence of renewed Roman power in
the vicinity may have stirred a longing for political unity within
the (Orthodox) Christian empire among the subjected classes.
Thus, the conversions may have been designed to associate
Catholicism with the Visigothic kingdom, rather than the Roman
Empire centered in Constantinople, in the minds of Catholic clergy
and laymen. The bishop of Rome, regarded as a subject of the
Roman empire, played no role in the conversions.
588-91 The fourth outbreak of plague in the Roman empire. The
direction of movement this time was from Spain to France and
Italy, the reverse of its normal course.
589 The third Council of Toledo added the filioque clause to the
Creed of Constantinople (381). This addition gradually spread in
the West, and was finally incorporated into the liturgy at Rome,
probably in 1014 at the coronation of Henry II, with unhappy
consequences. This is the first mention in the West of the creed as
an element of the liturgy. See note on Peter the Fuller, 476.
This council also introduced the creed into the liturgy in the West,
placing it before the Lords prayer, where it remains in the
Mozarabic rite. The creed was not used in the mass at Rome until
the eleventh century.
589? John of Biclar, a Visigoth, founded a monastery at Biclar in
Spain. John was one of the last Westerners to have an
understanding of classical culture, having spent seven years in
Constantinople in the 560s and 570s following the classical
syllabus. John later became bishop of Gerona
589 The Tiber flooded this winter. Flooding was followed by
widespread sickness in Rome. Pope Pelagius was among the
victims.
~590 Columbanus (545-615) left the monastery in Bangor, Ireland,
and established monasteries in Gaul: Annegray, Luxeil, and Les
Fontaines, all near the Vosges mountains (in the northeast of
France). He later relocated across the Alps in Italy, founding a
monastery in Bobbio. Monasticism and missionary activity were
connected in this era. Columbanus wrote of his vow to make his
way to the heathen to preach the gospel to them.
590 Gregory the Great bishop of Rome (590-604). The population
of Rome may have been 90,000 by this time, up from the estimated
30,000 at the height of the war between Justinian and Totila.
Gregory chafed when John, patriarch of Constantinople, termed
himself the Ecumenical Patriarch: It is very difficult to hear
patiently that one who is our brother and fellow bishop should
alone be called bishop, while all others are despised. But in this
pride of his, what else is intimated but that the days of Antichrist
are already near? For he is imitating him who, despising the
company of angels, attempted to ascend to the pinnacle of
greatness. Gregory called himself the servant of the servants of
God.
In a letter to John of Constantinople, Gregory wrote, Certainly
Peter, the first of the apostles, himself a member of the holy and
universal Church, Paul, Andrew, John,-what were they but heads
of particular communities? And yet all were members under one
Head. And (to bind all together in a short girth of speech) the
saints before the law, the saints under the law, the saints under
grace, all these making up the Lord's Body, were constituted as
members of the Church, and not one of them has wished himself to
be called universal. Now let your Holiness acknowledge to what
extent you swell within yourself in desiring to be called by that
name by which no one presumed to be called who was truly
holy. (Book IV, Epistle XXVI)
In Gregorys day, baptism in Rome was by triple immersion:
Now we, in immersing thrice, signify the sacraments of the three
days' sepulture; so that, when the infant is a third time lifted out of
the water, the resurrection after a space of three days may be
expressed. Or, if any one should perhaps think that this is done out
of veneration for the supreme Trinity, neither so is there any
objection to immersing the person to be baptized in the water once,
since, there being one substance in three subsistences, it cannot be
in any way reprehensible to immerse the infant in baptism either
thrice or once, seeing that by three immersions the Trinity of
persons, and in one the singleness of the Divinity may be
denoted. (Book I, Epistle XLIII)
In a letter to Eulogius, the patriarch of Alexandria, Gregory
asserted the existence of three sees of St. Peter: Your most sweet
Holiness has spoken much in your letter to me about the chair of
Saint Peter, Prince of the apostles, saying that he himself now sits
on it in the persons of his successors. And indeed I acknowledge
myself to be unworthy, not only in the dignity of such as preside,
but even in the number of such as stand. But I gladly accepted all
that has been said, in that he has spoken to me about Peter's chair
who occupies Peter's chair. And, though special honour to myself
in no wise delights me, yet I greatly rejoiced because you, most
holy ones, have given to yourselves what you have bestowed upon
me. For who can be ignorant that holy Church has been made firm
in the solidity of the Prince of the apostles, who derived his name
from the firmness of his mind, so as to be called Petrus from petra.
And to him it is said by the voice of the Truth, To thee I will give
the keys of the kingdom of heaven (Matth. xvi. 19). And again it is
said to him, And when thou art converted, strengthen thy brethren
(xxii. 32). And once more, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou Me?
Feed my sheep (Joh. xxi. 17). Wherefore though there are many
apostles, yet with regard to the principality itself the See of the
Prince of the apostles alone has grown strong in authority, which
in three places is the See of one. For he himself exalted the See in
which he deigned even to rest and end the present life. He himself
adorned the See to which he sent his disciple as evangelist. He
himself stablished the See in which, though he was to leave it, he
sat for seven years. Since then it is the See of one, and one See, over
which by Divine authority three bishops now preside, whatever
good I hear of you, this I impute to myself. (Book VII, Epistle XL)
He also refers to Antioch as an Apostolic See (Book V, Epistle
XXIX).
In the another letter to Eulogius (Book VIII, Epistle XXX), in
reference to the patriarch of Constantinoples title, he added, in
the preface of the epistle which you have addressed to myself who
forbade it, you have thought fit to make use of a proud
appellation, calling me Universal Pope. But I beg your most sweet
Holiness to do this no more, since what is given to another beyond
what reason demands is subtracted from yourself. For as for me, I
do not seek to be prospered by words but by my conduct. Nor do I
regard that as an honour whereby I know that my brethren lose
their honour. For my honour is the honour of the universal
Church: my honour is the solid vigour of my brethren. Then am I
truly honoured when the honour due to all and each is not denied
them. For if your Holiness calls me Universal Pope, you deny that
you are yourself what you call me universally. But far be this from
us. Away with words that inflate vanity and wound charity.
Gregory was confused when he heard of Eudoxius the Heretic, of
whom no records were found in Rome. He also had never heard
of Eusebius Ecclesiastical History.
He seemed to view his role as ultimate corrector of errors: as to
his saying that he is subject to the Apostolic See, if any fault is
found in bishops, I know not what bishop is not subject to it. But
when no fault requires it to be otherwise, all according to the
principle of humility are equal. (Book IX, Epistle LIX)
But elsewhere, he seemed less liberal and moderate: Inasmuch as
it is manifest that the Apostolic See is, by the ordering of God, set
over all Churches (Book III, Epistle XXX); and For as to what
they say about the Church of Constantinople, who can doubt that
it is subject to the Apostolic See, as both the most pious lord the
emperor and our brother the bishop of that city continually
acknowledge? Yet, if this or any other Church has anything that is
good, I am prepared in what is good to imitate even my inferiors,
while prohibiting them from things unlawful. (Book IX, Epistle
XII)
Gregory also fixed the beginning of Lent in the West on Ash-
Wednesday, 46 days before Easter. This gave 40 days of fasting, by
leaving out the Sundays. A period of fasting prior to Easter is an
ancient custom. Irenaeus (~ 202) mentioned various lengths of
fast, 1 day, 40 hours, 2 days or more. Tertullian, the historians
Sozomen (3 week fast) and Socrates (6 week fast) also mention it.
Also, Nicaea, canon 5.
591 Pope Gregory I (590-604) criticized the bishops of Arles and
Marseilles for allowing the forced baptism of Jews in Provence.
591 End of a war between the Roman Empire and Persia.
593 By edict, the emperor Maurice (582-602) forbade soldiers from
entering the monastic life. In Rome, Gregory I (590-604) circulated
the edict, but he wrote Maurice a critical letter in complaint.
Gregory expressed concern for those many persons who, unless
they abandon all, cannot gain salvation in the sight of God.
595 A Roman Benedictine monk named Augustine was chosen by
Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) to be the apostle to the
English (first archbishop of Canterbury). Augustine arrived in
England in 597. The mission to Britain is significant, given the role
British missionaries were to play in the conversion of Northern
Europe to Christianity.
On diversity in the mass, Gregory wrote to Augustine: But it
pleases me, that if you have found anything, either in the Roman,
or the Gallican, or any other church, which may be more
acceptable to Almighty God, you carefully make choice of the
same, and sedulously teach the church of the English, which as yet
is new in the faith, whatsoever you can gather from the several
churches.
In this year, Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome (590-604), forbade
deacons to act as chief singer at the mass. Gregory founded two
new institutions (orphanotrophia) to train the required singers.
595 In a letter to the emperor Maurice (582-602), Pope Gregory I
(590-604) wrote, the care of the whole Church has been committed
to the blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles. Behold, he received
the keys of the kingdom of heaven; to him was given the power of
binding and loosing, to him the care and principiate of the whole
Church was committed.
596 The emperor Maurice (582-602) recaptured Singidunum from
the Avars.
597 St. Columba of Iona died on June 9 of this year.
597 About 10,000 Englishmen were baptized at Christmas. This
from a letter from Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, to the pope
of Alexandria.
598 Pope Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome (590-604), wrote to
the bishop of Terracina expressing dismay over the report he had
heard that people in that region were worshipping sacred trees.
599-600 The fifth outbreak of plague in the Roman empire.
599 After a synagogue in Caraglio, northern Italy, had been
desecrated, Pope Gregory I (590-604) wrote to insist that the Jews
be compensated for their loss.
~600 Cyrius, Catholicos of Georgia, rejected Armenian Christology
and accepted Chalcedon (451).
600 By this year, there were more than 220 monasteries and
convents in Gaul. There were at least 100 such institutions in Italy.
600 Sometime during the 6th century the scratch plough was
replaced in northern Europe by a plough with a moldboard,
allowing it to cut into thick soil. The new plough first appeared in
western Europe in the Rhineland and the Siene basin. This
eventually led to a population rise in northern Europe. In the early
centuries of Christian history, the population was most dense
along the eastern Mediterranean.
Because of Justinian's conquests earlier in this century, the Roman
Empire in the West still included Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, north
Africa to Gibraltar, the coastal area near Genoa, a strip of land
from north of Ravenna to south of Rome, small areas around
Venice and Naples, the extreme south of Italy, and part of
southeastern Spain. Thus Constantinople continued to exert
considerable influence in the West.
From around this year until approximately 1200, there were few
literate laymen in the West. In the East, by contrast, literate
laymen continued to serve as administrators of the Roman
Empire.
The Seventh Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


601 Augustine became first Archbishop of Canterbury.
601 During this century, the use of breathing and accent marks in
Greek manuscripts began to be general.
Frankish names were rare for bishops in Gaul before the end of the
sixth century. During the seventh century, they became
increasingly common as Frankish leaders exerted control over the
episcopate.
602 Phokas (602-610) Roman emperor.
602 Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) wrote to the populace of
Rome to prohibit the observance of Saturday as a sabbath,
following the perfidy of the Jews.
603 Columbanus charged by a synod of Frankish bishops with the
error of keeping Easter according to Celtic usage. Columbanus
wrote to Pope Gregory I (590-604): How then, with all your
learning ... do you favor a dark Easter? An Easter proved to be no
Easter? Columbanus ridiculed the Pascha tables of Victor of
Aquitaine (see 457), which were used in Rome until about 630. The
Celtic algorithm Columbanus followed appears to have used an
84-year cycle, as was common in much of the West from the early
third century to 457. Columbanus cited Jerome as opposing
Victors algorithm in advance.
604 Death of Pope Gregory the Great (590-604). There ensued a
series of short-lived papacies: Between this year and 649, there
were 10 papal elections. Sabinian (604-606) followed Gregory as
pope. Gregory, the first monk to become pope, was given short
shrift in an official papal chronicle known as the Liber
Pontificalis. Sabinian received praise in that work for filling the
church with clergy and not (it seems) with monks. It would be 70
years before another monk was elected pope.
During this era, those elected to the papacy could not be
consecrated until their elections were confirmed by the Roman
emperor in Constantinople. Sabinian waited 6 months before he
could take office.
The bishops of Rome also acted as imperial bankers. They paid the
Roman (Byzantine) troops and advanced funds to the imperial
administration when it was short of cash.
604+ Due to Constantinoples inability to defend Thessalonike,
Slavs began settling nearby from about this year.
607 In an effort to improve relations with Rome, the emperor
Phokas bestowed the title Universal Bishop upon Boniface III
(607), bishop of Rome. Boniface III, incidentally, had to wait a full
year for Constantinople to confirm his election.
608 Boniface IV (608-15), bishop of Rome, requested imperial
permission to convert the Pantheon, a pagan temple in Rome, into
a church, St. Maria Rotunda or ad Martyrs, dedicated in 609. The
Pantheon had been built by the emperor Hadrian between 118 and
128 A.D.
Boniface had to wait 10 months for the emperor to confirm his
appointment as pope.
609 Patriarch Anastasios II of Antioch was lynched by Jews from
that city. The incident was due to Phokass (602-10) attempt to
convert the Jews to Christianity and to Jewish support for the
Persian invaders (see 611 below).
610 Herakleios (610-41) (Heraclius) became Roman (Byzantine)
emperor. Until Herakleios time, Latin was used in government
administration and in the army in the Roman
(Byzantine) empire. Herakleios ended this anachronistic use of
Latin, replacing it with Greek.
Sergios I was named patriarch of Constantinople (610-638). He
assisted the emperor Herakleios campaigns of 622-28 with
donations from the Church treasury, and by acting as regent while
Herakleios was in the field. (See also 619 below.)
610 Columbanus (see 590), removed from his monastery in
Luxovium (Luxeuil) by conspiring enemies in the court of the
Frankish king Theodoric (Theuderic) II, travelled to Switzerland
and preached to the pagan Alemanni. (Columbanus had refused
to bless Theuderics sons by his concubines.) Even without
Columbanus, the monastery at Luxeuil thrived, growing to 200
monks. In this era, monasteries grew so large they became local
economic centers.
About this time, Columbanus criticized both Vigilius (537-55) and
Boniface IV (608-15), the contemporary bishop of Rome, for
supporting heretics by subscribing to the rulings of the Fifth
Ecumenical Council. Watch [vigila] that it does not turn out for
you as it did for Vigilius, who was not vigilant enough. If
Boniface is not sufficiently vigilant, the normal situation of the
Church will be reversed. Your children will become the head, but
you will become the tail of the Church; therefore your judges
will be those who have always preserved the Catholic faith,
whoever they may be, even the youngest.
610 In this year, the treasury of the church in Alexandria contained
8000 pounds of gold. The patriarchate supported 7500 poor
persons and owned ships that sailed as far as Morocco and
Cornwall.
611 On 20 April, Constantinople was struck by an earthquake.
611 (613?) The Persians captured Antioch.
612/14 Columbanus founded a monastery at Bobbio (northern
Italy, southwest of Piacenza). Columbanuss followers, along with
Celtic monks, built monasteries and engaged in missionary
activities in northern Europe during this era.
612 The emperor Herakleioss wife, the empress Fabia-Eudokia,
died of epilepsy. She left two children - her son became
Constantine III, who ruled briefly in 641. Herakleios married his
niece, Martina, over the protests of patriarch Sergios.
613 Aethelfrith of Northumbria won a battle at Chester, cutting
Wales off from the Britons to the north. By this time, the invaders
have conquered 2/3 to 3/4 of the island.
614 The Persians under King Chosroes II invested Jerusalem on
April 15. On May 5, the Persians forced their way within the walls,
with the help of Jews. With their churches and houses in flames
around them, the Christians were indiscriminately massacred,
some by the Persian soldiers but many more by Jews. Sixty
thousand perished and thirty thousand more were sold into
slavery. The Persians carried off the True Cross.
Of the churches in Palestine, only the Church of the Nativity in
Bethlehem was spared. The apparent reason was the mosaic over
the door, depicting the Wise Men from the East in Persian
costume.
616 (619?) The Persians captured Egypt.
616 Thomas of Harkel translated the Bible into Syriac. His is the
only complete New Testament in Syriac. Harkel employed critical
signs in his text to indicate variant Greek readings. This
translation is about one century later than the Philoxeniana (see
507/8 above), two centuries later than the Peshitta (see 400), and
three later than Vetus Syra (see 300).
617 The Persians captured Chalcedon. The Persian campaigns in
the period 614-19 contributed to the decline of self-governing cities
and the emergence of a more rural economy in Asia Minor.
617 Donnan of Eigg murdered, along with his monks.
619 King Sisebut of Visigothic Spain wrote to Adaloald, king of the
Lombards, encouraging the latter to abandon Arianism. Sisebut
extolled the benefits that had accrued to the Visigothic kingdom
since it had accepted Orthodoxy.
619 The provincial council of Seville was scandalized by the
teaching of a certain bishop Gregory, a Syrian, and an advocate of
theakephaloi - clerics with no acknowledged head.
619 During an Avar raid on the outskirts of Constantinople,
Sergios had church plate melted. The resulting coin was used to
buy peace from Chagan, the Avar chieftan. Possibly during this
raid, Sergios had the relic of the Virgins robe temporarily
transferred from Blachernai, outside the city walls, to Hagia
Sophia. Later, it was returned with vigils and procession. After
the fall of Egypt, the shortage of bread forced the Roman
government to halt free bread distributions, and prices were fixed
at three folleis per loaf. John the Earthquake, an official in
charge of distribution, attempted to charge eight folleis per loaf.
Sergios himself had the city prefect arrest John and resume
distribution at the legal price.
620+ The Visigoths succeeded in conquering the Roman province
in Spain.
622-681 The Monothelete controversy
622 The emperor Herakleios (610-41), while on a visit to Armenia,
and in order to shore up support among the Monophysites in Syria
and Egypt, suggested that the divine and human natures in Christ,
while quite distinct in his person, had but one will (thelema) and
one operation (energeia). Sergios, patriarch of Constantinople, was
a strong supporter of this doctrine of one theandric energy of
Christ.
623 A Frankish merchant named Samo assisted the Slavs of
Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia in their revolt against their Avar
overlords. He led them to form a kingdom which stretched from
the upper Elbe to the central Danube. This rebellion, likely
instigated by Herakleios (610-41), weakened the Avars, who were
about to move upon Constantinople.
625 Honorius I (625-38) became patriarch of Rome. He later
accepted the doctrine of one theandric energy in Christ. As a
result,Honorius was anathematized at the Sixth Ecumenical
Council in Constantinople (681).
626 Persians and Avars besieging Constantinople were completely
repulsed by the Roman (Byzantine) emperor Herakleios (610-41).
About this time, Maximos (Maximus) Confessor, (580-662) former
protosecretary to Herakleios and later monk and abbot at
Chrysopolis, departed Constantinople.
Maximos was the principle theologian opposed to the
Monothelete heresy. He was the most sophisticated analyst of
Chalcedon in antiquity. Maximos taught that the monophysite
doctrine implied a pessimistic view of human nature. Chalcedon,
on the other hand, safeguarded the autonomy of mankind and
granted an independent status and positive value to the creation.
The Christ who is known in two natures is able to be a model for
our freedom and individuality, and for a mystical union with God
in which mans separateness as a creature is respected.
In his time, Maximos stated, the Son, for the West, was not the
cause of the existence of the Holy Spirit, so that in this sense the
Holy Spirit does not proceed from the Son. Centuries later at the
Council of Florence, the West would make the claim that the
Father and Son are both causes.
By about this year, the Balkans, apart from Constantinople,
Thessalonica, and several cities on the Adriatic Coast, had been
lost to Slavic invaders. In the opinion of some historians, by
annihilating the Latin-speaking inhabitants of Illyricum and
imposing a barbarian barrier between Constantinople and the
West, the Slavic invaders of the late sixth and seventh centuries
contributed greatly to the cultural estrangement between East and
West.
At roughly this time, Herakleios (610-41) invited the Croats, a
Slavic tribe then living in Galicia, Silesia, and Bohemia, to settle in
Illyricum. They were given the land between the Drava and the
Adriatic for ridding it of Avars. Similarly, the Serbs were allowed
to move from their homeland north of the Carpathians to a
territory east of the Croats. The emperor asked the bishop of Rome
to send missionaries to both groups, but it seems this effort had
little lasting success.
627 The emperor Herakleios (610-41) won a decisive victory over
the Persians at Nineveh, shattering the last of their armies. The
eastern provinces, now largely Monophysite, were reoccupied.
627 Paulinus converted Edwin, King of Northumbria, who was
baptized on Christmas day. Paulinus became the first bishop of
York.
628 After pausing in Crete, Maximos Confessor arrived in North
Africa.
629 The emperor Herakleios (610-41) ceased using the title
Imperator, employing Basileus instead. This reflects the shift from
Latin to Greek (see 610 above).
630 Fursa, an abbot in County Lough, Ireland, had a near death
experience. In his vision, he was protected by angels from a pack
of demons who accused him of various sins and intimidated him
with the Irish warriors battle yell. Fursa later settled in France
where his tale was spread among the faithful. See Diadochos, 486.
630 In around this year, the church in Rome adopted Dionysios
Exiguuss (see 525) Paschal (Easter) tables. Much of the West
continued to follow Victor of Aquitaine (see 457) into the late
eighth or early ninth century. From roughly 630 until the calendar
change of 1582, Rome and the East were in agreement with respect
to the calculation of Easter.
631 The emperor Herakleios (610-41) appointed Kyros, bishop of
Phasis in Colchis, patriarch of Alexandria, with power to act as
viceroy (dioiketes) of Egypt. Kyros began a ten-year persecution of
the non-Chalcedonian Coptic Christians. The Coptic patriarch
Benjamin I (622-661) escaped into hiding in the desert, and, in an
attempt to discover Benjamins hiding place, Kyros had Benjamins
brother Mina tortured, then drowned in the Nile, tied in a sack full
of stones. The division among Christians no doubt aided the
Islamic conquest of Egypt (639-641).
632 Death of Mohammed.
633 In about this year, Sergios (Sergius), patriarch of
Constantinople 610-38, won Emperor Herakleios's (610-41)
approval for the doctrine that Christ has only one operation or
energy.
633 On the basis of the doctrine of one theandric energy in Christ,
supported by patriarch Kyros of Alexandria, a statement of union
was signed between Constantinople and a moderate group of
Monophysites, the Theodosians, in Alexandria, in June of this
year. Sophronios, a monk of the monastery of St. Theodosius in
Jerusalem, who had accompanied the Byzantine chronicler John
Moschus in his travels, visited Alexandria and Constantinople to
convince the patriarchs to renounce Monothelitism. Afterwards,
patriarch Sergios became less enthusiastic in his monoenergism.
633 The Fourth Council of Toledo, meeting in the church of St.
Leocadia, comprised of 62 bishops meeting at the request of King
Sisenand (ruled the Visigoths from 631-36) asserted the statement
of the Athanasian Creed that Whoever wants to be saved, it is
necessary above all that he hold the Catholic faith. This is
significant in the context of the Visigoths recent
Arianism. Isidore(560-636), archbishop of Seville from roughly
600, presided over this council, which also insisted upon toleration
for the Jews and took measures to increase uniformity in the mass
in Spain. In addition, the council ordered, Let the priest and the
deacon communicate at the altar, the remaining clergy in the choir,
and the laity outside the choir. Evidence suggests that the altar
was screened from public view in Spain during this period.
Isidore is best known for his Etymologies, an early encyclopedia
very influential during the Dark and Middle Ages, which stressed
elements of classical education such as the seven liberal arts. In
Book 7 of that work, Isidore wrote, The Father alone is not from
anything else, thus He alone is called uncreated; the Son alone is
by His nature from the Father, thus He alone is called created [sic];
the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, thus the
Spirit alone is constituted by them both. Isidore, though
respectful of the papacy, also emphasized the independence of the
Spanish church, and he viewed the Spanish monarchy as an
ascendant power in contrast to the declining Roman Empire, beset
as it was by Persians, Huns and Slavs. His disregard for
Constantinople also comes though in his refusal to term the bishop
of Constantinople a patriarch, in his minimizing of Justinians
authority in De viris illustribus, and in his position that Constantine
I was an Arian. Isidore is even critical of the Eastern practice of
using a silk cloth (rather than linen) to cover the bread in the
eucharist. Isidores influence in later Western Christianity clearly
facilitated the schism of 1054.
Isidore related that King Sisebut of Visigothic Spain had ordered
all Jews in his kingdom to accept baptism.
633/4 Sophronios (634-38) elected patriarch of Jerusalem. He sent
a synodical letter to Honorius and the Eastern patriarchs
explaining the orthodox belief in the two natures of Christ, as
opposed to Monothelitism, which he viewed as a subtle form of
Monophysitism. He also composed a Florilegium (anthology) of
600 texts from the Bible and the Greek church fathers in favor of
the orthodox tenet of Dyotheletism (two wills) in Christ.
634 The Saracens swept up the coast of Palestine as far as
Caesarea. Four thousand Christian, Jewish and Samaritan
peasants were slaughtered.
634 Patriarch Sergios (610-38) of Constantinople published a short
document, the Psephos (Decision), which forbade the mention of
either one or two volitional principles of activity (energy) in
Christ. Both Maximos the Confessor and patriarch Sophoronios
accepted this.
635 King Oswald of Northumbria requested the Scots send him a
bishop to convert his people. Aidan was sent, a monk of Hii or
Iona, and established his episcopal see on the island of Lindisfarne
(Holy Isle).
635 Damascus fell to the Saracens. The Monophysites in Syria,
persecuted for years by the Roman authorities, supported the
invaders.
636 Reign of Rothari (636-52), king of the Lombards. He was the
last Lombard king known to be an Arian.
636 Fall of Antioch to the Saracen invaders. The emperor
Herakleios (610-41) withdrew his forces from Syria.
637 Jerusalem fell to the Arab invaders. Sophronios negotiated
civil and religious liberty for Christians in exchange for tribute.
638 The emperor Herakleios (610-41) issued his Ekthesis espousing
the Monothelete doctrine (that there is only one will in Christ) and
setting it forth as the official doctrine of the Church. The four
eastern patriarchs gave their assent. But the Ekthesis was
vigorously opposed, notably by Maximos the Confessor.
Pyrrhos became patriarch of Constantinople (638-42, 53/4-?) upon
Sergioss death. Pyrrhos had been an advocate of Monothelitism
and a close friend of the emperor Herakleios (610-41).
638 Severinus (640) was elected bishop of Rome in this year. But,
because Severinus would not accept the Ekthesis, Herakleios (610-
41) delayed confirmation of the election (see 604) for two
years. Severinus was consecrated pope in 640.
639 Thousands died in Palestine of famine and disease caused by
the Saracen invasion, in which villages were destroyed and fields
laid waste.
639 In December, the Saracen general Amr ibn al-Asi invaded
Egypt with between 3500 to 4000 soldiers.
639 John Climacus (579-649) chosen abbot of the monastery of
Saint Catherine on Mt. Sinai. He wrote The Ladder of Divine Ascent,
a work in 30 chapters which describes the spiritual ascent toward
moral perfection.
640 The Saracens conquered the port of Caesarea in Palestine. The
caliph Umar ordered a census of Palestine. All property (lands,
livestock, trees, etc.) were counted in order to impose a poll tax. In
Iraq, Umar was to increase the tax by a factor of 3 to 4 over what
had been due the Persians.
641 The Arabs conquered Egypt, including Alexandria. In
September, the Saracen forces of Amr ibn Al-Asi entered
Alexandria, completing their conquest of Egypt. They burned the
books of the library to heat the public baths. It was said that the
supply of books ran out after one year. Nevertheless, the initial
years of Muslim rule were favorable for the Coptic Christians, who
were allowed to practice their religion freely, and could build and
repair churches without interference. The early jizyah (poll tax)
was no more onerous than the Imperial taxes had been..
The emperor Herakleios (610-41) died on 11 February, blaming
the Ekthesis on patriarch Sergios. His eldest son, Constantine III,
died on 25 May of the same year. There is speculation that he was
killed by his stepmother, Martina. Constantine IIIs son Herakleios
became the emperor Constans II (641-68). (Constans II was
termed Pogonatus, the bearded, due to his luxuriant beard -
though all Roman emperors in this period wore beards.)
John IV (640-42), patriarch of Rome, condemned
Herakleios Ekthesis, and the doctrine of one will in Christ.
642 Theodore became patriarch of Rome (642-49). During his
tenure, he excommunicated two patriarchs of Constantinople for
accepting the Ekthesis. In return, the altar in the popes quarters in
Constantinople was desecrated; the popes apocrisiary there was
arrested, then exiled; and the emperors troops robbed the papal
treasury in the Lateran palace. (Theodore was from the East, born
in Jerusalem.)
642 Patriarch Pyrrhos of Constantinople - an ally of Martina -
replaced by Paul, who opposed her, supporting Constans II (641-
68) in the succession battle of 641.
642 King Chindaswinth of Spain (642-53) ordered the death
penalty for Christians who worshipped as Jews.
643 The Saracens ransacked Tripoli.
643 Archbishop Sergios of Cyprus wrote to Theodore I (642-49),
patriarch of Rome, asking for his support in opposing the
Monotheletes of Constantinople. Sergios referred to the pope as
the successor of St. Peter and the rock upon which the Church is
founded. In a letter written about this time, Maximos Confessor
wrote of the very holy church of Rome, the apostolic see, which
God the Word Himself and likewise all the holy synods, according
to the holy canons and the sacred definitions, have received, and
which owns the power in all things and for all, over all the saints
who are there for the whole inhabited earth, and likewise the
power to unite and to dissolve ...
645 At a debate in Carthage, arranged by the exarch Gregory,
Maximos Confessor convinced Pyrrhos, former patriarch of
Constantinople, to renounce the Monothelite heresy. Pyrrhos later
changed his mind and was reinstalled as patriarch of
Constantinople in 653 or 654.
646 A synod in Spain limited the retinue of a bishop to fifty. This
eased the burden on those who were required to host the bishop
and his party.
647 Gregory, exarch of Carthage, proclaimed independence from
Constantinople. He was supported by the Chalcedonian
populace. This rebellion ended when the Arabs raided Carthage
from Libya and killed Gregory (649). Carthage finally fell to the
Arabs in 705.
648 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Constans II (641-68), to quiet
the intense controversy caused by the Monothelete doctrine,
issued an edict forbidding the subject to be discussed. This edict,
distributed by the patriarch Paul in Constans name, is known
as the Typos. A papal legate in Constantinople, Anastasius, was
exiled to Trebizond for refusing to assent to the edict.
648 Pope Theodore I declared Pyrrhos, former patriarch of
Constantinople, excommunicate.
649 Pope Theodore I declared patriarch Paul of Constantinople
deposed.
649 Martin I (649-55), patriarch of Rome, was consecrated without
awaiting imperial confirmation (see 604). In defiance of imperial
policy, the Lateran council he called condemned the Monothelete
doctrine at the Lateran council in Rome. The patriarchs Sergios,
Pyrrhos, and Paul of Constantinople were anathematized, along
with Kyros of Alexandria. A florlegium of 161 extracts from
orthodox authors (only 28 of whom wrote in Latin) opposing
Monothelitism was compiled. One hundred and five western
prelates were present at the synod, representing Sicily, Africa,
Sardinia, and Italy, though none were from north of the Alps or
Spain. A large body of eastern monks attended as well (many of
whom were refugees from Monothelite persecution in the East), in
addition to representatives from eastern patriarchs. Martin had
the councils findings translated into Greek and sent to the
emperor Constans II (641-68), requiring him to repudiate the
monothelite heresy.
Maximos Confessor attended this synod. From Rome, Maximos
wrote of the church there that she has the keys of the faith and of
the orthodox confession; whoever approaches her humbly, to him
is opened the real and unique piety, but she closes her mouth to
any heretic who speaks against the justice.
649 King Recceswinth of Spain (649-54) forbade observance of the
Passover, the Old Testament dietary restrictions, and Jewism
marriages. Jews were forbidden to go to court against Christians
or to give evidence against them in court.
649 The Saracens attacked Cyprus, killing or enslaving much of the
populace.
653 Bishop Martin I of Rome and Maximos Confessor were
arrested by order of the emperor Constans II (641-68). Martin was
arrested by Theodore Calliopas, exarch of Ravenna. Both were
banished for treason in 655, apparently because of their opposition
to the Monothelites. Martin I was exiled to Crimea, where he died
on 16 September 655.
653-58 A certain Wilfrid visited Rome as a pilgrim. After his
return to England, he became abbot of the monastery in Rippon.
Later, he became bishop of York (664). Wilfrids history
demonstrates secular limitation of the bishop of Romes influence
in the Church.
654-57 Eugenius, bishop of Rome. Eugenius refused the emperors
request that he recognize Peter, patriarch of Constantinople, who
was a monothelete. But it is said that Eugenius did so only after he
was threatened by his congregation in Rome.
655 Naval battle between the Romans (Byzantines) and the Arabs
off Phoenikos (modern Finike) in Lycia. The Roman fleet was
shattered, and the emperor Constans II (641-68) barely escaped.
656 The Caliph Othman was assassinated in Medina while reading
the Koran. The Arab world was in turmoil for the next five years,
giving the Romans a brief respite.
657 When Vitalian (657-72) was elected bishop of Rome in this
year, he avoided condemning the Typos of the emperor Constans II
(641-68) (see 648). The emperor confirmed his appointment.
659 On her deathbed, Gertrude of Nivelles, daughter of Pepin I of
France (the mayor of the palace who died ~ 640), requested burial
in wearing a plain linen shroud. This ran contrary to the
traditional (pagan) practice of a furnished grave. Her example
was copied. By the 750s, the practice of furnishing graves against
the needs of the dead in the afterlife had ceased in Francia.
661 The Frankish king Chlothar III and his queen Balthild founded
a monastery at Corbie, giving it immunity from taxation and visits
from local bishops in exchange for prayer, which the royal patrons
trusted would protect and enrich their kingdom.
661 By this year, the Franks had replaced all Roman bishops in
Gaul with Frankish bishops (see 601 above). St. Boniface described
the Franks as: voracious laymen, adulterous clergy and
drunkards, who fight in the army fully armed and who with their
own hands kill both Christians and pagans.
661/2 Maximos Confessor was recalled from exile in Thrace, tried,
and sentenced to mutilation. His tongue and his right hand were
cut off to prevent his further opposition to the Monothelites.
Maximos most significant theological contribution is perhaps his
interpretation of the works of the Pseudo-Dionysius along
Orthodox lines, emphasizing both Trinitarian theology and
diophysite Christology. Maximos was a proponent of apophatic
approach to the knowledge of God. His works take up more space
in the Philokalia (see 1782 below) than do those of any other writer
and are concerned with the process of deification.
At the Council of Florence (1439), the Orthodox quoted Maximos
to indicate in what sense the filioque was understood in the West in
the seventh century. Maximos wrote, the Romans do not affirm
that the Son is the cause of the Spirit, for they know that the cause
of the Son and the Spirit is the Father, of one by birth, and of the
other by procession; but only show that the Spirit is sent through
the Son. The Orthodox indicated that, if this were still the Roman
position, then no further discussions are necessary, and the
former union of Churches can take place. Unfortunately, the
Western dogma had changed dramatically by that time.
662 On August 13, Maximos Confessor died in exile in Lazica on
the southeastern shore of the Black Sea.
662 The emperor Constans II (641-68) left Constantinople, initially
intending to establish his court in Rome.
662 Around this year, during the reign of their king Grimoald
(ruled 662-71), the Lombards in the Benevento region were
worshipping the image of a snake; the cult had endured from
antiquity. St. Baratus had the snake idol melted down into a paten
and chalice.
663 Constans II (641-68) visited Rome, where he stayed for 12 days.
He stripped the citys churches of valuables - taking even roof tiles
from St. Maria ad Martyres.
664 The synod held at Whitby. Churches in the north of England
(who had been under the influence of Celtic evangelists) agreed to
keep Easter on the date established by Rome, in agreement with
churches in the south evangelized from Rome. The Celts claimed
their practice came from St. John, while the southerners invoked
Peter. King Oswy (of the Mercians) was convinced by the
argument that Peter held the keys to the kingdom of heaven: lest,
when I come to the gates of the kingdom of heaven, there should
be none to open them, he being my adversary who is proved to
have the keys.
Curiously, it appeared the Celts celebrated Easter according to the
agreement made at Nicaea in 325 (on the Sunday after the
fourteenth day of the month nearest the vernal equinox). They
were unaware, however, that since Nicaea Alexandrian
astronomers had found an error in the way the Jews calculated
Passover. The method for computing Easter had been modified in
525 in the West so the date always fell between March 22 and April
24, as it does to this day -- on the first Sunday after the full moon
that occurs upon or next after the vernal equinox (March 21). The
appeals to apostolic authority on both sides were thus erroneous.
664 A plague fell upon Essex. The king, Sigehere, and the people
apostatized. Bishop Jaruman of Mercia restored them to the faith.
666 The emperor Constans II (641-68) granted the request of
Archbishop Maurus of Ravenna, allowing that city to consecrate
its bishop without approval from Rome.
668 Pope Vitalian (657-72) consecrated Theodore of Tarsus as the
seventh archbishop of Canterbury.
668/9 Hadrian, abbot of the Niridian monastery near Naples,
accompanied Theodore of Tarsus across France. According to
Bede, Ebrin, the mayor of the palace, detained Hadrian,
suspecting that he went on some message from the emperor to the
kings of Britain, to the prejudice of his kingdom. In this era, the
popes were citizens of the Roman (Byzantine) emperor, and were
thought capable of attempting to negotiate an alliance between the
empire and the Saxon kings of Britain against the Franks.
669 Wilfrid appointed bishop of York. He had advocated the
Roman position at Whitby in 664.
670 The authority of the Athanasian creed affirmed by a council in
Toledo.
672 The Saracens attacked the islands of Cos and Rhodes, killing or
enslaving much of the populace.
673-5 A synod at Saint-Jean-de-Losne condemned clerical hunting
(see 517, 747).
674 Benedict Biscop (~628-689/90), considered the father of
Benedictine monasticism in England, built the monastery of St.
Peter in Wearmouth. Benedict traveled frequently to Rome,
obtaining instructions in monastic practice and manuscripts,
paintings, and relics for the monastery at Wearmouth and a sister
monastery at Jarrow. Together, these establishments comprised a
leading center for scholarship and art in Western Europe during
this era. Biscop was succeeded as abbot of Wearmouth by
Ceolfrith in 690.
674 The Saracens attacked Crete, killing or enslaving much of the
populace.
678 Constantine IV (668-85) began to search about for a final
resolution on the Monothelite question. He wrote suggesting a
general council.
Around this year, Agatho, bishop of Rome (678-81), sent a certain
John, first singer of the Schola Cantorum in Rome, to train students
in church music at Wearmouth, England.
678 Because of a squabble between the Archbishop of Canterbury,
Theodore, and King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, Wilfrid was expelled
from his see at York. He traveled to Rome to appeal to that citys
bishop. On the road, Wilfrid was instrumental in the conversion of
many Frisians (living in modern Holland) - aided by the
coincidence of unusually good fishing.
679 Barontus, formerly a royal official, now a monk at the
monastery of Logoretum (near Bourges, central France), became
very sick. He had a vision in which he saw angels guiding him
toward heaven, but demons, simultaneously, clawed at him.
When Barontus came to the gates of heaven, the demons listed his
sins at St. Peters request. See Diadochos, 486.
680 The Bulgars, who had crossed the Danube into Dobrudja
(between the Danube and the Black Sea) during the previous
decade, defeated the Roman forces sent out to expel them. From
this point on, the Bulgars were permanent residents south of the
Danube.
680 King Ervig of Spain (680-87) forbade Jews from observing the
Sabbath.
680 By about this time, the Lombards have been converted to
Orthodoxy.
680 In a letter prepared for the Sixth Ecumenical Council, Pope
Agatho (678-81) interpreted Luke 22.31 as a reference to the
doctrinal purity of the papacy and the unique pastoral duties of
popes. The passage reads: Peter, Peter, behold, Satan hath
desired to have you, that he might sift you as wheat; but I have
prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not. And when thou art
converted, strengthen thy brethren. For Agatho, it was clear that
the church in Rome has never erred from the path of the apostolic
tradition, nor has she been depraved by yielding to heretical
innovations, but ... remains undefiled unto the end, according to
the divine promise of Luke 22.31. This is the first known
interpretation of that verse in support of papal claims. Earlier
fathers, such as Chrysostom and Ambrose, had treated it as a
prophecy of Peters denial and repentance. For them, it had no
connection to a supposed permanent role for him (or his
successors).
680 Wilfrid returned to York with a ruling from the bishop of
Rome in his favor. However, King Ecfrith imprisoned Wilfrid
instead of reinstating him as bishop. Wilfrid was released in 681
but exiled from Northumbria.
681 Sixth Ecumenical Council, held at Constantinople (the Third
Council of Constantinople). The council anathematized Honorius,
once patriarch of Rome (see 625), and deposed the patriarch of
Antioch, Makarios, for embracing the Monothelite heresy.
From the statement of faith adopted by the council:
... believing our Lord Jesus Christ, our true God, to be one of the
Holy Trinity even after the taking of flesh, we declare that his two
natures shine forth in his one hypostatis, in which he displayed
both the wonders and the sufferings through the whole course of
his dispensation, not in phantasm but truly, the difference of
nature being recognized in the same one hypostasis by the fact that
each nature wills and works what is proper to it, in communion
with the other. On this principle we glorify two natural wills and
operations combining with each other for the salvation of the
human race.
... likewise [we] proclaim according to the teaching of the holy
fathers that Christ has two volitions or wills, and two natural
operations without division or change, without partition or co-
mingling. And the two natural wills are by no means opposed (as
the godless heretics have said); but the human will is compliant,
and not opposing or contrary; as a matter of fact it is even obedient
to his divine and omnipotent will.
From the condemnation of Pope Honorius of Rome (session
13): After we had reconsidered, according to our promise which
we had made to your highness, the doctrinal letters of Sergius, at
one time patriarch of this royal god-protected city to Cyrus, who
was then bishop of Phasis and to Honorius some time Pope of Old
Rome, as well as the letter of the latter to the same Sergius, we find
that these documents are quite foreign to the apostolic dogmas, to
the declarations of the holy Councils, and to all the accepted
Fathers, and that they follow the false teachings of the heretics;
therefore we entirely reject them, and execrate them as hurtful to
the soul. But the names of those men whose doctrines we execrate
must also be thrust forth from the holy Church of God, namely,
that of Sergius some time bishop of this God-preserved royal city
who was the first to write on this impious doctrine; also that of
Cyrus of Alexandria, of Pyrrhus, Paul, and Peter, who died
bishops of this God-preserved city, and were like-minded with
them; and that of Theodore sometime bishop of Pharan, all of
whom the most holy and thrice blessed Agatho, Pope of Old
Rome, in his suggestion to our most pious and God-preserved lord
and mighty Emperor, rejected, because they were minded contrary
to our orthodox faith, all of whom we define are to be subjected to
anathema. And with these we define that there shall be expelled
from the holy Church of God and anathematized Honorius who
was some time Pope of Old Rome,because of what we found
written by him to Sergius, that in all respects he followed his
view and confirmed his impious doctrines. According to the
council, then, Pope Honoriuss crime was not negligence, or
apathy, but the heresy of Sergius (the doctrine of the single
theandric energy or operation of Christ -- see 633).
This council was noteworthy for the extreme care taken to verify
the authenticity of documents cited. This care was in reaction to
the fact that documents pertaining to the Fifth Ecumenical Council
read at the Sixth were found to be forgeries.
Patriarch Makarios of Antioch and six other Monothelites were
given permission to appeal to Rome. Two of them were
subsequently reunited with the Church. Makarios and the other
four were imprisoned in monasteries in Rome.
The patriarch of Jerusalem, Theodore, unable to attend this
council, sent St. Andrew of Crete (then Deacon Andrew) to
represent him. As a boy, Andrew had been unable to speak. In
church one day, he prayed that God would heal him. The moment
he received communion, he began to speak, glorifying God. At the
council, Andrew displayed wisdom and knowledge, and
afterwards he became bishop of Crete. A poet, Andrew composed
the Great Canon read during Lent in Orthodox Churches.
A group of Greek clergymen, refugees from the monothelete
emperor, represented Pope Agatho (678-81) at the council. Soon
after the council, communion between Rome and Istria was
restored (698) and the bishops of Rome were no longer required to
obtain confirmation from the emperor in Constantinople before
assuming office (see 604).
684 The Maronites became an independent people when the
armies of Justinian II were defeated by John Maron (later patriarch
of Antioch from 685-707).
685 The caliph Abd al-Malik (685-705) established Arabic as the
official language of the Umayyad empire. No other languages
were permitted in government administration.
686 Wilfrid returned to his see at York under King Ecfriths
successor Aldfrith.
686-89 Sometime during this period, the Arab governor of Egypt,
Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, imprisoned the Coptic pope, Isaac (686-
689), for intervening in a dispute between the emperor of Ethiopia
and the king of Nubia (both Christians). The governor stripped
the churches of crosses, especially those made from gold or silver.
He also fixed placards to the church gates, stating that Mohammed
was the apostle of Allah, and denying that Jesus was the Son of
God.
Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan was succeeded by his son, al-Asbagh,
who, guided by a Copt named Benjamin, discovered and seized
Coptic treasures. Al-Asbagh extended the jizyah (poll tax) to
monks, and added a 2000 dinars to the land tax paid by bishops. A
wave of conversion to Islam occurred during this time of financial
persecution. (Al-Asbagh is also reported to have spat on an icon of
Mary carried in procession at Helwan.)
686 The archbishop of Toledo, Julian, head of the church in Spain,
composed a work to defend against Jewish efforts to prove that
Jesus had not been the Messiah. It seems there was a flow of
conversions to Judaism in Spain in spite of the penalties of law (see
642, 649, 680).
687 During his tenure as pope, Sergius I (687-701) introduced a
new form of litany to Rome. The new litany style had been
developed in Syria and involved invocation of the saints and
devotions to the Lamb of God and the Cross. Sergius was himself
from Syria. The Agnus Dei was one of the liturgies Sergius
brought to Rome. Sergius ordered that the Agnus Dei be sung by
the clergy and people during the mass, at the time of the breaking
of the consecrated host. Grant us thy peace replaced the final
Have mercy on us about four hundred years later. Sergius is
also credited with introducing a procession on Candlemas.
Sergius was elected after a struggle between archdeacon Paschal
and archpriest Theodore. The imperial exarch, John Platyn, chose
Sergius instead. Sergius was supported by the higher
clergy. Platyn, however, forced Sergius to pay an amount that
Paschal had already promised in a bribe.
Era of Greek popes (687-752). Sergius is the first Greek-speaking
pope during a period dominated by popes from the East. Thirteen
popes were elected between 687 and 752, eleven of whom were
from Greece, Syria, or Byzantine Sicily. Only two (Benedict II (684-
5) and Gregory II (715-31)) were native Italians. Most of the old
Roman aristocratic families, from whom the popes had been
chosen, emigrated to the East, and many Eastern monks fled to the
West, first to escape the persecutions of the Monotheletes --
afterwards, to escape from the Iconoclasts.
689 Late evidence of delayed baptism: Pope Sergius I baptized
King Cadwalla of Wessex just before the latters death at age 30
while traveling to Rome.
690 Willibrord, who had been a monk at Wilfrids monastery in
Ripon, asked permission of Sergios I (687-701), bishop of Rome, to
conduct a mission to the continent. The pope furnished him with
relics as well. Accompanied by eleven companions, and protected
by Pippin II and Charles Martel, Willibrord established a
monastery at Echternach (about midway between Rheims and
Mainz).
~ 690 A certain Rupert established the cathedral church in
Salzburg. Salzburg and Passau had been Roman forts, and it is
possible that Christianity had survived in those towns.
691/2 Abd al Malik imposed a poll tax on the Syrians. According
to the chronicle of the Monophysite monk known as Pseudo-
Dionysius, al Malik issued a strict edict for every individual to go
to his country of origin, his village, where he was to register his
name, that of his father, his vines, his olive trees, his property, his
children and everything he owned. This was the origin of the poll
tax; this was the origin of all the evils spread out over the
Christians.
692 A council of 327 (211?) bishops was held in the trullo or domed
room of the Emperors palace in Constantinople. Called by the
emperor Justinian II (685-95, 705-11), it is referred to as
the Quinisext council or the Council in Trullo, and viewed (in the
East) as an extension of the 5th and 6th ecumenical councils. No
canons had been formulated for the entire Church since Chalcedon
(451), so the Quinisext council set about to contemporary
practices. The 102 canons acted to (a) fix bishops, priests, and
monks to their respective locations of service; (b) support eastern
Roman, rather than Armenian, Jewish, or Latin customs; and (c) to
suppress paganism and superstition.
Canon 1 anathematized to Origen, and Didymus, and Evagrios,
all of whom reintroduced feigned Greek myths.
One canon (13) condemned mandatory clerical celibacy.
Canon 73 commended due veneration (tookuvqoiv) to the figure
of the cross, and that it not be formed on the floor where it would
be trampled.
Canon 79 noted that the Virgin gave birth without any childbed (pain or
flux of blood).
Canon 82 ordered that the image of Christ in icons be a human
figure, not a lamb as in earlier times, that we may recall to our
memory his conversation in the flesh, his passion and salutary
death, and his redemption which was wrought for the
world. Sergius I, bishop of Rome, may have introduced the Agnus
Dei into the Roman liturgy in reaction to this canon. He ordered
the restoration of a mosaic, located in the apse of the church of St.
Cosmas and Damian, which depicted Christ as a lamb.
Canon 90 forbade kneeling from Vespers on Saturday until Sunday
evening.
Canon 91 equated abortion to murder.
Canon 95 made a distinction between former heretics who can be
received into the Church by chrismation and those who must be
baptized.
The bishops of Rome were hesitant to approve of the canons
promulgated by the Quinisext council. Bishop Sergius I of Rome
(687-701) refused to sign them when they were delived by the
legates who had attended the council. In contrast to the events
surrounding Martin I (653 above), when Justinian II ordered the
imperial official Zacharias to arrest Sergius, the armies of Ravenna
and Pentapolis marched to Rome to protect its bishop. Later,
Justinian requested that John VII (705-7) approve the canons, and it
appears that he may have. Hadrian I (772-95) approved the canons
in a letter to Tenasius of Constantinople.
692 Wilfrid, bishop of York, fell out with King Aldfrith, and was
exiled again.
694 King Egica of Spain ordered the enslavement of all Jews and
the confiscation of their property.
695 Willibrord appointed archbishop of Utrecht (north of the Rhine
near the North Sea). He oversaw the construction of churches and
monasteries among the Frisians. From the monastery at
Echternach, Willibrord sent missionaries eastward, to Hesse,
Thuringia, and Franconia.
698 Carthage fell to the Saracens.
698 End of the Istrian Schism (548-698). The synod of
Pavia restored communion between Istria and Rome, broken
during the Fifth Ecumencial Council (see 548 above).
700 In Rome from around this year, a large fragment of the True
Cross was venerated in the Church of the Holy Cross in Jerusalem.




The Eighth Century
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701+ The Roman liturgy was imposed on the Western church
through this century. The process was nearly complete by the
death of Charlemagne.
702 King Egica of Spain encouraged the free population to search
for runaway slaves. See 694 above.
703 Wilfrid, bishop of York, again traveled to Rome seeking
support for his cause (see 678 above). The bishop of Rome (John
VI (701-05)) again ruled in his favor. Wilfrid and his comrades
were unsettled by the fact that those closest to the bishop of Rome
spoke among themselves in Greek.
705 The Roman emperor Justinian II (685-95, 705-11) rewarded the
Bulgar Khagan Tervel with the title of Caesar for his assistance in
regaining the imperial throne.
705 John VII (705-7) of Rome apparently approved the canons of
the Quinisext council (see 692 above). The Liber pontificalisrecords
that, Being a timid and cowardly man, he sent them back [to the
emperor Justinian II] without any change.
705 Wilfrid, bishop of York, was received by King Aldfriths
successor Osred. He was not - the bishop of Romes decision to the
contrary notwithstanding - returned to his see. Wilfrid died in a
monastery in Mercia in 709.
705 The Coptic Pope Alexander II (705-730) was arrested when he
complained to the Omayyad caliph Abd al-Malik about the
financial persecution orchestrated by Egypts governor. The caliph
set a ransom of 3000 dinars for Alexanders release. In this period,
the Muslim governor of Egypt routinely ransacked churches and
monasteries, and enslaved monks. Those Copts who attempted to
escape taxation were flogged and branded when captured, their
arms or legs were cut off, and property seized.
707 The Saracens conquered North Africa.
709 King Cenred of Mercia became a monk in Rome.
710 At the emperor Justinian IIs (685-695, 705-711)
invitation, Constantine I (707-15), bishop of Rome, traveled to
Constantinople, where he approved a version of the decrees of
the Quinisext council (see 692 above). This was the last papal visit
to Constantinople until 1979.
711 Justinian II murdered. Constantine I, bishop of Rome,
condemned the usurper Phillipicus Bardanes (711-13) as a
Monothelete.
711 Spain fell to the Saracens. According to some, the victory of
the Saracens in Spain was also victory for the Roman underclass,
being freed thereby from their Gothic overlords. Nevertheless,
some 30,000 Christians were sent to Damascus as slaves as booty
for the caliph.
712 The Bulgars under Tervel invaded Thrace, continuing to the
walls of Constantinople.
716 Abbot Ceolfrith (Geoffrey) had a retinue of eighty when he
left England for Rome in this year. Ceolfrith, an associate of Saint
Benedict Biscop, had succeeded him as abbot of Wearmouth and
Jarrow in 690. The reputation for learning at these monasteries,
where Bede was educated (see 731 below), continued to flourish
during Ceolfriths tenure. Unfortunately, Ceolfrith was unable to
complete his pilgrimage to Rome. He died near the city of Langres
(Lingonas) in the diocese of Lyon. His relics were returned to
Wearmouth.
717 The Saracens besieged Constantinople. Leo III (717-741)
became emperor. In an act which can only be termed ironic given
subsequent events, Leo had the icon Hodogetria (She who shows
the Way) carried in procession around the city walls.
Subsequently, Leo defeated the Saracen fleet. In 718, Leo again
defeated their fleet, even though it had been reinforced. A Bulgar
army attacked the Saracens, killing 22,000, and the latter retreated
to Cilicia.
719 In May, Winfrith, a monk of Nursling, obtained a commission
from Gregory II, bishop of Rome from 715 to 731, to evangelize on
the continent. He was given a new name as well - Boniface - after
an early Roman martyr. Boniface labored among the Frisian and
German tribes (see 722). Founded the abbey at Fulda in 743/4, and
was archbishop of Mainz from 744/5-54. Murdered in 754/5(?).
He was said to have cut down the sacred oak at Geismar in what is
now Hesse, Germany. He used its wood to build a chapel.
At one point during his career in Germany, Boniface encountered
an Irishman named Clement who taught that all, believers and
unbelievers, those who praise God and those who worship idols
had been freed from punishment by Christs harrowing of Hell.
719 John of Otzun, Catholicus of the Armenian church, held
a synod at Dovin which condemned the Paulicians.
The Paulicianswere dualists, believing that the Heavenly Being
and the Demiurge (the creator of the world) were both eternal.
They did not believe that Christ took flesh of Mary; instead, he
received his body in heaven and merely passed through Mary.
They rejected the sacraments and did not revere the cross, though
they had no scruples about dissimmulating and pretending to
conform to normative Christianity. They rejected marriage, and it
was reported that they engaged in licentious behavior. The
Paulicians also rejected icons and relics.
720 The caliph Yazid II (720-24) established the value of a Muslims
life at 12,000 dinars and that of a non-Muslim at 6,000.
721 Saracens invaded Aquitane but were routed by Duke Eudo at
Toulouse.
722 Final persecution of the Montanists.
722 Gregory II commissioned Boniface to preach the gospel east of
the Rhine. Under the protection of Charles Martel (mayor of the
palace from 714-41), he concentrated his activities in Thuringia and
Hesse.
723 Boniface cut down the sacred oak at Geismar in what is now
Hesse, Germany. He used its wood to build a chapel. He wrote to
England for copies of the Scriptures written gold. Boniface wished
to use them to awe the pagans.
723 The caliph Yazid II, who had been very ill, was cured by a
Jewish necromancer. At the necromancer's suggestion, Yazid
ordered all Christian pictures in churches, markets and private
homes destroyed.
724 Permin, a native of Septimania, fleeing the Saracens,
established the Richenau monastery on an island in Lake
Constance. He later founded monasteries at Murbach, Pfaffers,
Niederaltaich and Hornbach. Pirmin donated fifty books to the
library at Richenau - which grew into one of the largest libraries in
Western Europe during this era.
724-43 Under the reign of the caliph Hisham, Christians in the
Arab empire were oppressed with exorbitant taxation and tributes.
724 Territorial dispute between Boniface and the bishop of Mainz,
who wanted to add the territories Boniface was evangelizing to his
diocese.
725 The Saracens overran Septimania.
725 Excessive taxation of Christians led to an uprising of the Copts
in lower Egypt. Many Copts were massacred. Others fled by sea.
726 Incipient Iconoclasm. The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Leo III
(Leo the Isaurian (717-741)) ordered the icon of Christ in the
Chalke - the a building which served as the gateway to the
Imperial palace - destroyed. The icon was painted above the
bronze doors at the entrance to the Chalke. When the demolition
team arrived, their leader was attacked and murdered by a crowd
of outraged women. Also as a result of the destruction of this icon,
the exarchate of Ravenna rose in revolt (727), backed by Gregory II,
bishop of Rome (715-31).
727 The Lombard king Liutprand took the exarchate of
Ravenna. The exarchate had separated the northern and southern
Lombard duchies. The exarch, a eunuch named Eutychius, fled to
Venice.
727 The Saracens were defeated at Nicaea and driven beyond the
Tarsus mountains.
727 The Emperor Leo III appointed Kosmas I patriarch of
Alexandria. The Orthodox there had been without a patriarch for
the past ~70 years. By this time, the Copts were a majority among
Egyptian Christians. Working with Coptic Church leaders,
Kosmas led a revolution against the Arabs, which failed.
Afterwards, the Orthodox were left with only one church building
in Alexandria. Christians were persecuted. Many emigrated or
converted to Islam.
729 The Lombard king Liutprand attacked Rome. After Pope
Gregory II confronted him, Liutprand left his armor and weapons
at Peters tomb as an offering and lifted his siege.
729 The eunuch Eutychius retook Ravenna, then marched against
Rome to bring Gregory II to heel. At this moment, Gregory and
Liutprand, king of the Lombards, were allies against the exarch.
Liutprand exercised little control over the Lombard dukes, but
Gregory II brought the southern duchies in Italy into line, leaving
the exarch isolated in Ravenna. Gregory II (715-31) was now
politically independent of Constantinople. Note, however, that the
tribute payments begun in the time of Pelagius II (579-90)
continued through the papacy of Gregory III (731-41), until
Zacharias (741-52) became bishop of Rome.
730 Evantius, archdeacon of Toledo, wrote against the practice of
some Christians in Saragossa who avoided certain types of food
out of fear they would be unclean if they consumed them.
730 - 842: Iconoclasm
730 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Leo III (Leo the
Isaurian (717-741)), with the consent of a council of bishops and
senators,promulgated an edict requiring the removal of all icons
from churches. The patriarch of Constantinople (Germanus)
joined the revolt in favor of icons, and the emperor deposed him in
730, appointing Anastatius patriarch. One motive for Leos actions
may have been to limit the power of the monasteries, which made
much of their income from the production of icons. Another may
have been his perception that military setbacks were due to Gods
disfavor of idolatry.
After the edict, Leo ordered the destruction of icons within the
monasteries. Many monks fled to Greece and Italy - taking smaller
icons with them, hidden in their clothing - others fled to the caves
of the Cappadocian desert.
Leos edict had little effect outside of Constantinople. The
patriarchs of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem openly
declared themselves in favor of icons.
The prohibition of art applied to religious works only. For
instance, scenes of the Councils painted in the Milion (a public
building in Constantinople) were replaced by paintings of a horse
race in the Hippodrome.
730 Gregory II (715-31), bishop of Rome, wrote a letter to
Constantinople denying that the emperor had the right to interfere
in doctrinal matters (in particular, the controversy over icons) and
asserting that, if the emperor tried to use force against the bishop
of Rome, the entire western world would come to his defense.
Gregory anathematized the iconoclasts without naming the
emperor explicitly. Gregory wrote, The civil powers and the
ecclesiastical powers are things distinct; the body is subject to the
former, the soul to the latter; the sword of justice is in the hands of
the magistrate; but a more formidable sword that of
excommunication belongs to the clergy. O tyrant, you come in
arms to attack us; we, all unprotected as we are, can but call upon
Jesus Christ, the prince of the heavenly army, and beg him to send
out a devil against you, who shall destroy your body and the
salvation of your soul. The barbarians have bowed beneath the
Gospels yoke, and you, alone, are deaf to the voice of the
shepherd. These godly barbarians are filled with rage; they burn
to avenge the persecution suffered by the Church in the East. Give
up your audacious and disastrous enterprise, reflect, tremble, and
repent.
730 St. John of Damascus, tax collector for a Muslim caliph, wrote
his Discourses on Sacred Images against the emperor Leo III and the
Iconoclasts. Soon thereafter, he became a monk at Mar Saba, near
Jerusalem. He wrote his The Source of Knowledge, includingAn
Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith.
John gave the following list of Old Testament books: Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth,
1 and 2 Kings (1 and 2 Samuel), 3 and 4 Kings (1 and 2 Kings), 1
and 2 Paraleipomena (1 and 2 Chronicles), Job, Psalms, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, the twelve minor prophets, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, two books of Esdras (Ezra and Nehemiah), and
Esther. The only book included in modern Hebrew Bibles not
listed here is Lamentations but John may have it joined to
Jeremiah. John specifically excluded the Wisdom of Solomon and
Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), which he termed virtuous and noble.
Johns New Testament was the modern volume plus Clements
Canons of the holy apostles (see the Exact Exposition, Book 4,
Chapter 17).
731 Bede completed his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
He was the author responsible for the popularity of the A.D.
system of dates. (See year 541.) Bede was a disciple of Ceolfriths.
At one point, due to a disease that wasted the community at
Jarrow, Bede and Ceolfrith were the only two healthy enough to
pray.
In his The Reckoning of Time, Bede revised Eusebius chronology
(see 327 above) according to the dates in the Hebrew (rather than
the Greek) Old Testament. By doing so he was able to postpone
the day of judgment by several centuries, since the Hebrew and
Greek dates disagree, most severely in the ages at birth of the
antediluvian patriarchs. For instance, a literal reading of the
genealogy in Genesis chapter 5 puts the flood in 2243 anno
mundi following the LXX, but in 1657 according to the Hebrew.
Largely (though not entirely) by capitalizing on this difference,
Bede was able to establish that Tiberius fifteenth year (Luke 3.1)
was 3981 years after Adam. Consequently, he placed Christs birth
in the year 3953 anno mundi.
731 Gregory III (731-41) held a council in Rome. All iconoclasts
were excommunicated, and iconoclasm was denounced. The
archbishop of Ravenna (an imperial territory) attended the council.
732 Battle of Tours (Battle of Poitiers). Franks under Charles
Martel turned back the Saracens. Eudes (Odo), duke of Aquitaine,
had rebelled against Frankish rule and had called the Saracens to
come to his aid. He then turned to Charles Martel for aid against
the Saracens. [Thus, some consider the Arab invasion to have been
in support of a Gallo-Roman revolution against their Frankish
overlords. At the battle of Provence in 739, in this view, the
revolution was finally crushed.]
732 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Leo IIIs fleet, intended for an
invasion of Italy, was destroyed by a storm. Leo had intended to
crush Western (in particular, papal) opposition to iconoclasm.
732 Gregory III (731-41), patriarch of Rome, refused, like his
predecessors, to agree with Leo III on the issue of images. Leo
confiscated the papal estates in Sicily and southern Italy, from
which most of Gregorys income was derived. Leo also
reorganized the church: He removed the Greek-speaking
provinces of Illyria, Sicily and southern Italy -- the archbishoprics
of Thessalonica, Corinth, Syracuse, Reggio, Nicopolis, Athens and
Patras -- from Gregorys jurisdiction, and placed them under the
patriarch of Constantinople. In effect, Leo threw the patriarch of
Rome out of the empire. (The papacy regained control over
southern Italy after the Norman conquest, around 1059.)
732 Pope Gregory III appointed Boniface archbishop of Germany.
733 Pope Gregory III successfully negotiated with the Lombards
for the return of Ravenna to the empire even though he and
Constantinople were at odds over the emperors iconoclastic
policy.
737 A Saracen force defeated a Khazar army near the Volga. But as
the Saracens were forced to retreat, the Khazars won a strategic
victory, thought by many to be as significant as the Battle of Tours
(732). By holding the Caucasus against Islamic aggression, the
Khazars delayed their conquest of eastern Europe and thwarted
the Saracens desire to attack Constantinople from the north.
The Khazars were a Turkic people who first appeared near the end
of the sixth century, on the steppes north of the Caucasus. Their
capital was at Itil in the Volga estuary, and they ruled the steppes
between the Volga and the Dneiper. According to medieval
Hebrew sources of uncertain reliability, the Khazar Bulan accepted
some Jewish beliefs between 730 and 740. Some modern historians
are of the opinion that the Khazar ruling class accepted Judaism
between 850 and 900.
739 An Coptic uprising in Egypt bloodily suppressed by the
Saracens.
739/40 Boniface reorganized the Bavarian episcopate. Bavaria
later acted as a base for the Frankish mission to the Slavs.
739 Liutprand, king of the Lombards, took four cities from the
duchy of Rome and sacked Ravenna. He also besieged Rome. His
troops ransacked the basilica.
740 Leo III defeated the Saracens at Akroinon, effectively halting
the Arab invasion at the Tarsus mountains in the East, as Charles
Martel had limited them at the Pyrenees in the West at Poitiers in
733.
741 Constantine V (741-75) became Roman Emperor. Like his
father, he was an iconoclast. It is reported that, when he was
baptized, he fouled the baptismal waters. Thus, he is known
as Constantine Copronymus (that is, Constantine "dung-name").
In 742, his throne was usurped by his brother-in-law, Artabasdus.
In 743, however, Constantine regained his throne. Patriarch
Anastatius (730-54), who had supported the usurper, was paraded
naked around the arena, riding backward on a donkey, but then
restored to office.
In addition to images, Constantine rejected the baptism of infants
and the veneration of the saints, whom, he said, could not
intercede for us.
743 In exchange for Bavarian assistance in defeating the Avars,
Boruth, leader of the Carantians, accepted Bavarian overlordship,
and delivered his son Cacatius and nephew Cheitmar as hostages,
whom he asked to be raised as Christians. The Carantians lived
near the upper Drava river (southern Austria). Cheitmar later
became duke of the Carantians (~752) and invited priests and
bishops from Salzburg into the Carantania.
744 Boniface founded a monastery at Fulda (in modern Germany),
which housed about 360 monks by 779.
744-50 Reign of the caliph Marwan II. Of him, the Monophysite
monk Pseudo-Dionysius wrote, Marwans main concern was to
amass gold, and his yoke bore heavily on the people of the
country. His troops inflicted many evils on the men: blows,
pillage, outrages on women in their husbands presence.
744 When the Egyptian governor offered them relief from the
jizyah (poll tax), 24,000 Coptic Christians converted to Islam. From
about this time, and certainly by 832, the Copts were a minority in
Egypt.
745 Boniface became bishop of Mainz.
745 The teachings of Clement (see 719 above) and those of a certain
Aldeburt were condemned at a synod in Rome. Aldeburt, a native
of Gaul, claimed to have received a letter from Jesus. He
distributed his own hair and fingernails as holy relics, and doubted
the spiritual benefit of pilgrimage to Rome. Aldeburt also set up
rival churches or chapels, tempting the people away from the older
churches.
745-7 Bubonic plague in Asia Minor killed ~1/3 of the
population. The Peloponnese was hit by plague, in 746-7.
Afterwards, the Peloponnese was inhabited almost entirely by
Slavs.
746 Constantine V invaded Syria and captured Germania. He
resettled the population in Thrace. Many of the new settlers were
Paulicians, whom the iconoclast Constantine considered allies and
needed to offset iconodule strength in Thrace.
747 The Roman ecclesiastical calendar was adopted in England by
a synod meeting in Cloveshoe. In addition, observance of the
feast days of Sts. Gregory the Great and Augustine (of Canterbury)
was ordered. The English church made unilateral (without the
permission of the bishop of Rome) changes to her calendar until
1161, when Edward the Confessor was canonized. The same
synod prohibited monasteries from housing poets, harpists,
musicians, and jesters.
747 A Saracen fleet from Alexandria was destroyed at sea by a
Roman fleet using Greek fire.
747 A Frankish synod prohibited clergy from carrying weapons or
wearing ostentatious clothing. A synod held in Germany under
Boniface (perhaps the same?) forbade clergy from hunting (see 517,
673), going about with dogs, and keeping hawks.
747 A council in England adopted the Rogation Days (see
Mamertus above, ~452).
749 The Lombard king Aistulf announced his intention to bring
the Papacy to vassalage. He conquered the exarchate of Ravenna
(July 751). Some modern historians believe that it is about this
time that the Donation of Constantine was forged to secure the
papacy by giving ti legal title to the exarchate of Ravenna, in effect
allowing the bishop of Rome to take the exarchs place.
749 The Omayyad Caliph Marwan II (744-750) brought an army to
Egypt to suppress a Coptic insurrection centered on al-Bashmur in
the marshlands of the Nile delta. He imprisoned the Coptic Pope
Khail (744-767), and carried him to Rashid (Rosetta) in chains. His
army was defeated by the Copts, who then destroyed Rashid. The
Pope and other clergy were freed.
750-800 The onset of the little optimum, a period of relative
warmth in Europe which lasted until the second half of the twelfth
century (roughly 1150-1200). The mild weather may have been a
cause for the population increase associated with this period.
750 The Battle of the Greater Zab River. Caliph Marwan II's
forces were crushed by those of Abu al-Abbas al-Suffah, ending
the Omayyad dynasty of Damascus. The caliphate came under
control of the Abbasids of Baghdad. Saracen military pressure on
the Roman Empire fell, as the Abbasids were interested in lands to
their east.
751 (754?) Pepin III (751-68), Mayor of the Palace in France, turned
to Rome for legal assistance in deposing the Merovingian king. He
asked, Is it wise to have kings who have no power of control?
The pope responded, It is better to have a king able to govern. By
apostolic authority, I bid that you be crowned king of the
Franks. St. Boniface anointed Pepin with oil, and crowned him
king of the Franks. At this time, Zacharias (741-52) was bishop of
Rome.
751 By 7 July, the exarchate of Ravenna (568 or 584 to 751)
had ended at the hands of Aistulf, king of the Lombards.
751 When the Saracens conquered Samarkand this year,
they acquired the secret to manufacturing paper. The Chinese had
just sent a team to set up a paper factory there. This Arab skill
drifted into Europe. By 1280, there was a water-powered paper
mill in Fabriano in Italy. The manufacture of paper is key to the
development of inexpensive printing, and thus to the distribution
of the printed Bible during the Reformation.
752 End of the Era of Greek Popes (687-752). Death of Zacharias,
bishop of Rome from 741. After Zacharias, no other pope of
eastern origin would be elected until an interval of ~ 700 years had
elapsed.
753 Pope Stephen II (752-7) turned to Pepin the Frank for support
against Aistulf. Stephen had appealed to Constantinople, but was
ignored.
754-75 Persecution of Christians by the caliph al-Mansur. He
doubled the tribute due from Christians. The tax was extorted by
torture. Men fled the tax collectors, moving continually from place
to place. In addition to the excessive taxes, the collectors
demanded gifts for themselves. Even the very poor, widows and
orphans, were despoiled.
754 When Boniface (see 716) was slain in Frisia in this year, 53
members of his household died with him.
754 (and again in 756) Pepin defeated Aistulf and turned the lands
of the old exarchate of Ravenna over to Stephen (an action known
as the Donation of Pepin). These became the States of the
Church. The Franks, in following years, referred to these states as
the Roman Empire, and the true Romans in the Empire ruled from
Constantinople, they called Greeks.
The significance of this is that the bishop of Rome was transformed
from a subject of the Eastern Roman emperor into an independent
secular sovereign, not dependent on any other sovereign, with an
independent territory and with possession of supreme state
authority on this territory.
The Donation of Constantine, which was to play a large role in
the growth of papal power in the Middle Ages, was forged in this
era (see 749 above), either to help convince Pepin to provide land
to the church, or to establish legal grounds for turning Roman
(Byzantine) imperial territory over to the papacy. The document
has Constantine writing, And we ordain and decree that he [the
Pope] shall have the supremacy as well over the four chief seats:
Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, as also over
all the churches of God in the whole world. And he who for the
time being shall be pontiff of that holy Roman church shall be ...
chief over all the priests of the world; and according to his
judgment, everything which is to be provided for the service of
God or the stability of the faith of the Christians is to be
administered. In another section, Constantine is depicted
as giving the pope all the prerogatives of our supreme imperial
position and the glory of our authority and as giving over to the
oft-mentioned most blessed pontiff ... the city of Rome and all the
provinces, districts and cities of Italy or of the western regions.
754 Constantine V called a synod, which met at the Palace of
Hiera in Constantinople and condemned the use of images in
worship. The synod, under the presidency of Bishop Theodosius
of Ephesus, declared against icons on the grounds that Christ's
nature was perigraptos, uncircumscribed. They stated:
Whoever, then, makes an image of Christ, either depicts the
Godhead which cannot be depicted and mingles it with the
manhood (like the Monophysites), or he represents the body of
Christ as not made divine and separate and as a person apart, like
the Nestorians.
The synod excommunicated the iconodule church leaders. No
bishops from the patriarchates of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch or
Jerusalem were present.
After the synod, Constantine V increased the persecution of the
monasteries. Hundreds of monks and nuns were mutilated or put
to death. The governor of the Theme of Thracesion (located in the
central Ionian coast), Michael Lachanodrakon, assembled monks
and nuns and commanded them to marry immediately. He also
had monks' beards soaked with flammable liquid and set on fire.
Michael burned monastery libraries and had consecrated vessels
melted down, sending the precious metal to Constantine. Many
monks fled to the West. In Rome, Pope Paul I (757-67) gave them
refuge.
Constantine referred to monks as the unmentionables and
accused them of all manner of corruption. He had one of the
leaders of the iconodule resistance, Stephen, abbot of the
monastery of St. Auxentius in Bithynia, stoned to death in the
street.
756 Constantine V destroyed an invading force of Bulgars.
Engagements against the Bulgars subsequently occurred
frequently, and Constantine led nine campaigns against them.
757 Constantine V placed Syrian and Armenian colonists in
fortresses in Thrace to strengthen the empire against Bulgar
attack. It is thought that these colonists first spread the Paulician
heresy (see 872) into the Balkans.
762 Pope Paul I (757-67) transferred the relics of Sylvester I, bishop
of Rome (314-355), to the church of S. Silvestro in Capite.
763 In a day-long battle on June 30, Constantine V demolished the
invading forces of King Teletz of the Bulgars.
764 During a battle between the monasteries of Durrow and
Clonmacnois (Ireland), two hundred monks of Durrow were slain.
764 Bishop Felix of Cordoba criticized Christians who wished to
observe Jewish fasts.
767 Now that the bishop of Rome had become a temporal lord,
controversy and violence arose over his election. Riots broke out
when a local lord (Toto, duke of the bishopric of Nepi) had his
brother raised from layman to bishop of Rome in one day (July 5,
767). This unfortunate person (Constantine II) had his eyes
gouged out by the troops of the Lombard king, Desiderius. The
Lombards killed Toto. Another contender (Philip) was murdered.
A third (Stephen III, 768-72) succeeded to the bishopric by
appealing to the Lombards for military support. [Note: there
seems to be some uncertainty about the fate of the
pretenders.Britannica says only that Constantine II disappeared
from view, and that Philip entered a monastery.]
767 The Council of Gentily. The Emperor Constantine V
Copronymus sent ambassadors to Pepin, King of the
Franks. Pope Paul I (757-67) also sent representatives. The acts of
the council are lost, but it appears that the veneration of images
was discussed, and the Franks were persuaded that the iconophiles
were in the right. One late source states that the filioque was also
discussed. From this time, Constantine V made no new attempts
to gain support for iconoclasm in the West.
767 St. Stephen the Younger martyred as an iconophile.
767 Coptic rebels defeated a Muslim army sent to subdue them.
769 King Tassilo III of Bavaria established the monastery at
Innichen because of the unbelief of the Slav peoples, to lead them
into the way of truth. (Innichen was located near the headwaters
of the Drava River, and so was suitable for missions downstream,
to the east, among the Carantians and Croats.)
772 Hadrian I (or Adrian I, 772-95) became bishop of Rome. In a
letter to Tenasius of Constantinople, he wrote, All the holy six
synods I receive with all their canons, which rightly and divinely
were promulgated by them, among which is contained that in
which reference is made to a Lamb being pointed to by the
Precursor as being found in certain of the venerable images. This
is a reference to canon 82 of the Quinisext council, held in the year
692. Hadrians statement implies that he considered the Quinisext
council part of the sixth ecumenical council.
773 Desiderius, king of the Lombards, besieged Rome.
774 The Lombard king Desiderius quarreled with Hadrian, bishop
of Rome, over ownership of cities from the former exarchate of
Ravenna. Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdom,
captured its capital (Pavia), and proclaimed himself king of the
Franks and Lombards. By making himself king of the Lombards,
Charlemagne contravened the Donation of Constantine. But the
pope got his cities.
Charlemagne spent Easter in Rome, where Pope Hadrian greeted
him with the honors formerly bestowed on the exarch. Hadrian
asked Charlemagne to confirm the Donation of Pepin, and
Charlemagne complied, recognizing Hadrian as ruler of two thirds
of the Italian peninsula. (Charlemagnes act is sometimes referred
to as the Donation of Charlemagne.)
In the view of some, one of Charlemagnes chief political aims was
to prevent revolution from the non-Frankish indigenous
population, who still considered themselves Romans and felt a
loyalty to the Roman empire, still in existence and ruled from
Constantinople. To break this bond, he began a campaign to paint
the Romans as Greeks and heretics. Hence, his churchs
condemnation of the 7th Ecumenical Councils ruling on images
(Frankfurt, 794) and its insistence on the filioque (Aachen, 809).
Charlemagne wished to impose uniformity over the church in his
territories. Hadrian gave him a collection of canons (the Dionysio-
Hadriana) for church government, and Roman liturgical books to
use as a model in worship.
775 Death of Constantine V (Copronymous), after a campaign
against the Bulgars.
777 King Tassilo III of Bavaria founded the Kremsmunster
monastery (south of Linz, Austria) with a view to the conversion of
the Slavs.
780 Irene became Roman (Byzantine) empress (780-790).
She decided to restore icons in the Eastern churches. The
veneration of icons was allowed within the empire between 787
and 815 (813?), when a second period of iconoclasm began.
780 In the decade, the bishop of Rome stopped the old practice of
dating documents by the Byzantine emperors regnal year, using
Charlemagnes instead. In the 790s the official announcement of
his election was sent to Charlemagne, instead of to Constantinople,
as had been customary.
784 Irene appointed Tarasius patriarch of Constantinople when his
iconoclast predecessor retired.
785 The synod of Cealchythe or Calcuith. Only instance where
papal legates were present at a synod in Anglo-Saxon England.
The council was called by Offa, king of Mercia, in an attempt to
take revenge on Jaenbert, archbishop of Canterbury (766-90). The
archbishop had wished to become king of Kent when that throne
became vacant, and, knowing that Offa had his eyes on that throne
also, had appealed to Charlemagne for assistance. Offa, having
added Kent to his domains, called the council to establish a new
archbishopric at Lichfield in Mercia. As a result, the territory
directly under the supervision of Canterbury was greatly reduced.
The archbishop of Lichfield received the pallium from the bishop
of Rome. In addition, the papal legates proposed a canon
restricting the diet and apparel of monks and nuns.
785 After numerous Frankish incursions, including one in 782
where Charlemagne had 4500 prisoners massacred, King
Widukind of the Saxons submitted and accepted baptism. The
bishop of Rome, Adrian I (772-795), on hearing the news, held
three days of litanies in thanksgiving. After the Saxon
capitulation, Charlemagne used Bonifaces monastery at Fulda and
other monastic houses as bases for missionary activity among the
Saxons.
Forced conversion of the Saxons: Charlemagne backed up this
missionary activity with legal action. The Saxon Capitulary, or the
capitulary of Paderborn, set the punishment for refusal to accept
baptism at death. The death penalty also applied for the crimes of
eating meat during Lent, attacking churches, killing clergy,
participating in pagan rituals, and conspiracy against the Frankish
king. The capitulary also required that Sundays and holy days be
regarded as days of rest, and church attendance on those days.
Baptism of infants was to occur within one year of birth. Tithes
were required to support the church. Burials were limited to
church cemetaries. Cremations were forbidden, and marriages of
near kin were proscribed.
785 Irene and her son, the fifteen year old Constantine VI, invited
Pope Hadrian I (772-95) to send delegates to a council to overturn
iconoclasm. Hadrian, in turn, replied in writing, in his synodica, a
document read and approved at the council of 787, but later
condemned by the Franks.
786 A council began to meet in Constantinople to re-instate the
religious use of icons, but it was forced to disband by a group of
soldiers from the imperial guard. The representatives from Rome
departed by ship. The rebellious troops were sent into Asia, and
the council delegates were reassembled.
786 A synod in England forbade use of a drinking horn in the
eucharist as a chalice.
787 The first Viking (Danish) raid on the English coast.
787 Seventh Ecumenical Council, held at Nicaea in the Church of
Holy Wisdom, where the first council of Nicaea had met. It was
under the leadership of two papal legates, who had left
Constantinople and made it to Sicily before they were recalled, but
Patriarch Tarasios (Tarasius) served as acting chairman. The
council condemned the iconoclasts. It stated:
We, therefore ... define with all certitude and accuracy that just as
the figure of the precious and life-giving Cross, so also the
venerable and holy images, as well in painting and mosaic as of
other fit materials, should be set forth in the holy churches of God
... to wit, the figure of our Lord God and Savior Jesus Christ, of our
spotless Lady, the Mother of God, of the honorable Angels, of the
saints and of all pious people.
These figures were to be honored, though not worshipped. The
Septuagint and the New Testament both use the
wordtookuvqoci for honor shown, both to created things and to
God, but they reserve the word otcuoci (worship) for God
alone. The council encouraged tookuvqoci of images:
...and to these should be given due salutation and honorable
reverence (tookuvqoiv), not indeed that true worship (otciov)
of faith which pertains alone to the divine nature; but to these, as
to the figure of the precious and life-giving Cross and the Book of
the Gospels and to other holy objects, incense and lights may be
offered according to ancient pious custom. For the honor which is
paid to the image passes on to that which the image represents ...
The councils decrees were agreed unanimously by the 350 bishops
assembled.
No Frankish representatives were invited to the
council. Charlemagne felt he had been insulted and treated as a
barbarian king.
787 England began to pay Peters pence, an offering of alms to
Rome.
788 Charlemagne annexed Bavaria after deposing Tassilo III, last
king of the Agilolfing family.
789 Charlemagne issued an edict, drafted by Alcuin (735-804), an
Englishman, chosen mentor of Frankish educational and
ecclesiastical reform, which commanded: In each bishopric and
in each monastery let the psalms, the notes, the chant, calculation
and grammar be taught and carefully corrected books be
available. Charlemagne took these steps to mitigate the decline in
Christian learning. In addition, monasteries were adopting diverse
rules for forming letters, leading toward a Balkanization of
knowledge. Charlemagne appointed Alcuin head of a school of
calligraphy in Tours to standardize letter formation. The modern
Roman lower case letters are a result of Alcuin's efforts.
790 By about this time, Charlemagne and his theologians had
received a Latin translation of the acts of the Seventh Ecumenical
Council. A document opposing these acts was drafted,
the Capitulare adversus synodum. The Capitulare was critical of
Irenes role in calling the council, since she was a woman; of
Tarasioss sudden rise from layman to patriarch; of the councils
use of past conciliar decrees that they considered irrelevant; and of
the decision made in favor of the veneration of images, since
nowhere in the Bible is the veneration commanded; and of the
portions of Hadrians synodica of 785 read to the council in 787.
The text of theCapitulare has been lost but has been surmised from
Hadrians response. It is thought that Charlemagnes
opposition to the second council of Nicaea was an attempt to
disrupt the rapprochement between the papacy and the Roman
(Byzantine) empire.
~792 The Libri Carolini was sent to the bishop of Rome by the
Franks. The Libri was a more elaborate consideration of the issues
regarding the Seventh Ecumenical Council, motivated by
Hadrians refutation of the Capitulare (see 790). It accused the
Greeks of authorizing the worship or superstitious adoration
of icons. In the view of the Libri, the proper use of images was
limited to the instruction of the illiterate. The council of 787 was
also criticized for failing to give sufficient respect to the bishop of
Rome. Somewhat ironically, Pope Hadrian was criticized for
relying upon the Acts of St. Sylvester for evidence in favor of icon
veneration. Constantinople was characterized as a den of heresy.
792 A Frankish synod meeting in Regensberg condemned the
teaching of Felix, bishop of Urgel, a town in the Spanish border
region under Charlemagnes overlordship. Felix was a proponent
of adoptionism, the doctrine that Christ was a member of the
Trinity only by virtue of his adoption by God. The doctrine had
some strength in Spain, being supported by Archbishop Elipand of
Toledo. Alcuin and Paulinus (a former teacher of grammar,
ecclesiastical advisor to Charlemagne,and at some point
archbishop of Aquileia) wrote monographs against adoptionism,
which were approved by synods in Frankfurt (794) and Aquileia
(796).
793 Viking raiders sacked Lindisfarne.
793 Muslim raiders from Spain burned down suburbs of Narbonne
in France.
794 The Synod of Frankfort, called by Charlemagne, opposed the
conclusions of Nicaea II, 787, and denied that it had been an
ecumenical council. Support for Nicaeas rulings from Hadrian
(772-95), bishop of Rome, was also condemned. The worship of
images, under the terms worship, adoration, and service of any
kind, was forbidden. Destruction of images was also opposed,
inasmuch as the synod did not condemn depictions as decorations
or tools for instructing the illiterate, only the worship or adoration
of depictions. The Franks also criticized Nicaea II because, they
thought, the question of the veneration of icons was too trifling to
merit consideration by an ecumenical council - a clear indication of
theological naivete on the part of the Franks. (The English church
agreed with the Gallican, against the pope.)
Patriarch Tarasioss formula indicating the Holy Spirit proceeds
from the Father through the Son was condemned as an error. In
the Frankish view, it implied that the Holy Spirit was created, not
properly a member of the Trinity. Paulinus of Aquileiaslibellus,
which defended the procession of the Spirit from the Father and
the Son, was also read at Frankfort. (The filioque was embraced by
Charlemagne who went so far as to accuse the East of deliberately
omitting it from the ancient Nicene Creed.)
Adoptionism was also condemned, as works by both Alcuin and
Paulinus against that heresy were read and approved. Alcuin,
who was present at the synod of Frankfort, considered that
Charlemagne, by directing the synod, had effectively served as
rector of the Christian people in his empire.
795 Theodore, abbot of a monastery near Mount Olympus in
Bithnia and later known as Theodore Studites or Theodore of
Stoudion, criticized Constantine VI (780-97) for his second
marriage, this to his mistress Theodote. Theodore was exiled to
Thessalonica.
796 Frankish victory over the Avars resulted in the annexation of
Pannonia (western Hungary). One of Charlemagnes sons met
with Arn of Salzburg and Paulinus, archbishop of Aquileia, and
determined not to force baptism on the Avars (see 785 above for
the Frankish treatment of the Saxons).
796 The synod of Aquileia. Paulinus of Aquileia argued that
the filioque was simply a clarification of the original Nicene creed,
as the creed of 381 had been. He encouraged the public recitation
of the creed, with filioque, as a tool against heretical beliefs such as
adoptionism (see 793 above) and Arianism.
797 Irene had the eyes of her son, the Emperor Constantine VI, put
out. He died from his injuries. From this point until she was
deposed in 802, Irene was empress.
Irene recalled Theodore Studites (see 795) from exile, and he and
his followers moved to the monastery of Stoudion in
Constantinople.
798 Bavaria obtained an archbishop, whose see was at Salzburg.
The first incumbent, Arn, labored for the conversion of the Avars
(see 796) and the Carantians. Arn is also partially responsible for
an excellent library at Salzburg.
799 In April, the late Pope Hadrians nephew Paschalis led a crowd
in an assault on Leo III, the new pope (795-816). They attempted to
tear his tongue out and blind him, but he escaped. Leo fled to
Charlemagne in Paderborn. Charlemagne sent a commission to
Rome to investigate the complaints against Leo, then he himself
came to Rome.
800 In the West around this time the bishop of Rome began to be
termed Pope exclusively. The word means Father, and was used
when referring to bishops (and even priests) from the earliest
times.
800 Pope Leo III (795-816) crowned Charlemagne Roman emperor.
By crowning the emperor, the bishop of Rome was asserting his
claim to the West, as presented in the Donation of Constantine: if
he gave the imperial title, he could also remove it.
800 Sometime during the eighth century, azymes (unleavened
bread) was introduced into the eucharist in the West.
800 The town of Mikulcice in Moravia (between the Morava and
Danube rivers) was established by this time.
800 Felix of Urgel renounced adoptionism.
800+ Christian writings, previously available in Latin, began to be
widely disseminated in Irish.
The Ninth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


802 The Empress Irene was deposed by a group of state officials,
arrested, and exiled to an island in the Marmara, then to Lesbos,
where she died in 803.
801 An embassy Charlemagne had sent to Baghdad returned (only
one of the three envoys survived the trip), bringing an elephant
with them. The Caliph Harun al Rashid had given Charlemagne
permission to establish a Carolingian monastery in Jerusalem.
The eastern monks were shocked by the Frankish alteration to the
creed (the filioque). The western monks appealed to Leo III, bishop
of Rome from 795-816, to settle the controversy. See 809 & 810
below.
803 The archbishopric of Lichfield (see 785 above) was terminated
by the synod of Cloveshoe. We give this charge, and sign it with
the sign of the cross, that the archepiscopal from this time forward
never be in the monastery of Lichfield, nor in any other place but
the city of Canterbury, where Christs Church is, and where the
Catholic faith first shone forth in this island, and where holy
baptism was first celebrated by St. Augustine ... But if any dare to
rend Christ's garment and to divide the untiy of the holy Church of
God, contrary to the apostolic precepts and all ours, let him know
that he is eternally damned, unless he make due satisfaction for
what he has wickedly done, contrary to the canons.
804 Alcuin wrote to the people of Lyons cautioning them not to
insert the filioque into the creed. The Spanish bishop Felix dUrgel
had been banished there and was advocating including
the filioque. [Note: this event is problematic. By 804, Felix had
renounced adoptionism, and Alcuin is known to have advocated
the use of the filioque in public worship.]
805 A synod of Aachen in this year instructed bishops to develop
schools of church music, based on the Roman model (see 595
above).
805 Charlemagne proscribed the weapons trade with the Slavs.
806 The Monastery of St. Columba on Iona destroyed by Viking
raiders. All the monks were killed.
806 Theodore Studites opposed the emperor Nicephorus I (802-11)
over the appointment of another Nichephorus (806-15) as patriarch
of Constantinople. Theodore opposed this appointment because
the future patriarch was soft on adulterous remarriages (see 795),
took conciliatory positions on theological matters, and was
nominated to the patriarchate while still a layman. Because of
Nichephorus opposition to iconoclasm, he later gained Theodore
approval.
808-10 The Roman (Byzantine) chronologist George Synkellos
wrote his Chronography, based on the Alexandrian Era (see 5509
at the beginning of the timeline). He placed creation in 1 A.M.
(anno mundi, year of the world 5492 B.C.), the flood in 2242 A.M.
(3251 B.C.), the Exodus in 3817 A.M. (1676 B.C.), the Incarnation in
5501 A.M. (9 A.D.), and the Crucifixion in 5533 A.M. (41 B.C.).
Synkellos held that the Incarnation, Resurrection and the creation
of the world occurred on March 25.
809 Theodore Studites exiled for the second time (809-811) after his
condemnation by a synod.
809 At the Council of Aachen (or Aix-La-Chapelle), Charlemagne
decreed that belief in the filioque was necessary for salvation. He
also commissioned Theodulf of Orleans to collect patristic
passages supporting the addition to the creed.
810 The council of Aix-la-Chapelle referred the question of
the filioque to the Pope. According to the minutes of the
conversation held in 810 between the three apocrisari of
Charlemagne and Pope Leo III, kept by the Frankish
monk Smaragdus, Leo accepted the teaching of the Fathers,
quoted by the Franks, that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the
Father and the Son, as taught by Augustine and Ambrose.
However, he declared that the filioque must not be added to the
Creed, as the Franks had done. Leo gave the Franks permission to
sing the Creed, but not to add to the Creed. Leo emphasized that
he could not put himself in a position higher than the Fathers of
the Synods, who did not omit the filioque out of oversight or
ignorance, but by divine inspiration.
Leo had the creed engraved, without filioque, on two tablets of
silver and hung them in St. Peters Church above the inscription,
I, Leo, have put up these tablets for the love and preservation of
the orthodox faith. The Franks, it appears, simply ignored the
popes instructions to omit the filioque when reciting the creed.
811 The Bulgar Khan Krum killed the Roman emperor Nicephorus
I (802-11) in battle in a narrow gorge in the Balkans. Krum had
Nicephoruss skull fashioned into a goblet.
811 Charlemagne acted as judge in a dispute between the churches
of Salzburg and Aquileia over missionary activity in the
Carantanian region.
813 The Bulgars sacked Adrianople and burned the suburbs of
Constantinople. Their Khagan Krum died the following year.
814 A treaty between the Romans (Byzantines) and the Franks
guaranteed Venices political independence from the German
empire. By 840/41, Venice was acting independently of
Constantinople as well.
814 Charlemagne died at Aachen. His son Louis the Pious
succeeded him.
815 (813?) With the ascension of the Emperor Leo the
Armenian (Leo V, 813-20) to the throne in Constantinople, icons
were again banned within the Roman Empire.
815 Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople was exiled to a
monastic retreat near Chalcedon. While there, he wrote influential
treatises against iconoclasm.
815 A Bulgar boyar emigrated to Constantinople and took the
Christian name of Theodore. He was given the rank of patrician.
Conversions like this appear to have been not uncommon in this
era, as attested by a letter to the boyar from Theodore Studites.
816 Theodore Studites again exiled (816-20), this time for his
opposition to iconoclasm.
816+ The archbishop of Lyons, Agobard (816-40), wrote pamphlets
against Jewish proselytizers active in southern Gaul among both
peasants and town dwellers, and against Jewish influence in the
French court. When Agobard sent missions to the Jews in Lyons,
they complained to King Louis the Pious (814-40), who sided with
his Jewish subjects.
816 Pope Stephen IV (816-17) crowned Loius the Pious emperor in
Rheims.
817 The deposed patriarch of Constantinople, Nicephorus,
wrote Apologeticus major, a defense of the veneration of icons.
His persuasiveness may have been a factor in Michael IIs relative
toleration of the iconodules. Nicephorus is well known for his
Breviarium Nicephori, a history of the Roman Empire from 602-
769, and for his chronological tables, listing the major ecclesial and
political leaders from Adam to 829. Much of Nicephoruss work
was translated into Latin by Anastasius the Librarian (seee 867-8
below).
817 Pope Paschal I (817-24) persuaded the Frankish emperor Louis
to agree to the Pactum Ludovicianum, a document that confirmed
the papacys ownership of the papal patrimonies and forbade the
Frankish emperor from interfering in papal affairs, unless
invited. It also stipulated that newly elected popes need not await
imperial confirmation before they assumed office.
820 The emperor Michael II (820-29), an iconoclast, allowed
Theodore Studites to return to Constantinople. Theodore was
prevented from resuming his role as abbot.
822 Mojmir (prince of Moravia) baptized by bishop Reginhere of
Passau, a Frank.
823 A delegation including Archbishop Ebo of Rheims and
Willeric, bishop of Bremen, traveled to Denmark to convince its
king, Harald Flak, to accept Christianity.
824 Pope Eugenius (824-27) accepted Frankish imperial
sovereignty in the papal state. He also accepted the Frankish
emperors requirement that an elected pope must swear fealty to
the Frankish emperor before he being consecrated.
825 The monk Blathmac of Iona was murdered by Vikings for
refusing to say where the monasterys treasure was hidden. The
story of his death spread rapidly, at least as far as Reichenau.
826 King Harald Flak of Denmark baptized a Christian at the
German imperial court in Ingelheim (near Mainz).
827 The Aghlabid Amirs of Northern Africa invaded Sicily.
827/8 Muslims from Spain attacked Crete. They enslaved the
populace of twenty-nine cities. Christian worship was permitted at
only one site on the island. Afterwards, the Muslims raided the
island of Aegina in the gulf of Corinth. All the inhabitants were
killed or deported.
827 The emperor Michael the Stammerer (Michael II, 820-29) sent
King Louis the Pious of France (814-840) a copy of the works of the
Pseudo-Dionysius.
828 The relics of St. Mark the Evangelist moved from Egypt to
Venice.
830+ Refounding of the University of Constantinople by the
emperor Theophilus I (829-42). Its output of scholars fueled the
empires prosperity through the next several centuries, as well as
influencing the conversion of the Slavs (for example, see 862
below). The eastern renaissance was also assisted by government
reform, the implementation of new administrative regions known
as themes. Extant documentations shows themes established in
Peloponnese (800), Macedonia (802), Cephalonia and the Ionian
Islands (809), Dyrrachium (825) and Thessalonica (836). (A theme
was a districts settled with soldiers who undertook a hereditary
obligation of military service. Themes were governed by strategoi,
who enjoyed both military and civilian command.)
831 Baptism of a large number of Moravians by bishop Reginhere
of Passau.
831 Saracen forces under Khalif Mamun invaded Cappadocia (Asia
Minor). The action forced Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Theophilos
(829-42) to concentrate forces there, leaving Sicily weakened. The
Saracens had been gnawing at Sicily since 827. They finally took
the island in 859.
832 Anskar, educated at the monastery at Corbie, who had gone to
Denmark in 826 and recently become bishop of Hamburg, traveled
to Rome where he was given a sweeping commission to evangelize
the North by Gregory IV (bishop of Rome, 827-844).
832 Devastated by excessive taxation and torture, the Copts of
lower Egypt rebelled once again against their Saracen overlords
(see 725 and 739). Their villages, vines, gardens, and churches
were burned down. Many were killed or deported.
833 Mojmir (prince of Moravia) annexed the territory of Pribina,
prince of the Slav territory Nitra. Moravian power had grown
since Charlemagnes defeat of the Avars in 795. Afterwards,
Pribina visited King Louis the German (840-76), under whose
protection Pribina built a fortress and church at Zalavar at the
western end of Lake Balaton in Pannonia (now Hungary).
Archbishop Liupram of Salzburg consecrated the church there and
sixteen other churches in Pannonia.
834 During the tenure of the Armenian Catholicus John V (834-55)
a certain Sembat who lived in the highlands north of Lake Van
founded a heretical sect known as the Thonraki. In beliefs and
practices, the Thonraki were similar to the Paulicians (see 719).
The Thonraki lingered until the nineteenth century.
835 The Frankish king Louis the Pious, at the urging of Gregory IV
(828-44), bishop of Rome, began to observe All Saints Day on
November 1. That date had been celebrated as All Saints Day in
England since late in the eighth century.
838 Muslims from Carmargue, Spain made a razzia (a raid to
capture slaves) to Marseilles, France.
838 A certain Bodo from Alemannia, a deacon in the service of the
Frankish King Louis the Pious, secretly converted to
Judaismunder the influence of prominent Jews at Louiss court.
Pretending to go on pilgrimage to Rome, Bodo traveled to Spain
where he changed his name to Eleazar, married a Jewish girl, and
forced his nephew to convert to Judaism as well. Eleazar entered
into correspondence with Paul Avlar of Cordoba, the son of Jewish
converts to Christianity, on the question of the relative merits of
the two faiths. Eleazar predicted the future victory of the Jews and
the appearance of the Messiah in 867. He accused Christians of
tritheism and of worshipping a man.
A few years after removing to Spain, Eleazar attempted to
convince the Amir Abd-ar-Rahman II, ruler of Spain, to coerce
Christians into abandoning their faith.
~840 The monastery at Samos (northwestern Spain), originally
founded by bishop Ermefredus of Lugo in about 660, re-
established by an immigrant from the Islamic south of Spain about
this year. More monks fled there from Cordoba in 857.
840 A certain lady named Dhouda, living in southern France,
wrote a work on Christian devotion for her son.
840+ Miracle stories collected at Fulda by a monk named Rudolf
refer to the sacrament of confession.
840+ Amolus, successor to Agobard as archbishop of Lyons, wrote
a work entitled Liber contra Judeos, dedicated to the emperor of the
western Franks, Charles the Bald. Amolus stated that some
Christians in Lyons were visiting synagogues because rabbis were
better preachers than Christian priests. He complained of
the Toledoth Yeshu, an anti-Christian work that ridiculed the
gospels. Amolus mentioned the practice of Jewish taxgatherers
who offered to forgive taxes to peasants who agreed to convert to
Judaism.
842 The Empress Theodora, after her husbands death and in the
name of her five-year old son, the Emperor Michael III, recalled the
Orthodox bishops and priests who had been expelled from their
positions by her iconoclastic husband, the Emperor Theophilus. A
synod was convened to re-affirm the Orthodox faith against the
iconoclasts.
842 Muslims from Carmagure, Spain made a razzia to Arles,
France.
842 Saracen forces captured Messina in Sicily, thus gaining control
over the Strait of Messina.
843 The Partition of Verdun. Charlemagnes empire was
distributed among Louis II the German (Germany), Charles the
Bald (Neustria and Aquitaine most of modern France), and
Lothair (Italy and a trip from the Rhone basin to the Belgian coast).
843 On the first Sunday of Great Lent, March 11, the Synodicon of
Orthodoxy was first proclaimed. In its current form, the
Synodicon varies somewhat from location to location. It
anathematizes:
(1) all attacks upon the Patriarchs Germanus, Tarasius,
Nicephorus, Methodius, Ignatius, Photius, Stephen, Anthony, and
Nicholas;
(2) everything, whether past or future, contrary to Church tradition
and teaching and the institutions of the Fathers;
(3) those who employ the term uncircumscribed to argue against the
depiction of Christ in icons;
(4) those who realize that images (presumably, images of the pre-
Incarnate Logos) were revealed to the Old Testament prophets
(and those who do not), but still insist that icons of the incarnate
Word are not to be made;
(5) those who accept Christ's saving works but refuse to view those
acts depicted in icons, or to venerate them;
(6) those who immitate the blasphemies of Jews and Greeks
against Christ by insulting his icons;
(7) Anastatius, Constantine, and Nicetas;
(8) Theodotus, Anthony, and John - these last six mentioned were
iconoclastic patriarchs of Constantinople;
(9) Paul, Theodore Gastes, Stephen Molytes, Theodore Crithinus
(Archbishop of Syracuse), Leo Laloudis and those like them (this
anathema apparently applies to the then-living iconoclasts);
[The section in green below is included here to provide a summary
of the complete Synodicon. The anathemas are also listed
elsewhere in the timeline, in their proper chronological settings.]
Anathemas 11 through 21 condemn John Italus (condemned in
1082) and his pagan Greek philosophy.
(10) Gerontius (11th century), who apparently called himself
Christ;
(11) those who seek to discover exactly how the Word was joined
to his human substance, and how the latter was deified;
(12) those who introduce Greek doctrines of the soul, heaven,
earth, and creation into the Church;
(13) those who teach metemphychosis or the destruction of the
soul after death;
(14) those who say that ideas or matter are co-eternal with God,
and those who say that creation is eternal or immutable;
(15) those who honor, or who believe that God will honor, Greek
philosophers or heresiarchs who taught error above the Fathers of
the councils who held to the truth, though these latter may have
sinned through passion or ignorance;
(16) those who do not accept the miracles of Christ, the Theotokos,
and all his saints;
(17) those who think Greek philosophy to be true and try to
convert the faithful to their opinions;
(18) those who teach that creation is the necessary result of the
participation of matter in the ideas, and not the result of God's free
will;
(19) those who say that it is impossible that we will rise to
judgment in these same bodies;
(20) those who believe in the pre-existence of souls; those who
deny that all of creation is ex nihilo; those who say that hell is
temporary or that all of creation will be restored (including the
most wicked); and those who understand the Kingdom of Heaven
to be temporary.
(21) all of John Italus doctrines introduced in opposition to the
Orthodox faith;
Niluss error was to hold that Christs human nature was deified
by nature rather than by hypostatic union; see 1184 below.
(22) Niluss doctrines, and those who agree with them;
The next four anathemas address the errors of the Bogomils, a
Manichean-like sect of the tenth through thirteenth centuries. The
Bogomils had a low view of creation, and of the God of creation.
They held that man's redemption consisted in being freed by death
of his body which imprisoned him in this life. These anathemas
were added in 1143.
(23) those who deny that the three members of the Trinity have one
nature; those who say the Son was created accidentally, and is
merely an angel; and those who say that the Holy Spirit is inferior
to the Son and the Father;
(23) those who say that Satan is the creator and ruler of the
universe and the creator of mankind;
(24) those who deny that the Logos and Son was begotten before
time, and became incarnate of the Virgin Mary for our salvation;
and those who believe the eucharist to be only bread and wine and
not truly the flesh and blood of the Savior;
(25) those who do not worship the cross through which our God
Jesus Christ destroyed the devices of the enemy;
The next two anathemas are directed
against Eustratios (Eustratius), metropolitan of Nicaea, who had
been one of Italoss pupils. Eustratios was condemned in 1117.
Leo, the metropolitan of Chalcedon, held the view that it was
iconoclastic to melt down the precious metals of icon frames. Leo
was corrected in 1091/92. From the following, they seem to
separated the hypostasis of Christ.
(26) those who say that Christs human nature will always be in
servitude to his Divine nature;
(27) those who improperly use the distinction between the two
natures of Christ and say that the human nature is lower in dignity
and obligated to worship the Divine nature; and those say our
High Priest is that human nature, and not the one person of Christ;
The following eight anathemas are directed against the errors
of Basilakes and Soterichus, condemned by the Synod of
Blachernae in 1157.
(28) those who say that Christ offered his sacrifice to God the
Father alone, and not to himself and to the Holy Spirit;
(30) those who deny that the daily sacrifice of the priests of the
Church is to the Holy Trinity;
(31) those who say that the sacrifice of the Divine Liturgy is only
figuratively the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood; those who
deny that the sacrifice in the Lirtugy is one and the same as that of
Christ on the cross;
(33) those who deny that Christ reconciled us to Himself though
the entire mystery of the economy, and so reconciled us to all of
the Holy Trinity, but say instead that we were reconciled to the
Son through the incarnation and to the Father through the
passion;
(34) those who misunderstand and twist the teachings of the
Church;
(35) those who think the deification of Christ's humanity destroyed
his human nature; and those who deny that his deified human
nature is worthy of worship; and those who say that, since the
human nature of Christ was swallowed up into Divinity, his
passion was an illusion;
(36) those who reject the doctrines of Athanasius, Cyril, Ambrose,
Amphilochius, and Leo of Old Rome, and who do not accept the
teachings of the Ecumenical councils, in particular, the fourth and
sixth councils;
(37) those who say that characteristics of Christs human nature -
such as creaturehood, circumscription, mortality, and blameless
passions - exist only hypothetically, when one considers Christ's
human nature in abstraction, and not really and truly;
The following anathemas are directed against Constantine the
Bulgarian, formerly Metropolitan of Corfu, and John Irenicus,
whose views were condemned by a synod in 1166.
(38) Constantine the Bulgarian, who says that My father is greater
than I refers only to Christ's human nature, taken in abstraction;
whereas the Fathers use such an abstraction only to explain
statements implying servitude or ignorance, and explain the
statement My father is greater than I in various ways, one of
which is that the statement refers to the fact that Christs human
nature retained its properties in the hypostatic union;
(39) those who agree with Constantine of Bulgaria;
(40) John Irenicus, who held the same view;
Various anathemas:
(41) the iconoclastic synod;
(42) those who apply Scripture condemning idolatry to the
venerable icons;
(43) those who have communion with the enemies of icons;
(44) those who say icons are our gods;
(45) those who say that someone other than Christ (e.g., the
Emperor Constantine Copronymus) rescued us from idolatry;
(46) those who claim that the Church has fallen from the faith by
accepting idolatry;
(47) those who defend heretics and their followers, ancient or
modern;
(48) those who do not venerate the icons of our Lord Jesus Christ,
which depict his humanity;
(49) all heretics;
Anathemas against Barlaam and Acindynus. Barlaam was
condemned by the Council of St. Sophia in 1341, and Acindynus by
the Council of Blachernae in 1351:
(50) Barlaam and Acindynus and their followers;
(51) those who think that the light of Christ's Transfiguration was
an apparition; and those who say it was the essence of God;
anyone who does not confess that the divine light is the uncreated
grace and energy of God which always proceeds from God's
essence;
(52) those who refuse to recognize the undivided distinction
between God's essence and his energy;
(53) those who deny that the energy of God is uncreated;
(54) those who say that the distinction between energy and essence
implies that God is not simple and uncompounded;
(55) those claim that the term Godhead is rightly applied only to
the essence of God, and not to the divine energy;
(56) those who say that the divine essence is communicated;
(57) all the sacrilegious writings of those men;
The following anathema is directed against Isaac Argyrus, a
disciple of Nicephorus Gregoras. Apparently, he held many of the
views condemned in anathemas 50-57. Argyrus was condemned
by the council of 1351.
(58) Isaac Argyrus;
Various anathemas against ancient heresies and heretics:
(59) Arius;
(60) Peter the Fuller, who said the Trinity was crucified for us;
(61) Noetus - who said that the Trinity suffered - and Valentinus
(the Gnostic);
(62) Paul of Samosata, Theodotion, and Nestorius;
(63) Peter the Paltry (Lycopetrus), Eutyches, and Sabellius;
(64) James Stanstalus, Dioscorus, Severus, three Monothelite
patriarchs of Constantinople (Sergius, Paul and Pyrrhus), and
Sergius (a disciple of Lycopetrus);
(65) the followers of Eutyches, the Monothelites, the Jacobites, the
Artziburites, and all heretics;
Although this list of anathemas is quite lengthy, the Synodicon is
full or praise for Orthodox doctine and its adherents. Historically,
the Synodicon was read on the first Sunday of Lent for the
instruction of the faithful.
In 843, religious events and persons were again depicted on coins
of the Roman Empire. The iconoclasts had allowed secular images
only to appear on coins.
844 In the papal election this year, the populace in Rome
supported the archdeacon John. The nobility gave their approval
to Sergius II. While John defended himself in the Lateran, Sergius
was consecrated in St. Peters without imperial approval. Sergius
then protected John from the nobles, who wished to murder
him. Later, John was imprisoned in a monastery.
Pope Sergius II (844-47) agreed to the Frankish emperors demand
that he have the right to confirm papal elections and have a
representative present at the consecration. The Roman (Byzantine)
emperors had pursued a similar practice (see 604).
844 The kingdoms of the Picts and Scots were joined when
Kenneth mac Alpin (McAlpine), king of the Scots, inherited the
Pictish throne.
845 St. Blaith, while attempting to re-establish the monastery on
Iona, killed by Vikings.
845 Hamburg sacked by Danish pirates.
845 Bohemian lords presented themselves to King Louis the
German (840-76) and asked to become Christian. Louis had them
baptized.
846 Saracenssacked the suburbs of Rome, including the Vatican.
They stripped the costly ornaments from the graves of Peter and
Paul.
847 Upon the election of Pope Leo IV (847-55) in this year, Louis
(son of Lothair), king of Lombardy and emperor-designate,
reasserted the imperial right to confirm the papal election.
847-61 The reign of the caliph al-Muttawakkil was marked by
persecution of non-Muslims, forced conversions, and the
destruction of churches and synagogues throughout the Abbasid
Empire (centered in Baghdad).
848 The Synod of Mainz condemned Gottschalk of Orbais (803-868)
for heresy. Gottschalks theology emphasized the Augustinian
doctrine of predestination. Gottschalk was placed under the
jurisdiction of archbishop Hincmar of Rheims [Reims] (806-882),
who imprisoned him at Hautvillers abbey.
In a response to Gottschalks emphasis on predestination, Hincmar
wrote On Gods Predestination and Free Will in which he denied
predestination to hell. Hincmar and Gottschalk were also involved
in a theological dispute over certain ways of referring to the Trinity
which could imply polytheism.
Hincmar is the first person known to have doubted the
authenticity of the Forged Decretals. (He had reason to see
861.) These decretals appeared near the middle of the ninth
century, purportedly from the pen of Isidore of Seville (see
633). Charlemagne had reorganized the church in his territories by
strengthening the power of archbishops, and so improving
imperial control. The bishops and lower clergy resented
archiepiscopal and imperial interference. The decretals exaggerate
the power of the papacy in order to diminish that of the
archbishops. Many of the decretals are supposed letters from early
popes.
849 Pope Leo IV (847-55) arranged an alliance among several
Greek cities in Italy. Their combined fleet destroyed a Saracen fleet
off Ostia.
~850 An anonymous Christian monk in Palestine wrote
the Summa Theologiae Arabica, an apologetic work, written in
Arabic, that castigated Christians who, in the interests of personal
comfort and profit, downplayed the differences between
Christianity and Islam to make the faith more palatable to the
Muslims. He wrote, By There is no god but God they mean a
god other than the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
850+ When Christians who had converted to Islam in Cordoba
reversed themselves, they were put to death. Islam grew in
strength in Spain until roughly 1050.
851 In November, a young woman named Flora was put to death
in Spain for apostasy from Islam. The child of a Muslim father and
Christian mother, Flora was raised a Christian after her fathers
death. When she entered a nunnery, her Muslim brother found
her and denounced her to the authorities.
851-58 In the time of the Coptic pope Cosmas II (851-858), the
persecution of Christians was broadened to include the destruction
of crosses and bells and the demolition or desecration of churches.
Copts were forbidden to ride horses and required to dress in
black. Copts were also dismissed from government service, but
many were returned when the government found itself unable to
maintain solvency without their assistance. During this period,
many Copts converted to Islam.
852 Death of Aurelius and Sabigotho. The orphaned child of a
Muslim father and a Christian mother, Aurelius was raised a
Christian by his paternal aunt. When he was educated by Muslim
relatives, he kept his faith a secret. He married a secretly Christian
woman named Sabigotho, whose stepfather, a secret Christian, had
converted the family. Aurelius and Sabigotho began to do works
of mercy. When they visited a prison, they met Flora (see 881
above) who warned them that their end would be near when they
met a foreign monk. Aurelius and Sabigotho sold their property
and entered the monastery of Tabanos. There they met George, a
Palestinian monk from the monastery of St. Saba. When they, with
Aureliuss relative Felix and his wife Liliosa, publicly denounced
Islam, they and the monk George were executed.
852 The Leonine Wall. Under Pope Leo IV (847-55), the walls of
Rome were extended to encircle Vatican hill. Leo wished to deter a
repetition of the Saracen attack of 846. The wall was 40 feet high,
12 feet thick, and had 54 towers.
853 The Council of Quiercy stated that God Almighty created him
[man] righteous, without sin, and endowed with free will. It also
held that God, the good and just, elected, on the basis of
foreknowledge, those from the mass of perdition whom he by
grace predestined to life.
855 Louis II (855-75), son of Lothair, succeeded his father as
emperor in Italy. Preoccupied with the Saracen threat in the
Mediterranean, Louis lost his northern territories, which were
taken by his brothers Lothair and Charles.
856 Death of Rabanus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda and Archbishop of
Mainz. Maurus is generally thought to have authored the
hymn Veni, Creator Spiritus.
856-62 Viking raids across northern France.
858 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Michael III (842-67) led an
army against the Paulicians (for their beliefs, see 719). The
Paulicians had been fighting against the empire on behalf of the
emirs of Melitene and Tarsus. Michael was attending Divine
Liturgy at his encampment before Samosata when the Paulicians
and Saracens attacked. The emperor and his minister Bardas
escaped, but at least 100 important imperial officers were captured.
858 The Scottish king Kenneth mac Alpin buried at Iona. This
would be the custom of Scottish kings for the next ~250 years.
858 The schism of Pope Nicholas (the Photian schism), 858-880.
The patriarch Photios (Photius) of Constantinople began the
redecoration of the churches. Photios had gone from layman to
patriarch in a day (852), and this offended Pope Nicholas I (858-
67). Photios promotion was motivated by the desire to replace
Ignatios (Ignatius), then patriarch, who opposed the emperors
removal of his mother to a convent. The emperor Michael III held
a council (861) that confirmed Photios appointment, and the papal
legates agreed to the decision. Nicholas, however, disagreed, held
a rival council in Rome in 862, and excommunicated Photios.
Nicholas was the first bishop of Rome to make use of the Forged
Decretals (see 863). These are a collection of ecclesiastical juridical
acts compiled in the West at the beginning of the ninth century in
the name of Isidore, an authoritative Spanish sacred minister.
Since both the name of the compiler and the contents of the
collection, as was established later on, were spurious, it has
received the name of the PseudoIsidorian Decretals. The
collection consists of three parts. In the first part, there are fifty
Apostolic Canons and sixty decretals of the Roman popes. Of
these sixty decretals, two are partly falsified, while fifty-eight are
altogether spurious. In the second part, among other invented
material, there is the spurious donation of the city of Rome by the
Emperor Constantine the Great to the Roman Pope Silvester.
In one view, the decretals were invented to counter the Frankish
feudal system, by giving a Roman administrator (the bishop of
Rome), among other things, a say in the election of bishops in the
West. In addition, by seating the bishop of Rome in Constantines
chair, no Frankish king could rule from Rome. (But see 749 above.)
859 The Saracens completed their conquest of Roman
(Byzantine) Sicily with the fall of Enna in this year. The Roman
(Byzantine) stronghold of Taormina held out until 1 August 902.
859 Death of Eulogius, author of Memoriale Sanctorum, a history of
the Christian martyrs in Spain. Eulogius was executed by the
Islamic authorities. His biography was written by Paul of Alvar,
who had contested with Bodo (see 838 above).
860 The Rus, sailing in two hundred ships, mounted an attack
upon Constantinople. They withdrew after the Virgins robe was
processed around the walls of the city.
860 From their base in Melitene, the Paulicians under their leader
Carbeas with their Saracen allies raided the Roman Empire,
penetrating as far as the Black Sea coast.
860/1 The brothers Cyril and Methodius (see 862 below) sent on a
mission to convert the Khazars. Unfortunately, the Khazarshad
already (during the 850s) converted to Judaism, becoming the
thirteenth tribe. It is thought that the mission was also
diplomatic in nature, designed to persuade the Khazars to attack
the Rus. Already the Khazars had served a strategic purpose in
blocking the advance of Islam through the Caucasus.
861 Muhammed al-Mudabbir became Abbasid minister of finance
in Egypt. He tripled the jizya (protection money) due from
Christians and Jews. Many were unable to pay; consequently, the
prisons filled. Churches were looted and confiscated to raise funds
for the diwan (the Islamic treasury). Monks were imprisoned. The
Coptic patriarch of Alexandria, too impoverished to pay the taxes
required of the church, went into hiding.
861 Responding to complaints over the behavior of John,
archbishop of Ravenna, Pope Nicholas I summoned him to
Rome. John argued that ancient precedents gave him immunity
from this type of summons. Nicholas, in turn, excommunicated
him. John acquiesced. As a result of the conflict, the archbishops
authority was curtailed, and he swore allegiance to Rome.
861 Hincmar of Rheims deposed Rothad of Soissons. When
Rothad appealed to the pope, Hincmar tried to stop him, citing
Frankish law. Pope Nicholas decided the case in Rothads favor,
arguing that no bishop could be deposed without papal
permission. Hincmar attempted to thwart the pope, but Nicholas
threatened to suspend him from celebrating the liturgy. Like John
of Ravenna, Hincmar acquiesced. After Nicholas died, Hincmar
again fought papal intrusions into local Frankish church affairs. (A
letter supposedly by Zephyrinus, bishop of Rome (199-217),
included in the Forged Decretals, contains the following: For the
trials of bishops and graver ecclesiastical cases, as the apostles and
their holy successors have decreed, are to be finally decided by
the seat of the apostles, and by no other.)
862 The Irishman John Scotus (called Erigena) translated the
works of the Pseudo-Dionysius into Latin. John lived in the court
of Charles the Bald, West Frankish king (840-77), and also
translated works by St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Maximos the
Confessor, and St. Epiphanios. Scotus wrote De praedestinatione in
response to the ongoing dispute over predestination (see 848, 853),
but his work was condemned by church authorities. Scotus is best
known for his De divisione naturae, an attempt to harmonize
Christian doctrine with neo-Platonic philosophy. To many, De
divisione naturae appeared to have pantheistic implications.
862 Boris, Khan of the Bulgars, met with King Louis the German
(840-76) along the Danube near Vienna, proposing an alliance
against the Romans (Byzantines). Boris agreed to accept
Christianity from the Franks.
862 To counter the encircling alliance of Franks and Bulgars (see
862 above), Ratislav, prince of Great Moravia (centered near
modern Slovakia), requested that the Roman Emperor Michael III
send him missionaries. Photios and the emperor chose the
brothers Methodius (a monk ordained to the priesthood) and
Constantine (a philosophy instructor at the University of
Constantinople, who later took the name Cyril when he became a
monk) to head the mission. German missionaries using a Latin
liturgy had entered Great Moravia - see 822 and 831above. Cyril
and Methodius were chosen because they spoke Slavic. Cyril had
crafted a Slavonic alphabet and translated liturgical texts and parts
of the scriptures into Slavonic.
The Roman (Byzantine) missionaries were persecuted by their
Frankish (German) counterparts. The Franks claimed that there
were only three legitimate languages of worship: Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew - the three languages employed in the inscription on
Christs cross. For this reason, Cyril referred to the Germans as
Pilatians, in reference to the trilingual words on the cross at
Calvary.
862-4 Sometime during this period, the Rus sent an embassy to
Constantinople. The Rus ambassadors accepted Christianity.
863 Pope Nicholas I declared Patriarch Photios of Constantinople
deposed. Nicholas quoted the Forged Decretals as canon law. He
also claimed a supremacy over the old patriarchates - which was
not accepted since it was contrary to the traditional view of papal
primacy as delineated by the ecumenical councils. Eventually, this
novel view of the papacy as a sort of regent contributed to the schism of
the West from the Apostolic Sees of the East, and from the primitive
discipline. In the view of some historians, Nicholas practically
established the papacy as the office is now understood.
863 Roman forces defeated the Saracens in Northern Anatolia.
864 In February, the Italian emperor Louis II (855-75) besieged
Rome. His brother Lothair (king of Lorraine) had contracted a
fruitless marriage with Theutberga, a daughter of the Duke of
Burgundy. Lothair sought to divorce her (accusing her of incest),
but she appealed to the pope, who ruled in her favor. Nicholas
refused to back down to the emperor and his army, and Lothair
acknowledged the legitimacy of his marriage to Theutberga.
864 The Franks invaded Moravia and compelled Ratislav to
acknowledge their suzerainity. Since this strengthened the
German missionaries hand, Cyril and Methodius travelled to
Pannonia (866) and then to Rome (867-8) at the request of Pole
Nicholas I.
864 In exchange for the lifting of a blockade, Boris, king of
Bulgaria, agreed to accept Orthodoxy. Boris attempted to force
baptism on his subjects, but they rebelled. To squelch this pagan
rebellion, Boris had 52 boyars and their families executed.
865-76 Viking raids across eastern England.
866 Photios demanded that the Bulgarian church be subordinate to
Constantinople. Boris refused and sent to Rome and Germany for
assistance. Pope Nicholas I sent a Latin mission to Bulgaria in
response, where they expelled Bishop Hermanrich of Passau and
remained until 870. At one point Boris asked that the head of the
Roman delegation, Formosus, bishop of Porto and later Pope
Formosus (891-96) be appointed archbishop of Bulgaria. Since
such an appointment would have violated canon law, Nicholas
refused.
Side note: Bulgaria had been under Roman jurisdiction until the
time of the Emperor Leo III (718-41), who placed it under the
jurisdiction of Constantinople (see 732).
866(?) Nicholas I (858-867), bishop of Rome, stated that his sixth
century predecessor, Vigilius, had confirmed all the decisions of
the Fifth Ecumenical Council.
867 Patriarch Photios announced the conversion of the Rus. The
extent of this conversion was likely overestimated.
867 While in Venice, Cyril and Methodius encountered a group of
clerics who insisted the divine office could be celebrated in only
three languages: Hebrew, Greek and Latin. In the autumn, Cyril
and Methodius arrived in Rome, at the invitation of the pope.
They presented Pope Hadrian II (867-72) with the relics of St.
Clement, which they had acquired during their embassy to the
Khazars (860/1). Hadrian placed them in the church of St.
Clemente. Cyril and Methodius asked Hadrians permission to use
a Slavonic liturgy. The pope, in a special bull, approved this
request. He also ordained the Moravian and Pannonian priests
whom the brothers had trained. Hadrian also planned to appoint a
bishop for the Slavs who would be independent of German
(Salzburg and Passau) influence. It is likely that he initially had
Cyril in view for this post.
867 A synod met at Constantinople. It anathematized the Western
doctrine of the Procession of the Spirit from the Father and the Son
(filioque) and the practice of clerical celibacy, from which usage
we see in the West many children who do not know their fathers.
The synod excommunicated Nicholas I. Photios was deposed soon
thereafter for offending the new emperor, Basil the Macedonian,
but was soon restored (879) and recognized by Pope John VIII
(872-82).
Photios sent an encyclical to the Patriarchs of the East in which he
accused the Pope (1) of inserting the word filioque into the Creed;
(2) of intervening in the newly founded Church of Bulgaria by
repeating the chrismation of the Bulgarian Christians on the
pretext that they had previously been baptized by married priests
from Constantinople; (3) of dominating the churches of the West;
and (4) of interfering in disputes outside his own jurisdiction.
867 Death of Nicholas I, bishop of Rome. The the papacy entered
a period of decline.
867 Vikings raided York.
867-68 An embassy arrived in Constantinople from the Frankish
emperor Louis II. The expeditions goal was to arrange an alliance
by marriage between the Franks and the Romans emperor Basil I
(867-86). The unsuccessful embassy was led by the papal librarian,
Anastasius (~810-78), who had opposed Photios over the filioque.
Anastasius remained in Constantinople and attended the council
of 869-70. Anastasius the librarian translated the works of
Patriarch Nicephorus into Latin (see 817 above), and wrote a
commentary on the works of Pseudo-Dionysius.
867/68 The Paulician leader John Chrysocheir, Carbeass nephew,
led a raid into the empire as far as Smyrna. The emperor Basil I
sent an embassy under Peter the Sicilian to Chrysocheir to ransom
captives and to offer an alliance. Chrysocheir reported responded
by saying, Let the emperor, if he desires peace, abdicate the East
and retire to rule in the West. If he refuses, the servants of the
Lord will drive him from the throne. Peter learned that the
Paulicians in Melitene were in contact with their counterparts in
Thrace (see 746).
867-74 The Serbs converted to Christianity.
868 Death of the West Frankish Benedictine monk Ratramnus. He
had entered into controversy with his abbot,
PaschasiusRadbertus of Corbie, over the nature of the bread and
wine in the eucharist. Ratramnus anticipated the Reformation in
holding an interpretation of Christs presence as symbolic. His De
corpore was ordered destroyed by the Council of Vercelli in 1050;
and it was condemned at the Lateran Synod in 1059.
Ratramnus also argued against Hincmar in favor of predestination
to salvation; but he was himself opposed to the doctrine of
predestination to damnation. He also wrote Against Greek
Opposition on the filioque controversy. In another controversy
with Radbertus, Ratramnus argued that Christs birth was natural.
The more common view was that Mary remained a virgin
throughout the process of childbirth.
869 Death of Cyril. Pope Adrian II (867-72) appointed Methodius
bishop of all Slavonic churches in Moravia and Pannonia with the
title of archbishop of Sirmium.
869 Hincmar of Rheims crowned Charles the Bald Frankish
emperor, over the objections of Pope Adrian II.
869 Emperor Basil I convened a synod (called the Eighth
Ecumenical Council by the Latins), and by coercion brought the
bishops to condemn Photios. Pope Adrian II's delegates and Basil
forcibly obtained their acknowledgment that the pope is the
supreme and absolute head of all the Churches, superior even to
ecumenical synods.
It was at this council that the Roman church finally accepted the
decree from the council of 381 that Constantinople should have
second rank, behind Rome (canon 21 of the so-called Eighth
Ecumenical Council).
869 Muslims from Carmargue, Spain made a razzia (a raid to
capture slaves) to Valence, France.
870-930 Iceland settled from Norway.
870 At a special session of the council that met on March 4,
Bulgaria was placed under the jurisdiction of Conastantinople.
Boris expelled the Latin clergy from his country. Although
Ignatios was restored by the council of 869, he betrayed his Roman
supporters by consecrating an archbishop for Bulgaria and sending
Orthodox missionaries there. Bulgaria received an independent
archbishopric.
In about this year Peter of Sicily, working for the patriarch of
Constantinople, sent a letter to the archbishop of Bulgaria to warn
him that the Paulicians (see 719) meant to send missionaries into
his country.
870 Return of Methodius to the Slavic mission field. When he
returned to Morravia, Methodius was arrested, tried at
Regensburg, and imprisoned by the Franks for two and one-half
years. Hermanrich, bishop of Passau, attempted to have at him
with a horsewhip. Methodius was eventually released at the
insistence of Pope John VIII (872-82) in May 873 and he returned to
the Moravian mission field.
870 The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum (The Conversion of
the Bavarians and Carantanians) written in Salzburg about this year.
It argued for German rights in the Slav mission field, against east
Roman interlopers such as Cyril and Methodius.
870 The Saracens conquered Malta.
871 Alfred the Great, a warrior and scholar, became king of the
West Saxons.
871 In February, working in league with a Roman (Byzantine) fleet,
the Italian emperor Louis II (855-75) took Bari, the Saracens
headquarters on mainland Italy.
871 In August, Adelchis, duke of Benevento, took the Italian
emperor Louis II (855-75) prisoner. Adelchis was concerned that
the emperor would deprive him of his independence, so he forced
Louis to promise not to re-enter the southern portion of the
peninsula. Pope Adrian II (867-72) dispensed Louis from his oath.
872 The Roman emperor Basil I sent an army into Asia Minor
under his son-in-law Christopher to deal with the Paulicians. They
were a heretical sect believing in two co-eternal principles (good
and evil), rejecting the Old Testament, denying the Incarnation,
and holding matter to have been created by the evil principle (see
719). Paulicians under their leader Chrysocheir had defeated Basil
at Tephrice in 870. Christopher caught Chrysocheirs forces at
Bathyrrhyax at the foot of Mount Zogoloenus as they were
returning from a raid on the center of Asia Minor, heavily loaded
with booty. The Paulician forces were crushed, and Chrysocheir
himself was slain by a Greek he had captured in 870.
872 In December, John VIII (872-882) succeeded Adrian II to the
papacy. John was particularly concerned with uniting Italy against
the Saracen threat.
872 The Italian emperor Louis II (855-75) defeated a Saracen force
at Capua.
873 The duke of Benevento rebelled against the Italian emperor
Louis II (855-75) and placed himself and his territories under the
protection of the Roman (Byzantine) emperor Basil I (867-86).
874 Pannonia annexed by the east Franks. German missionaries in
Moravia and Pannonia opposed the use of Slavonic in the liturgy
and accused Methodius of heresy.
874 Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople sent a bishop to the Rus.
875 On the death of the Frankish emperor Louis II, Pope John VIII
crowned Charles II the Bald of France emperor. From this year,
Pope John VIII strengthened Romes fortifications against Saracen
attack. He also stood up the papal navy.
876 The Roman Empire began the re-conquest of southern Italy
from the Saracens.
876 Viking raiders forced the monks of St. Audoen in Rouen to
abandon their monastery.
876 When Pope John VIII (872-82) appointed a papal legate for
Germany and Gaul, Hincmar, bishop of Rheims, opposed him
vigorously. Hincmar viewed the action as an intrusion on his
rights as archbishop.
876 Pope John VIII deposed and excommunicated Formosus, the
cardinal bishop of Porto. Formosus later became pope (see 891).
877 At some point after this year, the Vetus Synodicon, a collection
of summaries of church councils, was prepared. The synodicon is
the source of the legend that the First Council of Nicaea
determined the canon of scripture. Those attending the council
supposedly placed a collection of works near the church altar,
prayed, and found the approved scripture atop the altar, with the
rejected books beneath.
878 Prince Zdeslav of Croatia acknowledged the sovereignty of
Constantinople. However, he was assassinated by a strong pro-
papal party the following year, and Croatia fell under the influence
of Rome thereafter. Branimir, Croatias new leader, swore to keep
his nation loyal to the pope.
878 The Aghlabids (Saracens) captured Syracuse, defeating its
Roman (Byzantine) defenders. Thousands of the inhabitants were
killed during and after the nine-month seige. Few escaped alive.
Syracuse was pillaged and destroyed.
879-80 In 879, the emperor Basil restored Photios as patriarch of
Constantinople. In November, a council met in Constantinople. It
is sometimes recognized as the Eighth Ecumenical Council by
Orthodox Christians. The council reaffirmed the creed of A.D. 381
and declared any and all additions to the creed invalid. It also
placed Bulgaria formally under the jurisdiction of Constantinople.
Rome and Constantinople, apparently, agreed not to interfere in
the internal affairs of the other. This councils teaching was
affirmed by the patriarchs Constantinople (Photios), Antioch,
Jerusalem, and Alexandria and by Emperor Basil I. Three hundred
and eighty-three bishops attended. Pope John VIII (872-882)
recognized Photios as patriarch. John VIII is believed by some to
have simultaneously accepted the councils teaching that no one
should add to the creed and maintained that the filioque, as a
doctrine, is true. However, both Photios and a letter from John
VIII to Photios indicate that the bishop of Rome believed
thefilioque to be false. Many believe that John VIII was unwilling
to publicly denounce the filioque because he was fearful of Frankish
military retaliation.
In a private letter to Patriarch Photios (858-867, 877-886), Pope John
VIII assured his colleague that the Filioque was never added to the
Creed in Rome (as had been done by the Franks when they
feudalized Northern Italy), that it was a heresy, but that the
question should be handled with great caution... so that we will
not be forced to allow the addition... This papal letter was added
at the end of the minutes of the Synod and explains why the Synod
did not name the heretics who were condemned.
The schism finally occurred in 1054, but only after the church in
Rome had accepted the filioque into their liturgy in 1014.
Photios on the filioque: Everything, therefore, which is seen and
spoken of in the all-holy and consubstantial and coessential
Trinity, is either common to all, or belongs to one only of the three:
but the projection of the Spirit, is neither common, nor, as they say,
does it belong to any one of them alone (may propitiation be upon
us, and the blasphemy turned upon their heads). Therefore, the
projection of the Spirit is not at all in the life-giving and all-perfect
Trinity. And: For otherwise, if all things common to the Father
and the Son, are in any case common to the Spirit, and the
procession from them is common to the Father and the Son, the
Spirit therefore will then proceed from himself: and He will be
principle of himself, and both cause and caused: a thing which
even the myths of the Greeks never fabricated.
880 Pope John VIII (872-82) appointed a German priest named
Wiching bishop of Nitra, over Methodius objections.
880 In a letter to Svatopluk, Ratislavs nephew and successor as
ruler of Moravia, Pope John VIII (872-82) stated, It is certainly not
against faith or doctrine to sing the mass in the Slavonic language,
or to read the Holy Gospel or the divine lessons of the New and
Old Testaments well translated and interpreted, or to chant the
other offices of the hours, for He who made the three principal
languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, also created all the others for
His own praise and glory. However, John imposed a temporary
ban on the Slavonic liturgy.
881 Pope John VIII (872-82) crowned Charles III the Fat, king of the
Franks, emperor.
882 Pope John VIII was brutally beaten to death by members of his
own entourage.
883 Pope Marinus I (882-84) restored Formosus to the bishopric of
Porto.
~884 The Coptic pope Khail II (880-907) was imprisoned by the
Egyptian governor, Ahmad ibn Tulan (868-884), who suspected the
pope was hiding riches. The governor finally freed the pope, but
forced him to raise 10,000 dinars within one month, and a further
10,000 dinars within four months, as ransom. As Ahmad ibn
Tulan was killed in battle, the second installment was not paid.
885 Death of Methodius. Bishop Wiching of Nitra convinced
Svatopluk, lord of Moravia, to expel Methodius disciples from his
territory. The German priests with their Latin liturgy thus
prevailed in Moravia.
885 Basil I established the peninsula of Mount Athos as a place of
hesychia in this year. The origins of the monasticism on Athos are
unclear. There were hermits on the peninsula from the seventh
century, having fled the Arab conquest of the Middle East,
including Egypt. Some sources date monasticism on Mount Athos
to the reign of Constantine the Great and his mother, Saint Helen.
The first monastery was established on Athos in 962/63.
Before Basil Is death in 886, the Narentani accepted Christianity.
Pirates, they had been a threat to shipping in the Adriatic earlier in
the ninth century. The Narentani, known as Pagani to the
inhabitants of the Roman cities on the coast of Dalmatia, were the
last tribe in the northwestern Balkans to convert to Christianity.
886 Due to continuing German persecution and Methodiuss death
(see 885), most of the Slavic clergy in Moravia and Pannonia
removed to Constantinople. At the invitation of King Boris of
Bulgaria, Clement and Naum, of Ohrid in Macedonia, later
established a Slavonic academy in Ohrid, which served as an
engine for the conversion of the Slavic peoples. Clement
reportedly had 3500 pupils, many of whom became priests. King
Boris of Bulgaria assisted with the establishment of the academy at
Ohrid, and with others at Preslav and Pliska.
Some of Cyril and Methodiuss disciples in Moravia were not so
fortunate. An envoy of the Roman Emperor Basil I, on a visit to
Venice, observed a group of them being sold as slaves by Jewish
merchants. The Moravians had sold them into slavery as heretics.
The envoy purchased their freedom and sent them to
Constantinople.
886 Leo VI, known as Leo the Wise or Leo the Philosopher, Roman
(Byzantine) Emperor (886-912). Leo had been educated by
Patriarch Photios. He produced a code of laws that became the
legal code for the empire, novels dealing with secular and
ecclesiastical problems, liturgical poems, poetry and military
treatises.
889 The Magyars invaded Bessarabia and Moldavia.
890 The first reference to the use of a cam with a waterwheel. It
was being used at the monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland to make
beer for the monks. The cam was key to the wealth of monasteries
in the Middle Ages, particularly for the Cistercians.
891 Upon the death of Pope Stephen V (885-91), Formosus I (891-
96) was elected to the papacy.
893 After a pagan rebellion had been put down, a Bulgarian
assembly moved the capital from Preslav (where the pagan
influence was still strong) to Preslav. It also established Slavonic
as the official language, replacing Greek.
894 Two Greek merchants were granted a monopoly over trade
between the empire and Bulgaria. Their transfer of the market
from Constantinople to Thessalonika led to the wars between the
Bulgars and Romans of the early tenth century. The markets
relocation had an adverse effect on the towns along the route south
to Constantinople.
895 The earliest extant copy of the Masoretic text - the Cairo
Codex of the Prophets - dates from about this year.
895 Seeking assistance against Magyar raiders, two Bohemian
lords sought German aid at Regensburg, acknowledging the
German king as overlord.
896 To liberate Rome from the control of the Spoletan Holy Roman
emperors Guy and Lambert, Pope Formosus allied himself with
Arnulf, king of the East Franks. Arnulf subsequently invaded
Italy, but died before attacking Spoleto.
896 In March, the Synod horrenda (also known as the Cadaver
Synod) sat in judgement on the corpse of Pope Formosus (891-96),
who had died eight months earlier. The corpse was dressed in its
robes of office and sat upon the papal throne. The accusation
against Formosus was that he had transferred seats become the
bishop of Rome while bishop of another diocese, contrary to canon
law but his real crime was betraying one of Charlemagnes
descendants in favor of another. Soon after the trial, Rome was
shaken by an earthquake, which was taken as an evil omen.
Stephen VII (896-97) was strangled. Seven popes and anti-popes
contended for the bishopric of Rome over the next few years. The
chaos ended when Cardinal Sergius, an affiliate of Stephen, gained
the papacy with the military backing of a feudal lord.
897 Pope Stephen VI (896-97) was murdered by strangulation.
898 In January, John IX (898-900) was consecrated pope in
Rome. John held synods that overturned the Synod horrenda and
rehabilitated Formosus. He also confirmed the Frankish emperor
Lothair Is Constitutio Romana which required the presence of an
imperial representative at papal consecrations.
899 The Magyars sacked Pavia in northern Italy, massacring the
inhabitants and torching 43 churches.
900-907 The Magyars raided Bavaria.
900 Benedict IV became pope (900-903). In June, he
excommunicated the count of Flanders, Baldwin II, for his
involvement in the assassination of Fulk, archbishop of Rheims.
The Tenth Century
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901 The Magyars raided Carinthia (~the western part of modern
Austria).

901 In around this year, the patriarch of Constantinople published
a list of bishoprics. The list, known as the Taxis, showed 505
bishoprics, 405 of them in Asia. Fifty-four of the bishoprics were
also metropolitanates, and 50 were autocephalous archbishoprics.
The highest ranking metropolitanates were Caesarea-Mazacha,
Ephesus, Heraclea in Thrace, and Ancyra. European
metropolitanates were lower in rank, the highest, Thrace, being
sixteenth.
901 In February, Pope Benedict IV crowned Louis III the Blind
German emperor.
902 The Saracens conquered Taormina, the last stronghold on the
island controlled by the Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Most of the
island had fallen to the Saracens by 859.
903 Pope Leo V (903) was murdered by Sergius III (904-11), shortly
to succeed him to the papacy.
905 The Saracens destroyed the library of the monastery of
Novalesa. More than six thousand, five hundred volumes were
lost.
906 St. Boris-Michael of Bulgaria (820-906) died. Boris had been
king of Bulgaria when he came to believe in Christ. He wrote to
the emperor in Constantinople telling him that he wished to be
baptized. The Patriarch Photius sent a bishop, and afterwards
corresponded with Boris. Toward the end of his life, he retired to a
monastery.
The work of translating Greek literature into Slavonic was
undertaken in Bulgaria at about this time, largely through the
efforts of the royal monastery of St. Panteleimon. In 907, a priest
named Constantine translated Athanasiuss Discourse against the
Arians into Slavonic. The works of St. John of Damascus were also
translated, as was St. Basil the Greats Hexaemeron. The Bulgarian
king, Symeon (Boris third son) oversaw a translation of some of St.
John Chrysostoms works.
906 The Magyars conquered Moravia.
906 On Christmas day, the patriarch of Constantinople, Nicholas
Mysticus, closed the gates of St. Sophia in the emperor Leo VIs
face. This act was to protest Leos fourth marriage.
907 The Russian prince Oleg sailed to Constantinople and obtained
a treaty regulating the privileges of Russian merchants within the
empire. The treat was ratified in 911.
909 William of Aquitaine founded a monastery at Cluny which
was to play an important role in the reform of the church in the
West and the revival of the monastic life.
911 First Norse settlement in what later became known as
Normandy. The West Frankish King Charles the Simple (898-922)
settled a group of Vikings under a certain Rollo in the vicinity of
Rouen.
913 The Magyars raided Saxony, Thuringia, and Swabia.
913 Symeon of Bulgaria laid siege to Constantinople. Symeon
lifted the siege when given the title Emperor of Bulgaria and
promised that one of his daughters would (eventually) marry the
emperor Constantine, then a minor. This agreement was reneged
upon when Zoe, Constantines mother, took control of the
government. War ensued, continuing sporadically through 924.
914 Theodora, the ruler of Rome, had John, bishop of Ravenna,
transferred to become John X (914-28), bishop of Rome. He had
been her lover, and, under her patronage, had progressed in rank
from simple cleric to bishop. Theodoras daughter Marozia
reportedly bore a son, John, by Pope Sergius III (904-11). Marozia
was presumably sired by Theodoras husband Theophylact, an ally
of Sergius. Marozias son John became bishop of Rome in 931
(John XI).
915 In August, the armies of Pope John X, Duke Alberic I of
Spoleto, and the senator Theophylact defeated a Saracen force on
the Garigliano River.
915 In December, Pope John X crowned King Berengar I (915-24) of
Italy emperor.
916 The Italian emperor Berengar I (915-24), with the dukes of
Spoleto and Benevento, drove the Saracens from Campania.
917 East Anglia, a Viking kingdom, conquered by the king of
Wessex.
917 The Magyars raided southern Germany and Alsace.
918 Rollo, lord of the Vikings near Rouen, invited the monks of St.
Audoen to return to their monastery. See 876 above.
920+ A priest named Gabriel sent from the Roman (Byzantine)
Empire as a missionary to the Magyars.
922 Ibn Fadlan, an Arab traveler, described Rus sacrifices for
successful trading missions. Clearly Christianity had yet to
penetrate deeply into the Rus nation.
924 The Magyars attacked Pavia in northern Italy (south of Milan),
sacking 44 churches. (See 899.) Magyars also defeated German
forces near the Lech River (a tributary of the Danube).
924 In about this year, Symeon of Bulgaria laid waste to Serbia.
924 When Berengar was assassinated, Pope John X (914-28) made
an alliance with King Hugh of Italy. This action enraged Marozia,
who was a Roman senator. She later had John imprisoned (see
928).
925 At the request of the pope, a synod of the clergy of Dalmatia
forbade the Slavonic liturgy, except where a shortage of Latin-
speaking clergy made it necessary.
925 The Aleppo Codex - a portion of the Hebrew Old Testament -
was copied in ~ this year. See note on the Leningrad Codex, 1008.
925 A young boy named Pelayo was martyred in Cordoba, Spain.
He had been given as a hostage in exchange for the release of
Bishop Hermogius of Tuy, his uncle.
926 Symeons Bulgar forces devastated by King Tomislavs
Croatians.
927 An independent Bulgarian patriarchate was formed after the
death of Symeon. To mitigate the influence the Bulgarian
government would exert over him, the patriarchs see was placed
at Silistria, on the Danube, far from the capital, Preslav.
928 Pope John X (914-28) was murdered by suffocation while
imprisoned in the Castel Sant Angelo in Rome (see 924).
929 On September 28, Wencelaus (Vaclav, born ~907), king of
Bohemia, murdered by his brother Boleslav at the door of a church
while on his way to mass. Wencelauss Christian grandmother
had been murdered by his pagan mother Drahomira (Dragomir),
who ruled until Wencelaus came of age in 924/5. Boleslavs action
was part of a conspiracy against Wencelaus motivated by the
kings submission to the German king Henry I the Fowler (919-936)
in the face of a threatened German invasion in 929. Boleslav
moved his brothers remains to the Church of St. Vitus in Prague in
932 after miracles began to occur at Wencelaus tomb. He is
regarded as the patron saint of Bohemia and is the subject of the
nineteenth century Christmas carol, Good King Wencelaus.
(Aside - the liturgy in Bohemia at the time was celebrated in Old
Church Slavonic.)
931 In late February or early March, Marozia, leader of the
Cresentii family, had her son John consecrated pope (John XI, 931-
935). John may have been the son of Sergius III, who was
reportedly Marozias lover.
932 Pope John XI sent legates to Constantinople to consecrate the
Roman (Byzantine) emperor Romanus Is sixteen-year-old son as
patriarch of Constantinople. This action added to the contempt
many in the Eastern church felt for the West.
933 A Magyar force was defeated at Gotha.
933 Sometime between this year and 956, Tsar Peter of Bulgaria
received a letter from Theophylact Lecapenus, patriarch of
Constantinople, providing advice on how to deal with
the Bogomils. This heretical sect was similar in doctrine to the
Paulicians, holding that the body is evil because created by the evil
one, the god of the Old Testament. The Bogomils forbade
marriage, condemning it as the devils law. They denied the
Incarnation, because the good God could not have stained himself
by contacting wicked matter. They took their name from the priest
Bogomil (Theophilus), the sects founder. The Bogomils may have
been influenced by the Paulicians, introduced into the Balkans in
757. (For a description of Bogomil behavior and attitudes, see 970.)
935 Marozias son Alberic II deposed and imprisoned her. He
confined his half-brother Pope John XI to the Lateran, where the
latter died this year. Alberic IIs father was Alberic I, duke of
Spoleto.
936 Otto the Great (936-973) was crowned king of the Germans in
Aachen by the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne. He was given
Charlemagnes sword, scepter, and Sacred Lance (said to be the
spear that had been thrust into Christs side). Otto established
close control over the church, particularly through what came to be
called lay investiture. That is, Otto exercised the right to
determine who would fill the higher church offices.
936 Death of Archbishop Unni of Hamburg-Bremen while on a
mission trip to Birka in Sweden. Before entering Sweden, Unni
had ordained priests for the church in Denmark.
939-57 During this period the Hamdanid emir Sayf al-Dawla
conducted raids into Armenia, the region near Melitene, and
Cappadocia, burning villages and the surrounding countryside
and enslaving many prisoners.
940+ A group of Magyars led by a certain Bultsu was baptized in
Constantinople. Constantine Porphyrogenitus (Constantine VII,
913-59) stood as godfather. Bultsu later apostatized (see 955, the
battle of Lechfeld). A bit later, the Magyar chief Gyula was
baptized in Constantinople. He brought a monk named
Hierotheus home with him. Hierotheus converted many to the
faith. The Roman (Byzantine) influence among the Magyars was
concentrated east of the Tisza (Theiss) River.
942 Pope Stephen VIII (939-42) died from mutilation.
943 Magyars invaded Italy again.
945 A peace treaty between the Roman Empire and Prince Igor of
Kiev indicates that there was a Christian community and church
building in Kiev by this date.
946 Death of St. John of Rila, who had re-invigorated monasticism
in Bulgaria.
949 A manuscript containing the work of the pharmacologist
Dioscorides, who had flourished in the first century, was presented
by the Romans as a gift at the court in Cordoba.
950 By the tenth or eleventh century, the horse collar was in use in
northern Europe. This allowed oxen to be replaced by horses in
the fields, increasing food production. The horse collar may have
originated in Bactria in the 6th century as a camel harness.
950 In about this year the Bulgarian tsar Peter sent a letter
to Theophylact, patriarch of Constantinople (933-56), asking
advice on how to deal with an anti-clerical religious movement
that was making headway in his country. To Theophylact, the
movement resembled Paulicianism (see 719), and he sent the tsar a
catechism and a collection of arguments to use against the
heretics.
950 Eleutherios of Paphlagonia died in about this year. In the
monastery he founded in Lycaonia, each monk was allowed two
wives. They were not to have sexual relations: the proximity of
wives without sexual intercourse served to prove the monks
victory over lust. There were, however, charges of scandal.
Eleutherios also taught that baptism and communion were
worthless, as were venerating the cross or the Theotokos. The
patriarch of Constantinople Patriarch Polyeuktos (956-70)
attempted to suppress the monastery, but it lingered until it was
condemned during the patriarchate of Alexius the Studite (1025-
43).
951 The German king Otto I (Otto the Great) took control of
northern Italy and made himself king of the Lombards.
953 An ambassador from Germany met with Bishop John of
Cordoba. John reportedly attributed pagan (Islamic) rule to the
sinfulness of the Christians. He said, provided no harm is done
to our religion, we obey them [the Muslim rulers] in all else, and
do their commands in all that does not affect our faith.
954 Death of Eric Bloodaxe, last Viking king of York. Eric, who
had arrived in England in about 947, died a Christian.
955 The Magyars raided as far west as Burgundy. The German
Emperor Otto I defeated them at the Battle of Lechfeld (near
Augsburg), and the Magyars subsequently settled in Pannonia,
modern Hungary. The Magyar leader Bultsu, who had converted
to Christianity (see 940+), was hanged at Regensburg for apostasy.
955 Octavian, an eighteen-year-old, became bishop of Rome, John
XII (955-963). He was the son of Alberic II, Duke of Spoleto, who
ruled Rome. Alberic in turn was the second son of Marozia (see
914). Like his grandmother, John was a man of great sexual
appetite, often rewarding his lovers with tracts of papal land.
Alberic had ruled Rome well for twenty years since overthrowing
his mother and, during his reign, the bishop of Rome had a purely
spiritual office. But he insured that his son Octavian would be
both temporal ruler and pope. The papal practice of having dual
names began with John/Octavian.
Of the 25 popes who came to power between 955 and 1057, 13
were selected by the local Roman nobility and 12 by German
emperors.
957 Prince Igor of Kievs widow, Olga, traveled to Constantinople
and was baptized by the patriarch, taking the name Helen. When
she returned to Kiev, she built a church dedicated to the Holy
Wisdom.
958 Sometime between his ascent to the throne of Denmark in this
year upon the death of his father, Gorm the Old, and 961, King
Harald accepted Christianity. Harald was reportedly impressed
by a priest named Poppo whose hand suffered no damage when
pressed to hot iron. Poppo became bishop of Wurzburg in 961,
possibly his reward for successful missionary work, bestowed by
his sponsor, the German Emperor Otto I. (At this time, the king of
the Danes controlled both Denmark and southern Sweden and
Norway - and thus trade by water between the North and Baltic
seas,)
959 Olga of Kiev sent an embassy to Otto the Great. He, in turn,
sent Adalbert, a monk of Trier and later archbishop of Magdeburg,
Germany, who remained in Kiev from 961-61, but without success.
960+ A certain Sigefrid ordained bishop of Norway.
961 The Roman (Byzantine) Empire recovered Crete.
962 To associate himself with Charlemagne, the German Emperor
Otto, wearing Charlemagnes mantle, was crowned emperor in
Rome by John XII (on February 2). Thus began the Holy Roman
Empire. John had sent for Otto to protect him from the Lombard
duke Berengar. Soon after his coronation, Otto asserted that future
bishops of Rome would be required to swear fealty to the Holy
Roman Emperor: A treaty between the emperor and the papacy,
known as the Privilegium Ottonianum, was concluded 11 days
after Ottos coronation. By this treaty, the pope was confirmed in
his role as temporal lord over papal territories, but papal elections
were to be ratified by the emperor. The alliance increased papal
control in northern Italy (e.g., Milan and Ravenna), and, since Otto
hoped to conquer the Roman (Byzantine) south, offered the
promise of renewed papal jurisdiction there. (Sicily and southern
Italy had been lost to the papacy in 732, at the hands of the
iconoclastic emperor Leo III.)
962 Olgas son Svyatoslav became prince of Kiev (see 959).
Svyatoslav supported paganism, reportedly rejecting conversion to
Christianity with the words, My retainers will laugh at me.
962/3 The Great Lavra monastery was established by Saint
Athanasios (Athanasius) of Trebizond this year. This was the first
monastery on the peninsula of Mount Athos. The emperor
Nikephoros Phokas (963-69) supported Athanasioss efforts. Prior
to this time, Mount Athos was dominated by hermits, many of
whom resented Athanasioss innovations.
963 The German emperor Otto I called a council in St. Peters
basilica in Rome. Pope John XII had urged rebellion when the
emperor issued the Priviligium Ottonianum, which required the
pope to swear fealty to him. Ottos council deposed John XII on 4
December on the grounds of rebellion and disreputable moral
conduct. At Ottos direction, Leo VIII, a layman, was elected pope
(963-65).
964 When the German emperor Otto I was safely away from Rome,
John XII, recently deposed from the papacy, called a synod which
deposed Leo VIII. Leo fled to the emperor for protection.
964 In May, Pope John XII died from the effects of a beating he had
taken at the hands of a man who found him in bed with his wife.
At the time, Otto was on his way to Rome to depose John for
conspiring with the Magyars and Constantinople and to reinstate
Leo VIII as pope. John was dissatisfied with the moral ways Otto
had attempted to force upon him.
964 Mieszko, ruler of Poland, married the daughter of Boleslas I of
Bohemia. The bride was named Dobrava.
964 After John XII died, the Roman citizens elected Benedict V
(964-66) pope. The German emperor Otto I was enraged, since his
choice, Leo VIII, had already been consecrated pope.
964 In June, the German emperor Otto I called a synod reinstated
Leo VIII as pope. Otto sent Benedict V away to Hamburg. [Leo
VIII is identified as pope on the Vaticans official list, printed in
the Annuario Pontificio. Some Roman Catholic lists simply skip
from John XII to John XIII.]
965 Tsar Peter of Bulgaria demanded the payment due him from
the Roman empire according to the peace treaty of 927. The
emperor Nicephorus Phocas engaged the Russians to attack
Bulgaria.
965 The Eastern Roman Empire recovered Cyprus.
965 On 1 October, the German emperor Otto I chose John XIII (965-
72) to be pope. The nobility in Rome opposed this choice and, in
December, they kidnapped John. Otto rescued him the following
year.
966 Mieszko of Poland baptized, having been converted through
the efforts of this wife, Dobrava.
967 A Russian army under Svyatoslav, prince of Kiev, crossed the
Danube at the behest of the Roman emperor Nicephorus Phocas
and destroyed the Bulgarian army. Svyatoslav intended to place
his new capital at Little Preslav, near the Danube delta. The
Russians then planned a campaign against the Romans, their
former allies.
967 On Christmas day, Pope John XIII crowned the twelve-year-
old prince Otto II German emperor.
968 Magdeburg became an archbishopric, sanctioned by Pope John
XIII (965-72). The German Emperor Otto I intended it to be the
metropolitan see for the Slavs on the east side of the Elbe and Saale
Rivers, who were in the process of conversion to Christianity (but
see 983 below, the Wends).
968 A bishop named John set up a mission station for evangelizing
the Poles at Poznan (Pozen).
968 When Liutprand, bishop of Cremona, visited Constantinople
in this year, he was unimpressed by the Greek bishops. Unlike
Western bishops, they were not commonly wealthy or influential
politically.
969 Beginning of the Fatimid rule over Egypt. Shiites, the
Fatimids were relatively tolerant of Jews and Christians, and many
were employed in government administrative offices. The Fatimid
Caliph Al-Muizz (969-975) permitted the construction of new
churches and the renovation of older ones. He also allowed
Muslims who had originally been Copts to return to their former
faith. Fatimid rule continued until 1171.
970 The Bulgarian priest Cosmas wrote an account of the doctrine
of the Bogomils: They say that everything exists by the will of
the Devil: the sky, the sun, the stars, the air, man, churches,
crosses; all that comes from God they ascribe to the Devil; in brief,
they consider all that moves on earth, animate and inanimate, to be
of the Devil.
In appearance the heretics are lamb-like, gentle, modest and
silent, and pale from hypocritical fasting. They do not talk idly,
nor laugh loudly, nor give themselves airs. They keep away from
the sight of men, and outwardly they do everything so as not to be
distinguished from Orthodox Christians. The people, on seeing
their great humility, think that they are Orthodox and able to show
them the path of salvation: they approach and ask them how to
save their souls. Like a wolf that wants to seize a lamb, they first
cast their eyes downwards, sigh and answer with humility.
Wherever they meet any simple or uneducated man, they sow the
tares of their teaching, blaspheming the traditions and rules of holy
Church.
They teach their own people not to obey their lords, they revile
the wealthy, hate the tsar, ridicule the elders, condemn the boyars,
regard as vile in the sight of God those who serve the tsar, and
forbid every servant to work for his master.
971 The Roman emperor John Tzimisces (John I, 969-76) crushed
the Russian forces in the Balkans and restored the northern border
of the empire to the Danube. Imperial control had not extended
this far north for approximately 300 years.
971 Pilgrim became bishop of Passau (971-91). He is believed to
have invented episodes in the history of the see of Passau to
aggrandize his own bishopric relative to Salzburg. In a letter to
Pope Benedict VII (974-83), Pilgrim indicated that he was too
occupied with the conversion of the Hungarians (Magyars) to
travel to Rome. He also stressed his adherence to the filioque
clause - an important point since Roman (Byzantine) missionaries
were also laboring in Hungary.
972 The Roman emperor John Tzimisces (John I, 969-76) conquered
eastern Bulgaria.
972 Pope John XIII (974-83) crowned the Roman (Byzantine)
princess Theophano empress, immediately before she married
Otto II.
973 Wolfgang, formerly a monk of Reichenau, ordained bishop of
Regensburg. At the behest of Udalric, bishop of Augsburg,
Wolfgang had been a missionary to the Magyars. He continued to
press for Magyar conversions until he died in 994.
973 Death of Otto I, emperor of Germany.
974 Cresentius I, patricius of Rome, led a revolt against Pope
Benedict VI (973-74). He imprisoned Benedict in the Castel Sant
Angelo and had him assassinated. The cardinal deacon who
ordered Benedicts murder became the Pope Boniface VII (974, 984-
85) (considered an antipope by the Roman Catholic church). The
German emperors local representative, Count Sicco, expelled
Boniface, and Benedict VII (974-83) became pope. Boniface fled
with the church treasury to Constantinople. (Cresentius was a
member of a powerful Roman family known as the Cresentii, who
owned extensive property in the Sabina. They remained a force in
Rome through 1012.)
975 John Tzimisces transplanted Paulicians to Thrace near
Philippopolis. The Paulicians had a warlike reputation, and John
intended they would help defend the empire. For Paulician
beliefs, see 719. For their warlike character, see 858, 860, 867/68,
872. Paulicians had previously been relocated to Thrace by
Constantine V, circa 746.
976 Esato (Judith), a Jewish queen of Aksum (Axum), oppressed
the Christian population of that kingdom. Aksum was located in
what is now northern Ethiopia. Its kings had converted to
Christianity in the fourth century. In the sixth century (532),
Aksum's influence spread temporarily to southern Arabia, Himyar
(~Yemen) becoming a vassal state.
976 When the Roman emperor John Tzimisces died, there was
conflict in the capital over the succession. Samuel, son of a
provincial governor in Macedonia, took this opportunity to
establish a kingdom which grew to occupy most of the former
Bulgarian kingdom. War ensued between Samuels kingdom and
the empire, ending in 1014 with Basil IIs victory in the pass of
Kleidion.
978 Vikings raided Santiago de Compostela in northwestern Spain
(the kingdom of Leon).
979 In around this year, a monastery for Georgians was founded at
Mount Athos (see 963).
~980 Geza became the first Magyar (Hungarian) ruler to accept
Christianity. It seems, however, that Geza simply added the
Christian god to his pantheon. (With the settlement of the
Magyars in Hungary after the battle of Lechfeld, 955, east-west
trade through the region grew.)
980 The Norse ruler of Dublin, Olaf Cuaran, abdicated, then sailed
to Iona as a penitent. Formerly king of York, Cuaran had been
baptized in King Edmund of Wessexs court between 941 and 944.
980 Symeon, later known as the New Theologian, became abbot
at St. Mamass monastery near Constantinople. Symeon stressed
the importance of striving for a vision of the Divine Light through
prayer. His tenure as abbot ended in 1009 due to a dispute with
the patriarch of Constantinople.
981 Zamora in the kingdom of Leon was destroyed by Muslim
raiders. Four thousand prisoners were deported.
981 Pope Benedict VII (974-83) terminated the bishopric of
Merseburg, a staging point for the conversion of the Slavs. Many
consider this action to have slowed their conversion in central
Europe.
981 Acting against simony, Pope Benedict VII (974-83) wrote an
encyclical letter that condemned the taking of money in exchange
for conferring holy orders.
982 Eric the Red discovered Greenland.
982 The German Emperor Otto II (973-83) lost a battle to the
Saracens at Cap Colonne in Calabria. This led to the Wendish
uprising of the following year.
983 Otto II appointed Peter, bishop of Pavia, to the papacy. He
became John XIV (983-84). As a Lombard, he was the first non-
Roman pope in recent times. The citizens of Rome were in a
turmoil. The Cresentii, a noble Roman family (see 974), opposed
his election.
983 The Wends revolted against the Germans. Germans had made
incursions east of the Elbe, the Wends homeland, during this
century. The pagan Wends - Slavic tribes: Wagrians, Abotrites,
Polabrians, Rugians, etc., - pushed the Germans back as far as
Hamburg. The bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelburg were
destroyed. Nunneries at Kalbe and Hillersleben were raided.
Magdeburg was protected by an army raised by the archbishop.
983 Aladbert (Vojtech), a Bohemian nobleman, became the first
non-German bishop of Prague. His appointment was supported
by the German Emperor Otto II but opposed by Duke Boleslas II of
Bohemia. Friction increased when Adalbert attempted to reform
Bohemian ethics. He criticized their polygamy, clerical marriages,
and the sale of Christians into slavery.
983 Death of the German emperor Otto II, while on campaign
against Venice. Upon Otto IIs death, his son Otto III (983-1002)
was named king of Germany.
983 Upon learning of Otto IIs death, Pope Boniface VII returned to
Rome from Constantinople. Supported by the Cresentii, Boniface
imprisoned Pope John XIV (Peter of Pavia), then had arranged his
murder.
985 Pope Boniface VII (974, 984-85) was murdered by a Roman
mob.
985 John XV (985-96) became pope. His election was the work of
the patricius John I (probably the son of Cresentius I (see 974) and
a member of the powerful Cresentii family).
985 Barcelona was burned down by Muslim raiders. Its
inhabitants were killed or taken prisoner.
988 Aladbert, bishop of Prague, deserted his see. He traveled to
Italy and entered the monastery of San Alessio.
989 The conversion of Russia. Vladimir of Kiev (son of
Svyatoslav and known as Vladimir Ravnoapostolny, ranking with
the apostles) was baptized and married to the Roman (Byzantine)
princess Anna, the sister of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II. Mass
baptisms followed Vladimirs. Vladimir later established
bishoprics at Novgorod and Belgorod and a seminary at Kiev for
the instruction of native clergy.
991 Gerbert of Aurillac, recently elected Archbishop of Reims,
professed Manichean doctrines: rejection of the Old Testament
and Dualism. Gerbert was later appointed Pope Sylvester II (999-
1003).
992 Adalbert of Prague returned to his see at the command of the
archbishop of Mainz. But he left for Rome in 994 after clashing
with Duke Boleslas II again. In Rome, Adalbert became part of a
group of intellectuals in the court of the German Emperor Otto III
(983-1002).
993 Pope John XV (985-96) performed the first solemn
canonization of a saint Bishop St. Ulrich of Augsburg.
994 Olaf Tryggvason, later to be king of Norway, confirmed, in
England.
995 Olaf Tryggvason traveled to Norway, intent upon becoming
king. One of his companions was an English bishop. Olaf ruled
from 995 to 999.
995 Death of King Eric the Victorious of Sweden. Eric had
converted to Christianity, but apostatized before his death. Erics
sonOlof (995-1022) was reportedly converted to Christianity by an
English bishop. Olofs mother, incidentally, was a daughter of
Duke Mieszko of Poland. Olof founded a bishopric at Skara, north
of modern Stockholm, whose first incumbent was Thorgaut, sent
from Hamburg-Bremen.
995 According to Agi Thorgilsons Islendingabok (circa 1120), King
Olaf Tryggvason of Norway sent a German bishop named
Thangbrand to convert the Icelanders in this year. Tryggvason
reportedly encouraged conversion by threatening to kill or
disfigure several Icelandic hostages he held in Norway. In the year
1000, the Icelanders accepted Christianity.
995 King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway reportedly sailed to Orkney
and forced Sigurd the Stout, a lord of northern Scotland, to accept
Christianity.
996/7 Adalbert, the bishop of Prague in self-imposed exile in
Rome, was chosen as missionary to the Poles. His selection was
astute, since the Poles and Bohemians were at odds over lands in
Silesia, and Adalbert was not a friend of the Bohemian ruler
Boleslas II. Adalbert traveled to Gdansk, then east across the
Vistula River, where the pagan Prussians killed him in April 997.
His body was returned to Gniezo and buried.
996 Built by craftsmen from the Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the
Tithe Church was consecrated in Kiev in this year. The Old
Church Slavonic liturgy was introduced by priests from Bulgaria.
996 Pope John XV asked Otto III for assistance against Cresentius
II, leader of the powerful Cresentii family in Rome, who was
leading a rebellion against him. Otto was declared king of the
Lombards in Pavia.
996 Pope John XV died in March. The German emperor Otto III
(983-1002), who arrived in Rome after John had died, appointed
Gregory V (996-99), a twenty-three year old grandson of the
German emperor Otto I, to the papacy. Gregory, the first German
pope, was consecrated on May 3. On May 21, he crowned his
cousin Otto emperor.
996 Pope Gregory V anathematized King Robert II the Pious of
France. Robert had married his first cousin Bertha in defiance of
canon law.
996 In the autumn, after Otto III returned to Germany, Cresentius
II led a revolt in Rome. Pope Gregory V fled the city.
997 In Rome, Cresentius II convinced Johannes Philagathus,
formerly abbot of the monastery of Nonantola, Italy, Otto IIIs
godfather, and ambassador to Constantinople for the German
king, to accept the papacy. Against the wise advise of Abbot Nilus
of Rossano, Johannes became Pope John XVI (997-98). From exile,
Pope Gregory V excommunicated Cresentius.
997 Before Geza of Hungarys death in this year, his son Waik
married Gisela, Duke Henry of Bavarias sister. (Henry was to
become the German Emperor Henry II in 1002.) The marriage
indicates that Waik was already a Christian, since it would not
have occurred otherwise. Waik adopted the Christian name
Stephen. (See 1001 for further events in the conversion of
Hungary.) Stephens marriage to Gisela was likely motivated to
prevent Hungarys being absorbed into the expanding Roman
Empire.
997 Bishop Ramward of Minden carried a processional cross into
battle against the Slavs.
998 Death of St. Nikon the Penitent, a missionary in the Mani
peninsula. By this time, most of the Slavs of the Balkan region had
been converted to Christianity through the efforts of Orthodox
missionaries.
997 The Tome of Sisinnios, patriarch of Constantinople from 995-
1000, established new standards for the degrees of consanguinity
in marriage.
998 In February, the German emperor Otto III took Rome. He
beheaded Cresentius (April 29); deposed, blinded, and disfigured
John XV; and reinstated Gregory V. John XV was saved from
execution through Abbot Niluss intercession, but his eyes, nose,
lips, tongue, and hands were removed.
998 Odilo of Cluny instituted the observance of All Saints Day on
November 2 (see 835 above). Given Clunys influence, this practice
spread, though it was never officially sanctioned by the church in
Rome.
999 Gerbert of Aurillac, an intellectual, elected Pope Sylvester II
(999-1003). Gerbert had once been archbishop of Rheims. He had
replaced a man who had been deposed without papal consent. As
archbishop of Rheims, Gerbert had fought against papal
interference in local church affairs. As Pope Sylvester II, Gerbert
tried to strengthen papal influence.
Sylvester I had been pope during Constantines reign. Gerbert
chose the name to symbolize the ideal of Christian Roman empire,
with the German emperor Otto III at its head. Gerbert, a
Frenchman, is said to have entertained Manichean doctrines (see
991).
999 According to legend, Eric the Reds son Leif converted to
Christianity during a trip to King Olaf Tryggvasons Norway.
1000 The German Emperor Otto III visited Gniezno (Gnesen) in
Poland to venerate the shrine of Adalbert. At the Congress of
Gniezno, with the consent of Pope Sylvester II, Otto set up the
archbishopic of Gniezno and the bishoprics of Cracow, Wroclaw,
and Kolobrzeg. Adalbert became the national patron saint.
1000 Castile was burned by Muslims. The portion of the
population that escaped slaughter was enslaved and deported.
1000 By this time, the horse shoe was in use in northern Europe. It
allowed horses to be used in all weather and on rougher terrain,
further increasing productivity. With the introduction of the three-
field crop rotation system, the center of wealth in Europe began to
move northward, and the population began to rise.
By this year, the papal chancery consistently dated documents
using the Anno Domini system.


The Eleventh Century
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1001 The title king bestowed on Stephen (Waik) of Hungary.
King Stephen adopted St. Peter as patron saint of the Hungarian
people. Pope Sylvester II (999-1003) agreed to the establishment of
a Hungarian archbishopric, which eventually was placed in
Esztergom (Gran). See also 1038.
Treating him as Roman emperor, Sylvester coordinated decisions
on ecclesiastical matters with Otto III, even those concerning lands
outside the bounds of Otto IIIs territory. Because of his role in the
establishment of independent archbishoprics in Poland and
Hungary, the German church, which had been anxious to extend
its authority in those regions, revolted against the emperor. In this
era, the German chuch was a critical source of imperial funds and
manpower.
1002 After the German emperor Otto III died this year, John
Cresentius III (son of Cresentius II) became patricius of Rome and
ruled the city until his death in 1012.
1003 After Pope Sylvester IIs death in this year, his great learning
acquired a legendary character. Some attributed it to magic,
supposedly learned in Spain; some to the devil; others to an
artificial head that answered questions.
1003 In June, a certain Sicco or Secco was appointed John XVII,
bishop of Rome, by direction of John Cresentius III. Pope John
XVII died on 6 November.
1004 In January, a certain Fasano was consecrated John XVIII (1004-9),
bishop of Rome. His election was decided by John Cresentius III.
1004 The Fatimid Caliph Hakim began a 10-year persecution of
Christians in southern Syria and Palestine.
1008 The Leningrad Codex dates to this year. It is the oldest
complete copy of the Hebrew Old Testament and is the source
document for most modern English Old Testament translations.
1009 Hakim ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre. By 1014, Hakim had burned or pillaged 30,000
churches.
1009 Bruno of Querfurt, a German nobleman, killed by the
Prussians. Bruno had been ordained a missionary bishop to the
Slavs in 1004 and worked the area between Ukraine and Sweden.
He also authored a biography of Adalbert, bishop of Prague (see
996/7).
1009 Pope John XVIII abdicated. He lived thereafter at the Abbey
of St. Paul Outside the Walls (Rome).
1012 Benedict VIII (1012-24), bishop of Rome. Benedict was the
first pope from the powerful Tusculani family that replaced the
Cresentii as leaders in Rome.
1013 The Caliph Hakim allowed Christians to emigrate into Roman
(Byzantine) territory, as a concession to the Emperor.
1014 The Nicene Creed is believed to have been used in the
liturgy at Rome for the first time, at the coronation of the German
(Holy Roman) Emperor Henry II (1002-24). The version of the
creed used included the filioque. Pope Benedict VIII encouraged
Henry to attack the Roman (Byzantine) South. He hoped to restore
papal jurisdition there (which had ended in 732).
1014 The Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Basil II (963-1025)
conquered western Bulgaria.
1015 Tuy in northwestern Spain raided by Norsemen. The
episcopal see there was vacant until 1070.
1015 King Olaf Haraldsson took Norway out from under Danish
control. Olaf ruled until 1028, when he escaped Canute (see
1015/16) and fled to Russia. During his reign, Olaf brought clergy
from England to Norway. Olaf died in 1030 in an attempt to retake
the throne. When exhumed in 1031, his body was discovered
incorrupt, and Olaf was deemed a saint and martyr.
1015 Gerard, bishop of Limoges, persecuted Manichean heretics.
1015/16 King Canute conquered England. In 1019, he took
Denmark, and Norway in 1028. Canutes empire fell apart at his
death in 1035.
1016/17 Pope Benedict VIII (1012-24) turned back a Saracen attack
on northern Italy. Benedict encouraged the Normans to attack
forces of the Roman (Byzantine) empire in the South.
1016 Hakims friend Darazi announced that Hakim was God. By
1017, Hakim restored religious liberty to the Christians and
returned their confiscated property. Hakim substituted his name
for that of Allah in mosque services. Hakim disappeared in 1021,
but Darazis followers, the Druze, believe he will come again.
1017 Pope Benedict VIII (1012-24) set up a new bishopric in
Besalu. Each new bishop of Besalu was required to pay the papacy
one pound of gold in token of true obedience.
1018 A resurgent Roman (Byzantine) Empire conquered and
annexed Macedonia and Bulgaria.
1020 In Toulouse in about this year, a certain chaplain named
Hugh was given the task of striking a Jew, as is always the
custom there each Easter. Hugh struck the man so hard that he
died. This custom was perhaps indicative of an increasingly un-
Christian attitude (see 1040 & 1096).
1022 During the reign of Anund (1022-39), son of Olof, the
Christian faith became widespread in Sweden.
1022 Pope Benedict VIII (1012-24) called the synod of Pavia.
Attended by the German emperor Henry II, the synod
promulgated decrees against clergy who were not celibate and
against simony..
1022 King Robert II of France (Robert the Pious, 996-1031) burned
some Canons of St. Croix in Orleans at the stake for holding that
the material world is inherently evil. One of the heretics was a
certain Stephen, who had been confessor to the queen, Constance
of Aquitane.
1022 Several Manichean heretics were put to death in Toulouse.
1024 When Pope Benedict VIII died in the spring, he was
succeeded by his brother, John XIX (1024-32). John (real name
Romanus) had been the ruler of Rome. He rose from layman to
pope in a day.
1024 Pope John XIX agreed that the church of Constantinople was
to be recognized as universal in her sphere.
1025 During his tenure as patriarch of Constantinople, Alexius the
Studite (1025-43) restricted monks and clergy seeking justice to the
church courts and standardized the payments due from lower
clergy to their bishops. Alexius also began anew the persecution of
Jacobites, at this time centered near Melitene. In an attempt to
check lay patronage of monasteries (known as kharistike), he
began a registry of monastic property and patronage rights, the
chartophylakeion.
1025 A certain Gundulf led a band of Manichean missionaries from
Italy into the diocese of Arras. Reginald, bishop of Arras, and
Gerard, bishop of Cambrai, converted the missionaries back to the
Catholic faith.
1027 Canute, king of England, journeyed to Rome as a pilgrim,
Because I heard from wise men that St Peter the Apostle has
received from the Lord a great power of binding and loosing, and
bears te keys of the kingdom of heaven; and therefore I deemed it
useful in no ordinary degree to seek his patronage before God.
1027 Pope John XIX crowned Conrad II German emperor. Canute
of England witnessed this coronation.
1028 Sihtic, son of Olaf Cuaran of Dublin (see 980), went on
pilgrimage to Rome and likely negotiated a bishopric for Dublin.
1028 William V, duke of Aquitane, called a council of the bishops
of Charroux to plan for the suppression of Manichean heretics.
The heresy had supposedly been introduced from Italy.
1030 A Russian trading center was founded in Yuryev (Tartu),
Estonia, surrounding an Orthodox cathedral of St. George.
1030 A community of Cathar (see 1143) heretics existed in
Monteforte by this year.
1032 The fourteen year old Theophylact(grandson of Count
Gregory of Tusculum, himself son or grandson of Alberic, son of
Marozia) was elected Pope Benedict IX (1032-44, 1045, 47-48).
Nephew of the brothers Benedict VIII (1012-24) and John XIX
(1024-32), Bendict was the last pope from the Tusculani
family. Some sources indicate that Theophylact (Teofilatto) was in
his twenties when he was elected to the papacy. His father, Count
Alberic III, won him the papacy through bribery.
1034 In around this year a certain Euthymios produced an account
of a heretical group known as the Phoundagiagitai. In around the
year 1000, the supposed founder of the group, John Tzourillas, was
charged with rape. John had preached near Smyrna with
considerable success. The Phoundagiagitai were fond of breaking
up church services on the grounds that prayer should be private
(Matthew 6.6). Initiation into the group involved a ceremony in
which the Apocalypse of St. Peter was recited over the intiates
head. They held that the devil had been expelled from heaven for
stealing the sun and the soul. Euthymios added: They teach not
to expect the resurrection of the dead, nor the second coming, nor
the Last Judgment, but that all power over earthly things with hell
and paradise belongs to the lord of this world, that is to say, the
devil, and that he puts his friends in paradise and his enemies in
hell, and that he has nothing in common with God, but that God
reigns in the heavens and the lord of the world on earth.
1036 Luke ordained bishop of Novgorod. He was the first native
Russian to hold episcopal office.
1038 Death of King Stephen of Hungary. Stephens Edict, a
collection of ecclesiastical legislation, required attendance at
church, observation of Sunday as a sabbath, and fasting during
Lent. He had implemented a plan to insure at least one church for
every ten settlements. The contemporary historian Rudolfus
Glaber wrote, The Hungarians, previously accustomed to prey on
their neighbors, now freely give of their own for Christs sake.
They who formerly pillaged the Christians ... now welcome them
like brothers and children. (In this period east-west trade and
pilgrimages to the Holy Land caused an increase in traffic through
Hungary.)
1039 At some point in his reigh, Emund, king of Sweden, half-
brother to his predecessor, Anund, replaced the bishop Adalward
of Skara with a certain Osmund, possibly an Englishman.
Adalward had been sent from Hamburg-Bremen.
1040 About this year Rodulfus Glaber (Ralph the Bald) blamed the
Jews of Orleans for the destruction of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre (see 1009). Ralph stated that the Jews wrote to the
prince of Cairo encouraging him to destroy the church - that if
he did not quickly destroy the venerable church of the Christians,
then they would soon occupy his whole realm, depriving him of
all his power.
1042 A Christian Wend named Gottschalk rose to power among
the Wagrians and Abotrites, the westernmost Wendish tribes.
Gottschalk had been educated in a Saxon monastery in Luneburg.
When a Saxon killed his father, Gottschalk had returned home to
wage a war of vengeance, but he had been captured by Duke
Bernhard of Saxony. Bernhard had released Gottschalk, who had
entered the service of King Canute of Denmark, Sweden, and
England. After returning to his native land in this year, Gottschalk
married a daughter of the Danish King Sweyn, built churches,
established monasteries, and invited German priests into the land.
Bishoprics were established at Oldenburg and Mecklenburg.
1042 The Patriarch Alexius the Studite endorsed the popular revolt
against the Emperor Michael V (1041-42). Michael, known as the
Caulker, was deposed.
1045 Benedict IXs profligacy elicited a rebellion among the Roman
populace. Benedict fled Rome and John of Sabina was elected
Pope Silvester III (1045). Benedicts brothers then drove Silvester
out of town, and Benedict was restored..
1045 Giovanni Gratiano became Pope Gregory VI (1045-46).
He purchased the papacy from Benedict IX for 1500 pounds of
gold. Benedict had led a profligate life as pope, but fell in love
with Gratianos niece. He wanted to marry her, but did not want
to abdicate the papacy to do so without profit. Benedict later
changed his mind and returned to Rome as pope. There were thus
three claimants to the papacy.
1045 Michael Psellus (1018-1078) was chosen by the emperor
Constantine IX (1042-54) to head the philosophy department of the
recently founded imperial university. After the schism began,
Psellus was strongly opposed to reunion with Rome. Due to
Psellus' influence as Consul of the Philosophers, the emphasis of
philosophy returned to its Platonic roots, the idealism of the
Cappadocians, and away from the Aristotelian thrust which had
been promoted by Photius.
1046 The Emperor Constantine IX (1042-54) began rebuilding the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre. A German Saxon, Suidger of
Bamburg, was appointed pope (Clement II) by the German (Holy
Roman) Emperor Henry III. Benedict was canonically deposed.
1046 In December 1046, the papal situation in Rome was resolved
by the Holy Roman Emperor Henry III (1039-56) at a synod in
Sutri. The synod deposed the three rival claimants, and Suidger,
bishop of Bamberg, a German, became Clement II (1046-
47). Clement then crowned Henry emperor. When Clement died
in 1047, Benedict reentered Rome, was driven from Rome again,
and Poppo of Brixen (another German) replaced him as Damascus
II (1048).
1049 Founding of the monastery of the Theotokos Euergetis in
Constantinople by a certain former civil servant named Paul. This
monastery became very influential, in part because of the support
it received from the imperial family. Paul composed a florilegium,
known as the Euergetinos, which included a many saints lives and
became popular, adding to the monasterys influence.
1049 The German emperor Henry III appointed the Alsatian count
Bruno, bishop of Toul, to the papacy. Bruno refused the
appointment unless it was approved by the clergy and people of
Rome. He then entered Rome on foot, as a pilgrim, and was
consecrated Pope Leo IX (1049-54).
1049 The synod at Rheims. Pope Leo IX traveled to Rheims to
consecrate the church of St. Remigius (the patron saint of France).
Since the king of France forebade his bishops to attend, only
twenty were present. The pope demanded to know which of them
had paid for their office. The bishops who confessed received
pardon. Others were excommunicated and deposed.
1050 The investiture controversy. Some see the period from 1050
to 1130 as one of a major world revolution. In this view, the
revolutionaries are the Gregorian reformers who complain about
the interference of laymen in church affairs, simony in particular.
Their ideal society has complete freedom of the church from
control by the state, the negation of the sacramental character of
kingship, and the domination of the papacy over secular rulers.
The radical revolutionary leaders are Humbert and Hildebrand,
while Peter Damiani is seen as a moderate.
The reform movement may have been motivated by a desire to
maintain a distinction between the clergy and laity, which was in
danger of being obscured by the rising level sanctity among the
common people. Kings such as Henry III (1039-56) of Germany
and Edward the Confessor (1042-66) of England were extremely
pious, as were many nobles. If the clergy (and the monasteries)
were perceived as no more holy than the common people, how
could their rights and privileges continue to be maintained?
1050 Berengar of Tours, canon of the cathedral and head of the
school of Saint-Martin, began teaching a theory of the eucharist in
which the Lord was present in a spiritual sense only. Berengar
wrote to Lanfranc, then a teacher in Normandy but later
archbishop of Canterbury (1070-89) against the latter's
condemnation of Ratramnus. Lanfranc was absent when the letter
arrived, however, and it was passed by others along to Pope Leo
IX (1049-54), who excommunicated Berengar and ordered him to
appear at the Council of Vercelli. Berengar traveled to Paris to
obtain permission from King Henry I to attend the council, and
Henry had him imprisoned. The De corpore of Ratramnus (see 868
above) was ordered destroyed by the Council of Vercelli, and
Berengar was condemned in absentia.
1050 Between about this year and 1250, most of Spain reconquered
from the Muslims. Only Granada and a small amount of nearby
territory held out - until 1492.
1051 Founding of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev.
1052 The relics of Symeon the New Theologian were translated to
Constantinople.
1052 The Normans had been forcing the Greeks in Roman
(Byzantine) Italy to conform to Latin usages; the patriarch of
Constantinople, Michael Cerularius (1043-59), in return demanded
that the Latin churches at Constantinople should adopt Greek
practices, and in 1052, when they refused, he closed them.
(Angold places the church closings in 1049.)
1052 By this year, around 700 monks lived at Mount Athos (see
963).
1053 Pope Leo IX (1049-54), in a letter to Bishop Thomas of
Carthage, mentioned that there were only five bishops left in
North Africa. In Augustines time (circa 400), there had been over
600.
1053 The battle of Civitate. In June, the Normans took Leo IX
prisoner. Leo was released nine months later. He had been on
campaign against them in the south of Italy, but the papal army
was defeated on June 18. In his war against the Normans, Leo was
in league with the Roman (Byzantine) emperor Constantine
Monomachos (1042-55), who promised to transfer jurisdiction over
southern Italy from the the patriachate of Constantinople to the
papacy. Constantines forces, under Argyrus, the Roman
(Byzantine) governor in southern Italy, had been defeated in
February.
1054 The East-West Schism (The Schism of 1054). Leo, the
archbishop of Ochrida, wrote a letter to Bishop John of Trania in
Italy enumerating the innovations of the Roman Church. Leo
asked John to give the letter a wide hearing (all Frankish bishops
and priests and peoples and the most reverend pope himself) in
order that the truth might prevail. This letter was closely followed
by a letter from Michael Cerularius, the patriarch of
Constantinople (1043-59). Pope Leo IX (1049-54) sent a sharp reply,
severely rebuking Cerularius. He wrote, No one can deny that,
just as the whole door is directed by its handle, so the order and
structure of the whole church is defined by Peter and his
successors. And just as the handle pushes and pulls the door while
itself remaining stationary, so Peter and his successors have the
right to pronounce judgment on any local church. No one should
resist them in any way or try to usurp their place, for the supreme
seat is not to be judged by anyone. Leo cited the Donation of
Constantine (see 754) in evidence of his rights, and accused the
Greeks of having deleted the filioque from the Nicene Creed.
The emperor of Constantinople, Constantine Monomachos (1042-
55, also termed Monomathus), facing a threat of his political
interest in Italy, had need of the popes help. Monomachos sent a
conciliatory reply asking Leo IX to send delegates to restore
friendly relations. The pope sent Cardinal Humbert and Cardinal
Frederick of Lorraine (later Pope Stephen IX (1057-58)), and Bishop
Peter of Amalfi, who arrived in April and met with the emperor.
Monomachos forced Nicetas of Stethanos, a follower of St. Simeon
the New Theologian and an open critic of Rome, to publicly burn
and disavow his writings against Roman practices.
Cerularius received the papal letter from the delegation, but
thereafter refused to meet with them. Frustrated, Humbert left a
bull on the altar of St. Sophia (July 16). The bull stigmatized the
Eastern Church as the repository of all the heresies of the past. It
also anathematized Michael Cerularius, the use of unleavened
bread in the Eucharist, the marriage of priests, and the doctrine
that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone. Humbert
departed on July 18. Constantine called Humbert back to discuss
the bull at a synod, then sent him away again when he discovered
that he himself would be prevented from attending, and that the
people firmly supported the patriarch. Cerularius in turn, at the
head of a council of two archbishops, twelve metropolitans, and
seven bishops, drew up a sentence of excommunication against the
authors of the bull and all who had helped in drawing it up,
whether by their advice or even by their prayers (July 20).
1054 The monastery at Cluny (see 909) was freed from episcopal
control and placed directly under the papacy.
1056 Death of Jaroslav the Wise, son of Vladimir and prince of
Kiev. During his reign, Jaroslav rebuilt the Church of Holy
Wisdom in Kiev and founded the monastery of St. George. His
daughters married the kings of Norway and Hungary. Jaroslavs
wife, Ingigard, who had come from Sweden, founded the
monastery of St. Irene.
1057 Michael Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople, arranged
the downfall of the Emperor Michael VI Stratiotikos and hadIsaac
Comnenus, a general, made emperor. In return, Comnenus
allowed the patriarch to name the chief patriarchal administrators.
1057/58 According to a thirteenth century source, Michael
Cerularius called a council which removed the patriarch of Romes
name from the diptychs.
1058 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Isaac Comnenus accused
Michael Cerularius of usurping imperial authority. Cerularius was
never brought to trial, as he died in 1059. Some historians
speculate that Michaels attitude had been influenced by reading
the Donation of Constantine, which Cardinal Humbert had carried
to the emperor and patriarch in 1054. Since the second and fourth
ecumenical councils had given the patriarch the same privileges as
the pope, Michael may have argued on that basis for additional
authority. This explanation is present in the works of Theodore
Balsamon, a twelfth century canon lawyer.
Michael Psellus acted as a prosecutor for the emperor. The conflict
between Psellus and Cerularius dated back at least to Humberts
visit in 1053/54, when Psellus had acted on behalf of the emperor.
While Cerularius obtained canonization for Symeon the New
Theologian, Psellus had less use for mystics. He allowed that
mystic, apophatic knowledge was possible, but refused to see it as
the sole ground for Christianity, since it was inherently selfish and
contributed little if anything to society. Reason, on the other hand,
he saw as a more sure method of approach to God, and it
promoted a fruitful life within the larger Christian community.
1058 Using large bribes, the Roman aristocracy had John Mincius,
a member of the powerful Tusculani family, elected Pope Benedict
X (1058-59). Peter Damian, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, would not
consecrate Benedict. In December, a group of cardinals met in
Siena and elected Gerard of Lorraine, the bishop of Florence, a
Frenchman, as Pope Nicholas II (1058-61). Supported by imperial
forces and the Roman populace (whom he lavished with gifts),
Nicholas forced Benedict from Rome.
1059 Cardinal Humbert was responsible for the publication of two
works reforming the western church. One limited involvement in
the election of the pope to the college of cardinals. Prior to this
time, the German emperor, Henry III (1039-56), had regularly
elected popes on his own. His son, Henry IV (1056-1106), was a
minor at this time, and his family were involved in a struggle with
the German nobility. The second work was The Three Books Against
the Simoniacs. It redefined simony from the buying and selling of
church offices to any interference by laymen in church affairs,
thus accusing most of the rulers of Europe of grave sin. In this
work Humbert also called on the faithful to refuse to take the
sacraments from any priest whose personal conduct they
considered unworthy, effectively reviving the Donatist heresy.
This advise was later condemned by the papacy.
1059 At a Lateran council held in April of this year, Pope Nicholas
II (1059-61) established new procedures for the election of popes,
giving a controlling voice to the cardinals. Earlier, the bishop of
Rome had frequently been chosen by the Roman nobility or the
German emperor. In fact, when Stephen IX died in 1058, the
Roman nobility and a minority of the cardinals had chosen
Benedict X as pope, while the majority of the cardinals had
supported Nicholas, then Gerhard, bishop of Florence. Nicholas
election had been secured through Cardinal Hildebrands
influence over the German emperor. In 1061 the German bishops
declared Nicholass procedures for papal elections void.
1059 The De corpore of Ratramnus (see 868 and 1050 above) was
condemned at the Lateran Synod held this year.
1059 The papacy, at first alarmed by the Norman conquest of Sicily
and southern Italy, began to forge an alliance with the Normans
against the German emperor (at that time, Henry IV, 1056-1106).
In what is known as the Investiture of Melphi, Pope Nicholas II
(1059-61) presented Capua to Richard of Aversa and Calabria,
Apulia, and Sicily to Robert Guiscard. In return, the Normans
swore allegiance to the papacy. These lands had all belonged to
the Roman (Byzantine) empire before the Norman attacks, which
had begun at Melfi in 1041. Guiscard took Calabria in 1060, but
Apulia held out until 1071 when Bari fell.
Pope Nicholas used the Donation of Constantine to justify the
robbery of Roman (Byzantine) imperial lands at sword point.
1060 A synod of Spalatum (Croatia) forbade the ordination of Slavs
unless they were literate in Latin. This appears to have been
directed against the Slavonic liturgy.
1061 Anselm of Baggio elected as Pope Alexander II (1061-73). The
imperial regent, the Empress Agnes, sided with the Roman
nobility against Alexander and recognized Peter Caladus of Parma
as Pope Honorius II (1061-64). As bishop of Parma, Honorius had
opposed Hildebrands reform movement.
1061 Sometime during his papacy, Pope Alexander II (1061-73)
wrote to the bishops of Spain to protect the Jews from warriors
fighting the Saracens.
1061 Richeldis, the lady of the manor at Little Walsingham,
Norfolk, England, had three visions of the Virgin Mary in which
Mary showed her the house where she had lived in Nazareth.
Mary instructed Richeldis to build a copy of the house. It is said
that Richeldis workmen began a structrure in the style then
current. The following day, they found it 70 yards from where
they had left it, and completed by unknown hands.
1062 In April, Honorius II came to Rome. Duke Godfrey of
Tuscany convinced Alexander and Honorius to await an imperial
decision. A group of nobles kidnapped the German empress
Agnes, and Anno, archbishop of Cologne, became regent. At
Annos direction, the matter of the papal succession was
investigated, and the choice fell to Alexander.
1063 Honorius II again set himself up in Rome. He left in 1064
when the Council of Mantua, Tuscany, decided in favor of
Alexander.
1063 Pope Alexander II (1061-73) sent the papal banner to
Normans fighting Saracens in Spain and Sicily. The banner was a
sign of papal approval and blessing.
1064 A group of several thousand pilgrims traveled from Germany
to the Holy Land. They were led by four bishops.
1066 Gottschalk (a leader of the Wends -- see 1042) slain during an
uprising. As a result of the violence, the bishoprics at
Mecklenburg and Oldenburg were vacated, and remained so until
1149. Bishop John of Mecklenburg, an Irishman under the
jurisdiction of the archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, was tortured,
then beheaded. His head was offered on the tip of a spear to the
Slavic god Redigast. Monks in Ratzeburg were stoned to death.
1066 The Norman Conquest of England. Williams invasion was
supported by the papacy, which had quarreled with Harold
Godwinson. Harold had refused to carry out the papal decision
that the incumbent archbishop of Canturbery, whom he felt had
not be canonically elected, should be deposed. The pope sent
William the banner of St. Peter. However, having become king of
England, William decreed that no clergy could go to Rome,
receive a papal legate, or appeal to the papal curia without his
permission. Gregory VII (1073-85) later claimed that the Donation
of Constantine required that William be his vassal, but William
refused.
Williams newly conquered kingdom contained 35 monasteries.
Among them they controlled one-sixth of the kingdoms revenues.
1066 Andrew, the archbishop of Bari, a city in southern Italy,
visited Constantinople. While there, he renounced Christianity,
declaring himself a Jew. He then removed to Egypt.
1068 The king of Aragon made his kingdom a fiefdom of the
papacy.
1069 At some point during his tenure as patriarch of
Constantinople (1057-69), Luke Chrysoberges suppressed the
carnival-like festivities that had come to accompany the feast of the
Holy Notaries (Marcian and Martyrius), held on 25 November.
1071 A Turkish army defeated the Romans (Byzantines)
at Manzikert, opening Asia Minor to invasion. The Roman
emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) appealed to the papacy
for military assistance. The investiture controversy prevented
Gregory from providing the requested support.
1071 The Normans in southern Italy took Bari, the capital of
Roman (Byzantine) Apulia. (See 1059)
1071 The king of Aragon banned the Mozarabic rite. Use of the
Latin rite was compulsory.
1071 When the bishop of Milan died, the German emperor Henry
IV (1056-1106) appointed a man opposed to the reform movement
as bishop. Pope Alexander II (1061-73) recognized a different man
as bishop of Milan. The Patarini (literally, rag-pickers), a
populist movement in Milan opposed to clerical marriage and
simony, opposed the emperors candidate and supported the
popes.
1072-76 Adam of Bremen wrote his Deeds of the Bishops of the
Church of Hamburg.
1073 Pope Alexander II (1061-73) excommunicated the advisors of
German emperor Henry IV who had urged Henry to appoint the
new bishop of Milan (see 1071).
1073 Gregory VII (1073-1085), Hildebrand, believing the Forged
Decretals to be authentic, enforced them. Also, in A.D. 1073, at a
synod held in Rome, he pronounced the title of pope the sole
and peculiar dignity of the Bishops of Rome. In his Dictatus
Papae (1075), he stated that the pope had the right to depose
emperors, that the popes authority is the authority of Christ, that
the papal office alone was universal in its authority, that the pope
alone (without a synod) could depose bishops without giving the
accused a hearing, that no one could condemn an appellant to the
apostolic see, that no council was canonical without papal
approval, and that no book or decree was canonical without papal
assent. In addition, he claimed that the Roman church had never
erred, not would it ever, to all eternity. The notion that the
papacy alone is universal and plenary, while all other powers in
the world are particular and dependent, is called the plenitude of
power. In authoring the Dicataus Papea, Gregory employed the
forged decretals of Pseudo-Isidore.
It is important to realize that for about 200 years before this, the
power of the bishop of Rome had been very limited. The great
bishoprics and abbeys of western Europe had flourished with little
or no assistance from Rome, and with no effective papal
jurisdiction over their affairs.
Gregory also insisted that the church become uniform in both
liturgy and organization.
1074 A paper mill was set up in eastern Spain in this year, the first
paper mill in Europe.
1075 The cathedral in Milan was burned as a result of conflict
between local authorities and the Patarini (see 1071). At the
request of the city fathers, the German emperor Henry IV deposed
both rival bishops of Milan and installed another. Pope Gregory
VII (1073-85) threatened the emperor with excommunication and
deposition.
1075 Soon after this year, a certain Kekavmenos, governor of the
theme of Hellas, composed a book of advice for his sons, known as
the Advice and Counsels. Kekavmenos encouraged regular church
attendance, the recitation of a psalm during the quiet of midnight
(for concentration), and private study of the scriptures.
1076 In January, the German emperor Henry IV (1056-1106)
called a council, which met in Worms. The council deposed Pope
Gregory VII (1073-85) and referred to him as a false monk. The
bishops of Lombardy later confirmed the councils decision. The
pope replied by excommunicating the bishops who opposed him
and declaring Henry deposed. Gregory released Henrys subjects
from their oaths of allegiance to him. Gregory used the fact that
Pope Zacharias had given permission to Pepin to depose the last of
the Merovingian kings (Childeric III) precedence for the notion
that popes can depose sovereigns.
1077 The German emperor Henry IV, having lost his power base
within the German church due to Gregorys threat to
excommunicate his supporters, petitioned the pope for absolution
at Canossa in northern Italy. The pope was on his way to a council
of German nobles meeting to replace Henry. Through the
intervention of Abbot Hugh of Cluny, Gregory agreed to absolve
Henry and let him remain on the throne. The German princes,
however, made Rudolf of Swabia king of Germany.
1080 In March, Pope Gregory VII (1073-85) again declared Henry
IV deposed. Stating that Henry would soon die, the pope named
Rudolf king of Germany.
1080 The German emperor Henry IV called a council at Mainz,
which deposed Pope Gregory VII and made Guibert, archbishop
of Ravenna, Pope Clement III (1080-1100). At a battle on the
banks of the Saale in Saxony, the forces of Henry IV and Rudolf of
Swabia battled. Although Henrys army was defeated, Rudolf was
killed (October). As the German nobility discussed the question of
Rudolfs successor, Henry entered Italy and besieged Rome. He
was not able to take the city until 1084.
For most of the period from 1080 through 1111, there were two
rival popes.
1080+ First Benedictine monasteries founded in Denmark.
1080+ When King Inge of Sweden attempted to end pagan worship
at Upsalla, he was deposed. His brother-in-law Sweyn assumed
the throne, but Inge retook the crown by force and imposed the
Christian faith. Pope Gregory VII (1073-85) congratulated Inge on
his victory.
1081 Alexius Comnenus, who had recently become Roman
(Byzantine) emperor (1081-1118), confiscated church property to
finance a war against the Normans who, led by Robert Guiscard
(see 1059), sought to capture Dyrrachium in preparation for an
assault on Constantinople. The Normans took Dyrrachium in
October 1081. In 1082, the imperial army had some success against
the Normans, now led by Roberts son Bohemund. The Normans
began to withdraw, and the Venetians, Alexiuss allies, retook
Dyrrachium for the emperor. In 1082, Alexius promised never
again to appropriate church property.
The patriarch Cosmas I (1075-81) had imposed penance on Alexius
and his family for the riot instigated by Alexius supporters.
Alexius did the prescribed penance, then deposed Cosmas,
replacing him with Eustratios Garidas (1081-84).
During Alexiuss reign, the patriarchal synod condemned Neilos
of Calabria. Neilos taught that Christ was divinized only after his
resurrection, and that as a reward for living a virtuous life. Neilos
concluded that each virtuous Christian could expect divinization
after death. In addition, he refused to refer to Mary as the
Theotokos.
1081 On campaign against the Normans in Epiros (Epirus), about
2500 Paulician soldiers from the region around Philippopolis
deserted the emperor Alexiuss army. (The Paulicians were
dualistic heretics -- see 719.) After defeating the Normans, Alexius
set out to convert them to Orthodoxy. He personally debated the
Paulician leaders Culeon, Cusinus, and Pholus. Alexiuss efforts
were largely, but not entirely, successful.
1082 John Italos (Italus) was condemned by an Orthodox council
in this year. The following anathemas, directed against his
doctrines, were incorporated into the Synodicon of Orthodoxy (see
year 842 above).
(11) those who seek to discover exactly how the Word was joined
to his human substance, and how the latter was deified;
(12) those who introduce Greek doctrines of the soul, heaven,
earth, and creation into the Church;
(13) those who teach metemphychosis or the destruction of the
soul after death;
(14) those who say that ideas or matter are co-eternal with God,
and those who say that creation is eternal or immutable;
(15) those who honor, or who believe that God will honor, Greek
philosophers or heresiarchs who taught error above the Fathers of
the councils who held to the truth, though these latter may have
sinned through passion or ignorance;
(16) those who do not accept the miracles of Christ, the Theotokos,
and all his saints;
(17) those who think Greek philosophy to be true and try to
convert the faithful to their opinions;
(18) those who teach that creation is the necessary result of the
participation of matter in the ideas, and not the result of God's free
will;
(19) those who say that it is impossible that we will rise to
judgment in these same bodies;
(20) those who believe in the pre-existence of souls; those who
deny that all of creation is ex nihilo; those who say that hell is
temporary or that all of creation will be restored (including the
most wicked); and those who understand the Kingdom of Heaven
to be temporary.
(21) all of John Italoss doctrines introduced in opposition to the
Orthodox faith.
Italos had succeeded Michael Psellus as Consul of the
Philosophers. He had been employed by the emperor Michael VII
Doukas (1071-78) in the latters efforts to make peace with the
Normans. After his condemnation, Italos was confined in a
monastery.
1082 In return for its assistance against the Norman invaders, the
Roman (Byzantine) emperor Alexius I Comnenus (1081-1118)
granted Venice the right of unrestricted trade without customs
dues throughout the empire.
1084 Nicholas III Grammatikos (1084-1118) patriarch of
Constantinople. At some point during his tenure, Grammatikos
suppressed the Christmas and Candlemas revels that had been
introduced into St. Sophia, supposedly during the time of patriarch
Theophylact (933-56). Grammatikos characterized those who took
part in such masquerades as devotees of Dionysios. Nicholas
also created an order of preachers to combat heretics, many of
whom masqueraded as monks (see the account of Basil the
Bogomil, 1104).
During Nicholass early years as patriarch, a controversy arose
over whether Christs human nature was deified by nature or by
hypostatic union. Nilus the Calabrian (Neilos of Calabria) argued
that it was by nature. This view was seen as a renewal of the
Monophysite heresy. The emperor himself argued with Nilus on
this point, without success. After Niluss condemnation, a line
condemning him was added to the Synodicon of Orthodoxy (see
843). Condemnation #11 of the synodicon appears to have Nilus in
mind as well.
Also during Alexiuss reign as emperor, a certain Blachernites led
a group of Enthusiasts in Constantinople. They appear to have
been Messalian in doctrine and practice (see 390). A few years
earlier, Psellus had indicated that Messalians kept a low profile in
the capital. He accused them of using magic.
1084 After some elements in the German church returned to his
side, the German emperor Henry IV was able to continue the
conflict with the papacy. In March, Henry drove Pope Gregory
VII from Rome (see 1180). A synod which met in the Lateran
palace deposed Gregory and re-affirmed Clement III as pope. On
31 March, Clement crowned Henry German emperor. Gregory
found refuge at Castello Sant Angelo.
1084/5 Robert Guiscard, having returned from his campaign
against the Romans (Byzantines) (see 1081), raised an army of
36,000 men and marched on Rome. The German emperor Henry
IV withdrew into Germany. Guiscards Normans sacked Rome.
The populace, appaled with Pope Gregory for his allys behavior,
refused to have him back. Clement III re-entered Rome as pope,
andPope Gregory VII died in Salerno on May 25, 1085.
1085 Alfonso VI of Castile reconquered Toledo. Though he
promised the Muslims continued use of the citys main mosque,
the archbishop turned it into his cathedral the next year. Toledo
became an important center for the introduction of ancient Greek
and more recent Arabic learning into the West.
1087 Nicetas, metropolitan of Ancyra, had brought an issue to the
emperor Alexiuss attention in 1084 relating to one of Nicetass
suffragan bishops who had been raised to metropolitan status by
the emperor Constantine X Doukas (1059-67). Nicetas argued that,
according to canon 12 of the council of Chalcedon, a metropolitan
retained authority over a suffragan who had been promoted.
Alexius referred the issue to the patriarch, but the patriachs synod
was unable to reach a decision, at least partially due to pressure
from the patriarchal clergy, which preferred that the power to
appoint metropolitans reside with the patriarchate. Alexius then
decided the case himself, against Nicetas.
1087 Death of Constantine the African (1020-1087). Constantine
had collected books from Egypt, Persia, Chaldea and India,
translated them into Latin, and placed them in Monte Cassino.
1087 Pope Victor III (1086-87) sent an army to Tunis. It defeated a
Saracen force there and forced them to pay tribute to Rome.
1087 Pope Victor III (1086-87) held a synod at Benevento. It
excommunicated Pope Clement III (1080-1100) and condemned lay
investiture.
1087 Italian merchants stole the relics of St. Nicholas of Myra
(southwest Asia Minor), taking them to Bari (Italy). Nicholas was
bishop of Myra during the fourth century. According to legend,
Nicholas attended the council of Nicaea in 325.
1088 Christodoulos (died 1093) founded the Monastery of St. John
the Theologian on Patmos. Turkish raids were common in that
era, and the island had been abandoned by its inhabitants. The
monastery had to be evacuated in 1092 in the face of these raids,
but the monks soon returned as the Roman (Byzantine) fleet
gained the upper hand in the Aegean. By 1200, the monasterys
library held 330 volumes.
1088 Odo of Chatillon-sur-Marne was elected Pope Urban II (1088-
99) by the reform party in Terracina (south of Rome) on March 12.
1089 Pope Urban II lifted the excommunication Pope Gregory VII
(1073-85) had pronounced against the Roman (Byzantine) emperor
Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118).
1091 The Normans completed the conquest of Sicily, begun in
1061. During the ensuing century, the Normans used Sicilian
contacts with the Roman (Byzantine) Empire to collect a number of
ancient works in Greek, among them many writings of Plato,
Aristotle, Ptolemy and Euclid.
1091/92 A synod meeting at the Blachernae Palace in
Constantinople corrected the views of Leo, metropolitan of
Chalcedon. Leo had opposed the melting down of icon frames on
the grounds that this attacked the icons holiness. The synod read
out the declarations of the second council of Nicaea, and pointed
out that the relative veneration due to icons does not extend to the
material of the icons themselves. Leo may have supported his
views with an erroneous Christology, since his name is appended
to two anathemas included in the Synodicon of Orthodoxy, also
directed against the views of Eustratios of Nicaea. See 1117. Leo
accepted the synods ruling and was re-instated.
1093 Anselm (1033/4 - 1109) became Archbishop of Canterbury.
He is most famous for his proof of the existence of God. The proof,
in short, was that since we have an idea of an absolutely perfect
being, that idea constitutes proof of his existence, since he would
be imperfect if he did not exist. Anselm also developed a
satisfaction theory of the atonement in his Cur Deus homo? (Why
did God become man?) Based on the feudal system, in which
satisfaction for a crime depended on dignity of the person
offended, Anselm argued that offense against God required an
infinite satisfaction. Thus, in Anselm's theory, the death of the
God-man whose infinite merits brought man back into a right
relationship with God.
During Anselms tenure, Pope Urban II (1088-99) sanctioned the English
church-state system, in exchange that he, and not Pope Clement III (1080-
1100), be recognized as pope. Urban cut a similar deal with the Normans
of Sicily, effectively giving them control over the church in their
domains.
1093 The Saxons and Danes set up Henry, son of Gottschalk (see
1066), as king of the Wends. Henry ruled from Old Lubeck, an
isolated island of Christianity in a pagan sea.
1095 At the council of Clermont (France), Pope Urban II
announced the First Crusade. No German prince loyal to the
Henry IV took part in this crusade.
1096 Approximately 800 Jews of the town of Worms were
slaughtered by the Crusaders. Some were given refuge by the
local bishop, whose protection was to no avail. The only survivors
were those who underwent forcible baptism.
1098 The Crusaders captured Antioch on 3 June with the assistance
of an Armenian Moslem named Firouz, who betrayed the city.
The Turks were massacred. Bohemund, a Norman, made himself
prince of Antioch. In so doing, he reneged on the agreement made
with Alexius Comnenus to return Antioch to the Roman
(Byzantine) empire.
1098 In reaction to the decadence of their order, Robert of Molesme
led a group of Benedictine monks in the founding of theCistercian
order. Their first monastery was in a poor, marshy part of the
Burgundian forest known as Cisteaux. The Cistercians specialized
in the development of marginal land, and soon became very
wealthy.
1098 At a council held in Bari, Pope Urban II (1088-99) permitted
the Greeks of southern Italy and Sicily, now under Norman rule, to
retain their own rituals and usages.
1099 The Crusaders took Jerusalem on 14 June, slaughtering the
Moslem inhabitants, and burning the Jews alive inside their
synagogue. Godfrey of Lorraine was the first ruler of the Kingdom
of Jerusalem, though he refused the title king. He was
succeeded by his brother Baldwin.
1099 Paschal II (1099-1118) became pope. During his time,
paedocommunion was still practiced in the West. This is clear
from the letter Pope Paschal II wrote to Pontius, the abbot of
Cluny: As Christ communicated bread and wine, each by itself,
and it ever had been so observed in the church, it ever should be so
done in the future, save in the case of infants and of the sick, who
as a general thing, could not eat bread.
1100 On making the sign of the cross, from the Catholic
Encyclopedia: At this period the manner of making it in the West
seems to have been identical with that followed at present in the
East, i.e. only three fingers were used, and the hand traveled from
the right shoulder to the left. ... Moreover it is at least clear from
many pictures and sculptures that in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries the Greek practice of extending only three fingers was
adhered to by many Latin Christians. ... However there can be little
doubt that long before the close of the Middle Ages the large sign
of the cross was more commonly made in the West with the open
hand and that the bar of the cross was traced from left to right.
1100 A Russian bishopric established at Polotsk on the Dvina
River.
1100 Between this year and 1152, the Cistercians began over three
hundred new monasteries.
The Twelfth Century
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1102 Union of Croatia and Hungary.
1103 With new kings and popes in place, the investiture
controversy in England flared up again. King Henry I of England
(1100-35) and Pope Paschal II (1099-1118) were the key players.
The Concordat of London in 1107 made peace. By this agreement,
Henry abandoned lay investiture, but maintained authority over
bishops and abbots in his realm. The Concordat of London was a
model for the Concordat of Worms (1122). Paschal was motivated
to peace by a desire to launch a crusade against his fellow
Christians in Constantinople.
1104 The Danish town of Lund became an archbishopric.
1104 In around this year, Basil the Bogomil was burned on a pyre
in the Hippodrome in Constantinople. It is not clear to what
extent, if any, Basil and his followers were indebted to the
Bulgarian Bogomils (see 970). Basil had twelve principal
lieutenants, known as Apostles, and a large following of disciples.
Although the emperor Alexius himself repeatedly visited Basil in
prison and attempted to persuade him of his errors, he refused to
recant. His followers were permitted to choose the stake at which
they would die. One stake had a cross attached, and the other was
bare. Those who selected the cross were set free, but the rest were
burned.
Basil claimed that all non-Bogomils were under the power of
demons, and he attributed the miraculous works of saints to the
machinations of demons. He held that the cross was a symbol
favored by demons, because it was the instrument of Christs
death. Communion and the venation of icons (involving material
objects) were acts of reverence to demons. Basils Bogomils
rejected marriage on the grounds of Matthew 22.30, dressed as
monks, and identified the Cappadocian Fathers and St. John
Chrysostom with the false prophets the New Testament warned
against. They had few services or ceremonies, citing Matthew 6.6.
The only prayer they used was the Lords Prayer, which they
recited seven times in the day and five times at night. They
eschewed converts from among the educated. The twelve
Apostles were supposed never to die, but to be translated into the
kingdom of heaven while they slept, their bodies meanwhile
drying into dust and ashes. In the actual course of events,
however, they did die.
Basil had a novel interpretation of the fall and Christs work. Satan
was originally Gods eldest son, but he had been turned out of
heaven for leading the angels in rebellion. On earth, he created
Adam, but had to turn to God to provide the mans soul. Thus
Satan and God shared authority over mankind. God had pity on
men, and sent the archangel Michael to become incarnate, entering
the Virgin Mary through her right ear. Christ (Michael) did not
actually die on the cross; he only appeared to do so. But he did
descend into hell and confine the devil there. He then ascended
into heaven and took the devils former place at Gods right hand.
1106 A bishopric established in Holar in Iceland. A school was
founded where a woman named Ingunn taught Latin and depicted
the lives of the saints in embroidery.
1106/7 Abbot Daniel of Tchernigov, a Russian on pilgrimage to
Jerusalem, observed Latins and Greeks worshipping together. He
pointed out happily, however, that at the ceremony of the Holy
Fire the Greek lamps were lit miraculously while the Latin ones
were lit from the Greeks.
1108 Likely date of the Magdeburg Appeal, a letter to the clergy of
Saxony, the Rhineland, and Flanders asking for military support in
a proposed thrust against the pagan Wends. The effort of crushing
the Wends is an occasion for you to save your souls and ... to
acquire the best land on which to live. The Wends lived in the
region between the Elbe and Pomerania (Mecklenburg).
1111 Paschal II (1099-1118) concluded a concordat with the
German emperor Henry V (1106-25) to end the investiture
controversy. In return for Henry Vs agreement not to interfere in
church affairs, Paschal would surrender all church lands and
secular offices. Paschal crowned Henry German emperor. Opinion
in the church was so strong against him, that Paschal was forced to
withdraw from the agreement.
1112 At a debate with Latin theologians in this year, the Orthodox
began to understand what the Westerners meant by papal
primacy. The insistence that Rome was the source of all authority
within the church began to be seen as a challenge to traditional
ecclesiology.
1114 The Premonstratensian order formed by a German aristocrat
named Norbert. The order emphasized evangelism.
1116 A hermit named Henry and his followers took control of Le
Mans (France). Henry soon disappeared, but one of his
followers, Pons, came to Perigueux, with some followers. They
called themselves Apostolics and owned no money, ate no meat,
drank no alcohol, eschewed private property and disapproved of
almsgiving. Although they genuflected 100 times per day, the
Apostolics rejected the mass and the cross. Many converted to
their beliefs, including some clergy. It was thought that the
Apostolics worked magic, and that Satan assisted them by freeing
them from prison.
1117 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Alexius I Comnenus (1081-
1118) presided over a synod seated to hear the case of heresy
against Eustratios (Eustratius), metropolitan of Nicaea, who had
been accused of Nestorianism. The emperor Alexius had
employed Eustratius in an attempt to win the Armenians back to
Orthodoxy. Eustratius slipped into error, and his approach was
not acceptable to Orthodox or Armenians. At the synod, the
prosecution was led by Nicetas, metropolitan of Heracleia. The
emperor lobbied for Eustratios, but the synod deadlocked, eleven
to eleven. It reconvened in Alexiuss absence, under the leadership
of John Agapetos, patriarch of Constantinople (1111-34), and
Eustratios was condemned. Eustratios had been a disciple of John
Italos. It appears that the synod was opposed not only to
Eustratiuss doctrinal innovation, but also his methodology:
Eustratius employed dialectic in reaching his conclusions.
The following anathemas concerning Eustratios were added to the
Synodicon of Orthodoxy:
(26) those who say that Christs human nature will always be in
servitude to his Divine nature;
(27) those who improperly use the distinction between the two
natures of Christ and say that the human nature is lower in dignity
and obligated to worship the Divine nature; and those say our
High Priest is that human nature, and not the one person of Christ;
Although the emperor urged clemency, Eustratius was suspended
for life. Interestingly, Eustratios was a leading member of the anti-
Latin party within the church.
1118 John II Comnenus Roman (Byzantine) emperor (1118-43).
Johns wife Eirene inspired the founding of the Pantokrator
monastery in Constantinople, to which a hospital was attached. St.
Eirene was known for her works of charity, particularly on the
behalf of orphans and widows. Before her death, she entered a
nunnery, becoming the nun Xene.
1118 The German emperor Henry V appointed Maurice de
Bourdin Pope Gregory VIII (1118-21). Maurice had been one of
Pope Paschal IIs ambassadors to the emperor, but he had gone
over to Henrys side in the investiture controversy.
1119 Four hundred and twenty-seven bishops attended a council
in Rheims. It excommunicated the German emperor Henry V
(1106-25) and Pope Gregory VIII (1118-21).
1119 In June, Pope Calixtus II (1119-24) held a council in Toulouse
to condemn a group of heretics who denied the hierarchy of the
church, the priesthood, marriage, baptism, and the eucharist.
1120 A new pagan temple constructed at Gutzkow. The region
east of the Elbe was enjoying a period of prosperity, attested by
strong urban growth.
1120+ The Templars originated in Palestine as a group of knights
who took the monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience,
whose purpose was to protect pilgrims as they traveled in the Holy
Land between the coast and Jerusalem. Their name came from the
location of their residence in Jerusalem, thought to be on the site of
Solomons temple.
1121 Peter Abelards Theologia condemned at a council held in
Soissons for presenting an erroneous view of the Trinity.
1121 Hosios Nicholas Kataskepenos, a disciple of St. Cyril
Philiotes, who had been dead for 11 years, opened the saints
tomb. He found the head uncorrupt, exuding a pleasant odor.
Kataskepenos later wrote a Life of Cyril Philiotes. From Philea in
Thrace where he lived in a cell near a church his brother had
converted into a monastery, Cyril, for a period in his life, walked
into Constantinople every Friday evening to view the miraculous
unveiling of the icon of the Virgin Mary in the church of the
Blachernai. The emperor Alexius I Comnenus visited Cyril on two
occasions. On the first, the emperor was concerned that the duties
of his office left him little time for prayer, but Cyril assured him
that God would not forget his care for the poor, as shown in the
support he had shown to the Orphanage of St. Paul, his concern for
churches and monasteries, and his efforts to convert barbarians to
Christ. On his second visit, Alexius sought counsel on the
appropriate time to initiate a campaign against the Turks. Cyril
advised him to delay, and the emperor did so.
1122 The Concordat of Worms between Henry V (1106-1125) and
Pope Calixtus II (1119-1124) ended the investiture controversy. In
this compromise, Henry abandoned lay investiture and the
doctrine of theocratic kingship. But the pope granted the king the
right to veto the appointments of bishops and abbots. As it turned
out, the German monarch had been so weakened by the civil wars
that he was no longer able to control appointments outside of his
own territory. The monarch was severely weakened.
1123 First Lateran Council. The council condemned simony,
forbade laypersons from disposing of church property, and
prohibited the marriage of clerics in major orders.
1124-5 Duke Boleslas III of Poland had captured Pomerania (the
northern part of modern Poland) by this year.
Afterwards,Vratislav (Warcislaw), a Pomeranian warlord who, as
a youth, had been baptized while held prisoner in Germany,
encouraged the spread of Christianity into the land. He
established a bishopric on Usedom Island, near the mouth of the
Oder, and he protectedOtto, bishop of Bamburg, during the
latters missionary journey in 1124/25. At one point,
Duke Boleslas threatened military action against the citizens of
Szczecin if they refused to convert - they acceded to his demand.
Otto is reported to have baptized 22,165 persons in Pomerania.
His technique involved offering presents to encourage conversion -
food and clothing for the poor; rings, sword belts, sandals, and
cloth of gold to the wealthy. After Otto departed from Pomerania,
however, apostasy was widespread.
1125 A priest named Arnold appointed bishop for Greenland. In
1126 he established his see at Gardar.
1125 Clementius, a peasant from Bucy near Soissons, France,
formed a heretical group teaching that human reproduction was
evil. His followers engaged in exclusively homosexual
relationships, except for rare orgies. Babies which resulted from
orgies were said to have been burned at birth and their ashes made
into communion bread. Clementiuss followers did not believe in
the bodily incarnation of Christ, but they held instead that he was
but a phantasm. They also taught that the altar was the mouth of
hell and the sacraments were of no value. Clementius was
arrested and sentenced to imprisonment for life.
1125-1200 During this period a large number of Greek and Arabic
works were translated into Latin and became available to Western
scholars.
1126 The heretic Peter de Bruys burned at St. Gilles (France). Peter
had commited his beliefs to writing, and they were later
adumbrated by an ex-monk named Henry. Peters followers,
known as Petrobrusians, forbade infant baptism and taught that
the cross should be hated (not venerated) since Christ died upon
it. They also saw no value in the mass, criticized prayers for the
dead, and argued that churches should be torn down, since God,
being omnipresent, has no need for them.
1127-28 Otto of Bamburgs second missionary journey to the
Pomeranians (see 1124-5). He met with great success.
1127 Vizelin (Vicelinus), a native of Hamelin, set up a base in
Faldera (now Neumeister in Schleswig-Holstein) to evangelize the
Wends. The German Emperor Lothar (1125-37) and Count Adolf
of Holstein supported other missionary communities of Segeburg
and Lubeck. Adolf also encouraged Germans to immigrate to
Holstein and Wagria.
1130 When Nyklot succeeded Henry (see 1093) as leader of the
Wends, he stood as champion of the pagan cause.
1130 When Pope Honorius II died, a majority elected Cardinal
Pietro Pierleoni as Anacletus II (1130-38) as pope, while a minority
elected Grigorio Papareshi as Innocent II (1130-43). Anacletus was
supported by Roger of Sicily, while, with the aid of Archbishop
Norbert of Magdeburg and Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, Innocent
gained the support of King Henry I of England and the German
Emperor Lothair.
1134 King Eric II of Denmark raided Rugen (near Germanys Baltic
coast) and conquered the fortress of Arkana, center of the cult of
the god Svantovit. Eric forced baptism on the Arkanians. They
promptly apostatized when Eric returned to Denmark.
1136 Anselm, Roman Catholic bishop of Havelburg, visited
Constantinople on a diplomatic mission. While there, he entered
into public debate with Nicetas, metropolitan of Nicomedia.
Nicetas made a speech summarizing the Easts view of papal
claims: We do not deny to the Roman Church the primacy
amongst the five sister patriarchates; and we recognize her right to
the most honorable seat at an ecumenical council. But she has
separated herself from us by her own deeds, when through pride
she assumed a monarchy which does not belong to her office. . . .
How shall we accept decrees from her that have been issued
without consulting us and even without our knowledge? If the
Roman Pontiff, seated on the lofty throne of his glory, wishes to
thunder at us and, so to speak, hurl his mandates at us from on
high, and if he wishes to judge us and even to rule us and our
churches, not by taking counsel with us but at his own arbitrary
pleasure, what kind of brotherhood, or even what kind of
parenthood can this be? We should be the slaves, not the sons, of
such a church, and the Roman see would not be the pious mother
of sons but a hard and imperious mistress of slaves.
1137 Arnold, prior of the monastery at Brescia (Venice), took part
in a popular revolt against Bishop Manfred, the local lord. Arnold
of Brescia proposed that the clergy strip themselves of temporal
power. He was condemned by Pope Innocent II (1130-43) at the
Second Lateran Council (1139).
1139 Second Lateran Council. The council condemned the
followers of Arnold of Brescia as heretics and terminated ended
the schism caused by the election of Anacletus II as a rival pope to
Innocent II (see 1130 Anacletus had died in 1138). This council
also declared marriages involving monks and those in major
orders invalid. In addition, the council echoed Innocents support
(from 1136) of King Stephen over Empress Matilda as the rightful
sovereign of England.
1140 Gratian produced an unofficial collection of canon law
known as the Decretum. It was a favorite source book in the West
for about 100 years.
1140 In a letter to the canons of Lyons, Bernard of Clairvaux
condemned the Feast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary
- long commemorated in the East on December 9 - claiming that
her Conception was not holy, though her Nativity was.
1140 The patriarchal synod in Constantinople posthumously
condemned Constantine Chrysomallos, formerly a resident
(though not a monk) at the monastery of Kyr Nicholas.
Chrysomallos had denied the efficacy of baptism, repentance, and
confession, and had insisted that to be saved, one must have
attained spiritual illumination. Chrysomallos had followers
among men of high rank.
1141 Peter Abelard condemned at the Council of Sens. Though
sometimes portrayed as a skeptic, Abelards stated goal in his Sic et
Non was to demonstrate that the apparent contradictions of
scripture, discovered through the use of logic, could be reconciled
once the true intent of the texts was understood. Arnold of Brescia
(see 1137) had traveled to France and become one of Peter
Abelards supporters. The Council of Sens condemned Arnold as
well. Bernard of Clairvaux was influential in the councils
decisions.
1143 The citizens of Rome rebelled against ecclesiastical rule and
established a Republican form of government, known as the
Commune. Rome was temporarily unsafe for the popes.
1143 A synod that met in Constantinople condemned the
following propositions of the Bogomils. These anathemas were
added to the Synodicon of Orthodoxy (see 843),
(23) those who deny that the three members of the Trinity have one
nature; those who say the Son was created accidentally, and is
merely an angel; and those who say that the Holy Spirit is inferior
to the Son and the Father;
(23) those who say that Satan is the creator and ruler of the
universe and the creator of mankind;
(24) those who deny that the Logos and Son was begotten before
time, and became incarnate of the Virgin Mary for our salvation;
and those who believe the eucharist to be only bread and wine and
not truly the flesh and blood of the Savior;
(25) those who do not worship the cross through which our God
Jesus Christ destroyed the devices of the enemy.
1143 Between this year 1157, six different men became patriarch of
Constantinople: Michael the Oxite Kourkouas (1143-46), Cosmas
Atticus (1146-47), Nicholas Mouzalon (1147-51), Theodotos (1151-
53), Constantine Khliarenos (1154-57), and Luke Chrysoberges
(1157-69). Theodotoss right hand darkened during his terminal
illness. After his death, Soterichos Panteugenos accused
Theodotos of having harbored Bogomil sympathies: Soterichoss
research had shown that Bogomil corpses always had blackened
hands. When George Tornikes came to the late patriarchs defense,
Soterichos accused him of Bogomil leanings as well. See 1157.
1143 The prior of Steinfeld in the Rhineland wrote for advice to
Bernard of Clairvaux regarding heretics who had come to Cologne,
a bishop and one other who claimed to represent a secret tradition
preserved in Greece. They termed themselves Apostles. The
heretics had great success in gaining converts near Toulouse. The
Western Bogomils came to be called Cathars or Cathari. See 1213.
1144 On 22 February, a patriarchal synod under Michael
Kourkouas condemned Niphon, a monk of the Peribleptos
monastery in Constantinople, as a Bogomil. The next patriarch,
Cosmas Atticus, was Niphons friend. An imperial tribunal,
meeting on 26 February 1147, used this as an excuse to depose
Atticus.
1144 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Manuel Comnenus (1143-
80) declared priests exempt from taxation and the performance of
duties for the state.
1144 At the preaching of Bernard of Clairvaux, the Second
Crusade was launched. The crusade was motivated by the news
that the Saracens had conquered the Christian principality of
Edessa. Bernard was successful in persuading knights from France
and the south of Germany to join the crusade, but Spain and
northern Germany found his message less than convincing. Pope
Eugenius III (1145-53) allowed Alfonso VII of Castille to attack the
Muslims in Spain instead of those in the Middle East. The
crusading force that did head east was obliterated in Asia Minor.
1145 Pope Lucius II (1144-45) died in battle against the forces of the
Commune on the Capitol in Rome.
1146 On 13 March, Bernard of Clairvaux attended a Reichstag in
Frankfurt where Saxon nobles asked for authorization to attack the
pagan Slavs to the east. Bernard passed this information along to
Pope Eugenius, who authorized the crusade against the Wends.
1146 Pope Eugenius III (1145-53) was forced from Rome by the
forces of Arnold of Brescia. Arnold had reconciled with the
papacy in 1145, and, for Arnolds act of penance, Pope Eugenius
sent him to Rome on a pilgrimmage. While there, Arnold allied
himself with the Commune (1143) and preached against pope and
cardinals.
1147 Pope Eugenius III (1145-53), preaching the Second Crusade in
the south of France, was alarmed at the number of heretics he
found there. He sent Bernard of Clairvaux to deal with them.
Bernard found the heretics concentrated near Albi, and their most
prominent members were weavers. They were called Arriani after
a village near Toulouse where they were especially strong in
numbers.
1147 The Wendish Crusade. On 13 April, in the bull Divina
dispensatione, Pope Eugenius III (1145-53) gave the Saxons spiritual
privileges typical for crusaders as incentive for warring upon the
pagan Wends. The crusade was made necessary by Count Adolf
of Holsteins annexation of Wendish territory, which he provided
to immigrants from the west of Germany. In support of the
crusade, Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux wrote, We expressly forbid
that for any reason whatsoever they should make a truce with
these people [the Wends] ... until such time as ... either their
religion or their nation be destroyed. Nyklots forces (see 1130)
were opposed by a Danish navy and a Saxon army, the latter
under the command of Bishop Anselm of Havelburg. Nyklot was
defeated and some Wends were baptized.
1147 Germans moving eastward on the Second Crusade plundered
the suburbs of Philippopolis. The metropolitan, Michael Italikos,
convinced the German emperor Conrad II to keep his troops in
line. Then the locals murdered some of the crusaders. Italikos was
able to persuade Conrad to spare the city.
1148 A council meeting in Reims condemned Eudes de lEtoile for
heresy. He was imprisoned, where he died. Eudes (also known as
Eon) taught his heresy near Saint-Malo and met secretly with his
followers in the forest of Broceliande. He proclaimed himself the
Christ, and said he had come to judge the quick and the dead.
Eons more important followers were given the names of the
Manichean eons (Knowledge, Wisdom, etc.). Eon lived in high
style on the contributions of his followers, and his prosperity led to
the accusation that he worked magic.
1148 In July, Pope Eugenius III (1145-53) excommunicated Arnold
of Brescia.
1148-51 Peter Lombard wrote his Four Books of Sentences, a
systematic treatment of the teachings of the Bible and the fathers
on Christian doctrine. It remained a standard theological textbook
until the 1500s.
1149 The emperor Manuel Comnenus took Corfu back from the
Normans.
1149 The bishoprics of Oldenburg and Meckleburg re-established.
Vizelin (see 1127) was ordained bishop of Oldenburg.
1153 Pope Eugenius III (1145-53) concluded a treaty with the
German emperor Frederick I Barbarosa (1152-90) (the Treaty of
Constance) setting conditions for Fredericks coronation. Eugenius
died before Frederick could come to Italy to be crowned.
1154 Philip of Mahdia was burned to death in Palermo. Philip,
raised a Muslim, had converted to Christianity and served King
Roger of Sicily. He was executed for apostasy when he relapsed to
Islam.
1154 Nicholas Breakspear elected Pope Adrian IV (1154-59).
Nicholas was the only Englishman to be elected pope. He had
reorganized the church in Scandinavia for Eugenius III.
1155 Pope Adrian IV (1154-59) placed Rome under interdict.
Resistance in the Communes Senate collapsed, and papal
government was restored. Arnold of Brescia fled, but was
captured by the German emperor Frederick I Barbarosas troops.
Arnold was tried for heresy and condemned. He was hanged,
and his body was burned. The ashes were cast into the Tiber.
1155 Pope Adrian IV crowned Frederick I Barbarosa (1152-90)
Holy Roman Emperor.
1156 When Bishop Gerold of Oldenburg held Epiphany service
there, no Slavs attended the service. Gerold cut down a grove of
trees sacred to the Prove, a Slavic god, as he traveled to Lubeck.
1156 William of Sicily forced Pope Adrian (Hadrian) IV (1154-59)
to sign the Concordat of Benevento. The Normans were given
land as far north as Naples. The German emperor Frederick I
Barbarosa (1152-90) understood this concordat to be in violation of
the Treaty of Constance, which he had made with Pope Eugenius
III in 1153.
1156 Pope Adrian IV, in the bull Laudabiliter, granted King Henry II
of England the right to take Ireland as a possession.
1157 The Synod of Blachernae, held on May 12. In part, this
synod condemned the errors of Basilakes and Soterichos
(Soterichus). The following anathemas from that synod are
included in the Synodicon of Orthodoxy (see 842 above).
(28) those who say that Christ offered his sacrifice to God the
Father alone, and not to himself and to the Holy Spirit;
(30) those who deny that the daily sacrifice of the priests of the
Church is to the Holy Trinity;
(31) those who say that the sacrifice of the Divine Liturgy is only
figuratively the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood; those who
deny that the sacrifice in the Lirtugy is one and the same as that of
Christ on the cross;
(33) those who deny that Christ reconciled us to Himself though
the entire mystery of the economy, and so reconciled us to all of
the Holy Trinity, but say instead that we were reconciled to the
Son through the incarnation and to the Father through the
passion;
(34) those who misunderstand and twist the teachings of the
Church;
(35) those who think the deification of Christ's humanity destroyed
his human nature; and those who deny that his deified human
nature is worthy of worship; and those who say that, since the
human nature of Christ was swallowed up into Divinity, his
passion was an illusion;
(36) those who reject the doctrines of Athanasius, Cyril, Ambrose,
Amphilochius, and Leo of Old Rome, and who do not accept the
teachings of the Ecumenical councils, in particular, the fourth and
sixth councils;
(37) those who say that characteristics of Christ's human nature -
such as creaturehood, circumscription, mortality, and blameless
passions - exist only hypothetically, when one considers Christ's
human nature in abstraction, and not really and truly;
The emperor Manuel Comnenus called the council to settle a
dispute over the words in the liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,
Thou art he who offers and is offered and receives. Basil, the
deacon who held the chair of the gospels, interpreted this to mean
that the Son is both the victim and the recipient of the sacrifice.
Soterichos Panteugenos attacked Basils position in a Platonic
dialogue, but George Tornikes, metropolitan of Ephesus, came to
Basils defense. A synod (26 Jan 1156) had settled the matter in
Basils favor, but Soterichos Panteugenos and Nichephorus
Basilakes had not been present and refused to accept the synods
decision.
After the synod of Blachernae, Nichephorus Basilakes and
Soterichos (Soterichus), deacons of the Great Church of St. Sophia
in Constantinople, recanted. George Tornikes wrote a tract against
the methods of Basilakes and Soterichos, accusing them of playing
intellectual games with the doctrines of the church.
1157 The archbishop of Reims, Samson, noted that Manicheanism
was being popularized in his diocese by itinerant weavers. These
Manicheans reportedly criticized marriage and promoted
licentious behavior. Samson referred to the heretics as Poblicani.
1159 The cardinals electing Adrian IVs successor to the papacy
were split into two camps. The majority supported Alexander III
(1159-81), while a minority elected Victor IV (1159-64). William of
Sicily supported Alexander III, while Victor IV was aligned with
the German emperor Frederick I Barbarosa (1152-90). During the
period 1159-80, there were two rival popes. Victor IV was
succeeded by Paschal III (1164-68), Callistus III (1168-78), and
Innocent III (1179-80).
1160 The German emperor Frederick I Barbarosa (1152-90)
convened a council in Pavia to gain support for Victor IV as pope.
Victor gained little support, however, as other nations had little
desire to see a return to imperial control of the papacy. Alexander
III excommunicated Frederick for calling the council.
1160 Bern, bishop of Mecklenburg, converted Pribislav, the son of
Nyklot and ruler of the Wends. Prabislav cut a deal with Duke
Henry the Lion of Saxony, agreeing to accept Henrys overlordship
in exchange for a principality of Mecklenburg. However, no plans
were made to form and instruct a native Wendish clergy.
1160 Gerold, Vizelins successor as bishop of Oldenburg (see 1149,
1156), moved his see to Lubeck. The cathedral chapter at Lubeck
adopted the Augustinian rule at this time.
1160 A certain Gerard came to England from Germany at the head
of a sect numbering 30. Gerard opposed marriage, baptism and
the eucharist. At the order of a council held at Oxford,
these Publicani were branded on the forehead.
1161 Thomas Becket, a companion of King Henry II (1154-89) of
England, became Archbishop of Canterbury. Gervase of
Canterbury attributes the celebration of Trinity Sunday (the
Sunday one week after Pentecost (Whitsunday)) to Thomas,
although there is evidence that it actually began in the Low
Countries in the tenth century. The Roman Church added Trinity
Sunday to their calendar during the pontificate of John XXII in the
fourteenth century. The Eastern Church has no Trinity Sunday,
referring to the day instead as All Holy Martyrs.
1161 Edward the Confessor was canonized. At this time,
permission from the bishop of Rome began to be required before
changes to the English churchs calendar were authorized (see
747).
1161 When the Seljuq sultan Kilidj Arslan visited Constantinople
in this year, his planned trip to St. Sophia was blocked by the
patriarch Luke Chrysoberges (1157-69/70), who would not permit
an infidel to set foot within the Great Church.
At some point during Luke Chrysoberges patriarchate, the
question was raised whether Muslims who had been baptized by
Orthodox priests at their parents request needed do anything
further to convert to Orthodoxy. A synod decided that such
baptism was insufficient, even when the Muslims mother had
been Orthodox. Instead, the prospective convert was required to
curse Mohammed and his god, as had been customary. One of the
Seljuq sultans viziers, Iktiyar ad-Din Hasan ibn Gabras, a convert
to Islam and member of the Byzantine Gabras family, urged the
emperor to remove the curse as a requirement, since it had
prevented his conversion back to Christianity. In the hope that
others in the sultans court might convert, Manuel urged that the
requirement to anathematize Mohammed and his god be
dropped. The issue was discussed in a synod, and as a
compromise,the anathema was modified to apply only to
Mohammed and his teachings.
1162 Henry, archbishop of Reims, observed that a large number of
heretics had penetrated into Flanders. He called them
Manicheans who are known as Populicani.
1163 Burning of Cathars at Cologne at the urging of Eckbert, Abbot
of Schonau.
1163 Pope Alexander III (1159-81) held a council in Tours. King
Louis VII (1137-80) asked the pope to condemn all who provided
support to the heretics in Gascony and the region near Toulouse
(see 1147).
1164 Death of St. Hilarion, bishop of Moglena (in Macedonia).
Hilarion is the only 12th century Orthodox bishop considered a
saint. He is noted for his opposition to the Paulicians and
Bogomils of Macedonia. On one occasion the Bogomils stoned
him, but he convinced the residents of Moglena to take no
vengeance. Hilarion built a church dedicated to the Holy Apostles
on the spot where Bogomil prayer meetings had been held.
1164 Pole Alexander III (1159-81) made Uppsala a bishopric.
1165 By this year, the Cathars of Languedoc were so numerous
that they openly defied the regional prelates as they met at
Lombers (Lombez). A heretical leader named Oliver proclaimed
his doctrines publicly.
1165 At the command of the German emperor Frederick I
Barbarosa (1152-90), Pope Paschal III (1164-68) canonized
Charlemagne.
1166 A council met under the presidency of the emperor Manuel
Comnenus to address the interpretation of John 14.28: My father
is greater than I. Demetrius of Lampe, a Roman (Byzantine)
diplomat recently returned from the West, raised the issue to the
emperors attention. Demetrius ridiculed the way the verse was
interpreted there: Christ was inferior to his father in his humanity,
but equal in his divinity. The emperor thought the Western
interpretation made good sense. Eventually, he called a council to
settle the matter. The council met on March 2. The following
anathemas were directed against Constantine the Bulgarian,
formerly Metropolitan of Corfu, and John Irenicus, by a synod in
1166. They are included in the Synodicon of Orthodoxy (see
year 842).
(38) Constantine the Bulgarian, who says that My father is greater
than I refers only to Christ's human nature, taken in abstraction;
whereas the Fathers use such an abstraction only to explain
statements implying servitude or ignorance, and explain the
statement "My father is greater than I" in various ways, one of
which is that the statement refers to the fact that Christ's human
nature retained its properties in the hypostatic union;
(39) those who agree with Constantine of Bulgaria;
(40) John Irenicus, who held the same view.
At the emperors insistence, the council agreed that, By Christ
was to be understood his created and concrete nature, according to
which he suffered, as others. In the form of an edict (an Ekthesis)
he proclaimed severe punishment for those who refused to accept
this formula: bishops and officials would lose their posts, while
lower orders of the clergy could expect exile. The Ekthesiswas
carved in stone and erected in the narthex of St. Sophia.
Metropolitans were required to have their suffragans sign a copy
of the Ekthesis. It is said that most of the church in Constantinople
was opposed to the Ekthesis, perhaps due to anti-Latin feelings in
the capital.
1167 A group of Poplicani (also called Deonarii) was tried in
Vezelay in Burgundy. Seven were burned, but one was scourged
and set free. They had refused to admit the value of the
sacraments.
1167 In around this year, a Bogomil known as Papa Niquinta or
Nicetas, presided over an assembly of the leading Cathars of
Languedoc at Saint-Felix-de-Caraman (near Toulouse). Nicetas
claimed to be head of the church of Drugunthia (which has yet to
be located). As to church organization, he advised the Cathars to
follow the example of the Bogomil churches in the East (Romania,
Drugunthia, Melenguia, Bulgaria, and Dalmatia), each of which
was independent, but which all strove for peace with one another.
Nicetas taught an absolute dualism, in which there are two
uncreated gods, one good and one evil, which he contrasted with
the teachings of the Bulgarian Bogomils, who taught that Satan
was a created being. Nicetas also visited the Cathars of Lombardy,
whose leader, Mark, had learned his faith from Bulgarian
Bogomils. Mark accepted correction from Nicetas, but at some
later point a representative of the Bulgarian Bogomils cast doubts
on the validity of Nicetass consecration, claiming that Nicetass
predecessor as bishop of Drugunthia had been found with a
woman in his room.
1168 King Valdemar I of Denmark conquered Rugen (see 1134).
The temple of Svantovit was destroyed. Svantovit himself (or his
image) was used as firewood. The inhabitants of Rugen again
accepted Christiantiy. Twelve churches existed on the island by
1172.
1168 Giovanni de Struma became Pope Calixtus III (1168-78) with
the support of the German emperor Frederick I Barbarosa (1152-
90).
1169 Norman adventurers (encouraged by Pope Adrian IVs
bull Laudabiliter (1156)) invaded eastern Ireland. King Henry II of
England took possession in October, 1171.
1169 In this year, a monastery for Russians was founded at Mount
Athos (see 963).
1169-1187 A period of persecution for Coptic Christians. Fearing
they might support the Frankish crusaders, the Ayyubid rulers
forbade Copts from holding office or riding horses, banned bells,
crosses, and religious processions, and had church walls painted
black. These restrictions were generally relaxed after the defeat of
the crusaders.
1170 At some point during his tenure as patriarch of
Constantinople (1170-78), Michael Ankhialos suppressed certain
celebrations that occurred on the evening of June 23. The
celebrations involved dressing a young, eldest daughter as a bride
and having her handle small, personal objects to predict the
owners fates. The celebrants also jumped over bonfires for luck,
put garlands on their houses, then splashed the houses with
seawater. Ankhialos was also commended by Eustathius of
Thessalonica for his suppression of heretics.
1171 Becket was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral by four
knights.
1171 Pope Alexander III issued the bull Non parum animus noster,
equating war against the Estonians and the Finns with pilgrimage
to the Holy Land: We therefore grant to those who fight with
might and courage against the aforesaid pagans one years
remission for the sins they confess and receive penance for,
trusting in Gods mercy and the merits of the apostles Peter and
Paul, just as we usually grant to those who visit the sepulcher of
the Lord; and if those who perish in the fight are doing their
penance, to them we grant remission of all their sins.
1171 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Manuel I Comnenus (1143-
80) had all Venetians in the empire arrested and confiscated their
goods. He had established trade arrangements with the Genoese
in 1169 and with the Pisans in 1170.
1173 Death of Euphrosyne of Polotsk, patron saint of Belarus.
Euphrosyne was the daughter of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk. She
entered a convent rather than accept marriage. Noted for her
generosity (she used most of her income for almsgiving),
Euphrosyne copied books for income. Toward the end of her life,
she traveled to Constantinople and the Holy Land.
1176 The Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Manuel Comnenus (1143-
80) defeated by the Turks at Myriocephalon in Anatolia.
1176 The Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem, Leontius, was
imprisoned by the Franks when he slipped into Jerusalem to visit
his see.
1177 Joachim of Fiore (1130/35-1201/02) became abbot of the
Cistercian Monastery in Corazzo, Sicily, shortly before developing
a Trinitarian philosophy of history. The Old Testament era
corresponded to the time of the Father, and the period since the
incarnation was the era of the Son. The third era, that of the Spirit,
was to have been won through the efforts of the Church, especially
of hermits and monastics, and to have begun in 1260. The
Franciscan and Dominican orders were later seen as fulfilling this
need for spiritual workers. Joachim was a mystic, having
experienced three moments of intense spiritual illumination.
1178 At the request of Louis VII of France (1137-80), Pope
Alexander III (1159-81) sent a mission to Toulouse to deal with the
Cathars. Apart from Count Raymond V of Toulouse, the nobles
favored the Cathars and offered the mission no support. The
Cistercian Cardinal Peter of St. Chrysogonus was booed in the
streets of Toulouse.
1179 Lando di Sezze elected Pope Innocent III (1179-80). Innocent
was the fourth in a series of so-called antipopes going back to
Victor IV in 1159. Alexander III had Innocent confined at the
monastery of La Cava in the south of Italy.
1179 Third Lateran Council. This council condemned the Cathari
and settled on a two-thirds majority among cardinals as the
requirement for papal election.
1180 An Augustinian canon, Meinhard, set up a mission station at
Uxkull (Ikskile), inland on the Dvina (Daugava) River (modern
Latvia). His fort there was built of stone for protection against
Lithuanian slavers.
1182 Many Latin-speaking residents of
Constantinople were massacred by the Roman (Byzantine)
populace during a riot. Many of these were Venetians.
1184 Pope Lucius III (1181-85) issued the bull Ad Abolendam, which
condemned the teachings of Peter Valdes (Peter Waldo). Valdes
was an uneducated lay preacher in Lyon who used a non-Latin
Bible. His followers, the Waldensees, spread though much of
Western Europe. They refused to take oaths before courts, said no
prayers for the dead, and criticized the adoration of the cross.
Instead, the Waldensees stressed moral purity, confession, fasting,
poverty, and yearly communion. Lucius set up an inquisition to
deal with the Waldensees and the Cathars.
1184 The synod of Verona condemned the Arnoldists, followers of
Arnold of Brescia (see 1137, 1155). The Arnoldists decried the
Churchs temporal power and saw a contradiction between
material possessions and spiritual health.
1185 In August, the Normans laid siege to and sacked
Thessalonica. A description of the Norman atrocities survives,
written by Eustathius, metropolitan of the city. Eustathius also
complained that the Norman conquerors were contemptuous of
Greek church services, and that the local Jews and Armenians
profited from the sacking of the city (demanding high prices for
bread) and rejoiced that a disaster had fallen upon the Greeks.
1186 Death of St. John of Novgorod. He had been archbishop of
Novgorod during a siege. As he prayed one day, John had a vision
of the Theotokos, who told him to go to the Church of Christ the
Savior and take her icon from there, then carry it along the walls of
the city. She promised him he would then see the city rescued. As
John carried the icon in procession to the city walls, tears began to
stream from the Virgin Marys eyes, and the enemy fell into
complete confusion and fled.
1186 Founding of the Second Bulgarian Empire. John (Ivan) Asen
I was tsar from 1186 to 1196.
1187 Death of Gerard of Cremona, who had translated over 70
ancient Greek works into Latin from the Arabic.
1187 The Fatamid (Turkish) vizier Yusuf Ibn Eyub, known by his
title of Sala ed-Din, or Saladin, swept into Palestine, defeating the
crusader King Guy at the battle of Tiberias in June, and conquering
Jerusalem in October. In addition to dealing the death blow to the
Latin kingdom in Palestine, Saladin conquered Egypt, thereby
insuring that Islam in the west was Sunni though in Persia it
remains Shiah to this day.
1188 Pope Clement III (1187-91) recognized Romes communal
government (see 1143).
1189 The Third Crusade set off under the leadership of Richard the
Lionhearted of England (1189-1199), Philip Augustus of France
(1180-1223), and Frederick Barbarosa of Germany (1152-1190).
There was strong popular support in Constantinople for the
patriarch Dositheuss (1090-91) efforts to block the crusaders
passage. The crusaders succeeded in capturing Cyprus and Acre
in 1191. On his return home, Richard was captured by Leopold of
Austria and held captive by Henry VI.
~1190 The Teutonic Order of Jerusalem (the Teutonic Knights)
formed largely from German knights of the third crusade. Their
goal was to defend the Christian presence in the Holy Land.
1091 On his return journed from the Third Crusade, Philip
Augustus stopped on the island of Patmos. He gave
the Monastery of St. John the Theologian thirty bezants and
requested a relic of St. Christodoulos, the monasterys founder (see
1088). The monks refused, but one of Philips followers bit off the
tip of one of Christodouloss fingers and took it with him. A storm
later forced Philips party back to the island, and the fingertip was
restored to the monastery.
1194 The Norman kingdom in southern Italy became part of the
German empire.
1195 Some time after this year, Theodore Balsamon, patriarch of
Antioch (1185-95?), died. Balsamon attended his flock with
difficulty, given the presence of crusader forces and a Latin
patriarch in that city. He was a noted canonist, promoting the
harmony of ecclesial and imperial law/jurisdiction, and a
champion of the rights and authority of the Ecumenical
Patriarchate.
In around this year, the patriarch of Alexandria asked Balsamons
advice on whether to provide communion for Latin prisoners of
war. Balsamon responded by rejecting papal primacy and by
using 28th canon of the the council of Chalcedon to argue that the
patriarch of Constantinople had all the privileges supposedly
granted to the papacy by the Donation of Constantine. Since Rome
had fallen into heresy, Latin prisoners of war should be required to
renounce their errors before receiving communion.
1197 In this year, a monastery for Serbians was founded at Mount
Athos (see 963).
1197 The monk Boso became abbot of the monastery in Alet
(southern France). The monks had preferred a different candidate,
but Bertrand of Saissac, the regent of Foix, forced them to elect
Boso in a council over which the corpse of their previous abbot
presided.
1198 The Livonian Crusade. When Meinhards (see 1180)
successor Berthold found the mission along the Dvina in danger of
failure, Pole Celestine III (1191-98) encouraged a crusade. A Saxon
army invaded Livonia (~modern Latvia and Estonia) and defeated
the Livonians in battle. Berthold was slain. When the Saxons
returned home, the priests at the Livonian mission fled under
death threats from the Livonians. (The unreliability of occasional
crusaders to protect missionaries later led to the formation of
military/spiritual brotherhoods - see 1202.)
1198 During Innocent IIIs pontificate (1198-1216), the papacy
exercised increased direct control over the church, both through
written instructions and the presence of legates. Elements of the
modern Western system of liturgical colors can be found in a
treatise by Innocent III, written before he became pope in this
year. Since the time of Pope Gregory VII (1075-83), the popes had
been dissatisfied with identifying themselves as the vicar of St.
Peter. Innocent reflected the change in perspective when he wrote,
We are the successor of the prince of the Apostles, but we are not
his vicar, nor the vicar of any man or Apostle, but the vicar of Jesus
Christ himself.
1199 Innocent III sent a Cistercian mission to Languedoc to deal
with the Cathar heretics who were numerous in that province.
1199 Bosnia became an openly Bogomil state when Kulin, the Ban
of Bosnia, and ten thousand subjects publicly proclaimed the
Bogomil faith. The Bogomils of Bosnia were known as Patarenes.
The strength of the Patarenes in Bosnia ended only with the
Turkish conquest in 1463.
1200 Death of Stephan Nemanya, former Grand Zhupan of Serbia,
who had followed his son Sava (see 1219) into the monastic life,
adopting the name Symeon. Toward the end of the thirteenth
century, Nemanya called a council of the Serbian church to
condemn the doctrines of the Bogomils. Some of the Bogomil
missionaries had entered Bosnia, where they were instrumental in
the conversion of Kulin.
1200 In the late twelfth century, the monk Athanasius of Jerusalem
wrote to a certain Pank, who had been reading Bogomil writings,
If you have read the homily of the priest Jeremiah, the one on the
Holy Wood and the Holy Trinity, of which you used to talk, then
you have read lying fables. This quote indicates the existence of a
corpus of Bogomil works. The 1608 edition of the Russian index
Of True and False Books identified the priest Jeremiah with
Bogomil himself.
1200 Albert of Buxtehunde led a crusading army into Livonia. In
1201, he abandoned the mission station at Uxkull (see 1180) and
established his base at the mouth of the Dvina River. The city
of Riga grew from this beginning.
1200 When John the Fat Comnenus broke into St. Sophia in
Constantinope and had himself proclaimed emperor, the
patriarchJohn Kamateros (1199-1206) hid in a broom closet. The
emperor Alexius III Angelus (1195-1203) squelched John
Comnenuss coup.
It was common in this era in Constantinople to find scholars in
discussion in the forecourt of the Church of the Holy Apostles on
such topics as conception, the nature of sight, number theory, and
the workings of sensation.
1200 A synod met in Constantinople to discuss the eucharist as a
result of a controversy between which began in 1197 between John
Kamateros and the historian Nicetas Choniates. The resulting
synod condemned the teachings of Myron Sikidites (akaMichael
Glykas). Glykas had argued that, since the communion bread was
broken by the priest, it could not be corruptible. He also
concluded that, since Christs body had been transformed after his
sacrifice on the cross, so also the communion elements were
miraculously transformed only after they had been sacrificed, that
is, after they were consumed. However, as the synods decision
was being read to the emperor for confirmation, John
Kastamonites, bishop of Chalcedon and an enthusiastic supporter
of Sikidites views, entered uninvited and argued persuasively
against it. Sikidites was not censured.
1200 The beginning of the Little Ice Age in Western Europe,
which lasted for approximately 200 years. The colder, damper
conditions led to poor harvests, and, after 1250, little new land was
available for cultivation. Western Europe experienced multiple
famines in the early fourteenth century.


The Thirteenth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


1201 By the time this century began, the number of Orthodox
Christians in Egypt had been reduced to approximately 100,000.

1201 During the thirteenth century, the population of Rome never
rose higher than 30,000.
1202 Crusaders sacked Zara on the Dalmatian coast (see 1204).
1202 Bishop Albert of Riga (in modern Latvia) formed a
military/religious order, the Brothers of the Knighthood of Christ
of Livonia, to provide a permanent military presence, in contrast
to the seasonal or occasional crusading knights. They were
commonly known as the Sword Brothers. Unlike the Templars
who reported directly to the pope, the Sword Brothers were subject
to Albert. He meant to use them to subject the Livonians by force,
in order to bring them to Christ.
1203 Toulouse (Languedoc, France) agreed to persecute the
Cathars.
1203 Under marshal threat from King Emmerich of
Hungary, Kulin of Bosnia renounced the Bogomil (Patarene) faith
and accepted papal supremacy in the presence of the papal legate,
John de Casamaris. Altars and crosses were restored to the
churches, and the Roman calendar was adopted.
1204 The Fourth Crusade resulted in the sack of
Constantinople on April 13. Although not originally directed at
Constantinople, the Venetians insisted on this new target. The city
was pillaged, churches were desecrated, nuns were raped. The
city remained under Western control until 1261. (Though
originally aimed toward Egypt and Palestine, the Venetians
directed the crusade initially against Zara, a city of Dalmatia on the
Adriatic coast. When it was taken, Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)
excommunicated the crusaders, both Venetians and Franks, but the
excommunication of the Franks was lifted after they appealed for
absolution. While they were at Zara, the crusaders formed a pact
with Alexius Angelus, son of the deposed emperor Isaac, to attack
Constantinople and restore Isaac (1185-95) to the throne. On his
part, Alexius agreed to pay the crusaders a large sum of money
and to subordinate the Orthodox Church to Rome. Innocent III
issued an instruction that no further attacks (beyond those already
perpetrated at Zara) were to be allowed against Christians unless
they hindered the crusade. The failure on Innocent III's part to act
more firmly and forcefully to prevent the sack of Constantinople
was seen in the East as evidence of complicity. The Novgorod
Chronicle states that the pope favored the plan to attack
Constantinople, and the Chronica Regia Coloniensis indicates that he
lifted the Franks excommunication for sacking Zara only after
their intent to attack Constantinople became clear. (See Steven
Runcimans A History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, The Kingdom of Acre
and the Later Crusades, Cambridge, 1979, especially pages 116-117.))
The conquerors deposed Greek-speaking bishops and abbots,
replacing them with Latins. The church in Bulgaria was
apparently under at least nominal control from Rome from 1204 to
1230.
The crusaders took the body of John Chrysostom, which had been
returned to Constantinople in 438, and took it to Rome. It was
placed in St. Peters basilica.
1205 Innocent III (1198-1216), bishop of Rome, appointed Stephen
Langton Archbishop of Canterbury. King John (1199-1216) refused
to allow him to enter England. Langton divided the Bible books
into chapters.
1206 The Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, John Kamateros,
died in exile. The Orthodox of Constantinople asked Innocent IIIs
permission to elect a new patriarch. Innocent refused, since there
was already a Latin patriarch in place. The pope thus lost the
chance to gain the loyalty of the church in Constantinople, which
turned to theTheodore I Lascaris, emperor at Nicaea (1205-21).
1206 Innocent III reprimanded the clergy of the cathedral of
Barcelona for their withholding of baptism from slaves who
wished to convert to Christianity.
1206 A native Livonian priest, John, martyred at his mission
station between Rigan and Uxkull (modern Latvia).
1207 Pope Innocent III encouraged the nobles of the north of
France to enter into a crusade against those of the south who gave
support to the Cathars. He offered the same indulgences as were
given to crusaders going to the Holy Land. The northerners also
wished to enrich themselves with the southern nobles lands.
1207 The Brothers of the Knighthood of Christ of Livonia against
the Prussians formed by Bishop Christian, a Cistercian. They
made their base at Dobrin (Dobrzyn), inland along the Vistula
(modern Poland), and were known as the Knights of Dobrin.
1208 In March, at the request of the citizens of Constantinople, the
Nicaean emperor Theodore Lascaris authorized the election of a
new patriarch. Michael IV Autoreianos(1208-12) was selected.
1208 Innocent III placed England under interdict over the Langton
affair.
1208 Albigensian crusade (directed against the Cathars of the
south of France) began, led by Simon de Montfort and the papal
legate, Arnald of Citeaux . (The crusade takes its name from the
town of Albi, but the heretics were centered southwest of there,
near Toulouse.)
1208 Francis of Assisi heard the gospel reading for the feast of St.
Matthias (Feb 24), Matthew 10.9-11. Thereafter, though a layman,
he began to preach and attract disciples.
1209 Twelve Franciscan friars traveled to Rome. Pope Innocent III
gave oral approval to their rule.
1209 Pope Innocent III approved the establishment of a bishopric
for southern Finland. It was eventually located at Turku (Abo).
1211 The Bulgarian council of Tirnovo (the Bulgarian capital)
condemned the Bogomils and other heretics. The council
stipulated that all such heretics be arrested. A penalty of
imprisonment was established for those who were willing to
repent, while the rest were to be exiled.
1211 Genghis Khan invaded China.
1212 The Childrens Crusade.
1212 King John resigned his kingship and received it back as a
holding from the Roman legate. The interdict against England was
consequently ended.
1213 The ruler of Epiros (Epirus), Michael Angelus (1204-15)
called a synod to fill the vacant sees of Dyrrakhion and Larissa,
both of which had escaped conquest by the crusaders and were
under Michaels control. John Apokaukos, metropolitan of
Naupaktos, presided.
1213 Albigensian Crusade -- Catholic crusaders defeated
the Cathari at Muret. The Cathari, numerous in the Languedoc
region of France, were dualists, believing that Yahweh (the ruler of
spirit) and Lucifer (of matter) were co-equal. In their view, the
incarnation was an illusion, since matter is evil. The Cathars had
two levels of perfection: for theperfecti, eating of flesh (or eggs)
was forbidden, as was sexual intercourse. For the credentes, sexual
immorality was permitted (or so their Catholic opponents
claimed).
1213 Constantine Stilbes, metropolitan of Cyzicus in exile, wrote a
tract against the Latin church. He was especially critical of the
Western churchs love of war, citing the widespread belief among
the crusaders that those who died in combat would be accounted
as martyrs, the fact that a bishop carrying a cross had led the attack
on Constantinople, and incidents where knights on war horses had
ridden into churches and slaughtered the Orthodox who sought
shelter there. Stilbes is also the first Byzantine on record to take
notice of and denounce the granting of indulgences. He also
characterized the Latins as untrustworthy, since the pope claimed
the power to release them from oaths they might swear in the
future.
1214 The Nicaean emperor Theodore Lascaris sent Nicholas
Mesarites to Constantinople. Cardinal Pelagius, the papal legate
since 1213, was persecuting the monasteriesthere, and the monks
had appealed to the emperor for help. Pelagius told Mesarites that
his persecution would have been more severe, but he had been
lenient in the hope that Lascaris would submit to Rome.
1215 King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta.
1215 The Fourth Lateran Council was held in Rome, under
Innocent III. Transubstantiation was defined and the later
doctrine of Unum Sanctum was foreshadowed. On the sacraments:
One indeed is the universal Church of the faithful, outside which
no one at all is saved, in which the priest himself is the sacrifice,
Jesus Christ, whose body and blood are truly contained in the
sacrament of the altar under the species of bread and wine; the
bread (changed) into His body by the divine power of
transubstantiation, and the wine into the blood, so that to
accomplish the mystery of unity we ourselves receive from His
(nature) what He Himself received from ours. And surely no one
can accomplish this sacrament except a priest who has been rightly
ordained according to the keys of the Church which Jesus Christ
Himself conceded to the Apostles and to their successors. But the
sacrament of baptism (which at the invocation of God and the
indivisible Trinity, namely, of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Spirit, is solemnized in water) rightly conferred by anyone in
the form of the Church is useful unto salvation for little ones and
for adults. And if, after the reception of baptism anyone shall have
lapsed into sin, through true penance he can always be restored.
Moreover, not only virgins and the continent but also married
persons pleasing to God through right faith and good work merit
to arrive at a blessed eternity.
This council marked the end of paedocommunion in the West.
Infants had been communicated by wine alone or bread dipped in
wine. Since wine was no longer provided to the laity, this became
impossible. The change in practice was bolstered by the argument
then made that communion must be preceded by confession.
1216 St. Dominic secured Pope Honorius III's (1216-27) approval
for a new religious order. By 1221 Dominicans had entered
England.
1217 The ruler of Serbia received his crown from Rome, indicating
some Latin influence over the historically Orthodox country.
1217 Demetrius Chomatianus patriarch in Ochrida (1217-34).
1218 John (Ivan) Asen II overthrew Boril and became tsar of
Bulgaria (1218-41). John countered the policy enacted at Tirnovo
in 1211 and tolerated heretics.
1218 The Fifth Crusade. The crusaders took Damietta on the Nile
delta. The sultan of Egypt offered the crusaders Jerusalem in
exchange for Damietta, but his offer was refused. In the end, the
crusaders were forced to surrender the city.
1219 St. Sava (d. 1235) consecrated Archbishop of Serbia by
Manuel I Sarantenos (1215-22), giving the Serbian church a
measure of independence.
1219 Franciscans went as missionaries to Morocco in this year and
again in 1227. They died as martyrs.
1219 King Valdemar II of Denmark and Archbishop Andrew of
Lund led a crusade into Estonia. They founded a town, Tallinn,
with a bishopric, then imported German settlers and Dominican
friars.
1220 An Englishman named Thomas became bishop of Turku (see
1209). From there he actively evangelized the Finns.
1220 By this year Franciscans had entered Constantinople. They
were soon followed by Dominicans.
1220 The Nicaean patriarch, Manuel I Sarantenos (1215-22),
intended to hold a council at Easter to plan for possible discussions
with the Latins on reunion of the churches. John Apokaukos,
metropolitan of Naupaktos in Epiros, thought that such a step
would be taken as a sign of weakness and would tempt the Latins
to close our churches, where they rule, and to commit a thousand
and one mischiefs against the Christians subject to them.
Concessions, he implied, could lead to schism within the Orthodox
Church.
1220 On November 22, Pope Honorius III (1216-27)
crowned Frederick II Hohenstaufen, king of Germany, Holy
Roman Emperor (1220-50). Frederick was a grandson of Frederick
Barbarosa. Honorius acceded to Fredericks wish to unite Sicily
with the empire.
1220+ As activity in the Holy Land dwindled, the Teutonic
Knights (see 1190) became increasingly involved in Hungary and
the Baltic region. They subdued the region between the Vistula
and Niemen Rivers (western Poland, southern Lithuania).
Bishoprics were established along the Vistula at Chelmno (Kulm)
in 1232 and Marienwerder in 1243; and farther east at Konigsberg
(Kaliningrad) in 1255.
1221 Acontius, chaplain to pope Honorius III, reported from
Bosnia that the Patarene heretics were still thriving.
1222 John Apokaukos, metropolitan of Naupaktos in Epiros,
responded to criticism he had received from the patriarch of
Constantinople in exile. Apokaukos had been involved in the
ordination of bishops in Epiros who had been promoted without
the patriarchs permission (see 1213). While acknowledging the
patriarchs authority, Apokaukos argued that the church in Epiros
should be autonomous, and that the patriarch should welcome
Theodore Angeluss efforts to preserve the Orthodox Church in the
West.
1222 St. Germanicus the New (1222-1240), Ecumenical Patriarch
(in exile, in Nicaea), reportedly wrote the Synodicon of the Holy
Spirit. This synodicon was patterned on the Synodicon of
Orthodoxy (see 843 above) and traditionally was read on the
Second Day of Pentecost, the Monday of the Holy Spirit. It
anathematizes:
(1) those who amend or distort the Symbol of Faith of the First and
Second Ecumenical Councils;
(2) those who agree that the Son's relationship to the Father is
unmediated but say that the Spirit is distant and mediated;
(3) those who say that the Spirit proceeds from the Son just as the
Son proceeds from the Father;
(4) those who say that the Father, Son, and Spirit differ in glory
and dignity, the Spirit being third in dignity;
(5) those who introduce ordinal ranks of "first," "second," and
"third" into the Godhead;
(6) those who misconstrue the words of Maximus Confessor (580-
662) and the Ecumenical Patriarch Tarasius (784-806) - that the
Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son - to imply that the
Spirit proceeds from the Son;
(7) those who introduce three essences into the Godhead by
claiming that the Father's essence is to be unbegotten, the Son's to
be begotten, and the Spirit's to proceed;
(8) those who say that the cause of the essence of the Spirit is the
essence of the Father and the Son;
(9) those who say that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and Son
as from a single principle, and so alienate the Spirit from the
Godhead;
(10) those who do not understand that procession is the mode of
existence of the Spirit as being begotten is the Son's mode of
existence, and who interpret procession as "to pour forth," and so
say that the Spirit proceeds from the Son;
(11) those who conclude from the fact that the Scripture speaks of
the "Spirit of His Son" that the Spirit proceeds from the Son, and
who thus demonstrate that they confuse "belonging to" with
"having existence from;"
(12) those who argue that the cause of the Spirit can be called "one"
even if both the Son and the Father are cause on the grounds that
Scripture refers everything the Son has to the Father;
(13) those who interpret St. John of Damascus' statement that "the
Spirit is not from the Son" to mean that the Spirit is not from the
Son as first cause, but that He is from the Son as an immediate
cause - and who thus ignore the second part of the Damascene's
statement: "nor do we say that the Son is from the Spirit;"
(14) those who say that, since the Holy Spirit is the image of the
Son, the Spirit must be caused by the Son;
(15) those who in misunderstanding St. Gregory of Nyssa's
statement that the Son is regarded as being caused before the
Spirit only in abstraction, and say that the Son is the cause of the
Spirit's hypostasis;
(16) those who say that the Holy Spirit is a creature;
(17) those who take the words "He shall receive of mine" to imply
that the Spirit receives his existence from the Son - and who thus
make the Spirit subject to time, since at the time of speaking this
"reception" was in the future;
(18) those who say that the Son, in breathing on his disciples, was
giving them the actual hypostasis of the Holy Spirit, and not
spiritual gifts;
(19) those who insult the Holy Spirit by considering Him a
distribution and communication of gifts and communicable to the
faithful;
(20) those who misinterpret St. Athanasius' statement that the Son
became greater than the Spirit to imply that the Son caused the
Spirit, and fail to see that St. Athanasius was referring to the grace
apportioned (presumably, through the Spirit);
(21) those who say that the Holy Spirit shares none of the natural
properties of the Father and Son, and thus is of a different nature;
(22) those who corrupt and twist the writings of the Fathers;
(23) those who accept false quotations from the Fathers and read
them to the faithful to convince them that the Spirit proceeds from
the Son;
(24) those who attack the Fathers and dogmatize contrary to
Photius and other champions of the Orthodox faith;
(25) those who offer azymes in the eucharist, for to do so is to
immitate Apollinarius and to deny that Christ was perfect man
and to insult the Incarnation;
(26) those who try to search out the meanings of "procession" and
"begetting;"
(27) those who despise the Ecumenical Councils and say that their
definitions are imperfect and that they left most things mysterious
and vague;
(28) those who hold the canons of the Fathers in contempt;
(29) all innovations, past or future, outside the teaching of tradition
and the Fathers.
A condemnation of the teachings of the Uniate patriarch John
Becchus (1275-82) [Becus, Beccus] was later appended. The
condemnation addresses Beccus' arguments in favor of the filioque.
1222 An English deacon was burned at the stake for apostatizing to
Judaism.
1223 When Neophytos, the Greek archbishop of Cyprus, fled into
exile and the Latins appointed an alternate patriarch, the Greeks
on the island sent a bishop to Nicaea to seek advice. Should they
submit to the Latins, or resist? After hearing from the Greeks of
Constantinople, who had stood firm in the Orthodox faith under
Latin persecution, patriarch Germanos II encouraged resistance.
However, since the church in Cyprus was autocephalous,
Neophytos was upset with Germanoss interference.
1224 First Order Franciscans reached England.
1224 In the autumn, Theodore Angelus, ruler of Epiros
(Epirus), captured Thessalonica from the Latins. Theodore now
claimed to be emperor (in rivalry to the emperor John III Ducas
Vetatzes (1222-54) in exile in Nicaea), and was coronated in
Thessalonica by Demetrius Chomatianos, archbishop of Ohrid, in
1226/27. Germanos II was not pleased, since this act was a
usurpation of patriarchal power.
1225 Ugolin, archbishop of Kolosz, agreed to fund a crusade
against the Patarenes of Bosnia if he were permitted to add the
territory to his ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The pope agreed, and
Ugolin hired John Angelus, son of the Roman (Byzantine) emperor
Isaac Angelus and nephew to King Andrew of Hungaria, to lead
the crusade. But John disappeared with the advance payment of
200 silver marks, and no crusade occurred.
1225 The bishops of Epiros warned patriarch Germanos II that if he
failed to respect the autonomy of the church in Epiros, Theodore
Angelus might reconcile with Rome.
1225 Cathars burned Catholic churches in Brescia, Lombardy.
1225 Antony of Padua converted the Cathar arch-heretic Bonivillus
in Rimini. Bonivillus had been active in the Cathar cause for 30
years.
1226 The German emperor Frederick II (1220-50) gave Hermann
von Salzas Teutonic Knights territorial rights over Prussia.
1226 Albigensian Crusade -- King Louis VIII (1223-26) of France
led an army of crusaders into the south of France to crush the
southern nobles. He captured Avignon. The southern nobles
submitted, signed the treaty of Meaux (April, 1227), and agreed to
persecute the Cathars. The Inquisition was established in
Toulouse, Narbonne, and Albi, and many heretics were burned.
1227 The Sword Brothers (see 1202) conquered Osel Island at the
mouth of the Gulf of Riga. The natives were baptized. See 1260.
1227 Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) excommunicated the German
emperor Frederick II (1220-50) for failing to fulfill his vow to go on
crusade. This was a political move, to prevent Frederick from
subduing opposition in Lombardy. As Frederick was also king of
Sicily, consolidation of his power in northern Italy also would have
endangered the papacys political independence.
1228 Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) canonized Francis of Assisi, who
had been dead less than 2 years.
1229 Without actually engaging in combat, Frederick II succeeded
in returning Jerusalem to Christian control. The Ayoubite sultan of
Egypt, Al-Kamil, gave Frederick Jerusalem and a land corridor to
Jaffa in exchange for peace. This allowed Al-Kamil to concentrate
on the threat from An-Nasr, the sultan of Damascus, his nephew.
Ten years later, Jerusalem again fell to the Saracens.
1229 Abu Said, who had been governor of Valencia, converted to
Christianity. Abu took the Christian name of Vincent. He
financed the re-establishment of the see of Seville.
1229 In an address to the church in Cyprus, the patriarch of
Constantinople in exile, Germanos II, urged continuing resistance,
counseling lay people to separate from clergy who had submitted
to Rome. He criticized the pope for setting himself above the other
four patriarch, and for demeaning the ecumenical councils for
adding the filioque to the creed. The monasteries on Cyprus were
the center of resistance to the Western conquerors.
1229 A council meeting in Valencia, Spain decreed, We prohibit
also permitting the laity to have books of the Old and New
Testament, unless anyone should wish, from a feeling of devotion,
to have a psalter or breviary for divine service, or the hours of the
blessed Mary. But we strictly forbid them to have the above-
mentioned books in the vulgar tongue.
1230 Theodore Angelus, emperor of Epiros, was defeated and
captured by John Asen, tsar of Bulgaria.
1230 The Spanish Dominican Ramon de Penafort produced a
collection of canon law. His work was sponsored by Pope Gregory
IX (1227-41).
1231 The Latin authorities on Cyprus martyred 13 monks of the
Kantariotissa monastery. The controversy that led to their deaths
involved the question of azymes and was initiated by a
Dominican. Germanos II thought that Neophytos, the archbishop
of Cyprus who had determined to make peace with the Latins, was
complicit in their deaths.
1231 Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) incorporated into canon law
imperial legislation requiring that heretics be burned by the
secular power.
1231 Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) instituted the Papal
Inquisition for the apprehension and trial of heretics. The Cathari
and Waldenses were in view. The pope put the friars, especially
the Dominicans, in charge of the Inquisition. They were referred to
as Domini canes, "hounds of the Lord [pope]."
1231/32 The first direct contact between the patriarch in exile in
Nicaea and the Franciscans. A party of five friars had fallen into
troubles as they crossed Anatolia and had come under the
protection of the emperor John Vatatzes. Initially, patriarch
Germanos was favorably impressed: these Latins were humble
and anything but warlike.
1232 The Patarenes of Bosnia deposed Stephan, son of Kulin, who
was a Catholic, in favor of Matthew Ninoslav. Ninoslav restored
Patarenism as the state religion.
1232 The Lord of Perelle gave the Cathars of southern
France Montsegur as a stronghold.
1232 The bishops of Epiros submitted to the authority of the
patriarch Germanos II, thus assuring unity with the Orthodox in
Nicaea. In 1238, the patriarch sent the metropolitan of Ancyra to
Epiros to consecrate the bishops who had been ordained without
patriarchal approval.
1233 A large number of Cathars burned at the stake in Pisa.
1233 Frederick II of Germany (reigned 1220-50) tranferred 20,000
Muslim inhabitants of Sicily to Italy in the wake of a Muslim revolt
on the island.
1234 Two Franciscans and two Dominicans traveled from Rome to
Nicaea to debate the Orthodox on the doctrine of the procession of
the Holy Spirit. They quoted St. Cyril of Alexandria as
condemning those who denied that the Spirit through which
Christ performed his miracles was his own Spirit, and seemed
convinced that the quotation was relevant. The Orthodox
viewpoint was defended by Nicephorus Blemmydes. Futile
discussions on the question of azymes followed in March at
Nymphaion near Smyrna. As the fruitless discussions broke up,
the papal envoys are said to have told the emperor, Know this,
that the Lord Pope and the Roman church will not abandon a
single iota of their faith.
1234 Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) published the Liber extra, the first
complete collection of papal decretals authorized by the papacy.
1235 George Bardanes, metropolitan of Corfu, traveled to Italy on
a diplomatic expedition. In his notes on a debate held with a
Franciscan, Bardanes makes the first reference among Byzantine
theologians to the Latin doctrine of purgatory. He found the
notion very strange and somewhat disturbing, since it is similar to
Origens notion that hell is finite in duration and purgative in
nature.
1235 Cathars murdered the Catholic bishop of Mantua, Lombardy.
1236 The Sword Brothers (see 1202) were extinguished as a
separate military order after their decisive defeat by the
Lithuanians. Their remnants were absorbed by the Teutonic
Knights (see 1190).
1237 Mongols devastated Kievan Russia. Kiev itself was sacked.
1239 Jerusalem again taken by the Saracens. (See 1229.)
1240 Alexander Nevsky, Prince of Novgorod (died 1267),
defeated the Swedes in battle. Faced with Western aggressors on
one front and the Tartars (Mongols) on another, Nevsky decided to
pay tribute to the Tartars. He did this because thelatter did not
interfere with the Orthodox Church, while the Westerners,
particularly the Teutonic Knights, like the crusaders in
Constantinople, were determined to destroy Orthodoxy. Nevsky
is reported to have replied to messengers from the pope with the
words: Our doctrines are those preached by the Apostles ... The
tradition of the Holy Fathers of the seven ecumenical councils we
scrupulously keep. As for your words, we do not listen to them
and we do not want your doctrine.
1240 Robert Grosseteste translated the works of the Pseudo-
Dionysius into Latin and produced a commentary on them.
1240 Pope Gregory IX required the Archbishop of Canterbury and
the bishops of Lincoln and Salisbury to provide for 300 Romans.
No English clergyman could be given a parish until the Roman
clergy were seen to. This practice was common in France as well.
Absentee Italians profited from the benefices so gained, paying
local priests to fulfill their duties. This arrangement was deeply
resented by the native clergy.
1240 A large number of Cathars burned at the stake in Milan.
1241 The Mongols under Batu invaded Europe, penetrating as far
as Silesia and Hungary. Russia and Poland were devastated. The
Germans and Bohemians checked the Mongols at the battles of
Leignitz and Olmutz respectively. Upon hearing of the death of
Ogdai, the Great Khan, Batu withdrew, keeping southern Russia in
subjugation.
1241/42 Frederick II of Germany (1220-50) and John III Ducas
Vatatzes, the emperor of Nicaea (1122-54), formed an alliance
against the papacy and sealed it when John married Fredericks
bastard daughter, Costanza Lancia.
1242 Cathars from Montsegur (France, see 1232) and Avignonet
slaughtered a troop of Inquisitors who were on their way to the
latter town.
1242 Nevsky defeated the Teutonic Knights.
1242 A Russian, Cyril (1242-81), was appointed metropolitan of
Russia. It is possible that the fourteenth century practice of
alternating Russians and Greeks as metropolitan began with
Cyrils appointment.
1243/44 The Inquisition in southern France burned a large number
of Cathar heretics, including several noblemen and women. Many
Cathari fled to the Pyrenees, Lombardy, or Bosnia. The leaders
concentrated at Montsegur. In March 1244 Montsegur fell, and
thereafter about 200 of the Cathari leaders, known as Perfects,
perished in the inquisitorial flames without trial.
1244 A Mongol raiding party descended on Jerusalem and
massacred Moslems and Christians alike. They also destroyed a
force of crusaders in Gaza the following year.
1245 At a council in Lyons, Pope Innocent IV (1243-54) deposed
the German emperor, Frederick II (1220-50). The council accused
Frederick of perjury, breaking the peace, sacrilege, heresy, and
murder. The council also dealt with clerical sin, the loss of
Jerusalem in 1244, the Mongol invasion of Europe, and the woes of
the Latin kingdom of Constantinople. English noblemen
complained to the council about the practice of appointing French
and Italian clergy to English benefices. (Seldom did the foreign
clergy actually come to England. Rather, the foreign clergyman
made income from the benefice, which he had purchased or
another had purchased for him from the pope. Rather than pay
their salaries, kings often sought benefices for their civil servants,
who were most often clergymen.)
1246 Robert of Torote, bishop of Liege, ordered that a feast of
Corpus Christi be celebrated. After a former archdeacon at Liege,
Jacques Pantaleon, became Pope Urban IV (1261-64), it was
celebrated throughout the West (1264).
1248 Louis IX of France launched a crusade. He attacked Egypt in
the spring of 1249 and took Damietta that summer. His forces
marched up the Nile, were cut off, and Louis himself was
captured. His wife, Queen Margaret, rallied the defenses at
Damietta, then ransomed Louis.
Louis sent an envoy, William of Rubroek, to a debate hosted by the
Mongols at Karakorum. Nestorians, Buddhists, and Moslems were
also represented. Louis remained in the East until 1254.
1248 Ferdinand III forced all Muslim inhabitants of Seville out of
that city after his forces captured it.
1249 Toward the end of the year, a council met at Nymphaion to
discuss possible reunion of the churches of East and West. The
Nicaean emperor John Vatatzes offered to agree to acknowledge
papal plenitudo potestatis in exchange for an agreement from the
pope to cease supporting the Latins in Constantinople. Nicephorus
Blemmydescontested the Latin view of the procession of the Holy
Spirit. Afterwards, a delegation traveled to Rome to continue the
discussion. Innocent IV appeared willing to reconcile, even to
recognize Manuel II (1243-54) as rightful patriarch of
Constantinople, but he died before any real progress was made.
1250 When Ninoslav died in this year, the Bosnian church was still
Patarene. Pope Innocent IV described it as totally fallen into
heresy.
1250 Thomas Aquinas (1225-72), author of the Summa Theologica,
flourished. In contrast to Aquinass integration of Aristotle within
his theological system, Aquinass
contemporary, Bonaventure (1221-74), reasserted the Platonic-
Augustinian system against the Aristotelian. That is, in
Bonaventure, universals are real, and it is they which individuate
matter, and not the matter itself. Bonaventure placed will (and
love) above intellect. Both notions are antithetical to Thomism.
Bonaventure was a Franciscan, while Thomas was a Dominican.
1250 The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1220-50) died on 13
December. When he heard the news, Pope Innocent IV wrote to
the Sicilians, Let the heavens rejoice. Let the earth be filled with
gladness. For the fall of the tyrant has changed the thunderbolts
and tempests that God Almighty held over your heads into gentle
zephyrs and fecund dews. See 1241/42. From Frederick IIs
death until the election of Henry VII in 1311, there were no
German emperors.

1250 In this year, the legend of Pope Joan appeared in
interpolations in the Chronicon pontificum et imperatorum (The
Chronicle of the Popes and Emperors), written by Martin of
Troppau, a Dominican. In its mature form, the legend held that
Joan was pope from 855 to 858, when she died in childbirth. The
legend of Pope Joan was widely believed in the later Middle Ages;
the Council of Constance (1415) took it for granted. In 1647, David
Blondel, a Calvinist, proved that there had never been a Pope Joan.
1251 Grand Duke Mindaugas (1219-63) of Lithuania accepted
Christianity from Pope Innocent IV (1243-54) in this year. It was a
strategic move to divide his enemies - the Teutonic Knights and
the Russians of Galacia-Volynia. Mindaugas went so far as to
build a cathedral in Vilnius. But he apostatized in 1261, razed the
cathedral, and replaced it with a pagan temple.
1252 Pope Innocent IV (1243-54) authorized the use of torture to
obtain confessions and the names of other heretics.
1253 Gerald of Borgo published his Introduction to the Everlasting
Gospel. His analysis of the contemporary situation showed that the
signs Joachim of Flore (see 1177) had predicted were then present,
indicating that the new age would begin in 1260.
1254 Pope Innocent IV (1243-54) sought to deprive the German
emperor Conrad of control over the Kingdom of Sicily. Conrad
called the pope a heretic and a usurper, and the pope
excommunicated the emperor. Conrad died in April, Innocent on
7 December. By 1255, Conrads half-brother Manfred was in
control of southern Italy and Sicily. Conrads son, Conrad II
(known as Conradin) was two at the time of his fathers death, and
Manfred acted as his regent in southern Italy and Sicily. The
papacy considered the king of Sicily a vassal, since the papacy had
permitted the Normans to settle there in 1059.
1254 A few weeks before his death, Innocent IV (1243-54), bishop
of Rome, sent a letter to Cardinal Eudes of Chateauroux, the legate
to the Orthodox on Cyprus. In the letter, the pope asked the
Orthodox to accept this definition of purgatory:
Since the Truth asserts in the Gospel that, if anyone blasphemes
against the Holy Spirit, this sin will not be forgiven either in this
world or in the next: by which we are given to understand that
certain faults are pardoned in the present time, and others in the
other life; since the Apostle also declares that the work of each
man, whatever it may be, shall be tried by fire and that if it burns
the worker will suffer loss, but he himself will be saved, yet as by
fire; since the Greeks themselves, it is said, believe and profess
truly and without hesitation that the souls of those who die after
receiving penance but without having had the time to complete it,
or who die without mortal sin but guilty of venial (sins) or minor
faults, are purged after death and may be helped by the suffrages
of the Church; we, considering that the Greeks assert that they
cannot find in the works of their doctors any certain and proper
name to designate the place of this purgation, and that, moreover,
according to the traditions and authority of the Holy Fathers, this
name is purgatory, we wish that in the future this expression be
also accepted by them. For, in this temporary fire, sins, not of
course crimes or capital errors, which could not previously have
been forgiven through penance, but slight or minor sins, are
purged; if they have not been forgiven through existence, they
weigh down the soul after death.
1256 A papal envoy met with the Nicaean emperor Theodore II
Lascaris (1254-58) and patriarch Arsenius Autoreianos (1254-60,
61-65) in Thessalonica. The papal envoy had very detailed
instructions and could not compromise, so no progress was made.
Before becoming emperor, Theodore Lascaris had been the leader
of the anti-Latin party in the Nicaean court.
1258 The last Abbasid Caliph, al-Mustasim, died along with an
estimated 500,000 of his subjects when the Mongols sacked
Baghdad.
1258 On 18 December, Pope Alexander IV (1254-61) rescinded his
grant of the Kingdom of Sicily to Prince Edmund of England (son
of King Henry IV). The papacy had hoped to use England to
unseat Manfred. As it turned out, the pope still gained 60,000
marks from the English from the broken deal.
1259 The Battle of Pelagonia (a plain between Thessalonica and
Constantinople). Forces under Michael, despot of Epiros, Manfred
of Sicily, and William of Achaea met a smaller force under John
Paleologus (the Nicaean emperor Michaels brother). The Epirotes
fled in the night before the battle was joined, and the Nicaeans
were victorious. The battle settled the contest for leadership
between Epiros and Nicaea, two rival fragments of the Roman
(Byzantine) empire.
1260 The advance of the Mongol empire toward Egypt
was checked by the Mamelukes at the battle of Ain Gelat.
Mameluke rule extended from Egypt through Syria.
1260 The Teutonic Knights suffered defeat in the battle of Durbe,
where 150 knights were slain. The inhabitants of Osel apostatized
(see 1227), then slaughtered the Christians in their territory.
1260 In a concordat dated to this year, the Metropolitan of
Trebizond recognized the Patriarch of Constantinople as his
superior. The concordat also excused the Metropolitan of
Trebizond from attending patriarchal elections, mandatory for
other metropolitans. Trebizond, along with Nicaea and Epiros,
was a fragment of the Roman (Byzantine) Empire, destroyed by
the sack of Constantinople in 1204.
1261 The Romans (Byzantines) under Michael VIII Palaeologus
conquered Constantinople, taking it back from the crusaders.
Before the Latin conquest, patriarchs of Constantinople were
invested in the Palace of Magnaura. But from this date, the
ceremony occurred in the triclinium of the Palace of Blachernae.
1261 A certain John of Cocleria, posing as a resurrected emperor
Frederick II, led a rebellion against Manfred in Sicily (see 1254).
1263 During the summer, Pope Urban IV (1261-64) concluded a
treaty with Charles of Anjou. In exchange for rights to the Sicilian
kingdon, then held by Manfred, Charles was to pay the pope
10,000 ounces of gold annually.
1263 Pope Urban IV (1261-64) sent Cardinal Guy Foulques as
legate to England to assist King Henry III against his barons.
1265 During his tenure, Pope Clement IV (1265-68) reserved to
himself the right to appoint to the benefices of any incumbents
who died while in Rome.
1265 Arsenios Autoreianos, patriarch of Constantinople, deposed
by the emperor Michael VIII and sent in exile to Prokonessos in
Propontis. Arsenios had excommunicated Michael for having the
legitimate heir, John IV Laskaris, blinded. Arsenioss removal
from office was the beginning of the Arsenite Schism, which did
not end until 1310, sixteen years after his death.
1266 Alfonso X of Castile constructed a wall between the Christian
and Muslim quarters of Murcia, a city in southeastern Spain.
1266 On 26 February, in a battle near Benevento, Charles of Anjou
defeated Manfred. Manfred died. Sicily then fell to Charles, in
accordance with papal wishes.
1266 Charles of Anjou gained control over Corfu (a base for attacks
on the Albanian coast and, he hoped, Constantinople).
1268 The battle of Tagliacozzo. Conrad II (Conradin) had invaded
Italy, in part to take Sicily from Charles of Anjou. Their forces
battled on 23 August. Charles was victorious, and some time
thereafter Conradin was captured. He was beheaded on 29
October.
1268 Charles of Anjou, with papal blessing, planned an expedition
to capture Constantinople. This expedition was delayed in part
due to the efforts of Pope Gregory X (1271-76) to reconcile with the
Orthodox.
1270 The bishop of Paris condemned thirteen propositions found
in or derived from the writings of Aristotle, among them: that God
knows nothing of our world, and that the world itself is eternal.
The condemnation was directed largely at philosophers in the
University of Paris.
1270 The Tunisian crusade. King Louis of France died, but the
expedition was victorious, largely due to assistance rendered by
Charles of Anjou. Charles had opposed the crusade since it
interfered with the assault on Constantinople he had planned for
this year.
1271 The Roman populace tore the roof off the palace where a
conclave was meeting to elect a new pope. The cardinals had been
taking too long to make a decision. From this time, the cardinals
food was decreased daily to hasten the papal election.
1274 In February, a minority of Eastern church officials signed a
synodal letter to the pope agreeing to reunion. The Roman
(Byzantine) emperor Michael VIII Paleologus (1259-82) had
assured these leaders that they need agree to only three terms:
papal primacy, appellate jurisdiction, and commemoration (in the
liturgy). No other issues were in view.
1274 First attempt at reconciliation between East and West. The
Roman (Byzantine) emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, being hard-
pressed militarily by Charles of Anjou, monarch of Sicily, needed
the protection of the papacy. At the council of Lyons, the
Orthodox representatives agreed to papal claims to supremacy and
the addition of thefilioque to the creed. The reunion was
subsequently rejected by the overwhelming majority of Orthodox
clergy and laity, and was repudiated by Michaels successor. Of
the agreement, Michaels sister said, Better my brothers empire
should perish than the purity of the Orthodox faith.
The patriarch of Constantinople was invited to the council, but he
did not attend. None of the other three Eastern patriarchs was
represented. The senior Eastern church leader present was
Theophanes, metropolitan of Nicea.
A letter on the subject of purgatory, written by Pope Clement IV
(1265-68) in 1267, was incorporated, with slight changes, into the
councils decree Cum sacrosancta: However, owing to various
errors that have been introduced by the ignorance of some and the
malice of others, (the Roman Church) states and proclaims that
those who fall into sin after baptism must not be rebaptized, but
that through a genuine penitence they obtain pardon for their sins.
That if, truly penitent, they die in charity before having, by worthy
fruits of penance, rendered satisfaction for what they have done by
commission or omission, their souls, as brother John has explained
to us, are purged after their death, by purgatorial or purificatory
penalties, and that, for the alleviation of these penalties, they are
served by the suffrages of the living faithful, to wit, the sacrifice of
the mass, prayers, alms, and other works of piety that the faithful
customarily offer on behalf of others of the faithful according to the
institutions of the Church. The souls of those who, after receiving
baptism, have contracted absolutely no taint of sin, as well as those
who, after contracting the taint of sin, have been purified either
while they remained in their bodies or after being stripped of their
bodies are, as was stated above, immediately received into
heaven. This appears to have been the first dogmatic definition
of purgatory by the Roman Catholic church.
At the council, Pope Gregory X (1271-76) called for a new crusade.
However, Charles of Anjou and Philip III of France blocked
it. Although Gregory invited the kings of France, England,
Scotland, Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Bohemia, Castile, Aragon,
Navarre, and Armenia, only James of Aragon attended.
The council also dealt with procedures for papal
elections. Cardinals were to wait a maximum of ten days for
absent colleagues to arrive before meeting in conclave (out of
contact with the outside world). The cardinals would receive no
pay until a new pope was elected.
Sixteen ambassadors from the Ilkhan of the Mongols of Persia
attended the council of Lyons in hope of arranging an alliance
against the Mameluks (see 1260). The Genoese, who had a
monopoly on trade with the Mongols in the Black Sea region and
northern Syria, supported the alliance. The Venetians (natural
enemies of Genoa) were opposed, as were the Templars, who were
profiting as bankers in the East and who favored an alliance with
the Mameluks. Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily, was allied with
Venice and relied on the Templars, so he opposed the Mongol
alliance also.
1274 The Emperor Michael Paleologuss army captured the Berat
fortress and Butrino, a port on the Albanian coast. The attack
heightened Charles of Anjous desire to mount an expedition
against Constantinople.
1275 The Ecumenical Patriarch Joseph was deposed. Joseph
opposed the union with Rome. He wrote, Why should the pope
have authority over us? We do not take part in electing him and
he should not interfere in our affairs and According to the
Gospel we have only one master, and that is Christ.
1275 The Emperor Michael Paleologus VIII appointed John
Becchus (or Beccus), Ecumenical Patriarch 1275-82, to establish the
union of the Council of Lyons. Becchuss doctrines were
anathematized in the Synodicon of the Holy Spirit (see 1222 above).
Josephs followers (see 1275 above) considered the appointment of
John Becchus as his successor irregular. Like the Arsenites, they
opposed Michael VIIIs attempts to restore union with the papacy.
1275 A one-year truce between the Emperor Michael Paleologus
and Charles of Anjou began. Pope Gregory X urged this
arrangement, since the schism had ended (apparently).
1277 Pope John XXI (Sep 1276 - May 1277) ordered Etienne
Tempier, bishop of Paris, to investigate the tension between
philosophy and theology in the University of Paris. Tempier
ended by condemning 219 propositions, including the 13 that had
already been condemned in 1270. Other condemned propositions
include: species (such as humans) had no beginning, but are
eternal; nothing happens by chance; God cannot produce anything
new; and God cannot make an accident exist without a subject
(important for its implications for transubstantiation).
1277 Pope John XXI died after the new ceiling in his palace at
Viterbo collapsed. It was common in this era for the popes to
reside in Viterbo, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) north-northwest of
Rome.
1277 In response to the Union of Lyons, Duke John of Neopatras
convened a synod fo the clergy of Greece. The synod
excommunicated the pope, the patriarch, and the emperor.
1279 The Tartar Khan Mangu-Temir granted the Orthodox Church
exemption from taxes and declared Church lands off limits to
Tartars.
1279 Pope Nicholas III (1277-80) sent a delegation to
Constantinople to demand that the Eastern Church include
the filioque in the creed. The emperor Michael VIII and patriarch
John Becchus were unable to force the majority of prelates to
comply. Michael attempted to suppress opposition to the Union of
Lyons by imprisoning or exiling the most prominent opponents,
including members of the imperial family.
1279 Nicephoros, despot of Epiros, repudiated the Union of
Lyons. Aided by widespread opposition to the Union, he wrested
Butrinto from Emperor Michael.
1280 First reference to the spinning wheel in Europe, at Speyer on
the Rhine.
A provincial council meeting in Cologne set the minimum age for
confirmation to seven. In contrast, before this century, the church
in the West had been concerned with setting the greatest allowable
separation in time between baptism and confirmation.
1281 On 22 February, Simon of Brie, a Frank, was elected Pope
Martin IV. Martin, a strong proponent of Frankish
imperialism, broke off negotiations with Emperor Michael
Paleologus over church union.
1281 On 3 July, Charles of Anjou, the titular Latin Emperor of
Constantinople, and the Venetians agreed to a treaty for the
restoration of the Roman Empire usurped by Paleologus. They
planned to set out in April 1282. Martin IV issued a bull for the
Emperor Michael Paleologus, demanding that hand the empire
over to him by 1 May 1282, or he would be deposed by force.
1282 Sanctioned by Pope Martin IV (1281-85), Charles of
Anjou assembled a force at Messina with the goal, the restoration
of the Roman empire usurped by Paleologus. In essence, this
was a crusade intended for the capture of Constantinople, claimed
by Charles of Anjou as part of his inheritance. The Roman
(Byzantine) Emperor Michael Paleologus maneuvered to upset
Charless expedition by fomenting civil unrest in Sicily.

The Sicilian Vespers: the Sicilians rebelled against Charles,
massacred a number of Frenchmen during Easter of this year, and
offered the throne of Sicily to King Peter of Aragon. The Vespers
thus upset Charles of Anjou's plan to restore the Latin Empire of
Constantinople.
1282 On 30 Aug, King Peter of Aragon and his army landed in
Sicily, turning the Sicilian rebellion into a war between Peter and
Charles of Anjou.
1282 On 12 November, Pope Martin IV (1281-85) excommunicated
the Roman (Byzantine) emperor Michael VIII.

1283 Pope Martin IV (1281-85) blessed a crusade against Peter of
Aragon, whom he blamed for siding with the Sicilians against
Charles of Anjou.
1283 Gregory of Cyprus (1283-89), a professor, became patriarch
of Constantinople. He disagreed with the union of the council of
Lyons, though he was sympathetic to the idea of reunion. Gregory
presided over the council of Blakhernae, where the Roman
(Byzantine) latinophrones were condemned. Theologically, he
spoke of the eternal manifestation of the Spirit by the Son.
1285 A Tome published by the Council of 1285 clarified the
Orthodox doctrine of the procession of the Spirit in this way: It is
recognized that the very Paraklete shines and manifests Itself
eternally by the intermediary of the Son, as light shines from the
sun by the intermediary of rays ...; but that does not mean that It
comes into being through the Son or from the Son. In an officially
sanctioned commentary on the Tome, a monk named Mark gave a
more general meaning to the term ekporeusis, which was used
specifically to designate the mode of origin of the Spirit. It was felt
that the terminological change would cause confusion in the
doctrine of the Trinity. Since the commentary was written under
the patriarch Gregory of Cypruss authority, he was criticized by
other orthodox bishops. John Chilas of Ephesus, Daniel of Cyzicus
and Theoleptus of Philadelphia ceased mentioning his name
during the liturgy. Gregory subsequently distanced himself from
Mark.
1285 On 7 January, Charles of Anjou died.
1286 Death of William of Moerbeke, a friend of Thomas Aquinas
and a Flemish Dominican. Moerbeke translated most of the works
of Aristotle and Archimedes directly from Greek into Latin.
1288 Nicholas IV (1288-92) became the first Franciscan to be elected
pope.
1289 Athanasius I (1289-93, 1303-9) became patriarch of
Constantinople. He was a moral reformer who intervened in
secular politics in favor of Christian principles. Athanasius
worked for increased discipline in the monasteries, and chastised
bishops who drew large incomes from churches. Athanasius used
funds confiscated from monasteries to feed the poor in the city
during a famine. It is also thought that Athanasius approved of
the sequestering of church property for the benefit of the state.
1290 The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle composed, a story of the war
against the pagans in Latvia and Estonia.
1290 King Edward I forced the Jews out of England.
1290 An outbreak of plague in Kiev killed roughly 7000 people.
1291 On 18 May, the Crusaders lost control of Acre, their last
foothold in Palestine.
1292 To improve discipline, the Roman (Byzantine) Emperor
Andronicus II (1282-1328) placed Mount Athos (see 963) under the
direction of the patriach Athanasius I. Prior to this time, the
mountain had been under imperial control.
1293 In Egypt, a Copt on horseback was seen leading a Muslim
debtor bound with a rope. A Muslim mob murdered the Copt,
then proceeded to massacre Copts and loot their homes.
1293 The synod of Constantinople deposed the patriarch
Athanasius I because of his severity. Athenasios was re-elected
about 11 years later.
1294 Peter Murrone, an ancient and illiterate hermit, was elected
Pope Celestine V. He abdicated after six months. His
successor, Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303), sought him out, then
kept him in prison until he died at age 90. Boniface's family had
long been in conflict with the Colonna family. As pope, Boniface
offered the spiritual benefits typically offered to crusaders to
anyone who joined in his struggle against the Colonna.
1294 The cost of the war between England and France caused the
kings of both countries to tax the church. This action led
eventually to the issuance of Unum Sanctum (see 1302).
1295 The Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Andronicus II abolished the
kanonikon (kovovikov), a tax new priests paid their bishops at
ordination. Though illegal, the tax was still commonly paid.
1296 Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) issued the bull Clericos Laicos,
forbidding clergy from paying taxes to secular authorities. He
later modified this position in his Ineffabilis Amor, which permitted
clergy to pay taxes in a national emergency. His Etsi de
Statu (1297) clarified that the king himself could decide when the
situation constituted an emergency.
1299 Death of the Lithuanian prince Daumantas. He had become
ruler of Pskov in Russia, converted to Orthodoxy, and became
known as Saint Timofey.
1299 Andronicus II's Ekthesis from this year lists 112
metropolitanates, most of which had less than two suffragans.
1300 Dante Aligheri (1265-1321), author of the Divine Comedy,
flourished.
The Oxford Franciscan Duns Scotus (1266-1308) developed a
nominalist philosophy, designed to insure that revelation was
safeguarded as the sole source of knowledge of the divine being.
His design was to protect the majesty of God and freedom of the
will from Thomistic determinism.
1300 Approximately two million pilgrims came to Rome during
this Jubilee year. Two priests stood before the altar in St. Peters,
literally raking in the money.

The Fourteenth Century
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1301 Bishop Bernard Saisset of Pamiers (France) was arrested on
suspicion of treason and heresy (pro-Cathar leanings). Fearing a
trial before the Inquisition, Bernard appealed to the pope. Boniface
demanded Bernard be tried in a church court. The claim that a
pope had the right to hear a case involving treason against a
secular ruler demaned justification hence the bull Unum
Sanctum issued in December of the following year.
1301 The Muslim governor of Egypt ordered all churches to be
closed.
1302 Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) issued the bull Unum
Sanctum, which elaborated on the Popes powers relative to those
of the state and defined that salvation is not possible for anyone
not under the power of the Roman pontiff:
We are compelled, our faith urging us, to believe and to hold
and we do firmly believe and simply confessthat there is one
holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, outside of which there is
neither salvation nor remission of sins; her Spouse proclaiming it
in the canticles, "My dove, my undefiled is but one, she is the
choice one of her that bore her"; which represents one mystical
body, of which body the head is Christ, but of Christ, God.
In this Church there is one Lord, one Faith, and one Baptism.
There was one ark of Noah, indeed, at the time of the flood,
symbolizing one Church; and this being finished in one cubit had,
namely, one Noah as helmsman and commander. And, with the
exception of this ark, all things existing upon the earth were, as we
read, destroyed.
This Church, moreover, we venerate as the only one, the Lord
saying through His prophet, Deliver my soul from the sword, my
darling from the power of the dog. He prayed at the same time
for His Soulthat is, for Himself the Head, and for His Body
which Body, namely, He called the one and only Church on
account of the unity of the Faith promised, of the sacraments, and
of the love of the Church. She is that seamless garment of the Lord
which was not cut but which fell by lot. Therefore of this one and
only Church there is one body and one headnot two heads as if
it were a monster: Christ, namely, and the vicar of Christ, Saint
Peter, Feed my sheep. My sheep, He said, using a general term,
and not designating these or those particular sheep; from which it
is plain that He committed to him all His sheep.
If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to
the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that
they are not of the sheep of Christ; for the Lord says, in John, that
there is one fold, one shepherd, and one only.
We are told by the word of the Gospel that in this His fold there
are two swordsa spiritual, namely, and a temporal. For when
the apostles said, Behold here are two swordsthe Lord did not
reply that this was too much, but enough. Surely he who denies
that the temporal sword is in the power of Peter wrongly
interprets the word of the Lord when He says, Put up thy sword
in its scabbard. Both swords, the spiritual and the material,
therefore, are in the power of the Church; the one, indeed, to be
wielded for the Church, the other by the Church; the one by the
hand of the priest, the other by the hand of kings and knights, but
at the will and sufferance of the priest. One sword, moreover,
ought to be under the other, and the temporal authority to be
subjected to the spiritual. For when the Apostle says There is no
power but of God, and the powers that are of God are ordained,
they would not be ordained unless sword were under sword and
the lesser one, as it were, were led by the other to great deeds.
For according to St. Dionysius the law of Divinity is to lead the
lowest through the intermediate to the highest things. Not,
therefore, according to the law of the universe are all things
reduced to order equally and immediately; but the lowest through
the intermediate, the intermediate through the higher. But that the
spiritual exceeds any earthly power in dignity and nobility we
ought the more openly to confess, the more spiritual things excel
temporal ones. This also is made plain to our eyes from the giving
of tithes, and the benediction and the sanctification; from the
acceptation of this same power, from the control over those same
things. For, the truth bearing witness, the spiritual power has to
establish the earthly power, and to judge if it be not good. Thus,
concerning the Church and the ecclesiastical power, is verified the
prophecy of Jeremias: See, I have this day set thee over the
nations and over the kingdoms, and the other things which
follow.
Therefore if the earthly power err, it shall be judged by the
spiritual power; but if the lesser spiritual power err, by the
greater. But if the greatest, it can be judged by God alone, not by
man, the Apostle hearing witness. A spiritual man judges all
things, but he himself is judged by no one. This authority,
moreover, even though it is given to man and exercised through
man, is not human but rather divine, being given by divine lips to
Peter and founded on a rock for him and his successors through
Christ Himself whom He has confessed; the Lord Himself saying
to Peter: Whatsoever thou shalt bind, etc. Whoever, therefore,
resists this power thus ordained by God, resists the ordination of
God, unless he makes believe, like the Manichean, that there are
two beginnings. This we consider false and heretical, since by the
testimony of Moses, not in the beginnings, but in the beginning
God created the heavens and the earth.
We declare, say, define and pronounce, that it is absolutely
necessary for the salvation of every human creature to be subject
to the Roman Pontiff.
The bull was issued during a conflict with King Philip IV of France
(1285-1314) over control of church funds. Philip needed revenue to
war with England and to improve his position relative to the
nobility. After the bull was issued, Philip attempted to kidnap
Boniface and bring him to trial in France. Philip accused Boniface
of being disbelief in eternal punishments and rewards, of being a
sodomite, and of considering sex with boys or women as being of
no more consequence than rubbing one's hands together. In
September 1303, Boniface was taken, but he was rescued by a mob,
only to die three months later.
By Bonifaces time, the papal crown had grown to a great conical
tiara. Two centuries earlier, it had still been a simple white cap.
1303 The emperor Andronicus II (1282-1328) hired a group of
mercenaries, known as the Catalan Company, to fight the Turks.
The Catalans fought one successful battle against the Turks, then
established themselves in the Gallipoli Peninsula and raided
Thrace repeatedly. Worse, the Catalans invited the Turks into
Europe to assist them.
1305 The Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy (1304-76). Clement
V (1305-14), a Frenchman, was elected pope, and remained in
France. This was the beginning of the Avignon papacy.
1306 Robert I Bruce became king of the Scots and led a Scottish
revolt against England.
1307 King Philip IV of France had all Templars in France arrested
and their property seized. The Templars were accused of vice and
sacrilege.
1308 The Turks first crossed into Europe.
1308 Peter, Metropolitan of Russia (1308-26) decided to settle in the
small town of Moscow.
1309 Pope Clement V (1305-14) settled in Avignon.
1309 Heavy rains in Europe led to widespread famine. Poor
harvests and epidemics among the livestock were common
through 1325.
1309 The Teutonic Knights (see 1220+) settled its headquarters at
Marienburg (Malbork), Prussia. With the crusades in the Holy
Land ended, they set their sights on military subjugation of the
eastern Baltic coast.
1309 The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem (the Knights
Hospitallers) built a fortress on Rhodes after this year. Their fleet
worked to keep the southern Mediterranean safe from the Turks.
The Turks conquered the island in 1522.
1311 The Catalans (see 1303) siezed Athens from the Franks, then
set up the Catalan Duchy of Athens and Thebes.
1311/12 Council of Vienne. One hundred and twenty bishops
attended this council intended to try Pope Boniface VIII
posthumously and to suppress the Knights Templar. (No trial of
the late pope was held.) Pope Clement V (1305-14) canonized Pope
Celestine V, whom Boniface had imprisoned. Representatives to
the council from Aragon stated that 30,000 Christians were
enslaved in Granada.
1312 The Order of the Knights Templar was suppressed in France.
At a council held in Vienne, Clement V (1305-14) dissolved the
mercenary order. The Templars goods outside France were
transferred to the Orders of the Hospital.
Clement also absolved Philip, king of France, of all blame in the
matter of the attempted kidnapping of Boniface (see 1302) and the
seizure of the Templars property (1307).
1312 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Andronicus II issued a bull
designed to enforce tighter discipline at Mount Athos (see 963).
1314 Scotland won independence at Bannockburn.
1314? Birth of St. Sergius of Radonezh (1314-92). Perhaps the
greatest national saint of Russia, Sergius was the major motivating
force between the building of monasteries in the eastern
wastelands, thus spreading Russian civilization into the
wilderness. Sergius emphasized a life of prayer and humility. One
visitor to the monastery, upon seeing Sergius at work in the
garden, said, I came to see a prophet, and you show me a
beggar.
1315-17 Famine in the Low Countries resulted in an estimated 10 to
15% mortality rate in the cities.
1317 In his bull Gloria Ecclesiam Pope John XXII (1316-34)
condemned as heretics those who insisted on following the
original rule of St. Francis of Assisi.
1321 Muslim authorities in Egypt had 60 churches destroyed,
along with many monasteries.
1323 The grand duke of Lithuania, Gediminas (1315-41), appealed
for skilled immigrants from Germany. He sent an open letter to
Lubeck, Bremen, and Magdeburg, making it plain that immigrants
could retain their Christian religion. He also sponsored an
Orthodox metropolitanate under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical
Patriarch for the benefit of his Orthodox subjects. At this time, and
until 1385, Lithuania was officially pagan. Gediminas considered
adopting Roman Catholicism, but he was advised against it by a
certain Dominican friar named Nicholas, who insisted that the
faith not be accepted from the relatively uninfluential bishop of
Riga.
1323 In his bull Cum inter nonullos, Pope John XXII (1316-34)
condemned the doctrine of apostolic poverty as a heresy. This
view was common among Franciscans. John was nicknamed The
Banker of Avignon. Historians estimate that John spent 63
percent of papal income on war.
During Johns papacy, Trinity Sunday was added to the Roman
calendar. The festival had first appeared in the Low Countries in
the tenth century.
1324 William of Occam (d. 1350), an English Franciscan friar,
defended his philosophy at the bishop of Romes court in
Avignon. Occam held that logic does not deal with being as such.
In his view, propositions are purely forms of thought divested of
ontological content, of any connection with ultimate reality.
Ultimate truth cannot therefore be grasped intellectually.
William opposed Pope John XXII's condemnation of the Franciscan
teaching on poverty (1317). William argued that the case of Pope
Joan proved that one could appear to be pope but be no pope at
all. Other Franciscan theologian argued that earlier popes had
taught that Christ was a pauper. Therefore, since John XXII
contradicted these earlier popes, he was not pope at all.
1325 Andronicus III Paleologus became Roman (Byzantine) co-
emperor (1325-41), reigning alongside his grandfather, Andronicus
II. In 1328, he forced his grandfather to abdicate. Andronicus III
attempted to improve the justice system in rural areas through the
use of itinerant judges. He placed the local bishop in charge of the
tribunal the roaming judge periodically visited.
1327-39 The Coptic Pope Benjamin II held office. During this
period, Copts in Egypt were protected from persecution through
the Ethiopian emperors threat to use force on their behalf.
1328 The Provincial Synod of Canterbury ordered the observance
of the Feast of the Conception (of Mary). It did so because her
conception was a significant event leading up to the Incarnation,
not because of a belief in her Immaculate Conception.
1328 Lewis of Bavaria had himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor
in Rome by a layman, a member of the powerful Colonna family.
In the same year, Pietro Rainalducci, a Franciscan of the camp that
renounced all property (the "Spirituals") was elected Pope Nicholas
V (1328-30), even though John XXII was still alive in Avignon.
1333 St. Gregory Palamas (1296-1359), Metropolitan of
Thessalonika, defended the Orthodox doctrine of hesychast prayer
and the use of the Jesus Prayer. One of his controversies was with
Barlaam the Calabrian (see 1341 and 1351 below). Gregory is
commemorated on the Second Sunday of Great Lent.
1334 Benedict XII (1334-42) became pope. He was very frugal and
cut church expenses by 75%. He also drank heavily. The
expression, Let us drink like a pope came into popularity during
his tenure.
1339 The Hundred Years War between England and France
began. The English gained victories at Crecy (1346) and Poitiers
(1356) (where the king of France, John, was taken prisoner) though
use of the longbow.
1339 Bubonic plague struck a Nestorian settlement near Lake Issyk
Kul, in central Asias Ten Shan region.
1340 Two Bohemian Franciscans executed in Lithuania for
proselytizing.
1340 The Hagioritic Tome published.
1340 Stephen Kotromanich, Ban of Bosnia, converted to
Catholicism. Although Pope John XXII encouraged him to
persecute the Patarenes. Stephen, however, not wishing to alienate
the powerful Patarenes, merely allowed Franciscans into the
country to preach.
1341 A synod met in St. Sophia in Constantinople and condemned
the sacramental theology of Barlaam the Calabrian. Barlaam was
a Western convert to Orthodoxy who taught Western notions.
Some of his condemned doctines are listed below (1351).
1342 Clement VI (1342-52) became pope. He restored the largesse
Benedict XII had restrained, passing favors through his lover, the
Countess of Turenne. Clement was a patron to the poet Petrarch,
who referred to him as an ecclesiastical Dionysius ... soiled with
incestuous embraces. Petrarch referred to Avignon as the
Babylon of the West.
1342 Louis the Great became king of Hungary (1342-82). Occupied
with wars against Naples and Venice, Louis also found time to
attempt to gain hegemony over the Slavic nations of the East.
However, his militant Catholicism alienated these Orthodox
peoples. Louis, in his turn, gave them little assistant against the
advancing Turks.
1344 Pope Clement VI issued the bull Unigenitus, which described
the economy of indulgences. In brief, the Church could allocate
merit from the treasury of merit accumulated by Christ and the
saints to shorten the time spent doing penance in purgatory.
1344 Prague became an archbishopric.
1345 The bubonic plague spread to Crimea.
1345 During his reign, Grand Duke Algirdas (1345-77) of Lithuania
approached the pope three times and the Ecumenical Patriarch
twice over the possibility of accepting a form of the Christian faith.
1346 The bubonic plague reached the region of the Caucasus
mountains.
1346 An independent patriarchate was established in Serbia.
1346 The Teutonic Knights bought out Denmarks claims to
Estonia. The Knights concentrated their aggression on Lithuania,
the only independent pagan state in Europe, because it separated
their Prussian territory from their lands in Livonia and Estonia.
1346 Casimir the Greats (1333-70) Statute of Wislica provided for
freedom of religion and protection for the Jews in Poland. During
the Black Death, many Jews immigrated to Poland from Germany.
1347 John Catacuzensus became Roman (Byzantine) emperor.
1347 The bubonic plague reached Constantinople, Cyprus, Sicily,
Venice, Florence, and Alexandria. By December, it had spread into
Italy and France.
1348 The year of the Black Death. The plague reached Paris in the
spring, and London in September. An estimated 35 to 40% of the
people of the Mediterranean basin perished from the plague by
1350. Some historians believe the plague was even more severe in
Central Asia from about this time the flow of migration, which
had formerly been from Central Asia westward into Europe,
reversed. The argument is also made that the plague sufficiently
depopulated the Ottoman Empire to prevent the Turks from
colonizing the Balkans, thus leaving Europe comparatively free of
Muslims.
1348 After being tortured on the rack in Neustadt, Germany,
Balovignus, a Jewish physician, confessed to having poisoned
wells. Pogroms against the Jews in Europe followed. The kings of
Castille and Aragon, and the pope in Avignon, tooks steps to
protect the Jews, who were blamed for the outbreak of plague.
1348 The Jews of Zurich expelled from Zurich.
1349 The town council of Strasburg burned 2000 Jews (accused of
causing the plague). Jews were also massacred in Frankfurt-am-
Main, Cologne, and Mainz. Following these atrocities, many Jews
emigrated eastward (see Casimir, 1346).
1349 In a bull issued on October 20, Pope Clement VI condemned
flagellism. The flagellants organized processions in which they
scourged themselves with leather whips to which small iron spikes
were affixed. The flagellants were most numerous in Germany,
where they blamed Jews for the plague and persecuted them.
1349 In November, John of Rupecissa finished his Liber secretum
eventum, which predicted Christ would return to defeat the
Antichrist in 1370, inaugurating the millennium. He set Judgment
Day in the year 2370.
1350/51 The bubonic plague finally reached Russia, having been
spread there from western Europe.
1350 A Bulgarian council meeting at Tirnovo condemned two
former monks of Mount Athos, Cyril the Barefooted and Lazarus,
on charges of heresy. Bogomil doctrines had spread to Mount
Athos by way of a certain Irene, who ran a hostel in Thessalonica
where monks would sometimes stay. The two monks had been
banished from Athos and moved to Tirnovo. Lazarus urged
nudism and universal male castration. Cyril taught that married
couples should live apart. A third preacher, Theodosius, also
promoted nudism, but he also encouraged men to sin that grace
may abound. His movement was noted for its sexual excess.
1351 In England, Parliament passed the Statute of Provisors. The
Pope had been in the habit of appointing provisors to benefices
(church offices that provided income without necessarily requiring
work) in England. (Provisors were persons designated to come
into a benefice when the the incumbent was still living.) The
statute enacted that any person who accepted such a provision,
thus disturbing the right of the patron (the person rightly
empowered to grant the benefice), was to be imprisoned until he
paid a fine and given assurances that he would not repeat the
offence or appeal to a foreign court.
1351 Nicholas Cabasilas became bishop of Thessalonica. He is
best known as the author of The Life in Christ, a work on the
mysteries (sacraments).
1351 The following anathemas against Barlaam and Acindynus are
included in the Synodicon of Orthodoxy (see 842 above). Barlaam
was condemned by the Council of St. Sophia in 1341, and
Acindynus by the Council of Blachernae in 1351:
(50) Barlaam and Acindynus and their followers;
(51) those who think that the light of Christ's Transfiguration was
an apparition; and those who say it was the essence of God;
anyone who does not confess that the divine light is the uncreated
grace and energy of God which always proceeds from God's
essence;
(52) those who refuse to recognize the undivided distinction
between God's essence and his energy;
(53) those who deny that the energy of God is uncreated;
(54) those who say that the distinction between energy and essence
implies that God is not simple and uncompounded;
(55) those claim that the term "Godhead" is rightly applied only to
the essence of God, and not to the divine energy;
(56) those who say that the divine essence is communicated;
(57) all the sacrilegious writings of those men;
The Council of Blachernae also condemned Isaac Argyrus, a
disciple of Nicephorus Gregoras. Apparently, he held many of the
views condemned in the anathemas immediately above.
1353 The Statute of Praemunire enacted in England. This law
required anyone who took a case to a foreign court to appear
before the kings justices to answer for the contempt this act
showed to the king. Anyone who failed to do so would forfeit all
lands and goods. Praemunire was intended to stop appeals to the
Pope and his courts. (The name praemunire comes from the
opening words of the statute, and means to forewarn.)
1353 Stephen Tvrtko I succeeded his uncle Stephen Kotromanich as
Ban of Bosnia. He continued his uncles policy of tolerance for the
Patarenes.
1355 A Bulgarian church council met in Tirnovo. It condemned the
Bogomilstvo, as an earlier council had done in 1350.
1357 The Turks took Adrianople and established themselves on the
Bulgarian frontier.
1358 Gregory of Rimini elected superior general of the
Augustinians. Like Augustine, Rimini emphasized the inability of
humans to please God without divine grace. Rimini also taught
that children who died without baptism will be punished for ever.
His teachings were influential in the late middle ages. Similar
views were held among the Augustinian faculty at the University
of Wittenburg early in the sixteenth century.
1360 Pope Innocent VI (1352-62) instructed the bishop of Bosnia to
insist that the government suppress the Patarenes. In the same
year, King Louis of Hungary forced Stephen Tvrtko I, Ban of
Bosnia, to exile the Patarenes.
1361-62 Pestis Secunda (Pestis Puerorum). This plague outbreak
killed an estimated 10 to 15% of Europes population. Victim were
more commonly those born since 1348 and the landed aristocracy.
1365 King Edward III (1327-1377) of England issued a
proclamation against whoring in the fields and against wasting
time playing football or other games, dicing and dancing on
Sunday. This is indicative both of the wealth of medieval society,
which allowed so much free time, and Edwards desire to promote
archery. (See the entry for 1339.)
1365 Church property in Egypt was confiscated to finance a war in
Cyprus.
1368 Pope Urban V (1362-70) insisted that anyone in Dalmatia who
showed hospitality to a heretic (mostly Patarenes in that region) be
excommunicated. Urban referred to Bosnia as the cesspool of
heresy of all parts of the world.
1369 Pestis Tertia. A third severe outbreak of plague in Europe:
10 to 15% of Europeans died.
1371 Defeating the Serbs (allies of the Bulgarians) at Maritsa, the
Turks gained control over Bulgaria.
1375 Pope Gregory XI (1370-78) established a Latin
metropolitanate at Lvov (modern Ukraine). He ordered that all
Orthodox bishops be removed from the new metropolitanate.
1376 The patriarch of Constantinople appointed Cyprian, a
Bulgarian intellectual educated in Greece, metropolitan of
Moscow. Cyprian served in that office until 1406. He replaced the
Rule of Studion (a format for prayer and chanting) with the Rule of
Jerusalem (or St. Savvas). He also updated the Russian liturgical
books to comport with those being used in Constantinople.
1377 In January, Pope Gregory XI (1370-78) moved the papacy
back to Rome. The move was required to keep the papal
properties in Italy from revolt, and was urged by Petrarch and
Saint Catherine of Siena.
1378 The Great Schism (1378-1417). The Lateran Palace burned
during the election of Urban VI (1378-89), an Italian, to the
papacy. Fire was set by angry rioters. The mob made it clear to
the assembled cardinals that they would have a Roman or Italian
pope, not a French one. Later that year, after being insulted by
Urban, the French cardinals met and elected Robert of Geneva,
whose mercenaries had ravaged the town of Cesena, Pope
Clement VII (1378-94). Thus began what is termed the Great
Schism. France, Flanders, Spain, and Scotland acknowledged
Clement VII. The German Empire and England, with the northern
and eastern nations and most of the Italian Republics, adhered to
Urban VI.
1380 The Nikdo-Ugreshsky monastery founded near Moscow by
Dimitry Donskoy (Dimitry of the Don) on the site where an icon of
St. Nicholas appeared predicting victory in the battle of Kulikovo.
1380 The Russians, under the Grand Dukes of Moscow, defeated
the Mongols at the battle of Kulikovo. This considerably
weakened the Mongol hold over Russia. Before the battle, Prince
Dimitry Donskoy, leader of the Russian forces, visited St. Sergius
of Radonezh and obtained his blessing.
1380 Late in this century the strigolniki appeared in Novgorod.
Originally, they protested the practice, contrary to canon law, of
bishops charging ordination fees. Later, the strigol'niki split into
two groups. The more moderate rejoined the Orthodox Church in
Russia in the fifteenth century. The extremists ended by rejecting
Christ, the New Testament, and belief in the resurrection and the
afterlife. They seem to have disappeared by the mid-fifteenth
century.
1381 The Peasants Revolt in England in June and July of this year
was triggered by the imposition of a tax of one shilling on
everyone over 16 years of age. The peasants captured London and
beheaded the Archbishop of Canterbury.
1381 John Wyclif, an Oxford theologian, published his
Confession, in which he denied that the substance of the bread
and wine are transubstantiated in the mass. Wyclif rejected
indulgences, auricular confession, extreme unction and holy
orders. He took the Bible alone, without tradition as the sole rule
of faith, and taught that the church was composed of the
predestined only. A council meeting in London condemned his
teachings in 1382. Wyclif died in 1384.
1382 Nicholas Hereford delivered a series of sermons in Oxford,
England, in May and June of this year, in which he criticized the
church and the clergy for their obsession with money and
litigation. He implied that if the church could not correct itself,
and if the king did not act, the laity should.
1382 When Grand Duke Kestutis of Lithuania died in this year, he
was cremated in Vilnius with his hounds, horses, and hawks, a
magnificent pagan funeral.
1382 The Anno Domini system of dating adopted in Castille.
1382 Tatars sacked and burned Moscow.
1384 A ten-year-old girl named Jadwiga (daughter of Louis the
Great of Hungary) became ruler of Poland.
1386 The grand duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, was baptized under the
name Ladislas, then married Jadwiga of Poland, thus ending
Lithuanias status as Europes sole pagan state, and gaining the
throne of Poland.
The combined Polish and Lithuanian crown in time ruled Ukraine
as well, as the Poles expanded into the sparsely populated region.
The Roman Catholic king of Poland and Lithuania thus appointed
the Orthodox bishops of Ukraine.
1386 Geoffrey Chaucer began writing the Canterbury Tales.
1386 The Turks conquered Thessalonica.
1387 The University of Paris condemned a Dominican who denied
the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. It
ordered all faculty members to accept it.
1389 An army of Serbs, Romanians and Moldovians was defeated
by the Turks at Kosovo, resulting in the subjection of those
nations.
1389 Several Copts who had converted to Islam, then reverted,
were publicly executed.
1390 The Turkish sultan Bayazid I destroyed every market town
and village from Bithynia to Thrace. All the inhabitants were
deported.
1390 The first German paper mill established - at Nuremburg. The
first European mill had been established in Spain in 1074.
1391 In Spain, ant-Jewish preaching resulted in the massacre of
roughly one-third of the Jews living there. Another third were
forced to convert to Christianity.
1393 In England, the Great Statute was enacted. It punished by
loss of lands and goods all persons who would introduce papal
bulls into the kingdom on either of two subjects: (1) bulls to
excommunicate bishops who enforced the Kings decisions with
regard to the appointment of clergy to vacant benefices, and (2)
bulls to move bishops from one see to another. Pope Boniface IX
(1389-1404) had threatened to move bishops about to impair their
usefulness in civil offices.
1394 By the kings order, the Jews were expelled from France (see
1290).
1396 Crusading armies under John of Burgundy and King
Sigismund of Hungary were annihilated at Nicopolis by a Turkish
force under the Sultan Bajazeth. This left Hungary open to
invasion. Hungary was given respite when the Turks turned to
attack the Romans and were later themselves beset by the
Mongols.
The Fifteenth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


1401 A debate was held at Oxford on the question of whether
English was a suitable language for the translation of the Bible.
Though Richard Ullerston defended English with skill, the debate
dismissed the language as unfit.
1402 Battle of Bayezid. Sultan Bajazeths Turkish forces defeated
by Timur of Samarkands Mongols at Bayezid near Angora
(Ankara). Mongol forces moved through Asia Minor, as far as
Smyrna on the Aegean. Timur is also known as Timur the Tartar
and as Timur Lenk, which means Timur the Lame (Tamburlaine).
Timur's victory weakened the Turkish sultan, so permitting the
Roman (Byzantine) empire to continue for more than fifty years.
1402 The Roman (Byzantine) emperor Manuel II attempted to
enforce stricter discipline on Mount Athos (see 963). The problem
was due to the rise of the idiorrhythmic monasteries, loose
associations of monks living in private cells and gathering for
church services and dinners. The idiorrhythmic system
encouraged the contemplative lifestyle but was also readily abused
by lazy monks.
1407 Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, decreed: We
therefore legislate and ordain that nobody shall from this day forth
translate any text of Holy Scripture on his own authority into the
English, or any other, language, whether in the form of a book,
pamphlet, or tract; and that any such book, pamphlet, or tract,
whether composed recently or in the time of John Wycliffe, or in
the future, shall not be read in part or in whole, in public or in
private.
1408 A decree known as The Constitutions of Oxford made
translation of the whole Bible or any part of it into English illegal.
1409 The two rival colleges of cardinals agreed that the schism
should be ended and called a synod, which met in Pisa. It elected
Alexander V pope, but neither the Roman nor the Avignon pope
abdicated. There were thus now three rival claimants to the
papacy and three colleges of cardinals. Alexander died shortly
and was replaced by John XXIII.
The canonical standing of the council of Pisa was unclear. As
summarized by Conrad of Gelnhausen: It is impossible for a
general council to be held or celebrated without the authority of
the pope. But to convene such a council in the present case the
pope cannot step in, because no person is universally recognized
as pope.
1410 King Sigismund of Hungary elected German (Holy Roman)
Emperor.
1410-13 Musa, son of the Turkish sultan Bayazid I, raided Serbia,
pillaging the countryside. The young men were enslaved, while
the remainder of the population was slaughtered. In three small
towns, everyone was killed.
1410 Polish and Lithuanian forces defeated the Teutonic Knights at
the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenburg).
1414 Sir John Oldcastle led a Lollard rebellion, which failed to
capture London. Lollard was a Dutch word for babbler. The
Lollards read Wyclifs English Bible.
1414 At the insistence of the German (Holy Roman) Emperor
Sigismund, John XXIII (1410-1417) called the council of
Constance. The first session was held on 1 November 1414.
Gregory XII (1406-1415) was the pope in Rome at this time, while
Benedict XIII (1394-1417) was pope in Avignon. Gregory XII
abdicated after declaring the council genuine. The council
deposed John XXIII (29 May 1415) and Benedict (26 July 1417), but
Benedict ignored his deposition and continued to maintain his
claim from the Castle of Pensacola. In late 1417, the council elected
Martin V (1417-31) pope. Martin closed the council on 24 April
1418.
1415 The decree Sacrosancta, from the fifth session of the council
of Constance, 4 April 1415: This holy Synod of Constance,
holding a general council in order to uproot the schism and to
unite and reform Gods church in its head and members for the
praise of almighty God and in the Holy Spirit, legitimately
gathered together, and to achieve more securely and freely the
union and reform of the Church of God, orders, decides, and
declares as follows. It declares first that being legitimately
convoked in the Holy Spirit, forming a general council and
representing the universal Church, it has immediate power from
Christ, which every state and dignity, even if it be the papal
dignity, must obey in what concerns faith, the eradication of the
mentioned schism, and the reformation of the said Church in head
and members. Likewise it declares that whoever of whatever
condition, state, dignity, even the papal one, refuses persistently to
obey the mandates, statutes, and orders or prescripts, the ones
above or what pertains to them, or those which are to be
pronounced by this holy Synod, and any other legitimately
assembled general council, will be penalized and duly punished
with recourse also to other means of law if necessary.

1415 On July 6, John Huss burned at the stake at the Council of
Constance. John Huss was influenced by the doctrines of Wyclif,
though he did continue to accept transubstantiation. The Hussites
fought for the restoration of communion under both species
(bread and wine) and infant communion.
1415 The council of Constance transferred responsibility for the
conversion of Lithuania (see 1386) from the Teutonic Knights to the
Polish kingdom.
1417 The council of Constance issued the decree Frequens (9 Oct
1417), which called for regular councils of the church, separated by
no more than 10 years. On 11 November 1417, near its close, the
council elected Martin V (1417-31) pope. Martin V promised to call
another council in 10 years.

The English and Germans had wished to reform church
government before electing a new pope, in face of opposition from
the French and Spaniards. Once Martin V had been elected, the
chance for meaningful reform was lost. (Incidentally, Martin V
was a member of the Colonna family, Boniface VIIIs hereditary
enemies.)
1418 In his 22 February bull Inter cunctas, Pope Martin V (1417-31)
demanded that the Hussites recognize the council of Constance.
The pope listed the following tests: Whether he believes, holds,
and asserts that any general council and also the one of Constance
represents the universal church. In like manner whether he
believes that what the sacred Council of Constance representing
the universal Church has approved and approves in favor of faith
and for the good of souls and that then must be accepted and be
held by all Christian faithful. And what it has condemned and
condemns has to be held, believed, and asserted as condemned. In
like manner whether he believes that the condemnation of John
Wyclif, John Hus, and Jerome of Prague pronounced over their
persons, books, and writings by the sacred general Council of
Constance is right and just and by any Catholic as such to be held
and firmly maintained. Some assert that, in this passage, the
pope, after first requiring the Hussites to agree that the council of
Constance represented the universal church, limited the extent of
that councils authority in the following line. That is, by requiring
the Hussites to believe in what the council approves in favor of
faith and for the good of souls it is asserted that Martin hinted
that the decree Sacrosancta, as an example, was not favorable to
faith or for the good of souls.

1420 The Anno Domini dating system adopted in Portugal.
1420 When Pope Martin V (1417-31) returned to Rome in this year,
he found it so "dilapidated and deserted" that it bore little
resemblance to a city.
1424 King Wladyslaw II (1399-1434) of Poland issued the Edict of
Wielun to suppress Hussite tendencies among the Polish nobility.
1425 Pope Martin V (1417-31) restored the cathedral of St. John
Lateran, using marble, mosaics, and porphyry from the many
ruined churches in Rome.
1429 Joan of Arc convinced the dauphin that she was in receipt of
divine communications. She fought against the English, having
been given command of a troop of soldiers. Joan was tried by
French and Burgundian clerics, who handed her over to the
English. She was burnt in the marketplace in Rouen in 1431.
1429 The Solovetsky monastery established on the Solovki Islands
in the White Sea. The Solovki archipelago consists of six large and
many small islands. The monastery was established by saints
Zosima, Savvaty, and German. In addition to its spiritual work,
the monastery played a major role in the economic development of
the region, particularly in salt production. (See 1922 for a related
entry.)
1431 The next general council of the church in the West met at
Basel. Very few of the participants were bishops. The
pope, Eugenius IV (1431-47) attempted to suppress the council at
the end of its first year, but was unsuccessful, then he changed his
mind and declared the council ecumenical. When Eugenius
refused to agree to the council's decision that councils are superior
to popes, the council elected Felix V (1439-49), the Duke of Savoy,
pope. In 1449, the council of Basel yielded to Pope Nicholas V
(1447-55) and dissolved itself. Thus ended the conciliar epoch of
reform in the West.
Bohemia had been in rebellion since the burning of John Huss at
the council of Constance. Armies had invaded Bohemia to bring
the rebels to submission, but they were repeatedly defeated. The
council of Basel determined to negotiate with the Hussites, so their
representatives were invited to the council - though first the streets
were swept clean of prostitutes to avoid offending the heretics.
The Calixtines or Ultraquists - moderate Hussites - convinced the
council to agree to four articles, known as the Compactata. These
(1) allowed communion in both kinds, (2) the unimpeded
preaching of the word of God, (3) the clergy to live in complete
poverty, and (4) open sin to be suppressed. But the hard line
Hussites - known as Taborites after their stronghold in Tabor -
refused the Compactata. The Calixtines subsequently defeated the
Taborites, in 1434. The papacy, however, refused to accept the
Compactata, and Pius II declared them void in 1460. They
remained in force in Bohemia, however, until 1567.
The council of Basel passed a decree in favor of the doctrine of the
Immaculate Conception. Pope Eugenius IV (1431-47) had sent
Cardinal Giovanni de Turrecremata to the council, and
Turrecremata wrote a detailed treatise against the doctrine.
Turrecremata was unable to present his dissertation to the council,
as he was recalled because of a dispute between the council and
the pope. Pope Pius II (1458-64) later honored Turrecremata with
the title Defender and Protector of the Faith.
1432 Pope Eugenius IV (1431-47) sent the Franciscan Jacob de
Marchia to Bosnia as an Inquisitor. De Marchia had little success
converting the Patarenes, but did succeed in antagorizing his
subordinates.
1433 Tvrtko II, Ban of Bosnia, fled to the court of the German
emperor Sigusmund while Patarene nobles ruled the country.
1433 Nicholas of Cusa wrote his On Catholic Concordance (De
concordantia catholica). Dedicating this work to his colleagues at the
council of Basel, Nicholas argued for the supremacy of general
councils over popes. Nicholas later changed his mind and served
both Pope Eugenius IV and Pope Nicholas V.
1437 A memorandum prepared by the Orthodox for the council of
Basle listed 67 metropolitans under the patriarch of
Constantinople. Thirty-six were in lands conquered by the Turks,
16 were in Wallachia, Moldavia, Russia, the Caucasus, and
Trebizond (all Christian lands independent of the empire), 7 were
in Greece, and 8 in the area near Constantinople.
1438 In France, a national assembly met in Bourges and issued a
document called the Pragmatic Sanction. It recognized decrees
made at Basel and Constance affirming the superiority of councils
to popes; the rights of elections traditionally enjoyed by cathedral
chapters, collegiate churches, and monasteries; abolished annates
and other forms of papal taxation and meddling; and warned the
pope against becoming involved in ecclesiastical trials before they
ascended to him through the various levels of appeal courts.
French independence of Rome came to be termed Gallicanism.
1438 The Concordat of Vienna. In this compromise between Pope
Eugenius IV and the German Emperor Frederick III, the papacy
retained the collection of annates, while cathedral chapters (not
popes) were permitted to choose new bishops.
1438 On 8 January, a council met in Ferrara to discuss doctrinal
differences between the Eastern and Western churches. The
Roman (Byzantine) emperor John VIII Paleologus attended, along
with the patriarch of Constantinople, Joseph II, 20 metropolitans,
and almost 700 other "Greeks." The filioque and the doctrine of
purgatory were discussed. When the plague hit Ferrara later in the
year, the council moved to Florence.
1439 On January 10, the council of Ferrara-Florence reconvened in
Florence.
The Roman (Byzantine) Emperor John VIII (1425-48) attended this
council. Johns military situation had become desperate, and he
needed assistance from the West to defend his empire from the
Turks. His delegation included the patriarch of Constantinople
and St. Mark of Ephesus.
It was at the Council of Florence that the Roman Catholic doctrine
of purgatory was defined (but see 1274 above). Purgatory, as the
Latins understand it, is required not simply to refine the soul to
the point it can enter heaven, but it is the occasion for paying off
the temporal punishment due to sin. The Orthodox objected to
several aspects of the Latin teaching on purgatory. Where the
Latins taught an eternal fire (hell) and a temporal fire of purgatory,
the Orthodox accepted only the existence of the eternal fire. For
the Orthodox, the temporal punishment of sinful souls occurs in a
place of darkness and sorrow. These souls are punished through
deprivation of the Divine light and are purified - freed from the
place of darkness - by means of prayers, the Holy Eucharist, works
of charity, but not by fire. The Orthodox countered the Latin
appeal to 1 Corinthians 3.10-15 by showing that the Day (verse 13)
refers to the last judgment, the fire is the eternal fire, and the
words saved yet as by fire mean preserved while undergoing
punishment. They also remarked that, under the Latin view, the
words he will suffer loss were false, since the one being purified
by purgatorial fire was supposed to benefit greatly by the
experience. The Orthodox interpretation comports with St. John
Chrysostoms commentary on the passage. The Orthodox added,
It is very right to suppose that the Greeks should understand
Greek words better than foreigners.
The issue of the filioque was discussed, with the West avowing that
the Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son as from one
principle this to answer the Eastern concern that the Westerners
were multiplying principles within the Godhead. St Mark of
Ephesus elaborated the Orthodox objection: The second
Ecumenical Council, wishing to explain the words of the Nicene
Creed: and in the Holy Ghost, and to show more clearly against
heretics how it is that the Holy Ghost is reckoned together with the
Father and the Son, speaks thus in its symbol: we believe in the
Holy Ghost, the Lord and giver of life, Who proceedeth from the
Father, Who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped
and glorified. Here attention must be paid to the objects the
Fathers had in view when writing these words. The Council
wished to represent the manner of the Holy Ghosts union with the
Father and the Son. See now how distinctly the Council marks the
affinity of the Holy Ghost with the Father and the Son: the Fathers
did not say that the Spirit is reckoned with the Father and the Son,
but that He proceeds from the Father, and is worshipped and
glorified together with the Father and the Son. That is, He is of
equal honor and consubstantial with Them. If the Council had
admitted the Spirits procession from the Father and the Son, why
then did it not in speaking of the Father and the Son, say: Who
proceedeth from the Father and the Son, Who with the Father and
the Son is together worshipped and together glorified? This is
what should have been said if the Council had adhered to such a
doctrine. But whereas, in the first case, the Fathers did not
mention the Son when they were showing the cause of the
procession, but did mention Him in the second place when
showing His equality of honor and consubstantiality, then it is
plain that they did not admit of the procession of the Holy Ghost
from the Son also.
In part, the confession the Orthodox signed read: We decree that
the Holy Apostolic Throne and Roman Pontiff possess a primacy
over the whole earth, and that this Roman Pontiff is the Successor
of the blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles, and is the true Vicar of
Christ, the Head of the whole Church, Pastor and Teacher of all
Christians; and that our Lord Jesus Christ in the person of St. Peter
has given him full authority to shepherd, direct and rule the whole
Church, as is likewise contained in the acts of the Ecumenical
Councils and in the holy canons. The document was signed on
July 6, 1439, in a ceremony in which the Orthodox kissed the
popes knee. St. Mark of Ephesus, however, did not sign, and Pope
Eugenius is reported to have remarked on learning this, And so
we have accomplished nothing. So convinced was Eugenius of
the necessity of Marks support that he met with Mark privately in
an attempt to convince him to sign the agreement, but Mark
refused, saying that he would hold steadfast to the Orthodox faith.
The Council of Florence effected an apparent reunion between East
and West, but, as the Eastern representatives pointed out, their
personal opinions did not count for the Church as a whole, and
could only be validated by an Eastern synod. The reunion, thus,
never really came into force. Most of the delegates renounced their
signatures when they reached home. The councils decrees were
never accepted by more than a small fraction of Orthodox people
and clergy. The Grand Duke Lucas Notaras said, I would rather
see the Muslim turban in the midst of the city than the Latin
mitre.
1439 John Bessarion, a member of the Eastern delegation to the
council of Ferrara-Florence and former metropolitan of Nicaea,
remained in communion with Rome. Pope Eugenius IV (1431-47)
made him a cardinal. Bessarion was instrumental in spreading
the knowledge of Greek to the West. His most important work
is a defense of Platoagainst Aristotelianism (as promoted by
George of Trebizond).
1439 When Pope Eugenius IV (1431-47) broke contact with the
Council of Basel, the prelates there elected Amadeus VIII, duke of
Savoy, Pope Felix V (1439-49). Amadeus had retired to a
monastery in 1434. Felix is generally considered an antipope.
1439 The French Parlement made the Pragmatic Sanction a statute
for France.
1440 Lorenzo Valla proved the Donation of Constantine to be an
eighth century forgery. Lorenzo was supported by King Alfonso I
of Sicily, one of the pope's enemies.
1441 From the Council of Florence, under Pope Eugenius IV (1431-
47):
The Most Holy Roman Church firmly believes, professes and
preaches that none of those existing outside the Catholic Church,
not only pagans, but also Jews, and heretics, and schismatics, can
ever be partakers of eternal life, but that they are to go into the
eternal fire which was prepared for the devil, and his angels, (Mt.
25:41) unless before death they are joined with Her; and that so
important is the unity of this Ecclesiastical Body, that only those
remaining within this unity can profit from the sacraments of the
Church unto salvation, and that they alone can receive an eternal
recompense for their fasts, almsdeeds, and other works of
Christian piety and duties of a Christian soldier. No one, let his
almsgiving be as great as it may, no one, even if he pour out his
blood for the Name of Christ, can be saved unless they abide
within the bosom and unity of the Catholic Church.
1442 Gemisthus Plethon (a well-known Platonist) and John
Bessarion (his former student) founded the Accademia Platonica in
Florence. The academy specialized in the study of Greek literature
and Plato's philosophy.
1443 In September, the council of Ferrara-Florence (the Easterners
having returned home) removed to Rome.
1443? Invention of the moveable type printing press.
1444 The first certain typhus outbreak, at Newgate Prison, London,
killed 5 jailors and 64 prisoners.
1444 At Varna (Bulgaria), the Turks crushed a Western force sent
to aid the Roman (Byzantine) empire.
1446 Stephen Thomas, the Catholic ruler of Bosnia, forbade, at the
insistence of Pope Eugenius IV (1431-47), his Patarene subjects
from building new churches or repairing old ones.
1447 Nicholas V elected pope (1447-55). By sending emissaries
throughout Europe to collect rare manuscripts, Nicholas began
the papal library.
1448 When the Metropolitan of Russia, Isidore, returned to
Moscow in 1441, he strongly supported the reunion. The Grand
Duke imprisoned him, then allowed him to escape to Italy. Since
Constantinople officially supported Florence until 1453, the
Russians could not appeal to her for a replacement. So, in 1448, a
council of Russian bishops elected a new metropolitan by itself.
The church of Moscow thus became autocephalous. The
metropolitan of Kiev continued to be under the jurisdiction of
Constantinople until 1646, when it passed under Moscow.
1450 At the urging of the papal nuncio, Stephen Thomas, ruler of
Bosnia, forbade the Patarenes from holding worship services.
Bosnia, split among Catholics, Patarenes, and Orthodox (who also
opposed the Catholics), was in no position to offer serious
opposition to the Turks (see 1463).
1450 In this Jubilee Year, plenary indulgences were offered to
penitent pilgrims to Rome. On Whit Sunday, Pope Nicholas V
(1447-55) canonized Bernardino of Siena, a Franciscan, who had
been a popular preacher.
1451 Pope Nicholas V (1447) appointed Nicholas of Cusa (see
1433), Archbishop of Brixen, legate to Germany, with the task of
reforming the church there. Nicholas namedJohn of Capistrano, a
friend of Bernardo of Siena and founder of the Franciscan
Observants, as legate to Austria. John had some success
converting the Hussites there.
1452-56 Gutenburg Bible printed.
1452 Pope Nicholas V (1447-55) crowned Frederick III German
emperor in Rome. This was the last imperial coronation to occur
there.
1453 On 29 May, Constantinople fell to the Turks.
1453 The English were expelled from France entirely, except for
Calais (end of the Hundred Years War).
1455 On 25 Feb, Pope Nicholas V (1447-55) ratified the Peace of
Lodi, a peace treaty among Venice, Milan, Florence, and Naples.
Nicholas had urged peace in order to effect a crusade against the
Turks.
1455 Pope Nicholas V (1447-55) had planned and begun the
restoration of Rome, including a piazza in front of St. Peter's, with
the obelisk from Nero's Circus. On his deathbed, he told his
cardinals, "If the authority of the Holy See were visibly displayed
in majestic buildings, imperishable memorials, and witnesses
seemingly planted by the hand of God himself, belief would grow
and strengthen like a tradition from one generation to another, and
all the world would accept and revere it."
1456 John of Capistrano (see 1451) raised and led an army which
forced the Turks to lift their siege of Belgrade.
1457 Pope Calixtus (Callistus) III (1455-58) instituted the feast of
the Transfiguration as a universal feast of the Latin Church. He
appointed it to be observed on 6 August, to commemorate the day
the Turks were defeated at Belgrade. The feast of the
Transfiguration had been observed in the East since the fourth
century. It spread to the West sometime after the ninth century.
1457 Lorenzo Valla suggested that the works of the Pseudo-
Dionysius were not genuine. But he compared their anonymous
author with Gregory the Great in terms of theological quality.
1458 The Turks captured Athens. The Parthenon, which had been
a church since around 450, was converted into a mosque.
1459 Pope Pius II (1458-64) arranged for a conference to begin on 1
June to plan a crusade against the Turks. No one but the pope
arrived on the scheduled date, and those who did arrive thereafter
bickered among themselves.
1460 On 17 January, Pope Pius II (1458-64) issued his
bull Execrabilis, denouncing appeals from a pope to a general
council.
1460 Pope Pius II (1458-64) sent Cardinal John Bessarion (see 1439)
to Germany to promote a crusade against the Turks. Bessarion had
little success.
1460 Alum, a mineral used in dyes and previously available only
from the Middle East, was discovered on papal lands at Tolfa,
northwest of Rome. Alum became an important source of papal
revenue.
1461 Stephen Tomashevich became ruler of Bosnia, having
murdered his father, Stephen Thomas. Tomashevich refused to
pay tribute to the Turkish sultan, who at that time was demanding
25,000 ducats per year.
1461 The Turks conquered the empire of Trebizond. Trebizond,
like Epiros, had its beginning after the crusader conquest of
Constantinople in 1204.
1462 In a bull issued on 17 January in this year, Pope Pius II
decreed that Africans who had received baptism should not be
enslaved.
1463 The Turkish sultan Mohammed the Conqueror invaded
and conquered Bosnia. His success was in part due to the hatred
the Patarenes felt for the Catholics: a Patarene officer named
Radak who had been forced to convert to Catholicism surrendered
the Babovats fortress, motivated by hatred for his Catholic
monarch. Faced with loss of their property or conversion to Islam,
the Bosnian Patarene nobles generally converted. Some historians
theorize that the strength of the Patarene faith was hatred of the
Hungarians and the wealthy Dalmations, who were Catholics.
With the Turkish conquest, the Patarene church, which had
thrived since the days of Kulin (see 1199), disappeared.
1463 Pope Pius II (1458-64) proclaimed a crusade against the Turks,
vowing to lead it himself. The crusade failed to materialize, and
the pope himself died in August 1464.
1463 Pope Pius II (1458-64) named John Bessarion (see 1439)
nominal patriarch of Constantinople.
1466 Mentelin of Strasbourg printed the Bible in German, fifty-six
years before Luthers German New Testament was published.
1470 Beginning of the Judaizer heresy in the Orthodox Church in
Russia. It was initiated, apparently, by the Jewish physician to
Prince Alexander Olel'kovich of Novgorod, a certain Zachariah (or
Skharia), and two of his merchant companions: Moded Hanush
and Joseph Shmoilo Skarabei. The Judaizers argued that Jesus'
words in support of the Old Testament (Matt 5.17-20) implied that
the Old was superior to the New. They denied the Trinity and
opposed icons, crosses, and monasteries.
1470 Around this year, Marsilio Ficino (1433-99) completed a
translation of the works of Plato into Latin. His work initiated the
Florentine Platonic Renaissance (but see 1442). His translation was
not published until 1484. Ficino believed that all religions have a
share of the truth.
1472 Ivan III (the Great) married Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine
emperor. The Grand Dukes of Moscow began to call themselves
Tsar.
1472 The Orthodox were expelled from Yuryev (Tartu), Estonia, by
Germans. The Orthodox priest Isidore and a number of believers
were martyred.
1472 A papal fleet under Cardinal Oliviero Carafa joined in an
attack on the Turks at Smyrna.
1474 In this year, and again in 1476, Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84)
attempted to unite the Orthodox in Russia with the Catholic West
and to convince Russia to fight the Turks.
1476 On 28 February, Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) adopted the feast of
the Immaculate Conception for the Latin Church.
1476 William Caxton, Englands first printer, set up a press at
Westminster. His first printed work was an indulgence.
1476 The theologian Raimund Peraudi insisted that the economy
of indulgences applied not only to the living, but to the dead.
That is, he deemed effective indulgences obtained on behalf on
someone who had passed on and was presumably in purgatory.
Peraudis thesis was later endorsed in a papal bull.
1478 At the request of the Catholic monarchs of Aragon and
Castille, Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) authorized the Spanish
Inquisition. Their goal was to combat Jews and Muslims who had
converted to Catholicism then apostatized, as well as heretics. In
1483, the pope authorized the Spanish government to designate a
grand inquisitor the first one being the Dominican Tomas de
Torquemada. Roughly 2000 persons were burned at the stake
during his tenure.
1478 Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) annulled the decrees of the Council
of Constance.
1478-80 A severe outbreak of plague in Europe. Perhaps 15% of
the population of England, France, and the Netherlands were
killed.
1479 The Judaizer heresy gained political clout when Ivan III,
impressed with their learning, appointed the Judaizer priests
Abraham and Dennis rectors of the two large cathedrals in
Moscow. Ivan himself eventually espoused their views.
St. Joseph of Volokolamsk (1439-1515) founded a monastery at
Volokolamsk. He had been abbot of Borovsk in 1477, which Prince
Ivan III Vasilyevich had used as a waypoint for advancing his sons
into episcopal benefices. Prince Ivan had become disgruntled with
Joseph's ascetic reforms. The monastery at Volokolamsk became a
center for monastic reform. Joseph's followers, called Josephites,
became active in a movement to insure uniformity in the Church,
using the state as a weapon against dissenters and heretics. In
their view, also, monks should be allowed to own property for
good works, such as charity and education. Those who held this
position became known as Possessors.
1482 Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) urged Venice to attack Ferrara.
Milan, Florence, and Naples allied themselves against Venice and
the Papal States.
1483 Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) placed Venice under interdict
because she refused to halt the attack against Ferrara the pope had
originally urged.
1483 Herzegovina fell to the Turks.
1483 Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84) forbade condemnations of both
proponents and opponents of the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception of the Virgin Mary. Anyone of either opinion who
called someone of the opposite opinion a heretic was to be
excommunicated.
1483 By this year there were nine different German translations
of the Bible in print. (See 1466 above.)
1484 An Orthodox council meeting in Constantinople declared
that Roman Catholic converts were to be received through
chrismation.
1484 Pope Innocent VIII (1484-92) condemned witchcraft in the
bull Summis desiderantes affectibus. The bull blamed witches for
plague and storms, stated that apostate Christians had entered into
sexual relations with witches, and claimed that witches spells had
harmed men, women, children and beasts. Innocent sent
inquisitors to Germany to conduct witch trials there.
1486 Ivan the Great's chief diplomat, Theodore Kuritsyn, returned
from Hungary where he had adopted views very similar to the
Judaizer heresy. The influential Kuritsyn propagated the heresy
among Moscow's social elite. The appeal of the heresy centered in
its advocacy of alchemy and astrology.
1486 Pope Innocent VIII (1484-92) condemned the theses of Pico
della Mirandola, a leader of Renaissance Platonism.
1487 The Malleus Maleficarum, a work on witchcraft, written by
Heinrich Kramer and Jakob Sprenger, published. Kramer had
been active in persecuting witches in the Tyrol in 1484.
1489 In exchange for an annual payment and the Holy Lance, Pope
Innocent VIII (1484-92) agreed to keep the Turkish prince Jem,
Sultan Bayezids brother, in prison. Jem had traveled to Rhodes,
where he asked the Knights of St. John to overthrow his brother.
The Knights agreed with Bayezid to keep Jem in prison for a price,
but they transfered Jem to the pope in 1486.
1490 Zosima, an advocate of the Judaizer heresy, elected
metropolitan of Moscow.
In the same year, Archbishop Gennadi and Abbot Joseph of
Novgorod had nine Judaizer clerics imprisoned.
Around this time, Gennadi organized the translation of the Bible
into Slavonic. Though completed around the turn of the century,
the complete Slavonic Bible (known as the Ostrozhsky or Ostrong
Bible because it was published at the Ostrozhskii princes' printing
house) was not printed until 1580-82.
1490 Jews in Toledo were accused of murdering a Christian boy
(apparently named Cristobal). Isabel of Castile used the accusation
as an excuse for ordering the expulsion of all Jews from Spain in
1491.
1492 Columbus discovered America.
1492 The Moslems were driven out of Spain.
1492 On March 30, Ferdinand and Isabella signed an edict that
gave unbaptized Jews until July 31 to leave the country. Roughly
50,000 accepted baptism and remained. About 100,000 of these
Sephardic (Spanish) Jews departed.
1492 Rodrigo Borgia became Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503). To
become pope, Rodrigo had purchased the votes of his fellow
cardinals. As a cardinal, Rodrigo had sired four children by
Vannoza de Catanei. In 1489, he began an affair with the 16 year-
old Giulia Farnese.
1493 Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) divided the new world
between Spain and Portugal.
1493 Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) made his teenaged son Cesare
a cardinal.
1494 Influenced by Abbot Joseph of Novgorod, a council deposed
the Judaizer metropolitan of Moscow, Zosima, for sodomy,
debauchery, the denial of the resurrection of Christ and the
afterlife. Joseph also published a book entitled The
Enlightener against the Judaizers.
1494 King Charles VIII of France marched into Florence. Their
coming had been predicted two years before by Girolama
Savonarola, a Dominican who preached about the last days and
claimed to have visions of and to speak with God. With the Medici
driven out of Florence, Savonarola set up a democratic Republic
there. Critical of the church in Rome and the Pope Alexander,
Savonarola attempted to reform the church in Florence.
The French army brought a hitherto unknown disease with them,
which was soon known as the French pox. It appears to have been
like syphilis.
King Charles VIII had come to Italy to lay claim to the Kingdom of
Naples. Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503), threatened by the French
army, asked the Turkish Sultan Bayezid for 300,000 ducats to help
him drive the French from Italy, and so prevent them from using
the peninsula to launch a new crusade against the Turks.
1497 Theodore Kuritsyn died, and Abbot Joseph was able to move
against the Judaizers.
1497 King Manoel of Portugal ordered the conversion of the Jews
in his kingdom. Many had fled there in 1492 to avoid forced
conversion in Spain.
1498 The government of Florence hanged and burned Girolamo
Savonarola (see 1494). Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) had
excommunicated him in 1497. In 1495, the pope had tempted
Savonarola to travel to Rome, but Girolamo smelled a trap. The
pope viewed him as the principal impediment to Florence joining
the Holy League (the papal territories, the German empire,
Aragon, Venice, and Milan) against the king of France.
1499 Erasmus visited Britain. Among many other
accomplishments, Erasmus divided the Bible into verses and
discredited the Donation of Constantine.
1500 Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) proclaimed 1500 a Jubilee
year.
1500 Publication of the Mozarabic rite missal by Cardinal Ximenes
of Toledo. He presented the breviary in 1502.
1500 A translation of the Bible into French had been printed by this
year.
1500 Queen Isabel of Castile ordered the conversion of the
Muslims in Granada. In 1502, she demanded the conversion of all
Muslims remaining in Castile.
The Sixteenth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


1502 Publication of the Apocalypsis Nova, which predicted the
coming of an angelic pope, who would be preceded by holy men.
1503 A Russian church council held in this year resulted in
the division of the Russian Orthodox Church between the
Possessors and the Non-Possessors. The Non-Possessors wanted
to divest monasteries of their land. The monasteries held about a
third of Russian land in this period. The Non-Possessor position
was argued by Nils Sorsky (1433-1508).
The same council condemned the practice of charging ordination
fees (see 1479 above).
1503 Julius II (1503-13) became pope. While a cardinal, Julius had
sired three daughters.
1503 Erasmus published his Handbook of the Christian Soldier, in
which he presented a vision of the church in which the laity would
gain power at the expense of the wealth and influence of the
clergy. It was translated into several European languages and had
become very popular by 1515.
1503 Spanish forces conquered Naples and began to dominate
central Italy. This would have consequences for Henry VIII, the
papacy, and the English Reformation. (See 1527.)
1504 Death of St. Kassian, founder of the Assumption monastery
near Uglich. Kassian had fled Crimea when the Muslims occupied
that region near the end of the fifteenth century. In Crimea, he had
lived on the Mangup Plateau (the last stronghold of Christianity in
Crimea) where the Mangup capital was located.
1506 On 18 April, Pope Julius II (1503-13) laid the foundation stone
for the new St. Peters. The basilica was completed in 1615.
1506 The publication of John Reuchlins Rudiments initiated
the birth of the study of Hebrew among Western European
scholars and theologians. Reuchlin was accosted by John
Pfefferkorn, a convert from Judaism, who agitated for the
destruction of Jewish books. The Dominicans supported
Pferrerkorn and brought a case against Reuchlin to the Inquisitor
for Heretical Pravity for the diocese of Cologne. The Inquisitor
(Jakob von Hochstraten) ruled against Reuchlin. An appeal was
made to the pope, who initially ruled in favor of Reuchlin, then
ordered him to keep silent and pay the court costs. Reuchlin did
neither. (When the controversy over Luther arose, many saw it at
first as another act in the conflict between humanists and
obscurantists.)
1508-12 Commissioned by Pope Julius II (1503-
13), Michelangelo painted ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.
1509 Four Dominicans were burned at the stake in Berne for
fabricating miracles to discredit the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception of the Virgin Mary.
1509 Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) married Henry VIII, king of
England from 1509 to 1547.
1510 140 persons were burned to death in Brescia for practicing
witchcraft.
1511-15 The Hunne Affair. In 1511, when the infant son of a
London tailor named Richard Hunne died, the church rector,
Thomas Dryffeld, demanded the bearing sheet as a mortuary fee.
The rector sued Hunne for the fee, and Hunne lost. Hunne in
turned accused Dryffeld of violating the Praemunire Statute (see
1353 above). This raised the ire of the bishop of London, Richard
Fitzjames. Fitzjames had Hunne arrested and his house searched.
A Wycliffite Bible was found, along with some heretical books.
Soon thereafter, Hunne was murdered while in prison by the
bishops chancellor, Dr. Horsey and two others. The murderers
were indicted, but never brought to trial. Fitzjames then presided
over a court that convicted Hunne of heresy. Hunnes body was
burned and, since he had been a heretic, his property was forfeited
to the crown and his family became paupers.
1511 A group of disaffected cardinals, supported by King Louis XII
of France (1498-1515), held a council in opposition to Pope Julius II
(1503-13) in Pisa. Since the council was considered a French
political maneuver, it received little international support.
1512 In May, the Holy League of Spain, Venice, the German
empire, England, and the Swiss drove the French from Milan.
1512 Jacques Lefevre, a professor at the University of Paris,
published a Latin translation of Pauls epistles. Anticipating
Luther by several years, he appended a commentary in which he
taught that salvation is by grace through faith in Christs sacrifice
on the cross, not through works. He also denied
transubstantiation.
1512-17 The Fifth Lateran Council opened in May, 1512. This
council overturned the Council of Constances decree which had
made councils superior to the pope. It also affirmed the
immortality of the soul, and, in 1513, attempted to suppress
preaching on the last days (see 1494 and 1502 above).
1513 Leo X (1513-21) elected pope. Leo, the son of Lorenzo the
Magnificent of Florence, had become a priest at age 7, and a
cardinal when he was 13.
1514 300 persons were burned to death at Como for practicing
witchcraft.
1516 Erasmus Greek New Testament published the first Greek
New Testament to be printed. It included a fresh translation into
Latin. (In a note on Acts 17.34, Erasmus repeated Lorenzo Vallas
criticisms of the claim that Dionysius himself authored the works
of the Dionysian corpus.)
The first edition of Erasmus Greek New Testament was based on
only four Greek manuscripts, none earlier than the eleventh
century. Even on the fourth edition, he had only one Greek
manuscript for the book of Revelation. This lacked the final five
verses, which Erasmus translated into Greek from Latin. He was
(rightly) criticized for this procedure.
Erasmus was also taken to task for undermining the authority of
the Vulgate. A certain scholar named Sutor argued, if in one
point the Vulgate were in error the entire authority of the Holy
Scripture would collapse. Controversies arose over Erasmus
omissions of 1 John 5.7 (it was not in his manuscripts) and
Matthew 6.13 (which was in his manuscripts, but which, he
reasoned, could not have been in the Greek text Jerome had read).
He was also criticized for not correcting Hebrews 2.7 according to
the Hebrew, which has a little lower than God rather than a
little lower than the angels; for translating the Greek word for
repent with the Latin for change your mind; and the Greek
word Logos with the Latin sermo.
1516 The Pragmatic Sanction (see 1438 & 39) abolished by
the Concordat of Bologna, an agreement between the king of
France and the pope. In return, Pope Leo X (1513-21) recognized
the right of Francis I, king of France 1515-1547, to appoint bishops
and abbots in his realm. The Gallican church thus in effect
remained independent of the papacy. In return, the pope was to
collect annates, appeals to Rome were permitted, and the
superiority of popes to councils was admitted.
1517 When Pope Leo X (1513-21) discovered that some of his
cardinals were plotting against him, he created 31 new cardinals in
one day.
1517 The fourth volume of the Complutensian Polyglot was
printed. The Old Testament of the Complutensian Bible has three
columns: Hebrew, the Latin Vulgate, and the Septuagint with an
interlinear Latin translation. The third column of the
Complutensian Old Testament is the first printed edition of the
Septuagint. It is thought to reflect the Lucianic recension. The
Polyglot did not receive papal sanction to be published until 1520.
1517 Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation by nailing
his 95 theses to the door of a church in Wittenberg, Germany.
Some of the theses:
27: They preach human doctrine who say that the soul flies out of
purgatory as soon as the money thrown into the chest rattles.
32 & 33: Those who believe that through letters of pardon they
are made sure of their own salvation will be eternally damned
along with their teachers. We must especially beware of those who
say that these pardons from the pope are that inestimable gift of
God by which man is reconciled to God.
43: Christians should be taught that he who gives to a poor man
or lends to a needy man does better than if he buys indulgences.
45: Christians should be taught that he who sees anyone in need
and, passing him by, gives money for indulgences is not
purchasing the indulgence of the pope, but calls down upon
himself the wrath of God.
50: Christians should be taught that if the pope knew of the
exactions of the preachers of indulgences, he would rather see the
Basilica of St. Peter burned to ashes than that it should be built up
with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep.
75 & 76: To think that papal indulgences have such power that
they could absolve a man even if to mention an impossibility he
had violated the Mother of God, is madness. We affirm, on the
contrary, that papal indulgences cannot take away even the least of
venial sins as regards its guilt.
89: Since it is the salvation of souls, rather than money, that the
pope seeks by granting indulgences, why does he suspend the
letters and indulgences granted long ago, since they are equally
efficacious?
94 & 95: Christians should be exhorted to strive to follow Christ,
their Head, through pain, death, and hell; and thus to enter heaven
through many tribulations rather than in the security of peace.
1517 Egypt brought under Ottoman rule.
1518 Andreas Asolanus published the second printed Septuagint,
this from the Aldine press, and known as the Aldine edition. The
text is thought to reflect the Hesychian recension.
1518 A diet of the Holy Roman Empire summoned by the Emperor
Maximiliam (1493-1519) met in Augsburg to consider whether
Germany should pay a tax to Rome in support of a crusade against
the Turks. The diet refused, noting that taxes for crusades had
been used for other purposes, and that annates, confirmation fees,
and the costs of litigation in church courts were exorbitant. It also
criticized Rome for dealing out German benefices to Italian priests.
1519 Charles V, king of Spain, became Holy Roman Emperor
(1519-1556).
1520 Erasmus Ratio (1520 edition) included these lines: Some
assert that the universal body of the Church has been contracted
into a single Roman pontiff who cannot err on faith and morals,
thus ascribing to the pope more than he claims for himself, though
they do not hesitate to dispute his judgment if he interferes with
their purses or their prospects. Is not this to open the door to
tyranny in case such power were wielded by an impious and
pestilent man?
1520 Luther published The Babylonian Captivity of the Church. In it,
he argued that the papacy had held the church captive for 1000
years, corrupting it in faith, morals, and ritual. He urged
communion in both kinds and presented the theory of
consubstantiation, that Christ is present in the eucharist along with
the bread and wine. Earlier that year, in his Open Letter, Luther
opposed the distinction between clergy and laity, the right of
popes to settle issues of scriptural interpretation, and the popes
supposed exclusive right to call a general council. Later in the
year, he published A Treatise on Christian Liberty, which stated his
belief that man is saved by faith alone, apart from works.
1520 In June, Pope Leo X (1513-21) condemned Luther in the
bull Exsurge Domine. Luther burned the pope's bull of
excommunication on 10 December. In his opinion, "This burning is
only a trifle. It is necessary that the pope and the papal see should
also be burned. He who does not resist the papacy with all his
heart cannot obtain eternal salvation."
1521 Belgrade (Serbia) fell to the Turks.
1521 It has been estimated that, by this year, there were over 150
offices for sale in the Vatican, worth approximately 3,000,000
ducats.
1521 Diet of Worms. Protected by Frederick, the elector of Saxony,
Luther refused to recant. He declared that popes and councils
were fallible, but that the Holy Scripture was infallible. The
emperor Charles V determined to proceed against him as a
notorious heretic and in so doing he won papal support for his
coming war against France for control of Milan. Frederick
concealed Luther in the castle of Wartburg.
1522 The emperor Charles V introduced the Inquisition into the
Netherlands in order to wipe out Protestantism.
1522 Pope Adrian VI (1522-23) taught that popes were capable of
erring in their official role as teachers of the Church. A
Dutchman, Adrian was the last non-Italian pope until John Paul II
(1978).
1522 Luthers German New Testament published.
1522 Erasmus Ratio (1522 edition) included these lines: We do
not impugn the majesty of the Roman pontiff. Would that he had
the qualities attributed to him, that he were not able to err in
matters of piety, that he were able to deliver souls from
purgatory.
1522 In November, Pope Adrian VI (1522-23) sent a legate to the
Diet of Nuremburg (Germany). The legate stated that the churchs
ills had spread from the papacy down and explained the popes
intention of reforming the curia and hierarchy. As regards Luther,
however, the pope had no sympathy: the petty monk must
acknowledge his errors, and his teachings must be suppressed.
1522 In December, the Turks conquered Rhodes. The Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem (the Knights Hospitallers) had built a fortress
there after 1309. Their fleet had worked to keep the southern
Mediterranean safe from the Turks.
1523 Zurich accepted the Reformation after hearing a public
debate. Huldrych Zwingli was instrumental in defending the
Protestant cause.
1524 In Strassburg, a layman named Clement Ziegler began
teaching that Christs body existed in heaven before his
incarnation.
1524 In June, the Zurich city council banned religious images.
Zurich was the home of the reformer Huldrych Zwingli. At some
point and under Zwinglis influence, Zurich banned music from
worship services. This ban was in force until 1598.
1524 In Riga (Latvia) a group of evangelicals tore a statue of the
Virgin Mary out of the cathedral and threw it into the Dvina river.
When it floated, they denounced it as a witch and burned it.
1525 In January, a group in Zurich that rejected infant baptism
baptized one another. They also broke bread and shared wine to
demonstrate the priesthood of all believers. These radicals came to
be termed Anabaptists. Four of them were drowned in the
Limmat river in 1526 as Zurich acted to suppress the radicals.
1525 Zwingli wrote his On Baptism, in which he developed a
thought Luther had earlier expressed, that infant baptism could be
justified in analogy to the Old Testament practice of circumcision.
In this year and the following, Zwingli proposed the notion that
Christ is present in the Lords Supper in a merely symbolic
manner. He emphasized that the purpose of the Eucharist is to
remind the congregation of Christs deeds on mans behalf.
1525 In April, the Zurich city council banned the mass.
1525 At Dorpat (Tartu, Estonia) Germans broke into an Orthodox
church and destroyed the icons. Events such as this led the
Orthodox to view Lutherans as iconoclasts (which they were not).
1525 William Tyndales English translation of the New
Testament was partially printed in Cologne. Before printing could
be completed, the Catholic authorities learned of the enterprise
(through the loose lips of some printers who were drinking in a
public tavern) and conducted a raid. The printing was completed
in Worms in 1526. Following a convention popular among
Lutherans, the 1525 printing lists Hebrews, James, Jude and
Revelation as being of doubtful authenticity. This distinction was
dropped in the 1526 printing.
1525 Albrecht, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, arranged with
King Sigismond I of Poland that the orders territories in Royal
Prussia would be a secular fief of Poland. He then made Royal
Prussia the first evangelical (Lutheran) state in Europe.
1525/6 The Non-Possessors criticized Tsar Basil III for unjustly
divorcing his wife, and they were suppressed.
1526 Geneva, a part of the duchy of Savoy, entered into an alliance
with the Swiss city of Berne without Savoys permission.
1526 The Ottoman Turks, under Sultan Suleiman I (1520-
1566) defeated the Hungarians at the battle of Mohacs, thus
conquering Hungary and opening the way to Vienna. Much of
Hungary was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1547.
1527 In May, Spanish troops and German mercenaries under
Charles V sacked Rome. This attack was in reprisal for Pope
Clement VIIIs (1523-34) entering into an alliance (the League of
Cognac) with Milan, Venice and France to gain territory in Italy.
Clement was taken prisoner.
1527 Henry VIII, king of England, appealed to Rome for an
annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, aunt of the
Emperor Charles V.
1528 As Zurich had done in 1523, Berne accepted Protestantism
after hearing a public debate.
1528 On Feb 29, Patrick Hamilton was executed (burned alive) for
heresy at St. Andrews in Scotland. Hamilton had traveled to the
Continent, where he met Luther at Wittenburg and Tyndale at
Marburg. After returning to Scotland, he distributed a catechism
entitled Patricks Places, which advocated justification by faith.
1528 Evangelicals destroyed a statue of the Virgin Mary on a street
corner in Paris.
1529 Henry VIII declared himself the head of the English church.
1529 Seige of Vienna. Suleimans forces besieged Vienna. The
Turks arrived at Vienna on September 27, and Suleiman boasted
that he would be eating breakfast in the city by the Feast of St.
Michael (29 Sep). But the Turks failed to take it, and eventually
retreated (14 Oct), though they first massacred or burned alive
their prisoners, except those young enough for the slave markets.
1529 The Colloquy of Marburg. Philip, landgrave of Hesse,
arranged for prominent reformers to meet at his castle in
Marburg. Luther, Zwingli, and Martin Bucer attended. They were
unable to agree on the sense in which Christ is present in the
Eucharist. Luther defended the real presence, writing This is my
body on the table in chalk and covering the words with a velvet
cloth.
1530 Pope Clement VII (1523-34) crowned Charles V Holy Roman
emperor in Bologna. This was the last time a pope would crown
an emperor.
1530 The Augsburg Confession, prepared by Philip Melanchthon
as an explanation of the Lutheran faith. Seven evangelical princes
and representatives of two free imperial cities presented the
confession to the emperor Charles V at the Diet of Augsburg.
(Charles hoped to arrange a compromise between the evangelicals
and the Catholics.) Melanchthons confession affirms Trinitarian
theology; the doctrine that all those who are not regenerate are
guilty of Adams sin; Christs deity, incarnation, crucifixion,
descent into hell, resurrection, and continuing intersession; and
justification by grace through faith, and not by works. Article X
states, It is taught among us that the true body and blood of
Christ are really present in the Supper of the Lord under the form
of bread and wine and are there distributed and received. Article
XXII insists that communion should be in both kinds (bread and
wine). The confession also affirmed the necessity and efficacy of
baptism and retained auricular confession. The Catholics replied
with a work known as the Confutation, and hope for compromise
slipped away.
1530 On December 8, a priest in Valencia, Spain, set off a riot when
he denied the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin
Mary during a sermon.
1530 Between this year and 1640, an estimated 1,000,000 European
Christians were enslaved by Islamic raiders from North Africa.
This number is roughly equivalent to the number of African slaves
transported westward across the Atlantic by European Christians
during the same period.
1530-33 Melchior Hoffman preached in Strassburg and the Low
Countries. He taught that Christs flesh had come directly from
heaven (having come through Mary but not partaking of her),
emphasized adult baptism, and predicted the coming of Christ in
1533, followed by the millennial reign of the saints. He was
imprisoned in Strassburg in 1533 and died there.
1531 The Virgin Mary reportedly appeared to an Aztec named
Juan Diego, about 5 miles north of Mexico City. As proof of her
desire to have a chapel built at the foot of Tepeyac Hill, she caused
an image of herself to appear on Diegos cape and told him to call
the image Santa Maria de Guadalupe.
1531 Zwingli died while acting as chaplain for Zurichs forces as
they fought against Catholics from the Swiss inner states (forest
cantons). Heinrich Bullinger replaced Zwingli as leader of the
church in Zurich. Bullinger went further than Zwingli in his
doctrine of the Eucharist, agreeing with Zwingli that it is a
memorial service, but adding that God does, in fact, work through
the Eucharist. Bullinger is noted for centering his discussion of
Christianity around the concept of Gods covenants with men, and
he interpreted baptism and the Eucharist as covenant seals.
1531 Establishment of the Schmalkaldic League, a defensive
alliance among Protestant states and cities within the German
empire. Members included Hesse, Saxony, Brunswick, Anhalt,
Mansfeld, Magdeburg, Bremen, Strassburg, and Ulm. The league
was formed in the wake of Diet of Augsburg, where Catholics had
shown themselves unwilling to work toward a compromise. The
league was destroyed in 1547 by the emperor Charles V.
1533 In March, the Act of Appeals was passed in England. This
act forbade appeals to the pope on spiritual matters (including
marriage). Matters relating to the king were to be decided by the
Upper House of Convocation. Thomas Cromwell, the author of
this legislation which enabled Henry VIII to obtain a divorce from
Catherine of Aragon, was shortly thereafter acknowledged as the
kings chief minister.
The Convocations of Canterbury and York declared: [t]he bishop
of Rome has not by Scripture any greater jurisdiction in this
kingdom of England than any other foreign prelate. In the same
year, both Convocations claimed that the pope had erred in
permitting Henry to marry Catherine, since she had consummated
her marriage to his brother Arthur. In May, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, declared the marriage null.
1534 Parliament passed several more more significant pieces of
legislation at Thomas Cromwells urging: (1) the Act in Restraint
of Annates, which forbade annates (the first years revenue from a
bishops benefice) to be sent to Rome and obligated cathedral
chapters to elect the kings choice to bishoprics; (2) the
Dispensations Act, which entirely halted the flow of money from
the church in England to Rome and entitled the Archbishop of
Canterbury to grant dispensations (exceptions to canon law); (3)
the Act for Submission of the Clergy, which forbade Convocation
to legislate except as the king permitted and entitled the king to
select a committee to oversee and veto all legislation Convocation
should pass; (4) the Succession Act, which made slandering
Henrys marriage to Anne treason, made the offspring of Henrys
marriage to Anne his rightful heirs, and required all adult subjects
to swear an oath to uphold the act; and (5) the Act of Supremacy,
which permitted Henry to correct preachers, oversee the proper
statement of doctrine, try heretics, and discipline the clergy.
1534 A Dutch Bible by Jacob van Liesveldt segregated the
apocryphal books. This is the first vernacular Bible to do so.
Luthers German Bible of the same year also segregated these
books, entitling them the Apocrypha for the first time.
1534/35 Affair of the Placards. In Paris, twenty-four Protestants
were burned alive between Nov 10, 1534, and May 5, 1535, in
reprisal for French Reformers placing posters in several French
cities in October reviling the mass as idolatry and slandering the
pope. Many French evangelical intellectuals (including John
Calvin) left the country.
1535 First complete English Bible printed Coverdales. His was
also the first English Bible to segregate the apocryphal books,
though he did place Baruch at the end of Jeremiah.
1535 Execution of Thomas More. More had refused to take the
oath required by the Succession Act (see 1534).
1535 In June, Catholic and evangelical forces of Franz von
Waldeck, bishop of Munster, entered that city after a years siege.
Radical Anabaptists under Jan Matthijszoon and, after his death,
Jan Beukels (John of Leiden), had taken control of Munster in
February 1534. The Anabaptists preached that the millennium was
imminent and that Munster was the New Jerusalem.
1535 During the siege of Munster, several members of Menno
Simons congregation were killed. Simons was a Catholic parish
priest, whose parish was in Witmarsum, but had been influenced
by the writings of Luther and Zwingli. In 1536 or 1537, Simons
was rebapized as an adult and became leader of an Anabaptist
group which rejected the use of arms. These
early Mennonites also believed that the Second Coming was
imminent, and they taught that Christs flesh did not come from
Mary, but had descended from heaven.
1535 The modern Sunday School began in Milan when the priest
Abbate Castellino de Castello began enticing boys to catechesis by
offering them apples. The work he started eventually resulted in
the formation of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine.
1535 Geneva declared itself independent of Savoy (see 1526) and
accepted the Reformation, as its ally Berne had done in 1528.
1536 The Pilgrimage of Grace. This uprising, led by Robert Aske,
was in part a protest against Henry VIIIs dissolution of the
monasteries. Aske and his followers took York and demanded
papal rule over the church and the calling of a new Parliament.
Thomas Howard, the third duke of Norfolk, by offering a pardon
persuaded Aske to send his forces home. Aske and about 250
others were executed shortly thereafter.
1536 First edition of Calvins Institutes. In time, Calvin became
the leader of the Reformed branch of Protestantism. Like the other
major Reformers (Luther, Zwingli, and Bullinger) he continued to
teach that Mary remained a virgin throughout her life.
On the Eucharist, Calvin wrote (Institutes, 4.17.5), There are some
who define the eating of the flesh of Christ, and the drinking of his
blood, to be, in one word, nothing more than believing in Christ
himself. According to them, to eat is merely to believe; while I
maintain that the flesh of Christ is eaten by believing, because it is
made ours by faith, and that that eating is the effect and fruit of
faith.

1536 William Tyndale, who had been imprisoned near Brussels at
Henry VIII's insistence, executed by strangling. His corpse was
burned at the stake.
1536 Jakob Hutter burned for heresy. During his lifetime,
Hutterite communities had been established in Moravia. Hutterite
children lived together in dormitories beginning at age 2. Adults
lived in dormitories also, regardless of their marital state.
1536 The First Helvetic Confession, written in Basel. This
Reformed confession was criticized for moving too far in Luthers
direction on the question of the Eucharist.
1536 Wittenberg Concord. Discussions between Philip
Melanchthon (Lutheran) and Martin Bucer (Reformed) led to an
agreed statement on the Eucharist. The statement failed to
promote harmony, because Swiss Protestants thought it conceded
too much to Luthers position.
1536-40 The dissolution of English monasteries.
1537 A Reform Commission, appointed by Pope Paul III (1534-49)
delivered its report, entitled Consilium de Emendenda Ecclesia. The
report blamed the churchs woes, including the Protestant
Reformation, on the papacy, the cardinals, and the hierarchy. The
curia tried to suppress the report, but a copy made its way to
Germany, where Luther published a German translation in 1538.
1537 Matthews Bible published. The work was edited by an
associate of William Tyndales, John Rogers. Matthews Bible was
influenced by Tyndales work, including Old Testament material
translated by Tyndale but not previously published.
1539 The Great Bible published, so called because of its size each
page measuring 13 by 7 1/2 inches.
1539 The Six Articles Act passed by the English Parliament at the
kings insistence. The act defended transubstantiation,
communion in one kind, clerical celibacy, vows of chastity, private
masses, and auricular confession.
1540 Thomas Cromwell put to death. His execution was due to
his arrangement of the marriage of Henry VIII to Anne of Cleves, a
German princess, in hope of establishing an alliance with German
Lutherans. Henry was unhappy with the marriage and, as the Six
Articles Act shows, not favorably disposed toward Lutheran
theology.
1540 Pope Paul III (1534-49) established the Jesuit order.
1541 John Calvin permanently established at Geneva.
1541 The Turkish army occupied Buda in Hungary.
1541 The Regensburg Colloquy. In January, Johann Gropper, a
theologian in the service of Hermann von Wied, archbishop of
Cologne, and Martin Bucer began discussions on the nature of
justification. Gropper prepared a statement on justification that
became known as the Regensberg Book, since it was prepared for
the Imperial Diet that would meet in Regensberg (Ratisbon) in
March. (Gropper agreed with the Protestants and Augustine that
man could do nothing to justify himself, and stated that human
merits and the sacraments would have to be augmented on
judgment day with the alien righteousness of Christ.) There was
hope that the Regensberg Book would form the basis for a reunion
of Catholics and evangelicals. However, disagreements over
transubstantiation and the necessity of auricular confession stood
in the way. In addition, since an agreement would strengthen the
Hapsburg emperor, there were political incentives to retaining the
status quo.
1542 In August, Cardinal Gasparo Contarini died under house
arrest. Contarini had been leader of the Catholics at the
Regensburg Colloquy. His willingness to compromise there was
not looked on favorably in Rome. Contarini was an associate of
the Catholic humanist Juan de Valdes, who emphasized the need
for Gods grace conveyed through the Holy Spirit. Those
influenced by Valdess interest in reforming the Church from
within became known as Spirituali. Among the Spirituali were
Bernardino Ochino, of the Franciscan reformed order, and
Piermartire Vermigli (known as Peter Martyr). As Contarini lay
dying, Ochino fled northward to Calvins Geneva. Peter Martyr
also left and joined Martin Bucer in Strassburg. Reginald Pole was
also associated with the Spirituali.
1542 Before he fled to Strassburg, Peter Martyr had supported a
movement in Tuscany that resembled incipient Protestantism
including evangelical preaching. Gian Pietro Carafa (the future
Pope Paul IV) convinced Pope Paul III (1534-49) to established the
Roman Inquisition to combat Protestantism. It was renamed the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith by Pope Paul VI in
1965. Most of this Inquisitions activities were in Italy.
1542 Clement Marot published his Trente Pseaulmes de David,
the first metrical psalter. (A partial edition had appeared in 1539.
When Calvin left Geneva in 1538, he ministered to the French
congregation in Strassburg, who were already singing Marots
version of the psalms.) Marot found later refuge in Calvins
Geneva, where the practice of singing the psalms was adopted.
Metrical psalters were also produced in German (1573) and
Hungarian (1607), as well as English.
1543 Hermann von Weid, the archbishop of Cologne, published
his Pia Consultatio, which condemned the mass, endorsed
justification by faith alone, objected to prayer to saints, and
adopted the Reformed numbering of the Ten Commandments
(which emphasized the injunction against graven images).
Archbishop von Weid eventually died a Protestant in 1552.
1544 Johann Gropper, who had worked for Archbishop von Weid
during the Regensberg Colloquy (1541), attacked the Pia
Consultatio in his Antididagma.
1544 The German emperor Charles V made peace with France,
allowing him to attack the Schmalkaldic League (see 1531).
1545 In December, the Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1545-
1563) was convened. Only 31 bishops were present intially, and
that number never rose above 270. Trent, in the Italian Alps, was
within the Holy Roman empire, and so acceptable to the Germans.
1545 Francis I, king of France (1515-47), allowed the Inquisition to
persecute the Waldensees, followers of Peter Waldo (see 1184).
The Waldensees lived in roughly 30 villages in Provence. Three
thousand Waldensees were killed and a further 700 of the men
were made galley slaves.
1546 On 1 March, George Wishart was burned at St. Andrews,
Scotland. Wishart had been a schoolmaster at Montrose, where he
had been charged with heresy for teaching the New Testament in
Greek (1538). He had also translated the First Helvetic Confession
of 1536 into Scots. Having gone to England and taught at
Cambridge, Wishart returned to Scotland at the request of Henry
VIII to arrange a marriage between Henrys son Edward and the
infant Mary, Queen of Scots. Wishart was executed at the urging
of Cardinal David Beaton for preaching the doctrines of the
Reformation. Cardinal Beaton was subsequently murdered. John
Knox became associated with the murderers, and preached to
them at St. Andrews Castle. In 1548, Knox was captured by the
French, and spent 19 months as a galley slave.
1546 Fourteen Lutherans were burned to death at Meaux, France.
The tongues of eight of them had been torn out before the
execution.
1546 The German emperor Charles V stepped up persecution of
Protestants in the Low Countries. Many printers fled to England,
where they were in a position to spread evangelicalism when
Edward VI ascended to the throne in 1547.
1546 In the 4th session, the Council of Trent defined: It has
thought it proper, moreover, to insert in this decree a list of the
sacred books, lest a doubt might arise in the mind of some one as
to which are the books received by this council. They are the
following: of the Old Testament, the five books of Moses, namely,
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Josue,
Judges, Ruth, the four books of Kings, two of Paralipomenon, the
first and second of Esdras, the latter of which is called Nehemias,
Tobias, Judith, Esther, Job, the Davidic Psalter of 150 Psalms,
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Canticle of Canticles, Wisdom,
Ecclesiasticus, Isaias, Jeremias, with Baruch, Ezechiel, Daniel, the
twelve minor Prophets, namely, Osee, Joel, Amos, Abdias, Jonas,
Micheas, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonias, Aggeus, Zacharias,
Malachias; two books of Machabees, the first and second. Of the
New Testament, the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark,
Luke and John; the Acts of the Apostles written by Luke the
Evangelist; fourteen Epistles of Paul the Apostle, to the Romans,
two to the Corinthians, to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to the
Philippians, to the Colossians, two to the Thessalonians, two to
Timothy, to Titus, to Philemon, to the Hebrews; two of Peter the
Apostle, three of John the Apostle, one of James the Apostle, one of
Jude the Apostle, and the Apocalypse of John the Apostle. If
anyone does not accept as sacred and canonical the aforesaid
books in their entirety and with all their parts, as they have been
accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church and as they are
contained in the old Latin Vulgate Edition, and knowingly and
deliberately rejects the aforesaid traditions, let him be anathema.
In addition, as regards the Vulgate, it added the following:
Moreover, the same holy council considering that not a little
advantage will accrue to the Church of God if it be made known
which of all the Latin editions of the sacred books now in
circulation is to be regarded as authentic, ordains and declares that
the old Latin Vulgate Edition, which, in use for so many hundred
years, has been approved by the Church, be in public lectures,
disputations, sermons and expositions held as authentic, and
that no one dare or presume under any pretext whatsoever to
reject it. Yet, this authenticity did not prevent the Roman
Catholic Church from declaring a new edition of the Vulgate as
typical (see 1979).
The council was undecided about the propriety of translations of
the Bible into the vernacular. It appointed an Index Commission
to make a recommendation to the pope on this matter. See 1564.
1546 In about this year Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of
Canterbuty, abandoned the doctrine of the Real Presence in the
Eucharist. He was influenced by Nicholas Ridley, bishop of
London from 1550, who had read Ratramnus De Corpore et
Sanguine Domini. (See 868, 1050, 1059.)
1546 Death of Martin Luther.
1547 In the fifth session, the Council of Trent stated, Justification
... is not merely remission of sins, but also sanctification and
renewal of the inward man.
Canon XI of the same session reads, If anyone says that men are
justified either by the sole imputation of the justice of Christ or by
the sole remission of sins, to the exclusion of the grace and the
charity which is poured forth in their hearts by the Holy Ghost and
is inherent in them; or even that grace whereby we are justified is
only the favor of God: let him be anathema.
Canon XIII: If anyone says that it is necessary for everyone, in
order to obtain the remission of sins, that he believe for certain and
without wavering ... that his sins are forgiven him: let him be
anathema. Cardinal Reginald Pole found Trents discussion of
justification so distressing that he had to leave the council.
1547 Edward VI (1547-53) king of England. He was the son of
Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. As Edward was only nine years
old, the government was overseen by guardians, first Somerset,
then Northumberland.
1547 In November, the English Parliament decreed that the
Eucharist be administered with both bread and wine (in both
kinds).
1547 With the German emperors victories over the Schmalkaldic
League, Strassburg was forced to allow some parishes to return to
Catholicism. Peter Martyr left the city and moved to England,
where he became a professor at Oxford.
1548 In England, the Privy Council outlawed candles at
Candlemas, ashes on Ash Wednesday, palms on Palm Sunday,
repeatedly bowing before the cross on Good Friday, and the use of
holy water. The Council also outlawed the presence of any images
in churches.
1548 The Interim. With the Schmalkaldic League destroyed, the
German emperor Charles V imposed a religious solution on the
empire. Known as the interim, it endorsed Catholic theology and
worship, but permitted married clergy and communion in both
kinds.
1549 In February a bill was passed which legalized clerical
marriage in England.
1549 The First English Book of Common Prayer introduced. It
was opposed by the Reformers because it retained too much from
the older forms. In fact, it was reportedly used at St. Pauls in 1550
as the very Mass. The canon included a prayer for the dead and
thanked God for the wonderful grace and virtue declared
chiefly in the glorious and most blessed Virgin Mary, mother of
Thy Son Jesu Christ our Lord and God. The 1549 canon also
included an explicit invocation of the Holy Spirit (absent from the
earlier usage) before the words of institution. Perhaps most
significantly, in the the Book of Common Prayer the liturgy was
now in English instead of Latin. The Catholic-minded
conservatives would have preferred to retain the former services.
1549 Jews were officially recognized as a fifth estate in Poland.
King Sigismund II Augustus (1548-72) encouraged Jewish
immigration.
1549 Martin Bucer left Strassburg for England, where he became a
professor at Cambridge.
1549 Consensus Tigurinus (Zurich Agreement). Calvin and
Bullinger met in May of this year and agreed to this joint statement
on baptism and the Eucharist. The Consensus was instrumental in
the identification of Reformed Christians as a distinct and coherent
group.
1549 Francis Xavier, one of the first seven Jesuits, arrived in Japan.
By the time he left in 1551, there were approximately 2000
Christian converts in Japan.
1550 In England, stone altars were replaced with wooden tables
oriented east-west, the priest standing on the north side. The
change was initiated by Nicholas Ridley, bishop of London, in
June. In November, the Privy Council ordered all bishops to
follow Ridleys example.
1550 A radical group met for forty days in Venice and determined
that Jesus is not God. Pietro Manelfi, one of the leaders, later
turned himself over to the Roman Inquisition.
1550 Pope Paul III had died on November 10, 1549. Paul III had
recommended Cardinal Pole be his successor, and Pole had the
support of the German emperor Charles V. Pole came within one
vote of being elected, but eventually lost to Julius III (1550-55).
1550 The English set up a special church for refugees from the
continent, the Stranger Church, in London. Jan Laski, formerly
chief pastor in Emden (until the Interim), and a benefactor of
Erasmus, was appointed superintendent.
1550 The Polish Diet considered a proposal that the king,
Sigismund II Augustus, lead a national church. The Diet
demanded communion in both species, the end of mandatory
celibacy for priests, and services in the vernacular. Sigismund
forwarded these demands to the pope.
1551 In its thirteenth session, the Council of Trent decreed: [B]y
the consecration of the bread and of the wine, a conversion is made
of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body
of Christ our Lord, and of the whole substance of the wine into the
substance of his blood; which conversion is suitably and properly
called Transubstantiation by the holy Catholic Church.
1551 The elector Moritz of Saxony formed an alliance with Henry II
of France. The ensuing war against the Hapsburg emperor Charles
V effectively freed German evangelicals from the Interim (see 1548).
1551 Death of Martin Bucer.
1552 The Second English Book of Common Prayer published.
Peter Martyr and Martin Bucer may have influenced Cranmer to
make certain changes in the prayer book. In contrast to the first,
this second prayer book suggested that the presence of Christ in
communion was only in the hearts of the believers. The words
said as communion was distributed were changed from The Body
of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee preserve thy
body and soul unto everlasting life to Take and eat this in
remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy
heart by faith with thanksgiving. It also contained the Black
Rubric, that explained of the command to kneel at the reception of
communion, that it is not meant thereby that any adoration is
done, or ought to be done, either unto the sacramental bread or
wine there bodily received, or to any real and essential presence
there being of Christs natural flesh and blood. The recitation of
the Ten Commandments was first introduced in the 1552 book. A
rubric concerning vestments forbade the use of albs, vestments, or
copes, but indicated that a priest should wear a surplice, and a
bishop a rochet.
The 1552 canon deleted the prayer invoking the Holy Spirit, first
included in 1549. It moved the communion to a point immediately
following the words of institution (this is my body & etc.),
perhaps to minimize any lingering tendency to worship the host.
This order is still followed in the English Book of Common Prayer.
1552 Joachim Westphal, a Lutheran pastor in Hamburg, published
a pamphlet critical of the Consensus Tigurinus in which he referred
to Calvin as a cow and Bullinger as a bull.
1552 Treaty of Passau, resulting in peace between Moritz of Saxony
and the German (Holy Roman) empire. Passau formed the basis of
the Peace of Augsburg, 1555.
1552 Juan Gil, a cathedral preacher in Seville, Spain, was arrested
by the Inquisition. Gil had been reading Protestant writings and
was accused of fomenting dissent. He was forced to recant.
1552 The Council of Trent suspended. See 1562.
1553 Michael Servetus was burned at the stake in Geneva.
Servetus was a unitarian. John Calvins reputation as a leader
among the Reformed owes much to this event.
1553 The 42 articles of religion were published in England.
1554 Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of
Aragon, queen of England 1553-58, married Philip of Spain and
the persecution of Protestants began in England. Roughly three
hundred heretics were burned between Feb 4, 1555 and Nov 10,
1558. The 1552 prayer book was replaced with the old Latin
liturgical books.
1554 Many English Protestants fled to Emden in East Frisia, which
became a center for the printing of Protestant material.
1555 The English Parliament restored papal authority.
1555 Upon Marys ascendancy to the throne, approximately 800
English Protestants fled to the continent. Initially they formed
communities at Frankfurt, Emden, Wesel, Strassburg and Zurich,
and later settled in Basel, Geneva and Aarau. Much Protestant
propaganda made its way from Emden into England. The
community in Geneva was founded after a conflict in Frankfurt
over use of the 1552 Prayer Book. Moderate reformers under
Richard Cox were opposed by a group that wished for further
purification, led by John Knox. Knox and many of his followers
were expelled from Frankfurt by the city authorities when the
latter learned (from one of Cox associates) that Knox had vilified
Mary Tudor and the emperor Charles V. Knox and several others
then settled in Geneva, where a team headed by William
Whittingham and Antony Gilby later produced the Geneva Bible
(see 1560).
1555 Peace of Augsburg. After warring unsuccessfully against the
German Protestants since 1546, Charles V agreed to allow each
prince to determine the religion of his state. Protestants, however,
were to conform to the 1530 Augsburg Confession, which afforded
no freedom for the Reformed. In addition, the Peace stipulated
that bishops and prelates who converted to Protestantism would
lose their imperial lands and office.
1555 Gian Pietro Carafa, instigator of the Roman Inquisition, was
elected Pope Paul IV (1555-59). Wishing to drive the Spanish out
of Naples, Paul formed an alliance with France against Spain.
Spanish victories in 1557 forced him to make peace. Paul
denounced the Peace of Augsburg. Assuming the Jews were
fomenting Protestantism, Paul established a ghetto for Jews in
Rome and forced them to wear yellow hats as a distinctive Jewish
badge.
1555 Michel de Notredame or Nostredame (Nostradamus), a
French physician and astrologer, published
his Centuries. The Centuries consists of prophecies in the form of
rhymed quatrains collected into sets of 100.
1555/56 John Knox permitted to preach in Scotland.
1556 At a meeting of non-Lutheran Protestants at Secemin, Poland,
in January, a certain Peter Gonesius promoted pacifism, denied the
doctrine of the Trinity, and attacked infant baptism.
1556 The Hapsburg emperor Charles V went into retirement.
Philip II became king of Spain and prince of the Netherlands. He
reigned until 1598. Charless brother Ferdinand took control of the
German (Holy Roman) Empire.
1556 In March, Thomas Cranmer, formerly Archbishop of
Canterbury, was burned at the stake. He had signed six
recantations of his Protestant views but, when given a pulpit at
University Church in Oxford, withdrew his recantations. On the
stake, he reportedly stretched his right hand, with which he had
signed the recantations, into the flames.
1556 In Strassburg the English exile John Ponet, formerly bishop of
Winchester, published a book entitled Short Treatise of Political
Power in which he endorsed tyrranicide. This book would be
reprinted in 1639 and again in 1642, seven years before Charles I
was beheaded.
1557 In April, Pope Paul IV (1555-59) removed Cardinal Reginald
Pole from his office as papal legate. In June, after England
declared war on France (the popes ally in his war with Spain),
Paul charged Pole with heresy and summoned him to Rome, but
the queen refused to permit Pole to travel. Pole had been
associated with the Spirituali (see 1542). (The war with France
resulted in Englands loss of Calais.)
1557 The Spanish defeated the French at St. Quentin.
1557 In December, some Scottish nobles signed a Covenant to
oppose Popery. This was the first of several such covenants (see
1638).
1558 In November, Queen Mary Tudor and Cardinal Reginald Pole
died on the same day, the queen of stomach cancer, and the
cardinal of influenza.
1558 Elizabeth I (1558-1603) queen of England. She was the
daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.
1559 The English Parliament passed (1) an act of uniformity, which
required the use of a modified form of the second Prayer Book
(Cranmers book of 1552) and (2) an act of supremacy, making
Elizabeth head of the church. Among other changes, the modified
Prayer Book allowed priests and bishops their vestments and
deleted the explanation concerning kneeling. It also combined
the words of institution from 1549 with those of 1552.
1559 The Sacred Congregation of the Roman Inquisition (later
known as the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith) issued
the first catalog of forbidden books - the Index Librorum
Prohibitorum, the Index of Forbidden Books. The last edition of
the Index was published in 1948, and it was finally suppressed in
1966. (See also 496 above.) Under the title Biblia
prohibita (prohibited Bibles), the Index forebade some Latin
editions and the publication and possession of translations of the
Bible into German, French, Spanish, Italian, English, or Dutch,
without the permission of the Roman Inquisition. All the works
of Erasmus were banned also. The Jesuits found this
disconcerting, since they used Erasmuss grammars in their
schools.
1559 The Spanish Inquisition produced its own Index of Forbidden
Books. Among the prohibited works was Ignatius
Loyolas Spiritual Exercises. All Spanish language books printed
outside Spain were banned. The Inquisition also ordered the
return of all Spanish students studying abroad, as well as all
teachers.
1559 The Spanish Inquisition arrested Bartolome Carranza,
archbishop of Toledo. Since Carranza had been battling
Protestantism in England under Mary Tudor, where he wrote a
catechism that formed the basis of the 1566 catechism of Trent, the
Inquisition found Protestant writings in his possession. Carranza
was also known to be a friend of Cardinal Reginald Pole (see 1557)
and so associated with the humanism of the Spirituali. Carranza
spent 17 years in prison.
1559 John Foxes Book of Martyrs first published, in Latin. The first
English printing was in 1563.
1559 A peace treaty was signed at Cateau-Cambresis to end the
war between France and Spain. In the celebratory jousting that
followed, King Henry II of France sustained a mortal wound to the
face. He died two weeks later. His wife, Catherine de Medici,
assumed the regency for her son King Francois, the heir to the
throne.
1559 Publication of the French (or Gallican) Confession, a
statement of faith by French Huguenots. It was based on a draft
prepared by John Calvin.
1559 The Palatine elector Frederich III rejected the Lutheran brand
of Protestantism in favor of the Reformed.
1560 Death of Philip Melanchthon.
1560 The Geneva Bible published. William Whittingham (1524?-
79 see 1555) is thought to have been the principal translator,
assisted by Anthony Gilby and Thomas Sampson. This was the
Bible of the Pilgrims, and remained the most popular English
translation until about the middle of the next century. In this
Bible, the text was divided into verses for the first time. In the 1560
edition, the books of the Apocrypha are included in a section
between the two Testaments.
The Geneva Bible is dedicated to the most noble and virtuous
Queen Elizabeth and the dedication provides advice on the
building of the Lords Temple, the house of God, the Church of
Christ, whereof the Son of God is the head and perfection. Just as
when Zerubbabel rebuilt the Temple, enemies opposed him, so it is
now. The current enemies include Papists, worldlings, and
ambitious prelates. But the authors urge the queen to follow the
example of Josiah, who destroyed, not only with utter confusion
the idols with their appurtenances, but also burnt (in sign of
detestation) the idolatrous priests bones upon their altars, and put
to death the false prophets and sorcers, to perform the words of
the Law of God: and therefore the Lord gave him good success
and blessed him wonderfully, so long as he made Gods word his
line and rule to follow, and enterprised nothing before he had
inquired at the mouth of the Lord. And how should the Queen so
inquire? And forasmuch as he hath established and left an order
in his Church for the building up of his body, appointing some to
be Apostles, some Prophets, others Evangelists, some pastors, and
teachers, he signifieth that every one according as he is placed in
this body which is the Church, ought to inquire of his ministers
concerning the will of the Lord, which is revealed inhis word.
The Geneva Bible appears to rely on a slightly different Greek
source text from that used by the Authorized Version. For
instance, in Revelation 16.5, the Geneva Bible reads, And I heard
the angel of the waters say, Lord, thou art just, which art, and
which wast, and holy, because thou hast judged these things. The
Authorized version has, And I heard the angel of the waters say,
Thou art righteous, O Lord, which art, and wast, and shalt be,
because thou hast judged thus. Again, in Acts 8.13, the Geneva
Bible reads, Then Simon himself believed also, and was baptized,
and continued with Philip, and wondered, when he saw the signs
and great miracles which were done. The Authorized Version
reads, Then Simon himself believed also: and when he was
baptized, he continued with Philip, and wondered, beholding the
miracles and signs which were done. In Luke 10.22, the Geneva
Bible reads, Then he turned to his disciples, and said, All things
are given me of my Father; and no man knoweth who the Son is,
but the Father: neither who the Father is, save the Son, and he to
whom the Son will reveal him. The Authorized Version reads,
All things are delivered to me of my Father: and no man knoweth
who the Son is, but the Father; and who the Father is, but the Son,
and he to whom the Son will reveal him; omitting Then he
turned to his disciples, and said. The Geneva Bible omits Luke
17.36, which, in the Authorized Version, reads, Two men shall be
in the field; the one shall be taken, and the other left; placing the
text in a marginal note.
Calvin had taught that Mary remained a virgin throughout her
life. Consistent with this position, the Geneva Bible, in a note on
Matthew 12.46 (which speaks of Jesuss brethren), states, This
worde [brethren] in the Scriptures signifieth ofttimes every
kinsman.
1560 On July 6, the Treaty of Leith or Edinburgh was signed. The
Scottish Protestants had allied themselves with the English and
forced French troops to exit Scotland. During the siege of Leith,
the Queen Mother (mother of Mary, Queen of Scots, who was in
France) had died. The Treaty of Leith set up a provisional
government. In August, the Scottish Parliament adopted a
confession of faith authored by John Knox and three others,
abolished the authority of the pope, reduced the number of
Sacraments to two, and authorized the death penalty for anyone
convicted three times of celebrating the Mass.
1561-72 During this period in France, Protestants were massacred
on 18 occasions, and Catholics five times.
1561 Mary, Queen of Scots, returned to Scotland from France. John
Knox managed to meet with the queen several times, but their
discussions were fruitless. Mary remained firmly Catholic.
1561 English Roman Catholics set up a college at Douai (moved to
Reims in 1571) from which they sent missionaries into England.
1561 Jakob Heraklides, an apostate from Orthodoxy who had
been a mercenary in Western Europe, became ruler of Moldavia.
He introduced a Reformed Protestantism into the country. He
seized crosses and the metal frames of icons from Orthodox
churches. Heraklides had the precious metal melted into coins
with his image stamped onto them. The Orthodox were reminded
of the iconoclast emperors who had destroyed sacred images but
put their own images on currency. When Heraklides married a
Pole rather than a Moldavian and his army dissipated, he was
murdered.
1561 Colloquy at Poissy. Catherine de Medici, regent of France,
realizing that Protestantism in France had taken firm root,
summoned Protestant leaders to attend a discussion at Poissy.
Theodore de Beza came from Geneva and Peter Martyr from
Zurich. Charles de Guise, cardinal of Lorraine, unsuccessfully
sought to reach agreement on a middle way based on the
Augsburg Confession.
1561 Publication of the Belgic Confession. Revised in 1566, and
again at the Synod of Dort in 1619, the Belgic Confession became
the creed of Reformed Dutch churches.
1562 The Massacre of Vassy. The first French religious war (1562-
63) began when the Duke of Guise and his men were disturbed
during mass in Vassy by the psalm singing of Huguenots in a barn
nearby. Guise killed 23 of them. By this year, there were an
estimated 2000 Huguenot (Calvinist) churches in France with two
million members. Protestantism had gained ground in France
rapidly through the 1550s. The Jesuits moved into France in force
at about this time.
1562 Concerned that Catholic monarchs were seeking to reconcile
with the Protestants (see Poissy, 1561), Pope Pius IV (1559-65)
summoned the Council of Trent for its final meeting. It opened in
January 1562 and closed in December 1563, with a ceremony at
which the councils decrees were signed. It became clear to
Charles de Guise, cardinal of Lorraine, who had been instrumental
in the Colloquy at Poissy, that reconciliation with Protestantism
was impossible after the decrees of Trent had been ratified. He
turned away from his former program of supporting communion
in both kinds and vernacular worship and began urging that
France implement the decrees of Trent.
The council forbade the sale of indulgences.
In its twenty-second session, the Council of Trent decreed: [I]n
this divine sacrifice which is celebrated in the mass, that same
Christ is contained and immolated in an unbloody manner who
once offered himself in a bloody manner on the altar of the cross ...
[T]his sacrifice is truly propitiatory, and that by means thereof this
is effected: that we obtain mercy and find grace in seasonable aid,
if we draw nigh unto God, contrite and penitent ...
1562 Theodore de Beza published a metrical Psalter in French.
1563 Russian troops under Ivan the Terrible slaughtered the Jewish
and Protestant inhabitants of Polotsk (Belarus). Both groups
rejected the use of religious icons.
1563 Elizabeth I, queen of England, proclaimed the 39 articles of
religion. These were the 42 articles of 1553 as edited by Matthew
Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury.
1563 John of the Cross (1542-91) became a Carmelite monk at
Medina del Campo in Spain. He wrote mystical poetry, describing
the union of the soul with Christ. Among his works are The Dark
Night of the Soul and Ascent of Mount Carmel.
1563 The Heidelburg Catechism, written the previous year as an
attempt to reconcile Lutheran and Calvinist positions, was
accepted at a synod of the church in the Palatinate (see 1559,
Frederich III). Zacharias Ursinus led the group that developed the
catechism.
1563 Johann Wyver, physician to the duke of Cleves-Jurich,
published his De Praestigiis Daemonum, in which criticized the
persecution of witches. As a consequence, Bremen ceased witch
trials.
1564 Maximilian II succeeded Ferdinand as Holy Roman emperor.
1564 The Creed of the Council of Trent approved. It confessed
acceptance of tradition, and obligated the faithful to understand
scripture according to the meaning which has been held by holy
Mother Church and which she now holds. The seven sacraments
are endorsed, and the mass is held to be a propitiatory sacrifice in
which the bread and wine are transubstantiated into the body and
blood, with the whole and entire Christ ... received under each
species. Belief in purgatory is mandated, as is veneration of the
saints, their relics and images. The power of indulgences within
the Church is affirmed, and obedience to the Roman Pontiff is
sworn. Finally, a general affirmation of all the doctrines of the
church is made, all heresies are rejected, and the infallible
teaching authority of the Roman Pontiff is acknowledged.
1564 Pope Pius IV (1559-65) published rules developed by the
Index Commission of the Council of Trent (see 1546 above)
regarding the reading of Scripture in the vernacular. The fourth
rule read, Inasmuch as it is manifest from experience that if the
Holy Bible, translated into the vulgar tongue, be indiscriminately
allowed to everyone, the temerity of men will cause more evil than
good to arise from it, it is, on this point, referred to the judgment of
the bishops or inquisitors, who may, by the advice of the priest or
confessor, permit the reading of the Bible translated into the
vulgar tongue by Catholic authors, to those persons whose faith
and piety they apprehend will be augmented and not injured by
it; and this permission must be had in writing. But if any shall
have the presumption to read or possess it without such
permission, he shall not receive absolution until he have first
delivered up such Bible to the ordinary. This freedom of bishops
or inquisitors to give this permission was withdrawn by Pope
Clement VIII in 1596.
1564 The Jesuits founded a Polish college at Braunsberg on the
Baltic coast (between Danzig and Konigsberg).
1564 From about this year the term Puritan began to be used of
those who wished to take the Reformation in England in the
direction of the Reformed churches on the continent.
1565 Ferenc David, superintendent of the Reformed church in
Transylvania, publicly expressed doubt about the doctrine of the
Trinity.
1566 Second Helvetic Confession.
1566 Publication of the Catechism of the Council of Trent. This work
was based on a catechism that Bartolome Carranza had prepared
for Reginald Poe during Mary Tudors reign in England. See 1559.
Since the Spanish Inquisition considered Carranza a heretic, it
prohibited the Tridentine catechism from entering Spain.
1567 A professor at Louvain named Michael Baius accused the
Jesuits of Pelagianism. Baius took an Augustinian, pessimistic
view of human nature, as Jansen was to do later. Baiuss teachings
were condemned by Pius V (1566-72).
1567/68 The second French religious war. Fearing Catholic
aggression, the Huguenots attempted unsuccessfully to capture the
king (Charles IX, 1560-74) and his mother. But the Huguenots did
manage to seize the cities of Orleans and La Rochelle.
1567 Eighty Catholics massacred by Huguenots at Nimes, France.
1567 On 24 July, Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate,
given the suspicious circumstances of her husband Darnleys death
and her sudden marriage to a man (Bothwell) suspected of his
murder. Mary was replaced by her son James VI, who was
coronated at Stirling on 29 July. John Knox preached the
coronation sermon, signaling the success of Protestantism in
Scotland.
1567 Publication in Heidelburg of Sanctae Inquisitionis hispanicae
artes detectae ac palam traductae, an account of the Spanish
Inquisition. The book helped generate the legend of the Spanish
Inquisitions sadistic cruelty.
1568 The Transylvanian Diet affirmed the legal status of Catholic,
Reformed, Lutheran, and even anti-Trinitarian religious groups
(see 1565, Ferenc David). The Diet asserted that ministers should
everywhere preach and proclaim according to their
understanding.
1568 The Bishops Bible published in England. It was read publicly
in the churches, though the Geneva Bible was more popular for
private reading.
1568 Holland rose in revolt against Spain. This was the beginning
of the Eighty Years War (1568-1648). Germany, England, and
French Huguenots assisted the Dutch. The war was precipitated
by Philip IIs introduction in 1559 of eleven new bishoprics. At
Philips urging, the holders of these sees were determined to root
out heresy, and they unleashed the Inquisition on the Low
Countries. The persecution set up a backlash: in 1566 Protestant
mobs wrecked churches in a number of cities, destroying statues,
crucifixes, missals, and organs. In 1567, Philips regent, Fernando
Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva, entered the territory with an
army of ten thousand men (and two thousand prostitutes). He
cracked down on the Protestants severely, forbidding emigration
and arresting city officials who failed tolerated Protestants.
Hundreds were imprisoned and executed. William of
Orange seized the opportunity to wage a war of independence.
1568 A controversy arose at Heidelburg University over Thomas
Erastuss view that the secular authority, not the church, has the
right to excommunicate sinners whenever the citizens of profess a
single faith. Erastuss view has given rise to the term
Erastianism, which now refers to state domination of the church.
1568 Pope Pius V (1566-72) forbade bullfighting. He characterized
it as sinful and prohibited anyone killed in a bullfight from
Christian burial. Spain refused to promulgate the pope's decree.
1568 Pope Pius V (1566-72) added several new condemnations to
the bull Coena Domini (a yearly listing of crimes against the
church). Anyone who appealed from the pope to a general council
was to be condemned; as were rulers who banished cardinals,
bishops, nuncios, or legates; and any secular court or private
person who initiated legal proceedings against a cleric. Spain and
Austria prohibited the bull from being promulgated. In Naples,
the Viceroy collected and destroyed all copies of the bull. Venice
prevented its publication on Venetian territory.
1568-70 The third French religious war. It ended when Charled IX
signed a peace treaty with the Huguenots, who were advancing on
Paris.
1569 Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) had St. Philip, Metropolitan of
Moscow, strangled to death in prison for opposing his cruel
methods. (An alternate account states that Philip was burned
alive.) Philip had refused to bless Ivan at a liturgy in Moscow in
1568. He was canonized in 1652.
1569 The Union of Lublin. Lithuania united to Poland.
1569 In a bull published this year, Pope Pius V (1566-72) gave the
first official instructions regarding the Rosary (popular in northern
Europe since the fifteenth century). The Jesuits had begun
promoting the Rosary in the 1560s, and the Rosary had recently
been introduced into the Roman Breviary.
1569 Arians (anti-Trinitarians) in Poland opened the Academy of
Rakow, an institution of higher learning which also published
Arian literature. See 1609.
1570s During this decade the Roman Inquisition triumphed over
Protestantism in Italy, forcing it into hiding in remote valleys in
the Alps.
1570 Beginning in about this year, pipe organs were removed from
churches in England or allowed to fall into disrepair. Organs were
no longer used in Scotland or in Zurich.
1570 The Turks invaded and conquered Cyprus. The bulk of the
population were Orthodox peasants enslaved by a Frankish ruling
class. The Turks restored the privileges and property of the
Orthodox church, at the expense of the Latin Catholics. They also
transported Moslem immigrants from Anatolia to work
uninhabited land.
1570 Pope Pius V (1566-72) excommunicated Elizabeth I of
England. His bull was entitled The Damnation and
Excommunication of Elizabeth. It also deposed her and absolved
her subjects from their oaths of allegiance to her.
1570 Thomas Cartwright, Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity at
Cambridge University, was dismissed for advocating a
Presbyterian form of church government.
1571 At the naval battle of Lepanto, a Venetian and Spanish fleet
defeated the Turks. This was largely revenge for the loss of
Cyprus. The victory was celebrated throughout western Europe
and signaled the end of the myth of Turkish invincibility.
(Incidentally, Cervantes fought in this battle.)
1571 Tatars sacked and burned Moscow.
1571 In response to the papal deposition of its sovereign, Englands
Parliament passed legislation against Catholic practice. All priests
not ordained according to the prayer book were required to
subscribe to the 39 Articles of Religion.
1572 On January 12, a Scottish General Assembly re-introduced
Episcopacy (Prelacy) into Scotland. The fight against Prelacy was
led by Andrew Melville.
1572/3 Major cities in Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland and Orange
came out openly in support of William of Orange. A group known
as the Beggars of the Sea, in league with William, seized 18 ships
and took command of the Netherlands coast. The brutality of
Alvas Spanish troops strengthened the resolve of the Dutch
rebels. From this time the northern Low Countries were effectively
independent of Philip II and Spain.
1572 Huguenots assembled in Paris were slaughtered the of St.
Bartholomews Day Massacre. Charles IX was under the
influence of Coligny, a leader of the Protestants, who urged him to
support the Dutch war against Spain in hopes of acquiring
Flanders for France. The queen mother, Catherine, convinced her
son that the Protestants were about to kidnap him. Charles
ordered the Huguenots killed. About 2000 were murdered in
Paris, and a further 5000 in the provinces. Upon hearing of the
massacre, Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) ordered a special medal to
be produced to order the Ugonotorum strages, or defeat of the
Protestants. He also commissioned a painting of the massacre with
the title Pontifex Colignii necem probat, The pope approves the
killing of Coligny.
1572 Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) established the Gregorian
University.
1573 A delegation of Lutheran scholars from Tubingen visited
Constantinople. They provided Patriarch Jeremias II a Greek
translation of the Augsburg Confession. One of the Lutheran
leaders, Martin Crusius, wrote, If they wish to take thought for
the eternal salvation of their souls, they must join us and embrace
our teaching, or else perish eternally! Jeremias provided an
Orthodox critique of the Augsburg Confession in 1576.
1573 In Poland the Compact (or Confederation) of
Warsaw provided for religious liberty. Nevertheless, the Polish
king began discriminatory policies during the late 1580s during the
reign of Sigismond III (see 1587).
1573 Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) established a German college (the
Germanicum) in Rome as part of a long-term strategy to train
clergy who would become canons in German cathedrals and thus
influence the selection of bishops.
1575 Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) declared this a Jubilee Year. See
1300, 1450.
1576 Spanish mutineers in the war against the Dutch sacked
Antwerp, killing 7000 citizens and setting a thousand buildings on
fire.
1576 Rudolf II succeeded Maximilian II as Holy Roman emperor.
1576-80 During this period, a Dominican named Bartolome de
Medina taught theology at the University of Salamanca. He
formulated the casuistic theory of probabilism, according to
which absolution was to be offered to those who had acted
contrary to the opinion of most authorities if they had followed the
opinion of at least one doctor of the Church. This theory was
employed by the Jesuits and criticized for encouraging moral
laxity. (Medina is also the inventor of the patio process for
extracting silver from ore.)
1577 The College of St. Athanasius was opened in Rome to train
missionaries to convert the Eastern Orthodox. Most of the
students came from Catholic families living on islands ruled by
Italians: Corfu, Crete, Cyprus, and Chios.
1577 The Formula of Concord written by Jakob Andrea and
Martin Chemnitz. The Formula, an interpretation of the Augsburg
Confession, was an attempt to reconcile the various branches of
Lutheranism. Three years later, the Formula was included in the
Book of Concord, a collection of Lutheran doctrinal standards.
1578 Faustus Socinus finished his De Jesu Christo servatore, in which
he opposed he contradicted the view that Christ paid the penalty
man owed God for sin. This work was not published until
1594. Already in 1562 Socinus had argued that the first chapter of
Johns gospel means that Christ held a divine office, not that he
was divine by nature. In 1578/79, Socinus visited Transylvania
and attempted to convince Ferenc David (see 1565) that Christ
could be worshipped even if he is not divine (David did not
agree). Socinuss anti-Trinitarianism came to be
termed Socinianism.
1578 In a sermon given in Cambridge, Dr. Laurence Chaderton, a
Puritan, described the Church of England as a huge mass of old
and stinking works , of conjuring, witchcraft, sorcery, charming,
blaspheming the holy name of God, swearing and forswearing,
profaning of the Lords Sabbath, disobedience to superiors,
contempt of inferiors; murder, manslaughter,
1579 In France the anonymous work Vindiciae contro tyrannos (A
Vindication against Tyrants) was published. It argued that a king, if
he were a tyrant and failed to uphold the natural law, could be
deposed by magistrates or by a body such as States-General.
1579 Alessandro Farnesse, Duke of Parma, sacked Maastricht.
Four hundred people survived out of a population of 30,000.
1579 In Munich, Archduke Ferdinand of Tyrol and Archduke Karl
of Inner Austria met with Wilhelm V, son of the Duke of Bavaria.
They agreed to suppress Protestantism not through force of arms
but by removing their legal and political privileges, and by
favoring and promoting Catholics.
1579 Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) transformed the English pilgrim
hospice in Rome into a seminary for training missionaries to
England.
1580-82 Though completed around the turn of the century, the
complete Slavonic Bible (known as the Ostrozhsky or Ostrong
Bible because it was published at the Ostrozhskii princes' printing
house) was printed. See 1490 above.
1580/81 General Assemblies in Scotland condemned the Scottish
Episcopacy. James VI signed the Negative Confession, which
abjured Popery.
1581 Edmund Campion executed at Tyburn (now Marble Arch,
Hyde Park). A Jesuit missionary, Campion authored Decem
rationes, a pamphlet opposing the Anglican Church. In England,
78 Catholic priests and 25 laypersons were executed for their
religion in the decade ending with 1590.
1582 Gregorian Calendar. On 24 February, Pope Gregory XIII
(1572-85) revised the calendar to keep the calendar in sync with the
seasons. Oct 5, 1582 became Oct 15. The beginning of the year was
moved from 25 March to 1 January. The revised calendar was not
adopted in England until 1752.
1582 In November, a synod meeting in Constantinople rejected the
Gregorian calendar reform, particularly as it was introduced on
papal authority alone. The pope had sent Livio Cellini to
Constantinople in May to discuss the reform with Jeremias II
Tranos, patriarch of Constantinople. Initially, the patriarch had
been receptive. But when it became known that the reform had
been instituted unilaterally the previous February, calendar reform
was doomed in the East.
1582 The archbishop of Cologne, Gebhard Truchsess von
Waldburg, announced that he had become a Protestant, that he
was married, and that he had no intention of stepping down as
archbishop. Forces under Duke Wilhelm of Bavaria, augmented
by troops from the Hapsburg Low Countries, removed the
archbishop.
1582 Publication of the Rheims New Testament. The full Bible
was complete in 1609. The preface to this Catholic New Testament
stated that the purpose of the translation was to provide Catholic
priests a weapon to use against Protestant arguments. The
intention was not to supply laymen with the Scriptures.
1584 William of Orange assassinated.
1584 Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) founded the Maronite College in
Rome. It was during this century that the Maronites (see 684), who
had been Monothelites in the centuries immediately following the
sixth ecumenical council, entered into communion with Rome.
[This last sentence is contradicted by the traditions of the
Maronites themselves, who hold they have always been orthodox
Christians in union with the Roman see - Britannica.]
1584 Death of Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. Borromeo
had been instrumental in the publication of the catechism of Trent
in 1566. He also introduced and promoted the confessional (a
wooden chamber with two compartments separated by a latticed
screen).
1585 Publication of Dudley Fenners Sacra Theologia, a work on
covenant theology.
1586 Publication of William Perkins Treatise Tending unto a
Declaration whether a man be in the estate of Damnation or in the estate
of Grace and if he be in the first, how he may in time come out of it; if in
the second, how he may discern it, and persevere in the same to the end.
A central problem for the Puritans was the determination of
whether they might have only a temporary faith, only seeming to
be among the elect, while actually being among the damned. This
question led the Puritans to keep journals in which they recorded
the examination of their own inner lives.
1587 On 8 Feb, Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded. Mary had
escaped from Scotland to England in 1568, where she was held in
confinement. She had been implicated in a plan for a Spanish
invasion of England (the Throckmorton plot, 1582) and the
Babington plot (1586) to murder Elizabeth.
1587 The third printed edition of the Septuagint was published
under the sponsorship of Pope Sixtus V (1585-90). Known as
the Sixtine Septuagint, the text relies heavily on Codex Vaticanus
(B). Valpys edition of 1819 is based on the Sixtine; Brenton, in
turn, based his text (1851) on Valpys.
1587 Sigismund III of Sweden became king of Poland. His
overturned the policy of his predecessor, King Stephen Bathory,
and prevented Orthodox and Lutheran bishops from taking seats
in the Polish Senate, though Catholic bishops retained that
privilege. He also set aside all public offices for Catholics.
1588 The Jesuit Ramon de la Higuera claimed to have discovered
lead tablets proving that St. James the Apostle had come to Spain
and attested to the truth of the Immaculate Conception of the
Virgin Mary. The spurious nature of the supposed discoveries was
proven by Dominican scholars. In 1639, Pope Urban VIII (1623-44)
forbade Catholics from appealing to the tablets of Granada
(Laminae Granatenses) as evidence.
1588 Pope Sixtus V (1585-90) set the maximum number of cardinals
to 70. He divided them into 15 congregations. Six congregations
were responsible for managing the Papal States. The remaining 9
attended to the Index for Forbidden Books, regulating bishops, the
Inquisition, implementing the decrees of Trent, standardizing
rituals, and so forth.
1588/89 Luis de Molina (1535-1600), a Jesuit philosopher and
theologian, published his "The Harmony of Free Will with the Gifts
of Grace," an attempt to comport divine justice and mercy,
predestination and damnation, and grace and human freedom.
Molina held to a high view of human nature, emphasizing the
importance of the assent of the one who receives divine grace. He
spoke of predestination in terms of divine foreknowledge of works
done under grace. Molina's views incited a theological battle
between the Dominicans and Jesuits, which lasted for over 300
years.
1588/89 The Marprelate Controversy. An unknown Puritan
authored several tracts attacking the episcopacy in England. In
response, in a sermon delivered at Pauls Cross in London, Richard
Bancroft argued that the office of the bishop is a divine institution.
1588 William Morgan translated the Bible into Welsh. Morgans
translation contained an introduction that identified ancient Celtic
Christianity with Protestantism. The Welsh Bible, along with the
founding of Jesus College at Oxford, led to the decline of
Catholicism in Wales. By 1603, only 1.6% of the roughly 212,000
churchgoers in Wales admitted to being Catholic..
1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Cardinal William Allen,
founder of the college at Douai which sent Jesuit missionaries into
England, had urged English Catholics to support the invading
forces. He referred to Queen Elizabeth as begotten and born in
sin of an infamous courtesan and as the chief spectacle of sin and
abomination in this age.
1588 The Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II of Constantinople
passed through Ukraine on his return from Moscow in this year.
Upset with his popularity, King Sigismund III of Poland ordered
the Jesuits to increase their efforts in Ukraine. They succeeded in
converting Michael, metropolitan of Vilna, and Ignatius, bishop of
Vladimir, who then assisted Sigismund in summoning the council
of Brest-Litovsk.
1589 Russian Patriarchate. The head of the Russian church was
raised in rank from a Metropolitan to a Patriarch, receiving the
fifth place in honor, after Jerusalem.
1589 Henry of Navarre, heir to the throne of France and a
Protestant, had overcome Catholic forces and was in a position to
take Paris. In the face of Parisian opposition to having a Protestant
king, Henry sent to the pope requesting instruction in the Catholic
faith. He was advised by the Duke of Sully that Paris is well
worth a mass.
1590 Meletios of Pegas became patriarch of Constantinople (1590-
1601). He opposed the Union of Brest-Litovsk and wrote a treatise
critical of the Western Churchs innovations in Trinitarian
theology. He also drafted an apology for Christianity, intended for
the Jews.
1590 Between this year and 1603, 53 Catholic priests and 35
laypersons were executed in England for their faith.
1590 In around this year Francisco Ribera, a Jesuit priest, published
a commentary on the Apocalypse. He taught that most of the book
of Revelation prophesies events that will occur at the end of
time. His teaching contrasts with that of Protestant Reformers who
applied much of the book to the entire period since Christs first
coming.
1590-91 The Clementine edition of the Vulgate published.
1594 The Turks burned the relics of St. Sava of Serbia.
1595 The secular clergy of the Sorbonne sent a petition to the
Parlement of Paris requesting that the Jesuits be expelled from
France. The Parlement agreed to their request. The Jesuits were
agitating against the new king, Henry IV.
1595 Martin Del Rio, a Spanish Jesuit, published a book on
witchcraft. According to Del Rio, witchcraft flourishes as the intial
enthusiasm for heresy dies out. In his view, this phenomenon was
then taking place in the Low Countries. Del Rio also popularized
the notion that witches hold sabbats and engage in sexual
intercourse with Satan.
1595 The Orthodox Church was declared illegal in Poland.
1595/96 The Union of Brest-Litovsk. A council met at Brest-
Litovsk, attended by only a few Orthodox bishops. A slim
majority of those present agreed to accept papal supremacy if they
were permitted to retain their liturgy, communion under both
species, married priests, and the use of the Julian calendar. On
December 23, Pope Clement VIII (1592-1605) formally accepted
these terms. A second council was then scheduled to meet, again
in Brest-Litovsk, to formally establish the union. Sigismund, the
Polish king, prevented any dissenting clergy from attending the
council. Among those who did attempt to attend were
representatives of the patriarchs of Constantinople and
Alexandria: Nicephorus Cantacuzenus and Cyril Lucaris.
Cantacuzenus was executed by the Polish police in 1598, but
Lucaris, temporarily protected by the prince of Ostrov, escaped to
Constantinople.
1596 Political, economic, and military pressure was brought to bear
on millions of Orthodox Christians living along the Western
borders of Russia, Byelorussia, and Ukraine, in order to force them
to accept a false union with the Roman Catholic Church. (Six of
the eight Orthodox bishops of Ukraine had voted in favor of union
with Rome.) Bishoprics were given only to Uniates, and Orthodox
bishops were deprived of office. There was a powerful backlash
among the laity. Over the next century or so, Brotherhoods
(Bratstva), associations of laymen, were formed to combat Jesuit
propaganda, obtaining printing presses and publishing books in
defense of Orthodoxy.
1596 Pope Clement VIII (1592-1605) withdrew the right of
bishops or inquisitors to permit Bible reading in the
vernacular (see 1564). From this point, permission was required
from the pope himself. However, it would appear that the
restriction on reading the Bible in the vernacular was not in effect
in Northern Europe.
1597 The fifth book of Richard Hookers Laws of Ecclesiastical
Polity appeared in print. Against the Puritans, who insisted on
Scripture alone as the authority, Hooker listed Scripture as
primary, and always to be obeyed when it spoke clearly, but he
added church tradition and reason in doubtful matters. He argued
that Englishman must be loyal to their sovereign, and so must be
Anglicans. He stressed the sacraments and liturgical prayer and
de-emphasized preaching.
1597 King James VI of Scotland a book entitled Demonologie, in
which he encouraged the persecution of witches.
1597 Anneke van den Hove, an Anabaptist servant girl in the
Spanish Netherlands, was buried alive for heresy. Her execution
was arranged by magistrates and Jesuits.
1598 The Edict of Nantes. The edict, issued by Henry IV,
extended some freedom to French Protestants. Protestant pastors
were to be paid by the state, and Protestants could maintain their
strongholds for another eight years, also at the kings expence.
However, Protestant worship was forbidden from extending into
Catholic areas. The edict was opposed by Pope Clement VIII
(1592-1605).
1599 The first printing of an English Old Testament without the
Apocrypha a Geneva Bible of 1599.
1599 Archduke Ferdinand of Inner Austria began to persecute
Protestants through reformation commissions. These
commissions consisted of a cleric with Hapsburg government
officials and armed troops. They burned Protestant books and
destroyed Protestant churches.
1600 By this year, 50 of the German (Holy Roman) Empires 65 free
cities had accepted Protestant religion.
1600 The population of Rome may have been 100,000 by this year.
1600 Death of St. Basil of Mangazeya. Born of a poor family in
1587, Basil traveled to Mangazeya in Siberia to become a
merchants apprentice. Unfortunately, the merchant pressured
Basil to have homosexual relations with him. Basil refused.
Enraged, the merchant accused him of theft, and he was arrested
and tortured. The merchant himself struck Basil in the head with a
set of heavy iron keys and Basil fell dead. In 1652, Basil began
appearing in dreams to the local people, and he healed many. His
coffin rose to the surface of the ground. It was opened, and his
body was found incorrupt.

The Seventeenth Century
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1601 In England, 70 Catholic priests were executed between this
year and 1680.
1602 An Anglican named John Smyth renounced the episcopacy
while speaking at Lincoln Cathedral in England. He became
pastor of a group of Separatists. The congregation moved to
Holland in 1606. Smyth defined the church as a collection of
baptized believers. He is thus the father of the modern baptist
movement.
1603 Henry IV allowed the Jesuits to re-enter France (see 1595).
1604 The Hampton Court Conference (England) led to a revision
of the Book of Common Prayer and, in time, to the publication of
the Authorized Version of the Bible (1611). The conference, a
meeting between the king (James I) and church leaders, was in
response to the Puritans Millenary Petition, a demand for church
reform. James refused the principal Puritan desire, the
abolishment of the episcopacy.
1604 A change to English canon law in this year prevented
ministers from conducting exorcisms without permission from
their bishops. The Puritans in particular were upset by this
change.
1605 On November 4, Guy Fawkes was arrested in a cellar beneath
the House of Lords meeting chamber. Fawkes and his fellow
Catholic conspirators had placed thiry casks of gunpowder in the
cellar, and planned to blow Parliament up the next day. The
conspirators were motivated in part by King James 1604 renewal
of the Elizabethan anti-Catholic laws, which forbade Catholic
teaching and missionary activity and made attendance at Anglican
services mandatory, with severe penalties for disobedience.
1605-6 The Poles occupied Moscow, supporting a false heir to the
throne of Muscovy (the False Dmitry).
1606 As a result of the conspiracy to destroy Parliament, harsh
anti-Catholic measures were passed in England. Catholics could
not travel more than five miles from their homes. No Catholic was
allowed to act as a doctor, lawyer, executor of an estate, or a
guardian of minor children. Catholics were also required to take a
loyalty oath which denied that the pope had the power to depose
secular rulers. In this year, six Catholic priests were executed in
England for refusing to take the oath and for saying Mass.
1606 Pope Paul V (1605-21) placed Venice under an interdict in a
dispute over papal jurisdiction and church property. In response,
the Venetians chose Paoli Sarpi, who was openly critical of Trent
and the growth of centralized ecclesiastical power in Rome) as a
theological consultant. Venice gave its clergy an ultimatum:
Continue to adminster the sacraments, or leave the city forever.
The Jesuits left and did not return for 50 years. Pope Paul lifted the
interdict in 1607 when it had proven itself futile. During a meeting
with the Venetian ambassador, Paul is reported to have remarked,
Do you not know that so much reading of Scripture ruins the
Catholic religion?
1607 Norway became Lutheran.
1607 Founding of the Virginia colony.
1608 Formation of the Protestant Union (Union of Evangelical
States) among Protestant principalities within the Holy Roman
Empire.
1608-11 The Poles, with a second False Dmitry, occupied Moscow.
They were driven out in May, 1611.
1609 Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria led the Catholic states within
the Holy Roman Empire in forming the Catholic Union.
1609 The Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II signed a royal charter
which guaranteed freedom for Protestant worship within
Bohemia. In 1618, fear that this freedom would soon be lost led to
the Thirty Years War.
1609 Death of Jacobus Arminius. For the last six years of his life,
Arminius was a professor at the University of Leiden (Holland).
He had debated a colleague, Franciscus Gomarus, over certain
Calvinist doctrines. Arminius denied total depravity,
unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and
the perseverance of the saints. The year after Arminius death, 45
Dutch ministers signed the Remonstrance, a document in keeping
with Arminius soteriology.
1609 A 12-year truce began in the Eighty Years War between
Holland and Spain. (See 1568.)
1609 The Douay-Rheims Bible published. The New Testament
had appeared in 1582.
In this year, the first Baptist church on record was formed, by John
Smyth in Amsterdam. Baptist baptism was initially by pouring.
1609 The Arian (anti-Trinitarian) Academy of Rakow in Poland
published a catechism in Latin.
1610 Francis de Sales, Roman Catholic bishop of Geneva, founded
the Visitation of Holy Mary (the Visitation Nuns). De Sales was an
active missionary in Chablais, winning the majority of people there
from Calvinism back to Catholicism. In 1877, he was named a
doctor of the Roman Catholic church, the first French writer to be
so honored. He is reported to have said the following to Marie
Angelique, abbess of the Cistercian convent at Port Royal: It is
the duty of ecumenical councils to reform the head and
members: they are above the pope. ... I know this, but prudence
forbids my speaking of it, for I can hope for no results if I did
speak. We must weep and pray in secret that God will put His
hand to what man cannot, and we should humble ourselves to the
ecclesiastical powers under whom He has placed us, and beseech
Him that He would convert and humble them by the might of His
Holy Spirit.
1610 King James restored the episcopacy to the Scotland.
1611 The King James Version. The Authorized Version
contained the books of the Apocrypha between the testaments.
In this year, a portion of the Amsterdam baptist congregation
returned to England, led by Thomas Helwys, forming the first
baptist congregation in England. This group and others like it
became known as General Baptists because they believed the offer
of salvation was open to all.
1612 The Russian Patriarch Hermogenes asked the priests of Kazan
to send the Kazan Mother of God icon to Moscow. After a
ceremony involving the icon, Prince Dmitry Pozharskis warriors
defeated the Poles who were assaulting the city. Subsequently,
much of Russia was recovered from Polish control.
1613 In Russia, Michael Romanov became the first tsar of the
Romanov dynasty.
1615 Archbishop George Abbot (Church of England) forbade the
issuance of Bibles without the Apocrypha.
1616 The Roman Catholic Church declared the Copernican theory,
supported by Galileo, as false and erroneous. This was done in
agreement with a recommendation byRobert Bellarmine, who had
met with Galileo and counselled him to regard the heliocentric
model of the solar system as a hypothesis only. Bellarmine (1542-
1621), a Jesuit, was a driving force behind the doctrine of papal
infallibility. He taught that the pope was infallible when teaching
the whole Church on faith, morals, and things necessary to
salvation.
1618 The Thirty Years War began in Bohemia over the right of the
diet to elect a new king. King Matthias insisted that his nephew,
the Ferdinand of Styria, become king, but the diet preferred a
Protestant. Ferdinand, educated by Jesuits, had promised to
suppress Protestantism within his domains. When Matthias died
in 1619, Ferdinand became emperor, but Bohemia had elected
Frederick of the Palatinate king of Bohemia.
1618/19 The Synod of Dort condemned the Remonstrants
(Arminians see 1609). This is not surprising, since all the
delegates were Gomarists (followers of Franciscus Gomarus).
1619 Philaret, Patriarch of Moscow (1619-33). During this period,
the Russian church was reformed service books were revised,
moral standards were raised, preaching was encouraged.
1620 The founding of the Plymouth colony (Massachusetts) by
English Separatists who had lived in exile in Leiden, Holland.
1621 Protestantism was eradicated in Bohemia.
1622 In the Thirty Years War, Catholic forces under Johan
Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, sacked Heidelburg. The contents of the
university were packed into wagons and sent to Pope Gregory XV
(1621-23) as a gift. Heidelburg had been a center of the Reformed
wing of Protestantism since 1563 at the latest.
1623 Ukraine. Josaphat Kuntsevich killed by Orthodox
worshippers. Kuntsevich led a group to knock down the tents
where the Orthodox were worshipping. One of his followers
struck a deacon, and the Orthodox, attacking Kuntsevich with
sticks and stones, beat him to death. He had ordered the disposal
of dead Orthodox by having their corpses exhumed and thrown to
dogs, and had closed and burned Orthodox churches. Kuntsevich
was the Uniate bishop of Polotsky and the founder of the Uniate
Basilian order. He has been canonized by the Roman Catholic
Church.
1623 King James I of England forbade discussions on
predestination. He did so because the more Reformed-minded
clergy were attacking those who, like Lancelot Andrewes (see
1626), disliked the Calvinist view of predestination and preferred
to emphasize the sacraments. The Reformed party began to call
the sacramentalists Arminians (see 1609). Though James had
long favored the Reformed party, and had sent English clergy to
the Synod of Dort (1618-19), but he had decided to marry his son
Charles to a Spanish princess and found the Arminians less
refractory. Because the gag rule on discussions of predestination
was so unpopular, James soon withdrew it.
1624 Cardinal Richelieu of France formed pacts with the Dutch,
English, Swedes, Danes, and with Savoy and Venice to contest
Hapsburg power in the Low Countries and Germany.
1624 Because of the words, Textum ... ab omnibus receptum
appearing in the preface, Elzevirs Greek New Testament,
published in this year, is called the Textus Receptus, or the
Received Text.
1625 Charles I succeeded James I as king of England.
1626 Death of Lancelot Andrewes, bishop of Winchester, England,
and dean of the chapels royal. Andrewes was a patristic scholar
whose work emphasized the sacraments and had a strong dislike
of the Reformed view of predestination. He was strongly critical of
distinctive Roman Catholic doctrines. His role as dean of the
chapels royal may have been instrumental in persuading King
Charles to support the Arminian cause (see 1623).
1626 King Charles I of England repeated his fathers 1623
proclamation forbidding discussions of predestination.
1627 The Patriarch of Constantinople presented an uncial
manuscript, known as Codex Alexandrinus (A) to King Charles I
of England. Alexandrinus is considered to reflect the Byzantine
text type in the gospels, but the Alexandrian text in the rest of the
New Testament. It also contains the Septuagint.
1628 French Catholic forces led by Richelieu took La Rochelle, the
last Huguenot fortified city.
1629 Cyril Lukaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, had endorsed a
thoroughly Calvinistic theology. His Confession was published in
Geneva in this year. Cyril had been present at the synod of Brest
in 1596 and, perhaps as a consequence, had a thorough hostility to
Rome. Cyrils Confession was condemned by six councils between
1638 and 1691.
1629 The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II issued the Edict of
Restitution, which required all archbishoprics, bishoprics,
prelacies, monasteries, and other ecclesiastical property
confiscated since 1552 be restored to the Catholic Church. The
edict was promulgated at a point in the Thirty Years War when
Catholic forces under Wallenstein dominated Germany.
1630 Harsnet, the Arminian archbishop bishop of York, banned
the sale of the works of the puritan William Perkins (see 1586) and
the reformed theologian Zacharias Ursinus (see 1563) within his
archdiocese.
1630 Founding of the Massachusetts Bay colony.
1630s During this decade, Jesuit criticism of the Judaizing
tendencies of Ethiopian Christianity (circumcision, Sabbath
observance, dietary restrictions) came to a head. The Jesuits who
escaped execution were expelled.
1631 Catholic forces razed Magdeburg, which was resisting the
Edict of Restitution (1629). 17,000 of the citys 36,000 inhabitants
were killed.
1631 Brandenburg and Saxony allied themselves with Sweden.
(Swedish forces under King Gustavus Adolphus had arrived in
Pomerania in 1630.) The combined Protestant armies defeated
Tilly near Leipzig in the first major Protestant victory of the Thirty
Years War.
1632 Compromise of 1632. Many formerly Uniate churches and
monasteries in Ukraine returned to Orthodoxy.
1632 The Roman Catholic colony was begun in Maryland.
1633 William Laud became Archbishop of Canterbury and began
to persecute Puritans. The pope offered to make Laud a cardinal
on two occasions, but Laud refused. Laud had debated Roman
Catholics, and had played a key role in keeping the Duke of
Buckingham from converting to Catholicism.
1633 Galileo Galilei tried in Rome on suspicion of heresy for
supporting the Copernican (sun-centered) view of the solar
system.
1634 Pope Urban VIIIs (1623-44) bull ended the ancient practice by
which local bishops and synods introduced commemorations into
the calendar. The authority to do so, and to canonize saints, was
restricted to the papal curia.
1634 Michael, tsar of Russia, set the penalty for tobacco use at
death.
1636 Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, known as M. de St. Cryan,
abbot of St. Cyran in the diocese of Poitiers, became director of the
nunnery at Port Royal. A friend of Cornelius Jansen (see 640), St.
Cyran intended the nunnery to be a center for opposition to the
Jesuits teachings on doctrine, devotion and morals.
1636 Harvard University founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
with the purpose of training clergymen.
1637 Rioting broke out in Scotland when a new liturgy was read in
Edinburg. The new Scottish prayer book had been prepared by the
Scottish bishops.
1638 A group of baptists holding a Calvinist theology which
strictly limited salvation to the elect is known to have existed in
London by this year. They became known as Particular Baptists.
11638 On 28 Feb the Scottish National Covenant was signed.
King Charles I and Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud had
ordered the exclusive use of a Papistical liturgy upon the Church
of Scotland, known as Lauds Liturgy (see 1637). The National
Covenant repeated the Negative Confession of 1580/81 and listed
many acts of parliament that the new liturgy was perceived to
contradict. The Covenants subscribers swore to forbear the
practice of all novations till they be tried and allowed in free
Assemblies and Parliaments while still supporting the kings
authority in the defense and preservation of the foresaid true
religion.
1638 Janos Toroczkai, a Unitarian, said, If Jesus would come to
earth, I would send him to work in a vineyard. The
Transylvanian Reformed Church had him stoned to death.
1639/40 Charles I attempted to put down the Scottish rebellion,
and conflict between England and Scotland in these years are
known as the Bishops Wars. The Scottish success, their seizure of
Northumberland and Durham, forced Charles to call the Long
Parliament in 1640, which lead to the English Civil War.
1639 Roger Williams founded the first baptist congregation in
America, in Rhode Island.
1639 Jean Morin (see 1645, Samaritan Penteteuch) was consulted
by Urban VIII on relations with the Orthodox Church. Based on
his patristic studies, Morin supported Roman Catholic recognition
of the Orthodox priesthood.
1639 The Battle of the Downs. In an attempt to regain control over
Dutch ports, a Spanish armada of 77 ships sailed into the English
Channel. A Dutch force of 75 ships engaged them and disabled,
captured or destroyed all but seven of the Spanish vessels.
1640 Cornelius Jansens Augustinus published posthumously.
Jansen, the bishop of Ypres, had died of the plague in 1638. It is
claimed that he had read Augustine through twenty times.
The Augustinus was to become a source of conflict between the
Jansenists and the Jesuits in seventeenth century France.
1641 Catholic rioters in Ulster killed an estimated 12,000
Protestants. At the time, the accepted figure was 154,000. These
riots, along with the Scottish Bishops Wars, led to the English civil
war.
1642 English civil war began. The first battle was fought at
Edgefield.
1642 Pope Urban VIII launched the War of Castro against Duke
Odoardo I Farnese of Parma. His goal was to dominate northern
Italy, but the pope was defeated in March 1644.
1642 Council of Jassy (Iasi) in Romania. This council of the
Eastern Orthodox church confirmed as genuine parts of
scripture 1 Esdras (3 Esdras in the Vulgate), Tobit, Judith, three
books of the Maccabees, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus (Ben Sira), Baruch
and the Letter of Jeremiah. The canonicity of these books had been
previously taken for granted.
The council also revised and approved the Orthodox Confession of
Peter of Moghila, Patriarch of Kiev from 1633-47. The original
version had been based on Roman Catholic manuals and,
consequently, contained doctrinal error. The revision was the
work of Meletius Syrigos, a Greek, who corrected Moghilas
teachings, making it clear that the Church does not favor the
doctrine of purgatory and or hold that the eucharistic bread and
wine are changed at the words of institution.
1643 Antoine Arnauld published his De la frequente
communion his Theologie morale des Jesuites, against the Jesuits
practice of frequent communion and their perceived moral laxity.
Arnauld had come across a letter from a Jesuit that read, in part,
The more one is destitute of grace, the more one ought boldly to
approach Jesus Christ in the Eucharist.
1643 Pope Urban VIII issued his bull In eminente, which
condemned Jansenism.
1643 In the battle with the king, the English parliament enlisted the
aid of the Scots. The resulting treaty, known as The Solemn
League and Covenant, emphasized the preservation of the
Reformed faith in England and Ireland and the elimination of
Popery and Prelacy.
1644 The English Puritan parliament forbade the observance of all
holy days and the keeping of Christmas day as a solemn fast. The
law required everyone to go to work on that day, and a
shopkeeper whose shop was closed on that day was liable to
prosecution. The Puritans reasoned that Christmas was of pagan
origin, and thus unworthy of celebration.
1645 On 10 January, Archbishop Laud was beheaded on a charge
of treason.
1645 The Samaritan Pentateuch, recently recovered by a traveler
to the East, was published in the Paris Polyglot. It had been lost
to history since the eighth century. A Samarian version of the Law,
the Samaritan Pentateuch frequently supports Septuagint readings
against the Masoretic text. This indicates that the Samaritan
Pentateuch and the Septuagint may have had a common origin
prior to the fixing of the Masoretic text in the first or second
centuries. Jean Morin, a Catholic priest, convert from Calvinism,
and editor of the Samaritan Penteteuch which appeared in the
Paris Polyglot, advocated the theory that the Septuagint was
superior to the Hebrew Masoretic text.
1645 The Long Parliament proscribed use of the 1552 English Book
of Common Prayer, replacing it with the Directory for the Public
Worship of God in the Three Kingdoms.
1646 The Union of Uzhorod. On April 24, the self-governing
Orthodox church of Mukachevo-Uzhorod, led by Bishop Parfenii
Petrovych, broke communion with the rest of the Orthodox
Church and submitted to Rome. In time, it came to be known as
the Greek Catholic church.
1646 The three estates of Portugal bound themselves to defend, if
need be with their lives, the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin
Mary.
1647 Rhode Island allowed freedom of conscience in matters of
religion.
1647 Publication of David Blondels Familiar Enlightenment of
the Question: Whether a Woman Had Been Seated on the Papal
Throne in Rome. Blondel, a Calvinist, proved that the story
of Pope Joan (see 1250), widely believed by Catholics and used as
ammunition against the papacy by Protestant polemicists, was
fiction. The story of Pope Joan first appeared in the mid-1200s. In
its mature form, it claimed that Joan had been pope from 855 until
858, when she died in childbirth.
1648 The Westminster Confession approved by the English
Parliament. It had been accepted by the Church of Scotland the
previous year. The confession was Reformed in doctrine and
Presbyterian in polity. In chapter 2, section 3, it affirms with the
Roman Catholic Church the filioque (that the Holy Spirit proceeds
from both the Father and the Son). The confession also specifies
that the Old Testament in Hebrew was immediately inspired by
God and is therefore authentical; yet it does not explain why
the New Testament authors (whose work is also termed inspired
and authentical) chose in general to quote from a Greek
translation that differs from the Hebrew.
1648 Publication of John Owens Eschol: or Rules of Direction for the
Walking of the Saints in Fellowship. A Puritan and proponent of
Congregationalism, Owen was for a time an aide to Oliver
Cromwell, but later (1653) avoided involvement in Cromwells rise
to the post of Lord Protector. Some consider Owen the greatest
Puritan theologian.
1648 The Thirty Years War ended with the peace of Westphalia.
1649 In January, King Charles I of England beheaded. The
Puritan army had removed the Presbyterian parliamentary
leadership (1648, known as Prides Purge) in anticipation of the
kings execution. A book entitled Eikon Basilike was printed soon
after Charless death. It purported to be a record of the late kings
prayers and meditations while in prison, and it turned public
opinion in his favor.
1649 In response to the execution of Charles I of England, Tsar
Alexis excluded Englishmen from the interior of Russia. The move
gave an advantage in trade to German and Dutch merchants.
1649 A rioting crowd in Russia burned six carriages loaded with
musical instruments. (Music in Orthodox churches is almost
always a cappella.)
1649 The Maryland colony set the punishment at whipping and a
fine for anyone who used the following terms of derision: heretic,
schismatic, idolator, Puritan, Independent, Presbyterian, Popish
priest, Jesuit, Jesuited Papist, Lutheran, Calvinist, Anabaptist,
Brownist, Antinomian, Barrowist, Roundhead, Separatist. All
religions professing a belief in Jesus Christ were to be tolerated.
1650 The Quaker movement began about this year in Englands
Lake District. George Fox was one early leader.
1651 Publication of Thomas Hobbes Leviathan. The work is a
defense of monarchy, written when Presbyterians, Independents,
and papists had challenged the sovereigns rights.
1652 The Tsar Alexis forbade foreigners from dwelling within
Moscow or holding church services there. But he did allow a new
settlement to be built nearby, Nemetskaya Sloboda, or the German
Suburb.
1652/3 Nikon (1605-81) became Patriarch of Russia. He attempted
to bring Russian practice into line with the worship of the four
ancient patriarchates. He wished to modify the service books and
introduce the practice of making the sign of the cross with three
fingers, instead of in the older manner with just two fingers. His
reforms were widely opposed. Those who rejected his reforms
were called Raskolniki (which means sectarians), or Old Believers.
This division has continued until the present.
1653 Avvakum, former chaplain to the tsar, exiled to Tobolsk in
Siberia. Avvakum had become the leader of the Old Believers. He
was burned at the stake in 1682. During his imprisonment, he
wrote (1673) his autobiography, the first such work in the Russian
language.
1653 Pope Innocent X (1644-55), in the bull Cum occasione,
condemned the Five Propositions. He stated that these had been
held by Jansen, and he implied they were found in
Jansens Augustinus. The Five Propositions are (1) some
commandments of God are impossible even for righteous persons
to keep, (2) in the fallen state internal grace is never resisted, (3) in
order to merit or demerit in a state of fallen nature, freedom from
necessity [the necessity imposed by Gods irresistible grace] is not
required, only freedom from constraint, (4) the heresy of the
Pelagians consisted in their assertion that grace could be either
resisted or obeyed, and (5) it is a Semi-Pelagian error to say that
Christ died or shed His blood for all men absolutely.
1653 In April, Cromwell used his troops to dissolve Parliament.
1653 In December, Cromwell became Lord Protector of England.
During his tenure as Lord Protector, Cromwell allowed Jews to
immigrate to England. They had been expelled in 1290. Cromwell
believed that Jesus could not return until the Jews had been
converted. He thought this was more likely to occur in England,
with its Reformed church, than in many other lands.
1655 Nikon, patriarch of Russia, held a synod at which Macarius,
patriarch of Antioch, was present. Macarius endorsed the changes
Nikon had instituted in Russian church practice.
1656 During the papacy of Alexander VII (1655-67), the Assembly
of the French clergy drew up the Formulary, to be signed by all
clergy and religious. The Formulary read, I, the undersigned, do
submit sincerely to the constitution of Pope Innocent IX, of May 31,
1653, according to its true meaning, which has been determined by
the constitution of our Holy Father Pole Alexander VII, of October
16, 1656. I acknowledge myself bound in conscience to obey these
constitutions, and I condemn with heart and mouth the doctrine of
the Five Propositions of Cornelius Jansen, contained in his book
entitled Augustinus, which has been condemned by two popes
and by the bishops: the said doctrine being not that of St.
Augustine, but a misinterpretation of it by Jansen, contrary to the
meaning of that great doctor.
1656-57 Blaise Pascal published his Provincial Letters, a defense of
the Jansenists and satirical attack on the Jesuits in France.
1658 Death of the Protestant theologian Louis Cappelle. His
arguments in favor of the Septuagint and the Samaritan
Pentateuch against the Masoretic Text angered many. In reaction,
the Swiss Reformed Church accepted the inspiration of not only
the consonantal Hebrew text, but the vowel points as well! (See
1675.)
1658 When tension arose between the Russian patriarch and Tsar
Alexis over the patriarchs desire to exercise political power, Nikon
retired to the New Jerusalem monastery.
1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England during
the Commonwealth.
1660 England recalled Charles II to England to become king: the
Restoration.
1660 Savoy Conference. A conference was held at the Savoy
Palace between Anglicans and Presbyterians to discuss ways in
which the English Prayer Book, proscribed since 1645, could be
made acceptable to the Presbyterians and other moderate Puritans.
1660 Tsar Alexis summoned a synod which determined that the
patriarch Nikon had effectively abdicated by retiring to a
monastery in 1658.
1661 King Louis XIV of France demanded that all French bishops
subscribe to the Formulary of 1656. The nuns of Port Royal were
required to sign also, but they refused and were excommunicated.
1662 In Britain An Act for the Uniformity of Public Prayers which
imposed a revised Prayer Book on the country.
1662 The Tsar Alexis brought Avvakum back from exile.
However, when Avvakum argued that those who had accepted
Nikons reforms should repent and be rebaptized, he was banished
to Pustozersk, near the Arctic Ocean.
1662 The Tatar Khan sacked the Ukrainian town of Putivi and
enslaved 20,000 of its inhabitants.
1663 John Eliot published a Bible in Algonquin, the first Bible to be
printed in America.
1664 The Virgin Mary reportedly appeared to Benoit Rencurel, a
seventeen-year-old shepherdess near Grenoble in the French Alps.
Mary told her to go to Le Laus, where she would frequently
appear in a ruined chapel. She also predicted that the chapel
would one day be encompassed by a great church.
1664 The English seized the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam,
renaming it New York.
1664 By the Conventicle Act passed in England this year, any
person over 16 years of age who attended a service not conducted
according to the Book of Common Prayer was subject to
punishment.
1665 The Great Plague. An estimated 15 to 20% of the population
of Western Europe died.
1665 In England, the Five Mile Act forbade any preacher who had
been ejected ministry from living within five miles of his former
church. The act was directed against Puritan preachers.
1666 Eighty percent of London was destroyed by fire.
1666/7 A council was held in Moscow in December, presided over
by the Patriarch Pasius of Alexandria and Patriarch Macarius of
Antioch, at the behest of Tsar Alexis, to review and confirm the
case of the ex-patriarch Nikon, who had ill-administered the
stewardship of the patriarchal power. Thirteen metropolitans,
nine archbishops, five bishops, and thirty-two archimandrites were
present. (Nikon had attempted to control the state as well as the
church.) The council deposed Nikon, but upheld his reforms. In
his later years, Nikon gained a reputation as a healer, having been
instrumental in 132 miraculous cures.
1669 The Peace of the Church ratified by Pope Clement IX (1667-
70). The Jansenist bishops of France were allowed to provide
explanations for their signatures to the Formulary of 1656, though
these could not be published. Persecution ceased. The
excommunication of the nuns of Port Royal was lifted.
1669 Death of the Vatican librarian Leo Allatius. His three-volume
work, De ecclesia occidentalis atque orientalis perpetua
consensione argued that the Orthodox and Roman Catholic
churches were not genuinely separated, nor were the Orthodox in
heresy.
1672 The Eastern Orthodox council of Jerusalem. This council
ratified Dositheus Confession, an answer to Cyril Lukaris work of
the same name. Like Peter Moghilas work,
Dositheus Confession has a Western tone. He adopted the term
transubstantiation, and he came very near to endorsing
purgatory. The Confession explicitly lists Wisdom, Judith, Tobit,
The History of the Dragon, Susanna, Maccabees, and Sirach as
genuine parts of Scripture. Dositheus was Patriarch of
Jerusalem from 1699-1707. The Confessions decrees summarized:
1. Affirms belief in the Trinity, the Holy Spirit proceeding from
the Father.
2. States that the Holy Spirit is the author of both the Scriptures
and the Catholic Church, and that both are infallible and have
perpetual authority.
3. Denies the doctrine that predestination is based on Gods will
alone. Instead, since He foreknew the one would make a right
use of their free-will, and the other a wrong, He predestinated the
one, and condemned the other.
4. States that the tri-personal God did not create evil.
5. Affirms that in the providence of God, He may bring good from
evil.
6. Denies that hereditary sin, inherited from Adam, is any actual
sin, but only what the Divine Justice inflicted upon man as a
punishment for the (original) transgression, such as sweats in
labor, afflictions, bodily sicknesses, pains in child-bearing, and in
fine, while on our pilgrimage, to live a laborious life, and lastly,
bodily death.
7. Affirms that the Son of God emptied Himself and took on flesh
in the womb of the Virgin Mary, was born without injury to her
virginity or any labor pains, rose from the dead, and ascended into
heaven.
8. States that although Jesus Christ is the only mediator between
God and man, the saints, particularly the Mother of God, are
intercessors.
9. Defines faith as the right notion that is in us concerning God
and divine things, which, working by love, that is to say, by
(observing) the Divine commandments, justifies us with Christ;
and without this (faith) it is impossible to please God.
10. Distinguishes the Church still in its pilgrimage on earth (the
Church militant) from that already in heaven (the Church
triumphant), and stresses the dignity of the bishops and their
apostolic succession.
11. Indicates that the members of the Church are those who,
though they may be guilty of sin, cleave to the Catholic and
Orthodox faith.
12. Affirms that the Holy Spirit guides the Church though her
Fathers and leaders, and that it is impossible for the Catholic
Church to err, or at all be deceived, or ever to choose falsehood
instead of truth.
13. We believe a man to be not simply justified through faith
alone, but through faith which works through love, that is to say,
through faith and works. But [the notion] that faith fulfilling the
function of a hand lays hold on the righteousness which is in
Christ, and applies it to us for salvation, we know to be far from all
Orthodoxy. ... But we regard works not as witnesses certifying our
calling, but as being fruits in themselves, through which faith
becomes efficacious, and as in themselves meriting, through the
Divine promises, that each of the faithful may receive what is done
through his own body, whether it is good or bad.
14. Denies that unregenerate man is totally depraved. He is
capable of moral good, but cannot perform spiritual good, the
works of the believer ... contributory to salvation and wrought by
supernatural grace.
15. Affirms that there are seven sacraments - Baptism,
Confirmation, Ordination, the Eucharist, Marriage, Penance, and
Holy Oil - and that these are means of grace and that their integrity
is not impaired by weakness of faith in the recipients.
16. Argues that infants should be baptized, affirms that baptism
effects the remission of sins, delivers from eternal punishment, and
gives immortality, and denies that baptism can be received twice.
17. Affirms transubstantiation, and, consequently, the real absence
of the substance of the bread and wine; that the body and blood
are to be honored and adored; that the liturgy is a true and
propitiatory sacrifice for all Orthodox, living and dead; and that
no one can perform the mystery of the Eucharist except an
Orthodox priest.
18. States that the dead are in either rest or torment. Those in
torment in Hades include the damned and such as though
involved in mortal sins have not departed in despair, but have ...
repented ... endure the punishment due to the sins they have
committed. But they are aware of their future release from thence
... before the common resurrection and judgment. After the
resurrection, the damned will be condemned, and both those who
had repented but suffered in Hades and those who died free of
mortal sin will receive the completion of enjoyment.
1675 While imprisoned during this year, John Bunyan wrote The
Pilgrims Progress. It was first published in 1678.
1675 The Helvetic Consensus Formula. This Swiss creed taught
that the Hebrew Original of the Old Testament is, not only in
its consonants, but in its vowels either the vowel points
themselves, or at least the power of the points not only in its
matter, but in its words, inspired of God and to its standard, as
to a Lydian stone, all extant versions, oriental and occidental,
ought to be applied, and wherever they differ, be conformed.
(See 1658.) The New Testament authors generally quoted from the
Septuagint, not bother ing to conform it to the Hebrew.
1682 William Penn received a royal charter for the Pennsylvania
colony. Penns vision was to establish a colony with freedom of
religion.
1682 Peter the Great (1682-1725), Tsar of Russia.
1682 The Assembly of the French clergy issued the Four Gallican
Articles: (1) popes, whose power is entirely spiritual, cannot
release subjects from oaths of loyalty to kings and rulers; (2) the
plenitude of power enjoyed by popes is limited by the decrees of
the 4th and 5th sessions of the Council of Constance; (3) the pope
must exercise his authority in accordance with the canons enacted
by the Spirit of God and consecrated by the reverence of the whole
world, so that the pope cannot alter the ancient rules, customs,
and institutions of the French church; and (4) though the pope has
the principal place in deciding issues of faith, his decisions are not
irreversible until confirmed by the consent of the Church.
1682 In April Avvakum, leader of the Old Believers, was burned at
the stake in Pustozersk, where he had been exiled. Avvakum had
urged his followers to martyrdom. It has been estimated that
20,000 Old Believers were martyred between 1684 and 1690.
1683 The Turks besieged Vienna for the last time. They were
chopped to bits by a relief force of Poles. The reputation of the
Turks as a conquering nation was lost.
1685 The Puritan theologian Richard Baxter was imprisoned for an
eighteen month period for pressing for toleration of moderate
dissent within the Church of England.
1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (see 1598) and the
subsequent emigration of an estimated 400,000 Huguenots. Pope
Innocent XI (1676-89) is said to have disapproved of the revocation
privately. In public, he ordered a Te Deum and public
celebrations.
1686 Christian forces wrested the city of Buda from the Turks.
Hungary was free of Turkish rule for the first time since 1526.
1686 The metropolitan of Kiev passed from the control of
Constantinople to that of Moscow.
1687 Publication of Isaac Newtons Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, which introduced the three laws of motion and
explained the elliptical orbits of planets in terms of an force acting
instantaneously at a distance, decreasing in magnitude with the
separating distance squared. Newtons description of the universe
in mechanistic terms was widely accepted by Deists. But Newton
himself believed the Bible to be the word of God. He discussed the
white horse of Revelation 6.2 and 19.11 with the philosopher John
Locke, provided moral support to John Craig who sought to
provide a mathematical demonstration of the date of Christs
second coming, and wrote a commentary on the book of
Revelation in which he supported the view that the Antichrist is
the Roman pontiff. Newton has been described as an Arian, since
he did not believe in the Sons co-eternity with the Father. His
theological works contain more words than his scientific ones.
1688 The Tatar Khan raided Ukraine and enslaved 60,000
inhabitants.
1689 Glorious Revolution. In the face of James IIs production of a
Roman Catholic heir, William of Orange and Mary II were
proclaimed king and queen of England and Scotland. Four
hundred English and Scottish bishops refused to swear allegiance
to William and Mary and continued to remain faithful to James II.
These dissenting bishops came to be known as Nonjurors.
1689 In England, the Toleration Act of this year permitted
dissenters to worship.
1689 The Episcopal Church disestablished in Scotland.
1689 The Patriarch Joachim convinced Tsar Peter to expel the few
Jesuits who had entered Russia.
1689 Tsar Peter promulgated an edict of toleration for
Protestantism. In reaction to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
he invited Huguenots to immigrate to Russia.
1690 Prebyterianism reestablished in Scotland.
1692 The Tatar Khan sacked Neimerov in Ukraine and enslaved
2000 inhabitants. Patriarch Dositheus of Jerusalem wrote to Tsar
Peter, The Crimean Tatars are but a handful, and yet they boast
that they receive tribute from you. The Tatars are Turkish subjects,
so it follows that you are Turkish subjects. Many times you have
boasted that you will do such and such, but all finished with
words only and nothing in fact is done.
1692 Nineteen executed for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts.
1695 The English philospher John Locke, author of Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1689), published The
Reasonableness of Christianity as Delivered in the Scriptures. Lockes
view was that essential Christian doctrine consisted of belief in
God and in Jesus as Messiah. He favored religious toleration for
Presbyterians, Independents, Arminians, Quakers, and
Anabaptists; but he opposed the toleration of atheists or of
religious groups which owed allegiance to foreign powers.
1698 Tsar Peter of Russia occasionally attended Quaker worship
services when visiting England.
1699 Upon returning from his embassy to western Europe, Tsar
Peter changed the Russian New Years day from 1 September (the
date used in the Roman (Byzantine) empire) to 1 January, the
conventional date in the West. He also altered the method of
counting years, adopting the Anno Domini system. Thus, 1
January 7208 (dated according to the year of the world see 5509
B.C.) became 1 January 1700. The tsar did not, however, adopt the
Gregorian calendar. He simply conformed Russias Julian calendar
to the form of the Julian calendar then used in England.
1700 Patriarch Adrian died, and Tsar Peter did not allow a
replacement. Instead, he appointed Stephen Yavorsky, the
metropolitan of Ryazan, as temporary guardian of the church.
When Patriarch Joachim died in 1690, Peter had supported
Metropolitan Marcellus of Pskov for patriarch. Marcellus was a
scholar who spoke Latin, Italian and French. Peter later quipped
that the Russians had turned Marcellus down for three reasons:
first, because he spoke barbaric language; second, because his
beard was not big enough for a patriarch; and third, because his
coachman sat upon the coach seat and not upon the horses as was
usual.
1700 By this year, J. J. Scalinger had refuted the notion that all
other languages derive from Hebrew.
The Eighteenth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


1702 Tsar Peter of Russia promised freedom of conscience to
foreigners living in Russia.
1705 Pope Clement XI (1700-1721) issued the bull Vineam Domini
Sabaoth, annuling the Peace of the Church (see 1669) in France by
requiring subscription to the Formulary of 1656 without
qualification.
1706 An Anglican congregation was established in Moscow. It
moved to St. Petersburg in 1723.
1707 The first volume of Grabes Septuagint was published. The
fourth and last volume appeared in 1720. Grabes Septuagint is
based on Codex Alexandrinus (A). Contrast this with the Sixtine
Edition of 1587, which depends on Vaticanus. Some believe that
Codex A reflects Origen's recension of the Septuagint, at least to an
extent.
1708 Pope Clement XI (1700-1721), to avoid commiting himself to
the doctrine of Marys Immaculate Conception, ordered a festival
called for the Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary immaculate.
1709 Having refused to submit to the bull Vineam Domini Sabaoth,
the nuns of Port Royal were excommunicated, then dispersed to
other convents. The convent was leveled, and corpses in the
graveyard were dug up and thrown into a single pit in the
cemetary of St. Lambert. This event signals the victory of the
Jesuits over the Jansenist movement.
1713 Pope Clement XI issued the bull Unigenitus, condemning
Jansenism and the proposition that The reading of Sacred
Scripture is for all; adding, We strictly forbid them [the laity] to
have the books of the Old and New Testament in the vulgar
tongue. It also condemned the error that The Lords Day ought
to be sanctified by Christians with readings of pious works and
above all of the Holy Scriptures. It is harmful for a Christian to
wish to withdraw from this reading. The bull was very
unpopular in France, where an edition of the gospels with
Jansenist notes had been published. The Emperor of Austria
forbade the distribution of Unigenitus. This bull was used in
Sicilian seminaries as an example of the fallibility of Popes. In
France, the Gallicans opposed the bull on the grounds that the
pope had no right to impose a doctrine on the French church
without the consent of the French bishops and without the
agreement of a General Council.
1716 Between this year and 1724 a dialogue was conducted
between the English non-Jurors (who refused to swear allegiance
to William of Orange) and the Orthodox, in hopes of establishing
communion. The non-Jurors were troubled by the Orthodox
doctrine of the real presence, veneration of Mary, the saints, and
the Holy Icons, and the interchange was suspended.
1717 In this year and again in 1733 Poland passed laws persecuting
non-Catholic minorities. Poland had enjoyed religious tolerance
since the Compact of Warsaw in 1573.
1718 Tsar Peter tasked Feofan Propkovich, a monk of the academy
in Kiev, with the task of formulating an Ecclesiastical Regulation
by which the Church in Russia would be governed. The regulation
was brought into effect in 1721.
1721 In keeping with the new Ecclesiastical Regulation (see 1718),
Tsar Peter the Great declared the Moscow Patriarchate to
be abolished, and set up the Spiritual College or Holy Synod to
replace it. Stephen Yavorsky was the first president of the Holy
Synod. Peters Spiritual (Ecclesiastical) Regulation, which
established the Holy Synod, viewed the church as an arm of the
state, not as a spiritual institution. The Holy Synod was
supervised by the Chief Procurator, an official of the Russian
government.
The Ecclesiastical Regulation also encouraged training, and 46 new
schools for priests opened within 4 years. Priests were to study
theology, history, politics, geography, arithmetic, geometry, and
physics. The laity were required to attend church, and a fine was
assessed for absences.
1721 In Russia, mixed-faith marriages were legalized, but only if
the Orthodox partner remained in his or her faith, and all children
were raised Orthodox.
1722 At a synod held in Constantinople this year, the Orthodox
made the following pronouncement regarding the state of the dead
and the existence of purgatory: [W]e the godly, following the
truth and turning away from such innovations, confess and accept
two places for the souls of the dead, paradise and hell, for the
righteous and sinners, as the holy Scripture teaches us. We do not
accept a third place, a purgatory, by any means, since neither
Scripture nor the holy Fathers have taught us any such thing.
However, we believe these two places have many abodes ... None
of the teachers of the Church have handed down or taught such a
purgatory, but they all speak of one single place of punishment,
hades, just as they teach about one luminous and bright place,
paradise. But both the souls of the holy and the righteous go
indisputably to paradise and those of the sinners go to hades, of
whom the profane and those who have sinned unforgivably are
punished forever and those who have offended forgivably and
moderately hope to gain freedom through the unspeakable
mercy of God. For on behalf of such souls, that is of the
moderately and forgivably sinful, there are in the Church prayers,
supplications, liturgies, as well as memorial services and
almsgiving, that those souls may receive favor and comfort.
Thus when the Church prays for the souls of those who are lying
asleep, we hope there will be comfort for them from God, but
not through fire and purgatory, but through divine love for
mankind, whereby the infinite goodness of God is seen. This
from an encyclical to the church in Antioch.
1723 The four ancient Patriarchates recognized the termination of
the Patriarchate of Moscow and the establishment of the Holy
Synod.
1724 Creation of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church from the
Antiochian Orthodox Church. Upon the death of Patriarch
Athanasios III Debbas, two rival parties within the Church
supported different candidates. The pro-Roman party, centered in
Damascus, elected Cyril VI patriarch, while those opposed to
union with Rome, whose power base was centered in Aleppo,
supported a Cypriot monk, Sylvester, whom Athanasios had
designated to be his successor. Constantinople and the Ottoman
government recognized Sylvester. In 1728, Cyril's election was
recognized by Pope Benedict XIII. Roughly one-third of the
Orthodox followed Cyril into schism.
1727 Catherine I (1725-27) ordered all Jews to depart Russia and
Ukraine. This edict was not enforced.
1732 Geoge Berkeley (later Anglican bishop of Cloyne, Ireland)
published Alciphron; or, The Minute Philosopher, a defense of
Christianity against deists and freethinkers.
1738 The Anglican priest John Wesley, and his brother Charles,
both reported conversion experiences. Working with George
Whitefield, the Wesleys began the Methodist Revival within the
Church of England. The Methodists split from the Anglicans in
1795.
1738 In Russia, a Jew was convicted of converting a naval officer to
Judaism. Both were burned to death on 15 July.
1740 Ludovica Antonio Muratori published a late second century
list of New Testament scriptures, the Muratorian Canon. See year
200 above.
1741 Elizabeth (1741-62) ruled Russia. She confiscated most of the
monastic lands.
1742 The Jews were evicted from Russia. The empresss court
physician, Antonio Nunes Ribeiro Sanchez, was prevented from
returning to Russia to resume his post.
1744 Publication of Rattays The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of
Jerusalem. This work was influential in the 1764 revision of the
Scottish Communion Service (based on Lauds 1637 liturgy and the
1549 Book of Common Prayer). The 1764 Scottish Communion
Service in turn formed the basis of the service used in the
Episcopal Church in the US after the American War of
Independence (see 1789).
1748 Publication of David Humes An Enquiry Concerning Human
Understanding. He concluded that rational inquiry could only
make headway among ideas (e.g., as in Euclids geometry); it
makes no progress in the world of facts (which could very well be
other than they are). In this way he asserted that causality is not a
rational principle, but a habit of the mind.
1752 The Gregorian calendar was adopted in England. The
calendar was adrift by 12 days (it had been only 10 days off in
1582). To accommodate the change, Christmas Day 1782 became
Epiphany, 1783. (Wednesday, September 2, 1752 was followed by
Thursday, September 14.) Common people complained that they
had been robbed of 12 days of their lives. Epiphany (January 6)
came to be called Old Christmas.
1755 Anti-Roman feelings had become quite strong in the Middle
East. The Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem
declared Roman Catholic baptism invalid, and ordered the
rebaptism of converts.
1757 Pope Benedict XIV (1740-58) permitted the reading of Bible
translations if such Bible-versions in the vernacular are approved
by the apostolic see or are edited with annotations derived from
the holy fathers of the Church or from learned and Catholic men.
This overturned the Roman Catholic Churchs long-standing
prohibition on reading the Bible in the vernacular (see 1546, 1559,
1564, 1596, and 1606).
1762 Reign of Catherine II (1762-96) in Russia. On 4 December she
invited non-Jewish foreigners to immigrate.
1763 St. Paissy Velichkovsky became abbot of the monastery of
Niamets in Romania. He turned it into a great spiritual center,
translating the works of the Greek fathers into Slavonic. From
Niamets monastic (and hesychastic) revival spread into Russia.
Also, a Slavonic translation of the Philokalia (see 1782) was made,
and published in Moscow in 1793.
1764 On February 26, Church lands in Russia became the property
of the state, and bishops and monasteries were salaried. The
Church lands provided the state with roughly 1.4 million rubles
per year, from which only about 460,000 rubles per year went to
pay clerical salaries. Only 161 of 572 monasteries were left open.
1764 The empress Catherine ordered Prince Dashkov to protect
Jews wishing to emigrate from Poland to Russia.
1764 St. Makarios (1731-1805) became Archbishop of Corinth. Due
to Turkish rule, most children were not being given an education.
Makarios built public schools in his diocese and published books.
He also corrected church practices and theology.
1769 Jews were permitted to settle in Ukraine.
1769 On 12 February, the empress Catherine published
Regulations for the Catholic Community in Russia. These
regulations dictated the number of Franciscan priests (6), forbade
proselytizing, ordered the creation of a Catholic school, and
exempted the church from town taxes. It did not, however,
interfere in Catholic doctrine.
1770+ Twelve hundred Kiev-region Uniate churches returned to
Orthodoxy.
1772 First partition of Poland lands were distributed to Austria,
Prussia and Russia. The partition was precipitated by of Russian
intervention on behalf of persecuted minorities who had lost their
rights with the laws restricting religious freedom in Poland, passed
in 1717 and 1733.
1772 On 14 December, the empress Catherine broke the
dependency of Catholics in her newly acquired territories on
bishops in Poland. She established a new Catholic bishopric in
Mogilev, in charge of all Catholics within the Russian empire,
including monastics.
1772 The publication of John Glen Kings Rites and Ceremonies of the
Greek Church in Russia made Russian forms of worship more
familiar to the English.
1773 On 21 July, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Jesuit order
through the bull Dominus ac Redemptor, giving in to pressure from
the Spanish and French.
1773 In November, the empress Catherine determined not to
promulgate the papal bull suppressing the Jesuits within Russian
territory. (Since the partition of Poland, many Catholics were now
within Russian territory.) Her action helped ensure the continuing
survival of the order.
1774 The British Parliament protected the rights of Roman
Catholics in Canada with the Quebec Act.
1776 The king of Poland banned executions for witchcraft.
1777 The empress Catherine approved the establishment of a Jesuit
novitiate in Polotsk.
1779 St. Kosmas the Aetolian (1714-79) executed by Turkish
authorities. Under Turkish rule, cultural and religious life in
Greece was dying. St. Kosmas preached the faith in Greece rather
after a Wesleyan fashion, traveling throughout the country. Seeing
the Orthodox faith and Greek language as inextricably connected,
St. Kosmas also founded many Greek schools.
1779 John Murray founded the first Universalist Church, in
Gloucester, Massachusetts.
1781 Publication of Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason. At
least partly in response to David Humes philosophy (see 1748),
Kant speculated that the real world cannot be known, and that the
world we know is determined by modes of understanding. In this
way, he re-established the sway of rationality over phenomena, at
the expense of knowledge of the real world.
1781 The Holy Roman emperor Joseph II signed the Edict of
Toleration, which gave non-Catholic minorities in the empire
toleration. As a result of the edict, some monasteries were
dissolved, diocesan boundaries redrawn, and seminaries came
under state control. The edict also urged the cessation of some
festivals and superstitious practices that conflicted with
Enlightenment sentiments.
1782 Pope Pius VI (1775-99) visited the Holy Roman emperor
Joseph II in Vienna. He attempted to convince Joseph to weaken
his 1781 Edict of Toleration, but Joseph was not moved.

1782 The Philokalia, an anthology of ascetic and mystical texts
from the fourth to the fifteenth century, was published in Vienna.
It was compiled by St. Macarius, Metropolitan of Corinth, and St.
Nicodemus of the Holy Mountain.
1782 Without waiting for papal approval, the empress Catherine
raised Mogilev to an archbishopric. The pope finally agreed to the
move in 1783.
1783 The Treaty of Versailles ended the American war of
independence.
1784 Dr. Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop at Aberdeen,
Scotland. He then returned to Connecticut to lead the Protestant
Episcopal Church in that state and in Rhode Island.
1784 The empress Catherine placed Irakli Lisovsky, a Uniate
bishop, in charge of all Uniate secular and regular clergy.
1786 Sir William James proposed the hypothesis that Sanscrit,
Latin, Greek, Germanic, and Celtic were all derived form a dead
Indo-European original.
1786 On 7 May, the empress Catherine published an edict giving
Jews civil equality in Russia. This was the first such statement in
Europe.
1786 Scipione di Ricci, bishop of Pistoia-Prato, presided over a
synod held to reform the Catholic Church in Tuscany. The synod
of Pistoia approved a series of decrees that endorsed Jansenism
and Gallicanism. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Peter Leopold
(later the Holy Roman emperor Leopold II) enthusiastically
supported the synod.
1787 On April 23, a national assembly of Tuscan bishops met in
Florence. It rejected the decrees of the synod of Pistoia (1786).
1788 The Protestation of the English Catholics was signed by the
vicars-general and practically all Catholic clergy and laity of note.
It attested to Parliament that we acknowledge no infallibility of
the Pope. This statement was instrumental in the passage of the
Relief Act in 1790.
1789 The first official prayer book of the Episcopal Church in the
US issued. The Communion Service was based on the 1764
Scottish service. (See 1744.)
1790 Under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the French
Assembly nationalized Church lands. The Church became a
department of the state and clergy, state officials.
1791 On March 10, Pope Pius VI (1775-99) denounced the French
Revolution and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
1793 On January 21, Louis XVI, king of France, beheaded.
1793/5 Twenty-three hundred Uniate churches returned to
Orthodoxy under Catherine the Great (1762-96). Almost all of Red
and White Ruthenia had come under Russian control with the
second and third partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795.
1794 Publication of Richard Brothers A Revealed Knowledge of the
Prophecies and Times. Brothers announced that the world would be
destroyed in 1795. He claimed to be the heir of king David and
stated that the Jews would be restored to Palestine in 1798, with
himself as their ruler. Brothers ended his days in confinement as a
lunatic.
1794 Pope Pius VI (1775-99) condemned 85 propositions of the
synod of Pistoia (1786). Bishop Ricci later recanted.
1794 The empress Catherine ordered that Jews pay twice the taxes
Christians in the same social class were paying.
1794 Publication of Richard Brothers A Revealed Knowledge of the
Prophecies and Times. Brothers announced that the world would be
destroyed in 1795. He claimed to be the heir of king David and
stated that the Jews would be restored to Palestine in 1798, with
himself as their ruler. Brothers ended his days in confinement as a
lunatic.
1796 The Uniate Metropolitanate of Kiev ceased to exist.
1797 As a result of Bonapartes invasion of Italy (1796), Pope Pius
VI (1775-99) signed the treaty of Tolentino, by which he
surrendered Bologna and Tolentino.
1798 Pope Pius VI (1775-99) was forced into exile from Rome by
French troops. Premillenialists saw this as a fulfillment of
prophecies of the 1260-day reign of the Beast, dating the rise of
the papacy to 538.
1800 Orthodox influence in the Holy Land began a dramatic rise in
this period. Latin monks were lamenting that the Church of the
Nativity had been in Greek hands for forty or fifty years. A steady
flow of financial aid and pilgrims streamed into the Holy Land
from Russia.

The Nineteenth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index



1802 Georg Friderich Grotefend decifered the cuneiform writing of
ancient Sumeria.
1804 Alexis Khomiakov (1804-60) born. Khomiakov looked to
Orthodox sources for theology, rather than employing Roman
Catholic arguments against Protestants and vice versa.
1808 St. Nikita the Albanian martyred. In Serres, Nikita went to
the Church of Divine Wisdom, which the Moslems had turned into
a mosque. He met a cripple, and told him he would be healed if he
believed in Jesus and was baptized. The cripple told the chief
teacher of the mosque, who turned him over to the authorities.
Nikita was tortured in prison, then hanged. His relics have
performed many miracles.
1808 Joseph Bonaparte suppressed the Spanish Inquisition.
1809 Members of Thomas Campbell's Christian Association of
Washington, Pennsylvania, formed a church under the pastorship
of Thomas' son, Alexander. Working with Walter Scott, who
developed a five-step plan of salvation, and with Barton Stone,
who pushed a simple and non-creedal form of
Christianity, Alexander Campbell began the Restoration
Movement. Groups that derive from this origin include the
Disciples of Christ, the Churches of Christ, and the Christian
Churches.
1812 Napoleons French Grand Army invaded Russia. When
Napoleon reached Moscow, the city was in flames. On October the
19th, the Grand Army began its retreat.
1814 Abdication of Napoleon and his exile to Elba. In 1815, he
returned, but was defeated and sent as a prisoner to the island of
St. Helena.
1814 Ferdinand VII restored the Spanish Inquisition.
1815 St. Seraphim of Sarov (1759-1833) turned from a life of
seclusion and began to receive visitors, providing advice and
healing the sick. Holy men such as this are called asstartsy in
Russia.
1817 Publication of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegels Encyclopedia
of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline.
1819 A council at Constantinople endorsed the standpoint of
the Kollyvades. This was a movement against the influence of the
Western Enlightenment in Greece. The Kollyvades endorsed the
study of the church fathers and Orthodox liturgical life, along with
frequent communion.
After William Ellery Channings sermon Unitarian Christianity
in this year, many New England congregationalist bodies became
Unitarian.
1820 Joseph Smith had a vision in Palmyra, New York, which led
to the founding of the Mormon religion. The first congregation of
Mormons was formed in 1830. Smith himself was killed in
Carthage, Illinois, in 1844. Under the leadership of Brigham
Young, his followers arrived in Utah in 1847.
1820 The Spanish Inquisition was again suppressed.
1822 The Vicar Apostolic in England, Bishop Baines, wrote that
Bellarmine and some other divines, chiefly Italians, have believed
the Pope infallible, when proposing ex cathedra an article of faith.
But in England or Ireland I do not believe that any Catholic
maintains the infallibility of the Pope.
1823 The Spanish Inquisition again restored.
1826 Thirty Roman Catholic bishops and archbishops in Ireland
signed a declaration that The Catholics of Ireland declare on oath
their belief that it is not an article of the Catholic faith, neither are
they required to believe that the pope is infallible. They
presented testimony before a committee of the English Parliament
that they and their congregations rejected both papal infallibility
and the notion that the bishop of Rome could relieve subjects from
their civil allegiance. As a result, the Roman Catholic
Emancipation Act of 1829 was enacted.
1827 The British and Foreign Bible Society resolved never to
print or distribute Bibles containing the Apocrypha. Prior to this
time, the Authorized Version had been printed without these
books, but from this year copies with the Apocrypha became even
more rare.
1827 An Anglican priest named John Nelson Darby (1800-1882)
concluded that the visible church was apostate. He began to meet
with others, the group eventually becoming known as the
Plymouth Brethren. Darby taught a radical distinction between
Israel and the church, which laid the seed for dispensational
premillenialism, popularized by the notes in the Scofield Reference
Bible.
1829 St. John of Kronstadt (1829-1908) born. Like St. Seraphim or
Sarov, he possessed the gifts of spiritual insight and healing.
1830 Greece liberated from Turkish rule.
1830 In March, Margaret McDonald, a 15-year-old Scottish girl
living in Port Glasgow, had visions in which it was revealed that
believers would be taken out of the world (a secret rapture) prior
to the appearance of the anti-Christ. It is reported that John Darby
(see 1827 above) was influenced by McDonalds visions.
1830 A twenty-four year old nun named Catherine Laboure in a
convent of the Sisters of Charity in Paris reportedly saw a vision of
the Virgin Mary. Mary appeared to her standing on a half-globe
with a globe topped with a cross in her hands. She commanded
Catherine to have a medal struck after the model of the image she
had seen. The medal, first produced in 1832, came to be known as
the Miraculous Medal.
1834 The Spanish Inquisition again suppressed.
1835 Publication of David Friedrich Strausss Das Leben Jesu kritisch
bearbeitet (The Life of Jesus Critically Examined). A Hegelian, Strauss
viewed Christianity as the synthesis of conflicting forces. In
particular, he denied the Gospels had historical value, since, in his
view, they were second-century creations, historical myths
embodying the hopes of early Christians.
1836 Pope Gregory XVI (1831-46) in effect overturned Benedict
XIVs 1757 proclamation on reading the Scriptures in the
vernacular. Benedict had allowed such translations if they were
approved by the papacy or contained notes from the Fathers.
Gregory noted that Pope Clement VIIIs requirement for papal
approval for reading the Scriptures in the vernacular was still in
effect.
1839 The Marquis de Custine visited Russia. While there, he
recorded his observations in a series of letters. These letters
provide insight into one nineteenth century Westerners blindness
toward the central message of Orthodox spirituality:
The Marquis de Custine depicts a Russian prince as attributing
Russia's backwardness to the fact that it successfully resisted
conquest by the Teutonic Knights: Think at each step you take in
this land of Asiatic people that the influence of chivalry and
Catholicism has been missed by the Russians.
Later, he himself opines: Separated from the Occident by its
adhesion to the Greek schism, Russia has come back after many
centuries, with the inconsistency of a disillusioned self-esteem, to
ask from the nations formed by Catholicism the civilization that
she has been deprived of by an entirely political religion. This
Byzantine religion, issued from a palace to help maintain order in a
camp, does not satisfy the most sublime needs of the human soul;
it helps the police deceive the nation - that is all. It has made these
people unworthy of the degree of culture to which they aspire.
The reader is left wondering if de Custine thought of religion
solely as a tool for the improvement of civilization. He was plainly
oblivious to Orthodox spirituality.
1839 The Uniate Church in Ukraine abolished. Clergy who
refused to re-unite to Orthodoxy (593 of 1898) were exiled to
Siberia or the Russian interior. Eventually, Uniates existed only in
Austrian-controlled areas of Ukraine (Galicia).
Known as the Reunion of Polotsk, Greek Catholic dioceses in
Lithuania and Belarus also re-entered the Orthodox Church in this
year, led by Iosif Semashko, bishop of Lithuania.
1839 The first French diocese to drop its local breviary in favor of
the Roman, Langres, did so in this year. Orleans was the last, in
1875.
1840 John Wilsons Lectures on Our Israelitish Origin published.
Wilson is regarded as the founder of the British-Israelite
movement, which relies on the notion that the British are
descended from one or more of the ten lost tribes of Israel. The
influence of British Israelitism peaked around 1900 with perhaps
2,000,000 believers worldwide.
1843 A baptist pastor from Vermont named William
Miller calculated that Christ's second coming would occur this
year. He later revised the date to 1844. The Seventh Day
Adventist church rose from these false predictions.
1845 Publication of Ferdinand Christian Baurs Paulus, der Apostel
Jesu Christi (Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ). Baur argued that only
Galatians, the two Corinthian letters, and Romans were genuine.
He held that the relative harmony between Jews and Gentiles
portrayed in Acts indicated that it was composed after the
apostolic period, when the details of such conflicts had been
forgotten. A Hegelian, Baur saw Jewish Christianity (led by Peter)
as thesis, Gentile (Pauline) Christianity as antithesis, and the
catholic Christianity that emerged as synthesis. This notion of
early Christian development is known as the Tubingen theory.
1846 Two children (Melanie Mathieu (14) and Maximin Giraud
(11)) herding cattle near La Salette, France, reportedly saw a vision
of a lady dressed in white who predicted crop failures and disease
in the area if people failed to attend mass regularly and to cease
using Jesus name as a curse. Subsequently, crops did fail, and
cholera struck many children in the region.
1846-60 Keenans Catechism was popular in Britain during this
period. Approved for use by four Roman Catholic bishops, to the
question, Must not all Catholics believe the Pope in himself to be
infallible? the response is, This is a Protestant invention: it is no
article of the Catholic faith; no decision of his can oblige, under
pain of heresy, unless it be received and enforced by the teaching
body; that is, by the bishops of the Church.
1847 A professor of dogmatic theology in the Collegium
Romanum, Giovanni Perrone, argued in a book published this
year that dogmas could be defined even if they lacked direct
evidence in both Scripture and written tradition. It was only
requisite that the dogmas exist as a secret tradition in the
consciousness of believers. Pope Pius IX set up a commission to
examine Perrones theory. The commission concluded that
Tradition alone was sufficient to establish a doctrine, and that the
existence of a Catholic tradition was proved when the general
agreement of the Church at any period could be verified, or when
a certain number of decisive pieces of evidence which presume it
could be produced. Thus the ground was prepared for the
Bull Ineffabilis Deus, issued in 1854.
1848 Pius IX (1846-78) sent an encyclical to the Eastern Churches in
an attempt to corrupt them from the Orthodox faith. Selections
from the Eastern Patriarchs response:
Of these heresies diffused, with what sufferings the LORD hath
known, over a great part of the world, was formerly Arianism, and
at present is the Papacy. This, too, as the former has become
extinct, although now flourishing, shall not endure, but pass away
and be cast down, and a great voice from heaven shall cry: It is cast
down (Rev. xii. 10).
Some of the Bishops of that City, styled Popes, for example Leo III
and John VIII, did indeed, as has been said, denounce the
innovation, and published the denunciation to the world, the
former by those silver plates, the latter by his letter to the holy
Photius at the eighth Ecumenical Council, and another to
Sphendopulcrus, by the hands of Methodius, Bishop of Moravia.
The greater part, however, of their successors, the Popes of Rome,
enticed by the antisynodical privileges offered them for the
oppression of the Churches of God, and finding in them much
worldly advantage, and much gain, and conceiving a Monarchy
in the Catholic Church and a monopoly of the gifts of the Holy
Ghost, changed the ancient worship at will, separating themselves
by novelties from the old received Christian Polity. Nor did they
cease their endeavors, by lawless projects (as veritable history
assures us), to entice the other four Patriarchates into their
apostasy from Orthodoxy, and so subject the Catholic Church to
the whims and ordinances of men.
The Throne of Rome is esteemed that of St. Peter by a single
tradition, but not from Holy Scripture, where the claim is in favor
of Antioch, whose Church is therefore witnessed by the great Basil
(Ep. 48 Athan.) to be the most venerable of all the Churches in the
world. Still more, the second Ecumenical Council, writing to a
Council of the West (to the most honorable and religious brethren
and fellow-servants, Damasus, Ambrose, Britto, Valerian, and
others), witnesseth, saying: The oldest and truly Apostolic
Church of Antioch, in Syria, where first the honored name of
Christians was used. We say then that the Apostolic Church of
Antioch had no right of exemption from being judged according to
divine Scripture and synodical declarations, though truly
venerated for the throne of St. Peter. But what do we say? The
blessed Peter, even in his own person, was judged before all for the
truth of the Gospel, and, as Scripture declares, was found blamable
and not walking uprightly. What opinion is to be formed of those
who glory and pride themselves solely in the possession of his
Throne, so great in their eyes? Nay, the sublime Basil the great, the
Ecumenical teacher of Orthodoxy in the Catholic Church, to whom
the Bishops of Rome are obliged to refer us (p. 8, 1.31), has clearly
and explicitly above ( 7) shown us what estimation we ought to
have of the judgments of the inaccessible Vatican: They
neither, he says, know the truth, nor endure to learn it, striving
against those who tell them the truth, and strengthening
themselves in their heresy. So that these our holy Fathers whom
his Holiness the Pope, worthily admiring as lights and teachers
even of the West, accounts as belonging to us, and advises us (p. 8)
to follow, teach us not to judge Orthodoxy from the holy Throne,
but the Throne itself and him that is on the Throne by the sacred
Scriptures, by Synodical decrees and limitations, and by the Faith
which has been preached, even the Orthodoxy of continuous
teaching. Thus did our Fathers judge and condemn Honorius,
Pope of Rome, and Dioscorus, Pope of Alexandria, and
Macedonius and Nestorius, Patriarchs of Constantinople, and
Peter Gnapheus, Patriarch of Antioch, with others. For if the
abomination of desolation stood in the Holy Place, why not
innovation and heresy upon a holy Throne? Hence is exhibited in
a brief compass the weakness and feebleness of the efforts in behalf
of the despotism of the Pope of Rome. For, unless the Church of
Christ was founded upon the immovable rock of St. Peters
Confession, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the Living God (which
was the answer of the Apostles in common, when the question was
put to them, Whom say ye that I am? (Matt. xvi. 15,) as the Fathers,
both Eastern and Western, interpret the passage to us), the Church
was built upon a slippery foundation, even on Cephas himself, not
to say on the Pope, who, after monopolizing the Keys of the
Kingdom of Heaven, has made such an administration of them as
is plain from history. But our divine Fathers, with one accord,
teach that the sense of the thrice-repeated command, Feed my
sheep, implied no prerogative in St. Peter over the other Apostles,
least of all in his successors. It was a simple restoration to his
Apostleship, from which he had fallen by his thrice-repeated
denial. St. Peter himself appears to have understood the intention
of the thrice-repeated question of our Lord: Lovest thou Me, and
more, and than these?. (John xxi. 16;) for, calling to mind the
words, Thou all shall be offended because of Thee, yet will 1 never
be offended (Matt. xxvi. 33), he was grieved because He said unto
him the third time, Lovest thou Me? But his successors, from self-
interest, understand the expression as indicative of St. Peter's more
ready mind.
... yet are we convinced from the words of our LORD, that the
time will come when that divine prayer concerning the denial of
Peter, that his faith might not fail for ever will operate also in
some one of the successors of his Throne, who will also weep, as he
did, bitterly, and being sometime converted will strengthen us, his
brethren, still more in the Orthodox Confession, which we hold
from our forefathers;and would that his Holiness might be this
true successor of the blessed Peter! To this our humble prayer,
what hinders that we should add our sincere and hearty Counsel
in the name of the Holy Catholic Church? We dare not say, as
does his Holiness (p. x. 1.22), that it should be done without any
delay; but without haste, after mature consideration, and also, if
need be, after consultation with the more wise, religious, truth-
loving, and prudent of the Bishops, Theologians, and Doctors, to
be found at the present day, by God's good Providence, in every
nation of the West.
His Holiness says that the Bishop of Lyons, St. Irenaeus, writes in
praise of the Church of Rome: That the whole Church, namely, the
faithful from everywhere, must come together in that Church,
because of its Primacy, in which Church the tradition, given by the
Apostles, has in all respects been observed by the faithful
everywhere. Although this saint says by no means what the
followers of the Vatican would make out, yet even granting their
interpretation, we reply: Who denies that the ancient Roman
Church was Apostolic and Orthodox? None of us will question
that it was a model of orthodoxy. We will specially add, for its
greater praise, from the historian Sozomen (Hist. Eccl. lib. iii. cap.
12), the passage, which his Holiness has overlooked, respecting the
mode by which for a time she was enabled to preserve the
orthodoxy which we praise:For, as everywhere, saith Sozomen,
the Church throughout the West, being guided purely by the
doctrines of the Fathers, was delivered from contention and
deception concerning these things. Would any of the Fathers or
ourselves deny her canonical privilege in the rank of the hierarchy,
so long as she was guided purely by the doctrines of the Fathers,
walking by the plain rule of Scripture and the holy Synods! But at
present we do not find preserved in her the dogma of the Blessed
Trinity according to the Creed of the holy Fathers assembled first
in Nicaea and afterwards in Constantinople, which the other five
Ecumenical Councils confessed and confirmed with such
anathemas on those who adulterated it in the smallest particular,
as if they had thereby destroyed it. Nor do we find the Apostolical
pattern of holy Baptism, nor the Invocation of the consecrating
Spirit upon the holy elements: but we see in that Church the
eucharistic Cup, heavenly drink, considered superfluous, (what
profanity!) and very many other things, unknown not only to our
holy Fathers, who were always entitled the catholic, clear rule and
index of Orthodoxy, as his Holiness, revering the truth, himself
teaches (p. vi), but also unknown to the ancient holy Fathers of the
West. We see that very primacy, for which his Holiness now
contends with all his might, as did his predecessors, transformed
from a brotherly character and hierarchical privilege into a lordly
superiority. What then is to be thought of his unwritten traditions,
if the written have undergone such a change and alteration for the
worse? ... he who is cited by his Holiness as a witness of the
primacy of the Roman Church, shows that its dignity is not that of
a lordship, nor even appellate, to which St. Peter himself was never
ordained, but is a brotherly privilege in the Catholic Church, and
an honor assigned the Popes on account of the greatness and
privilege of the City. Thus, also, the fourth Ecumenical Council, for
the preservation of the gradation in rank of Churches canonically
established by the third Ecumenical Council (Canon 8),following
the second (Canon 3), as that again followed the first (Canon 6),
which called the appellate jurisdiction of the Pope over the West a
Custom,thus uttered its determination: On account of that City
being the Imperial City, the Fathers have with reason given it
prerogatives (Canon 28). Here is nothing said of the Pope's
special monopoly of the Apostolicity of St. Peter, still less of a
vicarship in Rome's Bishops, and an universal Pastorate. This deep
silence in regard to such great privilegesnor only so, but the
reason assigned for the primacy, not Feed my sheep, not On this
rock will I build my Church, but simply old Custom, and the City
being the Imperial City; and these things, not from the LORD, but
from the Fatherswill seem, we are sure, a great paradox to his
Holiness entertaining other ideas of his prerogatives. The paradox
will be the greater, since, as we shall see, he greatly honors the said
fourth Ecumenical Synod as one to be found a witness for his
Throne; and St. Gregory, the eloquent, called the Great (lib. i. Ep.
25), was wont to speak of the four (Ecumenical Councils [not the
Roman See] as the four Gospels, and the four-sided stone on which
the Catholic Church is built.
But, finally, his Holiness says (p. ix. l.12) that the fourth
Ecumenical Council (which by mistake he quite transfers from
Chalcedon to Carthage), when it read the epistle of Pope Leo I,
cried out, Peter has thus spoken by Leo. It was so indeed. But his
Holiness ought not to overlook how, and after what examination,
our fathers cried out, as they did, in praise of Leo. Since however
his Holiness, consulting brevity, appears to have omitted this most
necessary point, and the manifest proof that an Ecumenical
Council is not only above the Pope but above any Council of his,
we will explain to the public the matter as it really happened. Of
more than six hundred fathers assembled in the Counci1 of
Chalcedon, about two hundred of the wisest were appointed by
the Council to examine both as to language and sense the said
epistle of Leo; nor only so, but to give in writing and with their
signatures their own judgment upon it, whether it were orthodox
or not ... And thus all in succession: The epistle corresponds, the
epistle is consonant, the epistle agrees in sense, and the like.
After such great and very severe scrutiny in comparing it with
former holy Councils, and a full conviction of the correctness of the
meaning, and not merely because it was the epistle of the Pope,
they cried aloud, ungrudgingly, the exclamation on which his
Holiness now vaunts himself: But if his Holiness had sent us
statements concordant and in unison with the seven holy
Ecumenical Councils, instead of boasting of the piety of his
predecessors lauded by our predecessors and fathers in an
Ecumenical Council, he might justly have gloried in his own
orthodoxy, declaring his own goodness instead of that of his
fathers. Therefore let his Holiness be assured, that if, even now, he
will write us such things as two hundred fathers on investigation
and inquiry shall find consonant and agreeing with the said former
Councils, then, we say, he shall hear from us sinners today, not
only, Peter has so spoken, or anything of like honor, but this also,
Let the holy hand be kissed which has wiped away the tears of the
Catholic Church.
1850 Pius IX (1846-78) set up a rival episcopal hierarchy in
England. He appointed Nicholas Wiseman, formerly a vicar
apostolic, as archbishop of Westminster. Wiseman was
responsible for the rising acceptance of the concept of papal
infallibility among Catholics in England, in part through the
quarterly, the Dublin Review, which he had founded in about 1835.
1852 For the crime of reading the Bible in an Italian translation and
distributing this translation in Florence, Francesco Madiai and his
wife were sentenced to four years of imprisonment by the
government of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. They were released
when Lord Palmerston threatened Tuscany with English
warships.
1853 The Crimean War began. Lasted through 1856. The war was
caused by a French demand that the Turks restore Latin rights in
the Holy Land as described in a 1740 treaty. When the Turks
complied, they dispossessed the Orthodox Christians of their
accustomed rank. The Russian tsar, Nicholas I, reacted by
demanding that the Orthodox privileges be restored and, in
addition, he be guaranteed a protectorate over all Orthodox
Christians (estimated at 12 million) in the Ottoman Empire. It was
this demand for a protectorate over the laity, and not the clergy
alone, which the Turks, backed by the British and the French,
refused to admit, which led to the war.
The Roman Catholic church had a hand in moving the British and
French against the Russians. The Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal
Sibor, at the start of the Crimean War, said, It is a sacred deed, a
God-pleasing deed, to ward off the Photian heresy [Orthodoxy],
subjugate it and destroy it with a new crusade. This is the clear
goal of today's crusade. Such was the goal of all the crusades, even
if all their participants were not fully aware of it. The war which
France is now preparing to wage against Russia is not a political
war but a holy war. It is not a war between two governments or
between two peoples, but is precisely a religious war, and other
reasons presented are only pretexts.
Dostoyevsky wrote: Militant Roman Catholicism savagely takes
the side of the Turks. At the moment, there are no more savage
haters of Russia than these militant clerics. It was not some prelate
but the Pope himself, who loudly and with joy, spoke of the
victories of the Turks and predicted a fateful future for Russia at
various Vatican meetings. This dying old man, the head of
Christianity was not ashamed to admit in public that every time
he hears of a Russian defeat he experiences joy.
1854 On December 8, Pius IX issued Ineffabilis Deus defining the
doctrine of the Immaculate Conception: that the most blessed
Virgin Mary, in the first moment of her conception, by a special
gift of grace from Almighty God, in consideration of the merits of
Jesus Christ the Savior of mankind, was preserved pure from all
taint of original sin.
1858 Bernadette Soubirous, a 14-year old French girl, claimed to
have seen a white figure with a rosary who spoke to her in French,
saying, I am the Immaculate Conception. The figure showed
Bernadette where to find a previously unknown spring of water.
Thus began the pilgrimage destination of Lourdes.
1858 A Christian nurse in a Jewish familys home in Bologna (at
that time, within the Papal States), baptized their small son
without their consent. The boy was taken from his parents and
raised at Rome in a home for converted Jews. Indignation at this
act was widespread in Europe, but ineffectual.
1859 Tischendorf discovered Codex Sinaiticus (Aleph) at the
Monastery of Saint Catherine, at the foot of Mount Sinai. Aleph is
of the Alexandrian text type, with some Western readings. (See
350 for contents, 130 for a remark on the Epistle of Barnabas.)
1859 Charles Robert Darwins On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection published.
1860 On July 9, a Muslim mob attacked the Christian quarter in
Damascus. Over 2500 men were killed, apart from women and
children. Many of the latter were sold into slavery. The
patriarchal cathedral was burned, and those who had fled there for
safety died. Turkish troops were involved in the slaughter.
1861 On February 19, Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs.
1864 Pope Pius IX (1846-78) presented his syllabus of errors. One
error is that it is no longer expedient that the Catholic religion be
held as the only religion of the state, to the exclusion of all others.
The syllabus also disapproves of secular public education and the
separation of church and state. Catholics are forbidden to consider
that the popes conduct may have contributed to the schism
between East and West. It is held to be an error that, Every man
is free to embrace and profess that religion which, guided by the
light of reason, he shall consider true.
1866 John Mason Neale (born 1818) died this year. Neale
translated many ancient Latin and Greek hymns into English.
1867 Protestant attitudes toward other Christians were sometimes
smugly triumphant in this era. The third volume of Philip
Schaff's History of the Church was published in this year. Of the
Monophysite churches of the East, Schaff wrote, "They have long
since fallen into stagnation, ignorance, and superstition, and are to
Christendom as a praying corpse to a living man. They are
isolated fragments of the ancient church history, and curious
petrifactions from the Christological battle-fields of the fifth and
sixth centuries .... But Providence has preserved them, like the
Jews, and doubtless not without design .... Their very hatred of the
orthodox Greek church makes them more accessible both to
Protestant and Roman missions, and to the influences of Western
Christianity and Western civilization.
"On the other hand, they are a door for Protestantism to the
Arabs and the Turks; to the former through the Jacobites, to the
later through the Armenians. There is more reason to hope for
their conversion, because the Mohammedans despise the old
Oriental churches, and must be won, if at all, by a purer type of
Christianity." Thus, it was thought necessary to convert fellow
Christians, not simply in order to enlighten them with Protestant
truth, but to exploit their conversion to bring the gospel to Islam.
1870 The first Vatican Council defined the doctrine of Papal
Infallibility.
The statement on papal infallibility, Pastor Aeturnus: We teach
and define as a divinely revealed dogma that when the Roman
pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in the exercise of his office
as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme
apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or
morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine
assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which
the divine Redeemer willed his church to enjoy in defining
doctrine concerning faith and morals. Therefore, such definitions
of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by consent of the
church, irreformable.
Pastor Aeturnus claims to be in accordance with the ancient and
constant faith of the universal church and to faithfully adhere to
the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith.
There is thus no recourse here to Newmans system of doctrinal
development. It teaches also that the jurisdiction of the bishop of
Rome is truly episcopal, is immediate; to which all, of whatever
rite and dignity, both pastors and faithful, both individually and
collectively, are bound. Those who disagree are assured that
This is the teaching of Catholic truth, from which no one can
deviate without loss of faith and salvation.
The Melkite Patriarch Maximos IV subsequently disclosed, that in
the aftermath of the then patriarch's opposition to the definition of
Papal infallibility at the first Vatican council, His Beatitude had
been forced to the ground before the Papal throne while Pius IX
(1846-78) placed his foot on his head.
The Archbishop of Bologna, Cardinal Guidi, made a speech at the
council urging the Pope to exercise his infallibility only after taking
counsel with the bishops of the Church. Pius IX scolded him
afterwards. Guidi responded that he simply maintained that
bishops are the witness of tradition. Witnesses of tradition?
responded the Pope, There is only one; that's me.
1870-74 Publication of Albrecht Ritschls Die christliche Lehre von der
Rechtfertigung und Versohnung (The Christian Doctrine of Justification
and Reconciliation).Ritschl saw Christianity as an ellipse.One focus
is the reconciliation of God and man through the life and death of
Jesus (the religious focus).The other (the ethical focus) is the
Kingdom of God.In Ritschls view, modern Christianity placed
insufficient emphasis on doing Gods will as the means of
advancing the Kingdom of God.
1871 At Portmain, France, the Virgin Mary reportedly appeared to
Eugene Barbadette, age 12, his brother Joseph, 10, and two girls:
Francoise Richer, 11, and Jeanne-Marie Lebosse, 9. It was thought
that the vision was related to the halt of the German armys
advance on Laval.
1873 Jerusalem Codex. Philotheos Byrennios, Head Master of the
higher Greek school in Constantinople and later Metropolitan of
Nicomedia, discovered a collection of manuscripts in the hand of a
certain Leon, dated 1056, in the Jerusalem Monastery of the Holy
Sepulchre in Constantinople. The collection included (1) a
summary of the Bible by St. John Chrysostom, (2) The Epistle of
Barnabas, (3) the two Epistles of Clement to the Corinthians, (4)
The Didache of the Twelve Apostles, (5) The Epistle of Mary of
Cassoboli to Ignatius, and (6) Twelve Epistles of Ignatius. The
discovery provided the second copy of Barnabas (the first being in
Sinaiticus). It completed the text of 2 Clement (the epistles of
Clement are included in Alexandrinus, though 2 Clement in that
uncial is only 3/5 the length of the same epistle in the Jerusalem
Codex.) The Didache was previously unknown.
1876 St. Theophan the Recluse (1815-94) began issuing a
translation of the Philokalia, in five volumes, in Russian.
1877 St. Arsenios of Paros (1800-1877) died. Forty days after his
death, his remains were incorrupt and wonderously fragrant.
1879 At Knock, Ireland, several people reportedly saw an
apparition of the Virgin Mary, St. Joseph, and (possibly) St. John
the Evangelist, all motionless. Some witnesses also saw a lamb, an
altar, and a cross in the same scene.
1879Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) promoted the philosophy and
theology of Thomas Aquinas.Before this time, Thomism had been
in decline.
1881 Westcott and Hort published their New Testament. Their
classification of textual witnesses into four categories - Neutral
(Aleph and B), Alexandrian, Western (D, Old Syrian, Old Latin,
and the Western Fathers), and Syrian (A
e
and the majority of
manuscripts) - along with their low regard for the Syrian type, has
been criticized in the twentieth century with the discovery of older
(papyrus) manuscripts containing Syrian readings. The Westcott
and Hort text relies primarily on B (Vaticanus) and Aleph
(Sinaiticus).
1883-84 The first three parts of Friedrich Nietsches Also sprach
Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra) were published.(The complete
work appeared in 1892.)The work begins with Zarathustra,
descending from 10 years solitude in the mountains, meeting a
saint in the forest.After they part, Zarathustra says to himself,
Could it be possible!This old saint in the forest hath not yet heard
of it, that God is dead!
1884 The Candid Narrations of a Pilgrim to His Spiritual Father first
published, in Kazan. Now published as The Way of a Pilgrim, the
books tells of the spiritual journey of a Russian peasant into the
ways of Orthodox mysticism.
1885 Revised Version published. American Edition published in
1901 as the American Standard Version.
1889 Dutch Catholics who had separated from Rome early in this
century and German and other European Catholics who rejected
the dogma of Papal Infallibility formed theOld Catholic Church in
the Union of Utrecht.
1891 Father Alexis Toth, priest at St. Marys Greek Catholic Church
in St. Paul, Minnesota, led his congregation into the Russian
Orthodox Church. Father Toth had arrived in the United States in
1889. When his archbishop, John Ireland, learned that Toth had
been married, he forbade him from serving his parish. This
unwillingness on the part of a Roman Catholic prelate to
accommodate Greek Catholic practices led to the congregations
return to the Orthodox faith.
1893 Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) published his encyclical On the
Study of Holy Scripture. It takes a quite fundamentalist tone in the
following passage:
It is true, no doubt, that copyists have made mistakes in the text
of the Bible; this question, when it arises, should be carefully
considered on its merits, and the fact not too easily admitted, but
only in those passages where the proof is clear. It may also happen
that the sense of a passage remains ambiguous, and in this case
good hermeneutical methods will greatly assist in clearing up the
obscurity. But it is absolutely wrong and forbidden, either to
narrow inspiration to certain parts only of Holy Scripture, or to
admit that the sacred writer has erred. For the system of those
who, in order to rid themselves of these difficulties, do not hesitate
to concede that divine inspiration regards the things of faith and
morals, and nothing beyond, because (as they wrongly think) in a
question of the truth or falsehood of a passage, we should consider
not so much what God has said as the reason and purpose which
He had in mind in saying it - this system cannot be tolerated. For
all the books which the Church receives as sacred and canonical,
are written wholly and entirely, with all their parts, at the
dictation of the Holy Ghost; and so far is it from being possible
that any error can co-exist with inspiration, that inspiration not
only is essentially incompatible with error, but excludes and rejects
it as absolutely and necessarily as it is impossible that God
Himself, the supreme Truth, can utter that which is not true. This
is the ancient and unchanging faith of the Church, solemnly
defined in the Councils of Florence and of Trent, and finally
confirmed and more expressly formulated by the Council of the
Vatican. These are the words of the last: The Books of the Old
and New Testament, whole and entire, with all their parts, as
enumerated in the decree of the same Council (Trent) and in the
ancient Latin Vulgate, are to be received as sacred and canonical.
And the Church holds them as sacred and canonical, not because,
having been composed by human industry, they were afterwards
approved by her authority; nor only because they contain
revelation without error; but because, having been written under
the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, they have God for their author.

1895 The Turks assaulted the Armenian quarter of the town of
Urfa. About 3000 who escaped fled to a cathedral. The Turks shot
at them through the windows, broke through the iron doors, fired
upon the Armenians from the raised altar, and set the cathedral on
fire.
1896 Pope Leo XIII, in his Apostolicae Curae, declared Anglican
orders invalid.
1897 Papyri were discovered at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, in an ancient
rubbish heap. During the excavation, which continued until 1907,
28 papyri containing portions of the New Testament were
unearthed, most of which date between 200 and 400: P1, 5, 9, 10,
13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 39, 51, 69, 70,
71, 77, 78, and 90.
1900 Pope Leo XIII, on the possibility of salvation outside of the
Roman Catholic Church, in his Tametsi (1 November 1900): All
who would find salvation apart from the Church, are led astray
and strive in vain.
1900 Adolf von Harnacks most popular work, Das Wesen des
Christentums (What is Christianity?) published. A liberal theologian,
Harnack emphasized the historical development of Christianity
and held that dogmas related to God and Christ, developed in the
Hellenistic culture of the Roman Empire, were unnecessary in the
modern world.

The Twentieth Century
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


1904 Fr. Raphael Hawaweeny was consecrated bishop, responsible
for all Orthodox Christians of Arabic descent in the United States.
Bishop Hawaweeny was canonized a saint of the Orthodox Church
on May 28, 2000.
1905 Assassination of the Grand Duke Sergei Romanov. His wife,
Elisabeth Feodorovna, daughter of the Grand Duke Louis of Hess-
Darmstadt and Princess Alice of England, visited his assassin in
prison. Elisabeth later used her wealth to found the Sisterhood of
the Myrophoroi Martha and Mary, who managed a convent, a
hospital, and an orphanage. Elisabeth was deported to Siberia in
1918 where she and other Romanovs were thrown down a
mineshaft, where they died. Her relics were later transferred to the
Magdalene church at Gethsemane. (Elisabeth was sister to
Alexandra, wife of Tsar Nicholas II.)
1907 The papal bull Ea Semper curtailed the rights of Greek
Catholics in the United States. It required that all Ruthenian
Clergy be celibate, forbade clergy from administering baptism and
chrismation, made the Ruthenian church in the US report directly
to Rome rather than to the leaders in Ruthenia and Galacia,
mandated that bishops be appointed directly by Rome, required
Ruthenian bishops to obtain permission from Latin Rite Bishop
before visiting Ruthenian parishes, and allowed Ruthenians
wishing to be priests to study at Latin seminaries, but only if they
were celibate.
1908 After the Young Turks seized power in Turkey, Armenians
were allowed to bear arms, and so were conscripted into the
military. See 1915 below.
1909 Conservative American scholars published a series of
twelve booklets defending fundamentalism under the title, The
Fundamentals: A Testimony of Truth. The Scofield Study Bible was
also published in this year, popularizing the system of
dispensational premillenialism.
1910 Death of Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910), the founder of
Christian Science.
1915 Armenian conscripts in the Turkish army were relieved of
their weapons and made to serve in labor battalions. They were
forced to carry heavy loads extremely long distances. Those who
survived these labors were shot.
Rural Armenians were either killed or marched into the Syrian
desert. Armenians in Trebizond were loaded onto ships which
were then sunk in the Black Sea. Those who survived the march
into the desert were interned at concentration camps in
Mesopotamia and Syria. Estimates of the number of those killed
range from 300,000 (Turkish historians) to 1.5 million. A further
800,000 were dispersed into foreign countries.
1917 The first phase of the persecution of the Orthodox Church in
Russian began. Much of the persecution in this period was
conducted in a non-systematic manner by individual Bolshevik
war lords. Lenin intended to destroy the Church by abolishing
private property, and thus eliminating the Church's income.
Between 1917 and 1935, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested.
Of these, 95,000 were put to death, executed by firing squad.
1915-17 Three children (Lucia Santos (born 1907), Francisco (1908)
and Jacinta (1910) Marto) reportedly saw visions of the Virgin
Mary at Fatima, Portugal. On Oct 13, 1917, 70,000 people were
present when what has come to be called the solar miracle
occurred: the sun is said to have danced and to have shed blue
and then yellow light.
1917 The Balfour declaration issued. Gave British support to the
establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish
people.
1918-20 Outbreak of the Spanish Flu. More died from the flu than
were killed in World War I.
1918 The All-Russia Emergency Commission under Felix
Dzerzhinsky executed over 3000 Orthodox clergymen of all ranks.
Some were drowned in ice-holes or poured over with cold water in
winter until they turned to ice-pillars.
1918 The Greek Catholic church in the US was split in two: the
Ruthenian Byzantine Catholic Church and the Ukrainian Catholic
Church.
1919 Publication of Karl Barths Der Romerbrief (The Epistle to the
Romans). Barths theology was characterized by emphases on the
wholly otherness of God and the notion that the Bible only
becomes the Word of God as it is read. Barth was one of the
organizers of the Synod of Barmen (1934).
1919 Publication of Karl Barths Der Romerbrief (The Epistle to the
Romans). Barths theology was characterized by emphases on the
wholly otherness of God and the notion that the Bible only
becomes the Word of God as it is read. Barth was one of the
organizers of the Synod of Barmen (1934).
1921 The second phase of the persecution of the Church in Russia.
The Orthodox Church was stigmatized as a subversive element
loyal to the old tsarist regime, while other religions were tolerated.
1922 The Solovki Camp of Special Purpose, the worlds first
concentration camp, established in the Solovki Islands in the White
Sea. Eight metropolitans, twenty archbishops, and forty-seven
bishops of the Orthodox Church died there, along with tens of
thousands of the laity. (See 1922 for a related entry.)
1923 An Inter-Orthodox Congress authorized local churches to
adopt the Gregorian calendar for most feast days.
1924 The Ecumenical Patriarch introduced use of the Gregorian
Calendar within the Orthodox Church. The Churches of
Alexandria, Antioch, Greece, Cyprus, Romania and Poland soon
followed.
1925 The Scopes trial held in Dayton, Tennessee. John Thomas
Scopes was found guilty of violating a state law which required
that only creationism be taught in the state's public schools.
Clarence Darrows defense of Scopes and press coverage favorable
to the defendant turned public opinion in his favor.
1925 The Roman Catholic Church introduced the Feast of Christ
the King into the calendar.
1928 Third phase of the Soviet persecution of the Church. The
New Economic Policy was discontinued in April, with the result
that the Orthodox Church was considered a private enterprise,
subject to excessive taxation. Clergy were not allowed to vote or
serve in the armed forces, but were taxed for failing to do so.
These taxes, in addition to the tax (up to 81%) on private
enterprise, often resulted in taxation of the clergy in excess of their
income.
1928 As an example of Soviet persecution of the Church, the Raifa
monastery in Kazan, Tartarstan was shut down in this year. The
monks were executed. The monastery itself became a labor
commune.
1929 Pope Pius XI issued the bull Cum Data Fuerit, which regulated
Greek Catholics in the United States. The bull forbade Greek
Catholics from ordaining married men to the priesthood and
immigrant married priests from serving parishes in the United
States.
1929 The Soviet government began a serious crackdown on
religion. All forms of religious propaganda were forbidden.
The expression of religion was restricted to the space within the
church structure. Clergy with incomes in excess of 3000 rubles per
year were forced to vacate nationalized urban housing. Clergy
and their families were disenrolled from state insurance programs,
including medical care. A five-day work week was introduced in
order to prevent worship on Sunday.
In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox
Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to 200-300.
Approximately 40,000 Orthodox clergy and millions of laymen
were killed for their faith between 1917 and 1940.
1929 Publication of Rudolf Bultmanns (Der Begriff der Offenbarung
im Neuen Testament (The Concept of Revelation in the New Testament.)
Influenced by Existential philosophy, Bultmann argued that the
New Testament should be demythologized that New Testament
myths should be de-emphasized. To him, the historical Jesus
was irrelevant. Instead, Christian faith should be focused on the
proclamation of the essential meaning of the New Testament.
1930/31 Three papyrus manuscripts were purchased. Their point
of origin is unknown. Designated P45, 46 and 47, they are known
as the Chester Beaty Papyri, after their owner, Chester Beaty of
Dublin.
1931 The Old Catholics and the Anglicans established communion
in the Bonn Agreement.
1931 The bishop of Rome relinquished all claims to territory within
Italy except for Vatican City.
1934 The Synod of Barmen. German Protestant leaders met at
Barmen in the Ruhr to organize resistance to Hitler and National
Socialism.
1938 Ruthenian Catholics, upset over Cum Data Fuerit (1929), had
petitioned Ecumenical Patriarch Benjamin I in 1937 to be received
into Orthodoxy. In this year, Father Orestes Chornock was
ordained as their bishop, and the group came under the authority
of the Greek Orthodox archdiocese, thus partially healing the
schism created in 1646.
1939 During World War II (1939-45), 700,000 Serbs were killed by
the predominantly Roman Catholic Croats. In Croatia, Serbs were
forced to wear the Cyrillic character P for Provoslavets, or
Orthodox. The Catholic Archbishop of Zagreb, who was
indifferent to the treatment of the Orthodox, has recently been
canonized by the Roman Catholic Church.
Also, Orthodox in Poland were forcibly converted to Roman
Catholicism at this time.
1942 The National Association of Evangelicals formed.
1942 Friar Tomislav Pilipovic Majstorovic, aka Fra Satona or
Brother Satan, led Ustashe (Croatian) forces as they killed 2500
Serbian residents of Banja Luka.
1944 Soviet authorities began to pressure Byzantine-rite Ukrainian
Catholic bishops to dissolve the Union of Brest-Litovsk (see 1596).
1945 The Nag Hammadi library discovered. It consists of 12
papyrus books and 8 leaves from a thirteenth book. The fifty-two
tractates these books contain cover a variety of religious subjects,
many from a Gnostic perspective.
1946 A Ukrainian Greek Catholic synod, which met from 8-10
March, broke the Union of Brest-Litovsk (see 1596). The Ukrainian
Greek Catholic Church was banned and its property turned over to
the Russian Orthodox Church. Those who disagreed with the
synod were forced underground (~1300) or imprisoned (~1600).
Those arrested were either shot or deported to Siberia.
Approximately eleven hundred returned to Orthodoxy.
1950 During the 50s and early 60s, a group of New Testament
manuscripts known as the Bodmer Papyri (after Martin Bodmer of
Geneva) were discovered and published. These include P66, 72,
73, 74, and 75.
1952 Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser led a coup that replaced Egypt's
monarchy. During the 1950s, Nasser's economic reforms tended to
transfer wealth away from Egypt's Coptic minority, which had
enjoyed relative affluence.
1962 The Roman Catholic Church convened the Second Vatican
Council in October of this year. The council closed in December,
1965
1964 On Jan. 5, 1964, Patriarch Athenagoras I and Pope Paul VI
(1963-78) met in Jerusalem. Their embrace of peace and
declaration of reconciliation was the first official act by the two
churches since the Schism in 1054. Then in 1965 both churches
lifted the anathemas and excommunications placed against one
another in 1054.
1967 Though persecution had begun in 1944, the government of
Albania prohibited all religions in this year. The country had been
perhaps 35 percent Orthodox, 10 percent Catholic, and the
remainder Moslem. When the persecution ended at the end of
1990, there were only 22 Orthodox clergy in the country, down
from 440 sixty years earlier.
1970 Publication of a definitive Roman missal containing the
revised liturgy.
1979 Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) decreed that the New Vulgate
version was to be considered typical and used in the liturgy.
The New Vulgate took into account the former Vulgates wording,
but adhered to the most recent critical editions of the original texts.
1979 The Episcopal Church in the US adopted a new prayer book.
1979 Archimandrite Philumen, keeper of the Orthodox monastery
at Jacob's Well in Nablus, was murdered. One week earlier, his life
had been threatened by Israelis who demanded that the cross and
icons be removed from the church of Jacob's Well. Father
Philumen's murderers also desecrated the church. Philumen's
remains were subsequently exhumed and found to be without
decay.
1981 Mehmet Ali Agca, a Turkish national, attempted to
assassinate Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) in Rome.
1989 The Byzantine-rite Ukrainian Catholic Church was legalized.
Very soon, Ukrainian Greek Catholics began seizing property from
the Russian Orthodox Church, with the complicity of state
authorities and often by violence. These buildings had belonged to
to the Ukrainian Greek Catholics prior to that groups suppression
in 1946.
1995 Pope John Paul II (1978-2005) issued the encyclical Orientale
Lumen, encouraging reunion between East and West.
1996 The Holy Synod of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church in a
resolution called for the establishment of communion with the
Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch. The resolution seems to have
been inspired by the statements of the retired Melkite Archbishop
of Baalbeck, Lebanon, Elias Zoghby. Zoghby said that he believed
everything that the Orthodox Church believes, and that he was in
communion with Rome in the limits recognized to the first among
the bishops by the Holy Fathers of the East during the first
millennium before the separation. The Orthodox replied that
they could not establish communion on those terms. The issue,
they said, could not be separated from that of restoring
communion between the see of Rome and all Orthodox Churches.
1998 In August, two Copts were murdered in El-Kosheh, a villiage
in Upper Egypt. Instead of arresting the perpetrators, whose
identity was well-known, the police seized and tortured many of
the local (70% Christian) populace. The police responsible for this
brutality were promoted. On New Years Eve 1999, more violence
erupted in El-Kosheh, leaving 19 Christians and 2 Muslims dead.
Copts account for approximately 16% of Egypts population.
2000 Some historians estimate that as many as 50 million
Christians were put to death during the twentieth century,
primarily in Communist Russia and China.
Sources
If there is no index on the left, click here: Index


The Timeline of Church History was begun, as best I can recall, in
1996. At that time, my interest was mainly to prepare a
chronology of the events surrounding the seven Ecumenical
Councils. The kernel of the timeline was generated using material
in:
- Chadwick, Henry. The Early Church. New York: Dorset
Press, 1967; and
- Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines. San Francisco:
Harper & Row, 1978.
This initial skeleton was fleshed out with events gleaned from:
- Roberts, Alexander and James Donaldson. Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1995; and
- Schaff, Philip. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Peabody,
Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1995.
For the extensive treatment of the fourth century, particularly the
Arian heresy, the fourth volume of the second series of the Nicene
and Post-Nicene Fathers set was invaluable, especially the
prologomena by Archibald Roberts and Athanasius own record of
the events of the councils. Material related to the decrees and
canons of the seven Ecumenical Councils themselves has been
quoted from the forteenth volume of the second series.
Since that beginning, entries have been gleaned from multiple
sources. What follows is a partial list, limited by my memory. I
intend to gather the missing sources into this list over time and
add new ones as the work expands.
- Aland et al. Greek-English New Testament. Stuttgart:
Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994.
- Angold, Michael. Church and Society in Byzantium under the
Comneni 1081-1261. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
- Attwater, Donald. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints.
London: Penguin, 1995.
- Barraclough, Geoffrey. The Medieval Papacy. Harcourt,
Brace & World, 1968.
- Bede. Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. London:
The Aldine Press, 1954.
- Bede. The Reckoning of Time. Liverpool: Liverpool
University Press, 1999.
- Berthold, George. Maximus Confessor. New York: Paulist
Press, 1985. [See especially the introduction by Jaroslav
Pelikan.]
- Brown, Peter. The Body and Society. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1988.
- Brown, Peter. The Rise of Western Christendom. Malden,
MA: Blackwell, 2003.
- Burke, James. Connections. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company, 1978.
- Burke, James. The Day the Universe Changed. Boston: Little,
Brown and Company, 1985.
- Bury, J.B. History of the Later Roman Empire. New York:
Dover, 1958.
- Cantor, Norman. Medieval History. London: Macmillan,
1969.
- Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin,
1997.
- Dickens, A.G. The English Reformation. New York:
Schocken Books, 1976.
- Duffy, Eamon. Saints & Sinners. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2001.
- Durant, Will. The Story of Civilization. New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1963.
- Duruy, Victor. The History of the Middle Ages. New York:
Henry Holt and Company, 1891.
- Encyclopedia Britannica (15th edition). Chicago: 1986.
- Figel, Jack. Byzantine Christianity and Islam. Fairfax, VA:
Eastern Christian Publications, 2001.
- Fletcher, Richard. The Barbarian Conversion. New York:
Henry Holt and Company, 1997.
- Fox, Robin Lane. Pagans and Christians. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, Inc.: 1989.
- Gerson, Lloyd P. Plotinus. New York: Routledge, 1994.
- Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
New York: The Modern Library.
- Gottfried, Robert S. The Black Death. New York: The Free
Press, 1983.
- Grant, Edward. Physical Science in the Middle Ages. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
- Grillmeier, Alloys and Theresia Hainthaler. Christ in
Christian Tradition, Volume 2, From the Council of Chalcedon
(451) to Gregory the Great (590-604), Part Two, The Church of
Alexandria in the sixth century. Louisville: Westminster John
Knox Press, 1995.
- Grillmeier, Alloys and Theresia Hainthaler. Christ in
Christian Tradition, Volume 2, From the Council of Chalcedon
(451) to Gregory the Great (590-604), Part Four, The Church of
Alexandria with Nubia and Ethiopia after 451. Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.
- Guettee, Rene-Francois. The Papacy. Blanco, Texas: New
Sarov Press, no year given. [This is a reprint of, it appears,
an 1866 edition.]
- Gwynne, Walker. The Christian Year. London: Longmans,
Green & Co., 1926.
- Herrin, Judith. The Formation of Christendom. Princeton
New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987.
- Hierotheos, Metropolitan of Nafpaktos. Life After Death.
Levadia, Greece: Birth of the Theotokos Monastery, 1998.
- Hippolytus. The Apostolic Tradition. Ridgefield,
Connecticut: Morehouse Publishing, 1992.
- Hussey, J. M. The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire.
Oxford University Press, 1986.
- Keen, Maurice. The Penguin History of Medieval Europe.
London: Penguin, 1968.
- Le Goff, Jaques. The Birth of Purgatory. Chicago: The
Univerisity of Chicago Press, 1986.
- Leith, John H. Creeds of the Churches. Chicago: Aldine
Publishing Company, 1963.
- Luibheid, Colm. Pseudo-Dionysius, The Complete Works.
New York: Paulist Press, 1987. [See especially the
introductions: The Odyssey of Dionysian Spirituality, by
Jaroslav Pelikan; Influence and noninfluence of Dionysius
in the Western Middle Ages, by Jean Leclercq; and
Pseudo-Dionysius and the Reformation of the Sixteenth
Century, by Karlfried Froehlich.]
- MacCullough, Diarmaid. The Reformation. New York:
Viking, 2003.
- McGrath, Alister. In the Beginning, The Story of the King
James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a
Culture. New York: Anchor Books, 2001.
- Meyendorff, John. Christ in Eastern Christian
Thought. Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary
Press, 1987.
- Meyendorff, John. The Primacy of Peter. Crestwood, New
York: St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1992.
- Moss, C.B. The Old Catholic Movement. London: The
Episcopal Book Club, 1964.
- Newman, John. The Arians of the Fourth Century. Eugene:
WIPF & Stock, 1996.
- Newman, John. An Essay on the Development of Christian
Doctrine. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1949.
- Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium, The Early Centuries. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988.
- Ostroumoff, Ivan. The History of the Council of Florence.
Boston: Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 1971.
- Pascal, Blaise. The Provincial Letters. London: Penguin
Books, 1988.
- Parry, Ken et al. The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern
Christianity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers LTD, 2001.
- Pelikan, Jaroslav. Christianity and Classical Culture. New
Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1993.
- Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1971.
- Proctor, Francis, and Walter Frere. A New History of the Book
of Common Prayer. London: MacMillan and Co., 1951.
- Runciman, Steven. The Medieval Manichee. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1947.
- Runciman, Steven. The Sicilian
Vespers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958.
- Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Peabody,
Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1996.
- Shepherd, Massey H. The Oxford American Prayer Book
Commentary. New York: Oxford University Press, 1951.
- Spence, H.D.M. The Church of England. London: Cassell
and Company, 1905.
- Staley, Vernon. The Catholic Religion. Harrison,
Pennsylvania: Morehouse, 1983.
- Swete, Henry. An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek.
Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1989.
- Synodicon of the Holy and Ecumenical Seventh Council
for Orthodoxy, The True Vine, Issue Numbers 27 & 28
(Spring, 2000), 35-82.
- Synodicon of the Holy Spirit, The True Vine, Issue
Numbers 27 & 28 (Spring, 2000), 85-108.
- Talley, Thomas J. The Origins of the Liturgical Year. New
York: Pueblo, 1986.
- Thunberg, Lars. Man and the Cosmos. Crestwood, New
York: St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1985.
- Vasiliev, A.A. History of the Byzantine Empire. Madison:
The University of Wisconsin Press, 1952.
- Yeor, Bat. The Decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam.
Madison: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996.