Steps in sample design:

While developing a sample design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points 1. Type of universe; - the universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite. 2. Sampling unit;-sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat etc., or it may be a special unit such as family, club, school etc., or it may be an individual. 3. Source list; it is also known as `sampling frame. From which sample is to be drown. It contains the name of all items of universe. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. 4. Size of sample; this refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. It should be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. 5. Parameters of interest;- it determines the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. We may be interested in knowing some average or the others measure concerning the population. 6. Budgetary constrain; it is a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of sample but also the type of sample. 7. Sampling procedure; -researcher must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the item for the sample obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure:

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis 1. The cost of collecting the data, 2. The cost of incorrect inference resulting from the data. Researcher must keep in views the two causes of incorrect inference viz, systematic bias and sampling error.

A Systematic bias result from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced by increasing the sample size. 1. in appropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is in appropriate i.e. A based representation of the universe, it will result in systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device:

In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biases similarly if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such a measuring device.

3. Non-Respondents:
If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially there may arise a systematic bias.

4. Indeterminacy principle:
Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under observation then what they do when kept in non-observation situation. Employees tend to work slowly comparison to the speed with which they work if kept unobserved.

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data:

There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government
taxation department, where as we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social organization. In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure researcher must ensure and helps to control the systematic bias in a better way.

Characteristic of a good sample design:

a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample. b) Sample design must be such which result in a small sampling error. c) It must be viable in the context of rounds available for the research study. d) It must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Methods of data collection: Data;Data refers to the facts, figures, or information collected for a specific purpose. There are two types of data namely; 1. Primary data 2. Secondary data

1. Primary data
Primary data are those which are new and original and nature. The primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time. And thus happen to be original in character.

Advantages of primary data;

a) Primary data are first and new information b) More reliable

2.Secondary data
The secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which love already been passed through the statistical process Secondary data are those data which are not new and original n nature. These data are obtained from published or unpublished sources.

Advantages of secondary data;

a) This data is less expensive, or it is already available. b) Data collected can be finished quickly.

The following chart illustrates the various sources of data available for a researcher. DATA SOURSES

PRIMERY SOURSES (include)

SECONDARY SOURSES

1)Observation 2)Interview 3)Mail questionnaire 4)Through scheduled

govet. Souses a) G` returns b)HORT STAT c)Gezette

Private documents
a)Life history b)Diaries c)Letters d)Memories

Public documents Both published and unpublished (included)

a)Journals b)News paper c)Radio, T.V d)Films

DIFFERENT METHODS OF COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA: Survey method:

e)Public speeches

Under this method, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways. I) Observation method This method refers to the collection of information by way of investigator,s own observation without interviewing the respondents. For example, in a study relating to consumers brand preference as to television, the investigator can simply observe the consumers behavior by standing in the shop. MERITS: a. Subjective bias is eliminated if observation is accurate. b. Respondents co-operation is not necessary.

Limitations: a. It is an expensive method. b. Only limited information can be obtained. II) Interview method: A list of questions relating to the proposed study is prepared and the answers for these questions are obtained from the respondents. i) Personal interview: Questions are put to the respondents directly. A face to face meeting with the respondents is adopted. For example: If the study relates to the labour absenteeism, the investigator meet the labourers directly and ask questions relating to the absenteeism. Merits: a) More information can be obtained. b) Information is more accurate. c) Questions based on the need, this method is flexible. Limitation: a) It is an expensive method. b) This method leads to systematic errors.

ii) Telephonic interview: when the answers for the questions are obtained from the respondents through telephone, it is a telephonic interview method. It is not a very widely used method. Merits: a) Less expensive b) More flexible c) No field staff is required

Limitation a) Limitation coverage as all respondents may not own telephone b) Not suitable for intensive survey c) Questions have to be short and to the points

III) MAILED QUSTINNAIRE METHOD : The Questionnaire (List Of questions farmed to the study) is send to the respondents by the post. A Request is made to the respondents through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send back within a specified time. Merits: a) b) c) d) e) Limitations: a) Used only when the respondents are educated and co-operating b) Bias due to non-response is possible. c) Omission and ambiguities in replay are possible. IV) Through Schedules Enumerators are appointed and trained these enumerates along with questioners will go to the respondents fill the answers to the questions, obtained from the respondents. Less expensive method Wide coverage is possible under this method Respondents are generally given adequate time Larger sample can be covered and the results are more reliable. Free from any bias

Merits: a) It Lead to fairly reliable results b) Data are accurate and unambiguous. Limitation: An expensive method