Course Outline (Tentative)

 Fundamental Concepts of Signals and Systems

 Signals
 Systems
 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
 Convolution integral and sum
 Properties of LTI Systems …
 Fourier Series
 Response to complex exponentials
 Harmonically related complex exponentials …
 Fourier Integral
 Fourier Transform & Properties …
 Modulation (An application example)
 Discrete-Time Frequency Domain Methods
 DT Fourier Series
 DT Fourier Transform
 Sampling Theorem
 Laplace Transform
 Z Transform
1
Chapter I
Signals and Systems
 What is Signal?

 Signal is the variation of a physical phenomenon / quantity with

respect to one or more independent variable
 A signal is a function.

Example 1: Voltage on a capacitor as a function of time.

R
+
Vs I
i C Vc
-

RC circuit

3
 What is Signal?
Example 2 : Closing value of the stock exchange Example 3:Image as a function of x-y coordinates
index as a function of days (e.g. 256 X 256 pixel image)

Index

M T W T F S S
Fig. Stock exchange

4
 Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

 Signals are classified as continuous-time (CT) signals and

discrete-time (DT) signals based on the continuity of the
independent variable!

 In CT signals, the independent variable is continuous (See

Example 1 (Time))
 In DT signals, the independent variable is discrete (See
Ex 2 (Days), Example 3 (x-y coordinates, also a 2-D
signal))
 DT signal is defined only for specified time instants!
 also referred as DT sequence!

5
 Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

 The postfix (-time) is accepted as a convention, although some

independent variables are not time

 To distinguish CT and DT signals, t is used to denote CT

independent variable in (.), and n is used to denote DT
independent variable in [.]
 Discrete x[n], n is integer

 Continuous x(t), t is real

 Signals can be represented in mathematical form:

 x(t) = et, x[n] = n/2
0 ,t < 5
 y(t) =  2
− t ,t ≥ 5
 Discrete signals can also be represented as sequences:
 {y[n]} = {…,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,…}

6
 Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

Graphically,
x[n]
x(t )
... x[−3] x[2] ...
x[−2] x[1]
x[−1] x[0]

0 t ... -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 ... n

(Fig.1.7 Oppenheim)

 It is meaningless to say 3/2th sample of a DT signal because it is not defined.

 The signal values may well also be complex numbers (e.g. Phasor of the
capacitor voltage in Example 1 when the input is sinusoidal and R is time
varying)

7
 Signal Energy and Power

 In many applications, signals are directly related to physical quantities

capturing power and energy in a physical systems
t2

∫
2
 Total energy of a CT signal x(t ) over t1 ≤ t ≤ t 2 is x(t ) dt
t1
t2
1
∫
2
 The time average of total energy is x (t ) dt and referred to as
(t2 − t1 ) t1
average power of x(t ) over t1 ≤ t ≤ t 2
n2
Similarly, total energy of a DT signal x[n] over n1 ≤ n ≤ n2 is ∑ x[n]
2

n1

 Average power of x[n] over n1 ≤ n ≤ n2 is

n2
1
∑
2
x[n]
(n2 − n1 + 1) n1

8
 Signal Energy and Power
 For infinite time intervals:
 Energy: accumulation of absolute of the signal
∆ T ∞
E∞ = lim ∫ x(t ) dt = ∫
2 2
x(t ) dt Total energy in CT signal
T →∞ −T −∞

∆ N ∞
= = ∑ x[n] ∑
2 2
E∞ lim x[ n] Total energy in DT signal
T →∞ n = − N n = −∞

 Signals with E∞ < ∞ are of finite energy

 In order to define the power over infinite intervals we need to take limit of
the average:
∆ T
1 E∞ Note: Signals with E < ∞

T → ∞ 2T ∫
P∞ = lim =
2 ∞
x (t ) dt lim
T → ∞ 2T have P = 0
−T ∞
∆ 1 N
E∞
P∞ = lim ∑ =
2
x[ n ] lim
N →∞ 2 N + 1 N →∞ 2 N + 1
n=− N

9
 Signal Energy and Power

 Energy signal iff 0<E<∞, and so P=0

 e.g:  0, t < 0
x(t ) =  −t
e , t ≥ 0
 Power signal iff 0<P<∞, and so E=∞
 e.g: { x[ n ]} = {... − 1,1, − 1,1, −1,1...}

 Neither energy nor power, when both E and P are infinite

 e.g: x(t ) = e t

 Exercise: Calculate power and energy for the above signals

10
 Transformation of
Independent Variable
 Sometimes we need to change the independent variable
axis for teoretical analysis or for just practical purposes
(both in CT and DT signals)

 Time shift x[n] → x[n − n0 ]

 Time reversal x(t ) → x(−t ) (reverse playing of magnetic tape)

 Time scaling x(t ) → x(t / 2) (slow playing, fast playing)

11
 Examples of Transformations

x[n]
Time shift

... ... n

x[n-n0]

........ ... n
n0

If n0 > 0  x[n-n0] is the delayed version of x[n]

(Each point in x[n] occurs later in x[n-n0])

12
 Examples of Transformations

x(t)
Time shift

x(t-t0)

t
t0

t0 < 0  x(t-t0) is an advanced version of x(t)

13
 Examples of Transformations

x(t)

Time reversal

x(-t)

Reflection about t=0

14
 Examples of Transformations

Time scaling
x(t)

x(2t)

compressed!

x(t/2)

stretched!
t

15
 Examples of Transformations

 It is possible to transform the independent variable with a general nonlinear

function h(t) ( we can find x(h(t)) )
 However, we are interested in 1st order polynomial transforms of t, i.e.,
x(αt+β)
x(t)
1
Given the signal x(t):
t
0 1 2
x(t+1)
Let us find x(t+1): 1

(It is a time shift to the left) t

-1 0 1
x(-t+1)
1
Let us find x(-t+1):
(Time reversal of x(t+1)) -1 0 1
t

16
 Examples of Transformations

For the general case, i.e., x(αt+β),

1. first apply the shift (β),
2. and then perform time scaling (or reversal) based on α.
x(t+1)
Example: Find x(3t/2+1) 1

t
-1 0 1

x((3/2)t+1)
1

t
-2/3 0 2/3

17
 Periodic Signals

 A periodic signal satisfies: x(t ) = x(t + T ) ∀t , T > 0

Example: A CT periodic signal
x (t )

− 2T −T 0 2T
T

 If x(t) is periodic with T then x(t ) = x(t + mT ) for m ∈ Z +

 Thus, x(t) is also periodic with 2T, 3T, 4T, ...

 The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest value of T for which

x(t ) = x(t + T ) ∀t , T > 0 holds
18
 Periodic Signals

 A non-periodic signal is called aperiodic.

Period must be
 For DT we must have integer!

x[n + N ] = x[n] ∀n, N > 0

Here the smallest N can be 1,  a constant signal

 The smallest positive value N0 of N is the fundamental

period

19
 Even and Odd Signals

 If x(−t ) = x(t ) or x[−n] = x[n] even signal (symmetric wrt y-axis)

 If x(−t ) = − x(t ) or x[−n] = − x[n] odd signal (symmetric wrt origin)

x(t) x(t)
even odd

t t

 Decomposition of signals to even and odd parts:

EV x(t ) = [x(t ) + x(−t )]

{ } 1

x(t ) = EV {x(t )}+ OD{x(t )}

2

OD{x(t )} =
1
[x(t ) − x(−t )]
2
20
 Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals
 Occur frequently and serve as building blocks to construct many
other signals
 CT Complex Exponential:

x(t ) = Ce at

where a and C are in general complex.

 Depending on the values of these parameters, the complex

exponential can exhibit several different characteristics

a>0 Real Exponential a<0

(C and a are real)
x(t) x(t)

C t C
t
21
 Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals
 Periodic Complex Exponential (C real, a purely imaginary)

x(t ) = e jw0t

 Is this function periodic?

jw0 ( t +T ) 2πn
x(t ) = e jw0t
=e =e jw0t
.e jw0T
T= n∈ Z +
ω0
for periodicity =1

2π
 The fundamental period is T0 =
ω0
 Thus, the signals ejω0t and e-jω0t have the same fundamental
period
22
 Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals
 By using the Euler’s relations:

e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ
e − jθ = cos θ − j sin θ

We can express: (put θ = ω0 t + φ )

e jω0t = cos ω0t + j sin ω0t

A cos(ω0t + φ ) = e
2
(
A j (ω0t +φ ) − j (ω0t +φ )
+e ) (
A jφ jω 0 t
= e e + e − jφ e − jω 0 t
2
)
A sin(ω0t + φ ) =
2j
e (
A j (ω0t +φ ) − j (ω0t +φ )
−e =
2j
) (
A jφ jω 0 t
e e − e − jφ e − jω 0 t )
Sinusoidals in terms of complex exponentials
23
 Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals

Alternatively,
Acos(ω0t + φ ) = ARe(e j (ω t +φ ) ) 0

Asin(ω0t + φ ) = AIm(e j (ω t +φ ) ) 0

2π
T0 =
x (t ) ω0
CT sinusoidal signal
A cos φ

A cos(ω0t + φ )
t

x(t ) = A cos(ω0t + θ )

24
 Exponential and Sinusoidal
Signals
 Complex periodic exponential and sinusoidal signals are of infinite
total energy but finite average power

T +T0 T +T0

∫ dt = ∫ 1 ⋅ dt =(T + T0 ) − T = T0
jω 0 t 2
E period = e
T T

1
Pperiod = E period = 1
(T + T0 ) − T

 As the upper limit of integrand is increased as T + 2T0 , T + 3T0 ,...E period ↑

 However, always Pperiod = 1

 Thus, Finite average power!
T
1
T →∞ 2T ∫
jω t 2
P∞ = lim ⋅ e dt = 1 IMPORTANT
0

−T

25
 Harmonically Related Complex
Exponentials
 Set of periodic exponentials with fundamental
frequencies that are multiplies of a single
positive frequency ω0

xk (t ) = e jkω0t for k = 0,1,2,...

k = 0 ⇒ xk (t ) is a constant
k ≠ 0 ⇒ xk (t ) is periodic with fundamental frequency k ω0

2π T0 2π
and fundamental period = , where T0 =
k ω0 k ω0

26
 Harmonically Related
Complex Exponentials
 kth harmonic xk(t) is still periodic with T0 as well
 Harmonic (from music): tones resulting from
variations in acoustic pressures that are integer
multiples of a fundamental frequency
 Used to build very rich class of periodic signals

27
 General Complex Exponential
Signals
Here, C and a are general complex numbers

Say, C = C e jθ and a = r + jω0 x(t ) = Ce at

Then
x(t ) = Ce at = C e rt e j (ω0t +θ ) = C e rt cos(ω0t + θ ) + j C e rt sin(ω0t + θ )

(Real and imaginary parts) Growing and damping sinusoids for r>0 and r<0
x(t )

t, r > 0 t, r < 0

x(t ) = Ce rt cos(ω0t + θ )
envelope 28
 DT Complex Exponential and
Sinusoidal Signals

x[n] = Cα n where C and α are in general complex numbers

It is more convenient and customary to use α instead of eαn
Real exponential signals : C and α are real

for α > 1,0 < α < 1,−1 < α < 0, α < −1

(Sign alternation for α < 0)

α >1 0 <α <1

−1 < α < 0 α < −1
29
 DT Sinusoidal Signals

Consider e jω0 n we then have similar to the CT case

A
A cos(ω0 n + φ ) = (e jφ e jω0 n + e − jφ e − jω0 n )
2
Infinite energy, finite average power with 1.

α >1
General complex exp signals

If C and α are in polar form as

C = C e jθ , α = α e j ω 0
then
Cα n = C α cos(ω0 n + θ ) + j C α sin(ω0 n + θ )
n n

α <1
Real and imaginary parts of DT general complex exp are
sinusoidals (growing α > 1, and decaying α < 1)

30
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals

Consider the DT complex exp : e jω0 n

Let' s find e j(ω0 + 2π )n = e jω0 n e
j2πn

=1

SO THE FN WITH FREQ ω0 IS THE SAME AS THE FN WITH ω0 + 2π

This is very different from CT complex exp.
CT exp has distinct freq values ω0
DT exp has identical freq values ω0 + 2kπ , k ∈ Z

Result:

It is sufficient to consider an interval from ω0 to ω0 +2π to completely

characterize the DT complex exponential!

31
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals

One usually takes 0 ≤ ω0 < 2π or - π ≤ ω0 < π

− For CT exp as ω0 ↑ the rate of oscillation ↑ indefinitely
− For DT exp as ω0 ↑ from 0 to π , the rate of oscillation ↑,
as ω0 ↑ more until 2π , the rate of oscillation ↓ to zero.
Hence, low freq (slow varying) DT complex exp is around ω0 = 0 and ω0 = 2π
High freq (rapidly varying) DT complex exp is around ω0 = π
What about the periodicity of DT complex exp?

32
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals

Periodicity condition : e jω0 ( n + N ) = e jω0 n e

jω 0 N
(*)
must be unity

This holds if ω0 N is an integer multiple of 2π . (**)

In other words some integer m we must have ω0 N = 2πm
ω0 m
Or equivalently = (* * *)
2π N
We have the conditions from (*) and (**) that m and N
must be integers.
ω0 m
So DT exp is periodic when = is a rational number,
2π N
not periodic otherwise!!!

33
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals

Take the common factor out

2π ω0
The fundamental frequency is then =
N m
 2π 
The fundamental period is then N = m  (* * **)
 ω0 
Therefore to find the fund freq of an complex exp we need to express
ω0
as in (* * *)
2π
(The same development is also valid for DT sinusoidal signals.)!!

34
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals
Ex am ples

Ex : x[n] = cos(2πn ) is periodic with fund period 12.

12
2π ω0 1
x[n] = cos(2πn ) = cos(ω0 n) ω0 = → = no factors in common,
12 12 2π 12
 12 
so by using (* * **) , N = 1  = 12
1
Ex : x[n] = cos(4πn ) is periodic with fundamental period 6.
12
4π ω0 2 (n = 1)
x[n] = cos(4πn ) = cos(ω0 n) ω0 = → = = ,
12 12 2π 12 ( N = 6)
 12 
then using (* * **) , N = 1  = 6
2

35
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals
Ex am ples

 OBSERVATION:
 With no common factors between N and m, N in (***) is the
fundamental period of the signal
 Hence, if we take common factors out

ω0 1
= →N =6
2π 6

 Comparison of Periodicity of CT and DT Signals:

 Consider x(t) and x[n]

x(t) = cos ( 2πt ) x[n] = cos ( 2πn )

12 12
x(t) is periodic with T=12, x[n] is periodic with N=12.
36
 Periodicity Properties of DT Signals
Ex am ples

 But, if (
x(t ) = cos 8πt
31
) and (
x[n] = cos 8πn
31
)
x(t) is periodic with 31/4.
ω0 4
 In DT there can be no fractional periods, for x[n] we have =
2π 31
then N=31.

If ( 6 ) and x[n] = cos(n 6 )

x(t ) = cos t
ω0 1
x(t) is periodic with 12π, but x[n] is not periodic, because = there
is no way to express it as in (***) 2π 12π

Study Fig.1.27 page 27, Table 1.1 in Opp. Example 1.6 as well
37
 Harmonically Related Complex
Exponentials (Discrete Tim e)
 Set of periodic exponentials with a common period
N
2π
 Signals at frequencies multiples of
N
(from ω0N=2πm)
 2π 
jk  n
φk [ n ] = e  N 
for k = 0,1,2,...

 In CT, all of the HRCE, e jkω0t for k = 0,1,2,... are

distinct
 Different in DT case!
38
 Harmonically Related Complex
Exponentials (Discrete Tim e)
 Let’s look at (k+N)th harmonic:
 2π   2π 
j ( k + N ) n jk  n
j 2πn
φk + N [ n] = e  N 
=e  N 
.e = φk [n]
=1

 Only N distinct periodic exponentials in φk[n] !!

 That is,
2π 4π 2π
j n j n j ( N −1) n
φ0 [n] = 1, φ1[n] = e N
, φ2 [ n] = e N
,  , φ N −1[n] = e N

φ0 [n] = φ N [n], φ−1[n] = φ N −1[n]

39
 Unit Impulse and Unit Step
Functions
 Basic signals used to construct and represent other signals

0, n ≠ 0 δ[n]
DT unit impulse: δ [ n] =  Unit impulse (unit sample)

1, n = 0 - - - - - -
n

u[n]
0, n < 0
DT unit step: u[ n] = 
1, n ≥ 0 - - - - - -
n

Relation between DT unit impulse and unit step (?):

δ [n] = u[n] − u[n − 1]

(DT unit impulse is the first difference of the DT step)
40
 Unit Impulse and Unit Step
Functions
∞ Interval of summation
u[n] = ∑ δ [n - k]
0
δ[n-k] n<0
- - - - - -
k
n 0
(DT step is the
running sum of DT Interval of summation
unit sample)
δ[n-k] n>0
- - - - - -
k
x[n]δ [n] = x[0]δ [n] 0 n

More generally for a unit impulse δ[n-n0] at n0 :

x[n]δ [n − n0 ] = x[n0 ]δ [n − n0 ] Sampling property

41
 Unit Impulse and Unit Step
Functions (Continuous-Time)

0, t < 0 u(t)

CT unit step: u (t ) = 
1, t > 0 t

δ(t)
CT unit impulse is
CT impulse: du (t ) 1
δ (t ) = t the 1st derivative of
dt 0 the unit sample

t
CT unit step is the running integral
u (t ) = ∫ δ (τ )dτ
of the unit impulse
−∞

42
 Continuous-Time Impulse

 CT impulse is the 1st derivative of unit step

du (t )
δ (t ) =
dt
 There is discontinuity at t=0, therefore we define u ∆ (t ) as
u∆ (t ) u (t ) = lim u∆ (t )
∆ →0
1
du∆ (t )
0 ∆
t δ ∆ (t ) = ⇒ δ (t ) = lim δ ∆ (t )
dt ∆ →0

δ ∆ (t ) δ (t )
1/∆
1

t t
0 ∆ 0

43
 Continuous-Time Impulse

REMARKS:
 Signal of a unit area

 Derivative of unit step function

 Sampling property x(t )δ (t − t0 ) = x(t0 )δ (t − t0 )

 The integral of product of ϕ(t) and δ(t) equals ϕ(0) for

any ϕ(t) continuous at the origin and if the interval of
integration includes the origin, i.e.,
t2

∫ ϕ (τ )δ (τ )dτ
t1
=ϕ (0) for t1 < 0 < t 2

44
 CT and DT Systems
W hat is a system ?

 A system: any process that results in the transformation

of signals
 A system has an input-output relationship
 Discrete-Time System: x[n]  y[n] :y[n] = H[x[n]]

x[n] DT y[n]
System

 Continuous-Time System: x(t)  y(t) : y(t) = H(x(t))

x(t) CT y(t)
System

45
 CT and DT Systems
Ex am ples

 In CT, differential equations are examples of systems

 Zero state response of the capacitor voltage in a series
RC circuit
R

Vs I C
+
V
dvc (t ) 1
+ vc (t ) =
1
vs (t )
i c
dt RC RC
-
vc(t): output, vs(t): input
RC circuit
 In DT, we have difference equations
 Consider a bank account with %1 monthly interest rate
added on: y[n] = 1.01 y[n − 1] + x[n]
y[n]: output: account balance at the end of each month
x[n]: input: net deposit (deposits-withdrawals)
46
 Interconnection of Systems
 Series (or cascade) Connection: y(t) = H2( H1( x(t) ) )
x(t) System 1 System 2 y(t)
H1 H2

 e.g. radio receiver followed by an amplifier

 Parallel Connection: y(t) = H2( x(t) ) + H1( x(t) )

System 1
H1
x(t) y(t)
+
System 1
H2

 e.g. phone line connecting parallel phone microphones

47
 Interconnection of Systems

 Previous interconnections were “feedforward systems”

 The systems has no idea what the output is
 Feedback Connection: y(t) = H2( y(t) ) + H1( x(t) )

x(t) System 1 y(t)

+ H1

System 2
H2

 In feedback connection, the system has the knowledge of output

 e.g. cruise control
 Possible to have combinations of connections..
48
 System Properties
M em ory vs. M em oryless System s

 Memoryless Systems: System output y(t) depends only on

the input at time t, i.e. y(t) is a function of x(t).
 e.g. y(t)=2x(t)
 Memory Systems: System output y(t) depends on input at
past or future of the current time t, i.e. y(t) is a function
of x(τ) where -∞ < τ <∞.
 Examples:
 A resistor: y(t) = R x(t)
t
1
 A capacitor: y (t ) = ∫ x(τ )dτ
C −∞
 A one unit delayer: y[n] = x[n-1]
n
 An accumulator: y[n] = ∑ x[k ]
k = −∞

49
 System Properties
I nvertibility

 A system is invertible if distinct inputs result in distinct outputs.

 If a system is invertible, then there exists an inverse system which
converts output of the original system to the original input.
 Examples:

x(t) y(t) Inverse w(t)=x(t)

System
System

n t

y (t ) = 4 x(t ) y[n] = ∑ x[k ]

k = −∞
y (t ) = ∫ x(t )dt
−∞
1 dy (t )
w(t ) = y (t ) w[n] = y[n] − y[n − 1] w(t ) =
4 dt
y (t ) = x 4 (t ) Not invertible
50
 System Properties
Causality

 A system is causal if the output at any time depends only on values of

the input at the present time and in the past
 Examples:
 Capacitor voltage in series RC circuit (casual)

y (t ) = 2 x(t + 4) Non-causal

y[n] = x[−n] Non-causal (why?) (For n<0, system requires future

inputs)

y (t ) = 2 x(t − 4) cos(t + 1) Causal (why?)

 Systems of practical importance are usually casual

 However, with pre-recorded data available we do not constrain
ourselves to causal systems (or if independent variable is not time, any
example??) 1 M
y[n] =
2M + 1
∑ x[n − k ]
k =− M
Averaging system in a block of data

51
 System Properties
Stability

 A system is stable if small inputs lead to responses that do not diverge

 More formally, a system is stable if it results in a bounded output for any
bounded input, i.e. bounded-input/bounded-output (BIBO).
 If |x(t)| < k1, then |y(t)| < k2.
 Example:
t
y (t ) = ∫ x(t )dt y[n] = 100 x[n] stable
0

Ball at the base of valley Ball at the top of hill

x(t)
y(t)
y(t)
x(t)
M
1
 Averaging system: y[ n] = ∑
2M + 1 k =− M
x[n − k ] stable

 Interest system: y[n] = 1.01 y[n − 1] + x[n] unstable (say x[n]=δ[n],

y[n] grows without bound

52
 System Properties
Tim e-I nvariance

 A system is time-invariant if the behavior and characteristics of

the system are fixed over time
 More formally: A system is time-invariant if a delay (or a time-
shift) in the input signal causes the same amount of delay (or
time-shift) in the output signal, i.e.:
x(t) = x1(t-t0)  y(t) = y1(t-t0)
x[n] = x1[n-n0]  y[n] = y1[n-n0]
 Examples:
y[n] = nx[n] y (t ) = x(2t ) y (t ) = sin x(t )
x1[n] → y1[n] = nx1[n]
x2 [n] = x1[n − n0 ] → y2 [n] = nx1[n − n0 ] Not TIV
TIV
y1[n − n0 ] = (n − n0 ) x1[n − n0 ] ≠ y2 [n] (explicit operation
on time)
When showing a system is not TIV, try to
Not TIV find counter examples…
53
 System Properties
Linearity

 A system is linear if it possesses superposition property,

i.e., weighted sum of inputs lead to weighted sum of
responses of the system to those inputs
 In other words, a system is linear if it satisfies the
properties:
 It is additivity: x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)  y(t) = y1(t) + y2(t)
 And it is homogeneity (or scaling): x(t) = a x1(t)  y(t) = a y1(t),
for a any complex constant.
 The two properties can be combined into a single
property:
 Superposition:
x(t) = a x1(t) + b x2(t)  y(t) = a y1(t) + b y2(t)
x[n] = a x1[n] + b x2[n]  y[n] = a y1[n] + b y2[n]
 How do you check linearity of a given system?
54
 System Properties
Linearity

 Examples:
y[n] = 2 x[n] + 3
y (t ) = x (t )
2 y[n] = Re{x[n]}
x1[n] = 2, x2 [n] = 3
x1[n] = r[n] + js[n] → y1[n] = r[n] x1[n] → y1[n] = 2.2 + 3 = 7
x2 [n] = ax1[n] = j (r[n] + js[n]) for a = j x2 [n] → y2 [n] = 2.3 + 3 = 9
nonlinear
→ x2 [n] = − s[n] + jr[n]
x1[n] + x2 [n] = 2 + 3 = 5
x2 [n] → y2 [n] = − s[n] ≠ ay1[n]
x1[n] + x2 [n] → y1+ 2 [n] = 2.5 + 3 = 13
y1[n] + y2 [n] = 7 + 9 = 16 ≠ y1+ 2 [n]
nonlinear

nonlinear

y[n] = 2 x[n − 1]
linear
55
 Superposition in LTI Systems

 For an LTI system:

 given response y(t) of the system to an input signal x(t)
 it is possible to figure out response of the system to any signal
x1(t) that can be obtained by “scaling” or “time-shifting” the input
signal x(t), i.e.:
x1(t) = a0 x(t-t0) + a1 x(t-t1) + a2 x(t-t2) + … 
y1(t) = a0 y(t-t0) + a1 y(t-t1) + a2 y(t-t2) + …
 Very useful property since it becomes possible to solve a
wider range of problems.
 This property will be basis for many other techniques that
we will cover throughout the rest of the course.

56
 Superposition in LTI Systems
 Exercise: Given response y(t) of an LTI system to the input signal x(t) below,
find response of that system to the input signals x1(t) and x2(t) shown below.

x(t) y(t)
2
1
t t
1 -1 1

x1(t) x2(t) 4
2
2
1 3 t
t
-1
-1/2 1/2 1
57