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Introduction Robotics
dr Dragan Kosti WTB Dynamics and Control September - October 2009

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Outline
Recapitulation Velocity kinematics Manipulator Jacobian Kinematic singularities Inverse velocity kinematics

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Recapitulation

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The general IK problem (1/2)

Given a homogenous transformation matrix HSE(3)

find (multiple) solution(s) q1,,qn to equation

Here, H represents the desired position and orientation of the tip coordinate frame onxnynzn relative to coordinate frame o0x0y0z0 of the base; T0n is product of homogenous transformation matrices relating successive coordinate frames:
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The general IK problem (2/2)

Since the bottom rows of both T0n and H are equal to [0 0 0 1], equation

gives rise to 4 trivial equations and 12 equations in n unknowns q1,,qn:

Here, Tij and Hij are nontrivial elements of T0n and H.

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Kinematic decoupling (1/3)

General IK problem is difficult BUT for manipulators having 6 joints with the last 3 joint axes intersecting at one point, it is possible to decouple the general IK problem into two simpler problems: inverse position kinematics and inverse orientation kinematics. IK problem: for given R and o solve 9 rotational and 3 positional equations:

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Kinematic decoupling (2/3)

Spherical wrist as paradigm.

Let oc be the intersection of the last 3 joint axes; as z3, z4, and z5 intersect at oc, the origins o4 and o5 will always be at oc; the motion of joints 4, 5 and 6 will not change the position of oc; only motions of joints 1, 2 and 3 can influence position of oc.
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Kinematic decoupling (3/3)

q1, q2, q3
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q4, q5, q6

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Velocity Kinematics

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Scope
Mathematically, forward kinematics defines a function between the space of joint positions and the space of Cartesian positions and orientations of a robot tip; the velocity kinematics are then determined by the Jacobian of this function. Jacobian is encountered in many aspects of robotic manipulation: in the planning and execution of robot trajectories, in the derivation of the dynamic equations of motion, etc.

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Angular velocity: the fixed axis case

When a rigid body moves in a pure rotation about a fixed axis, every point of the body moves in a circle; the centers of all these circles lie on the axis of rotation. Let be the angle swept out by the perpendicular from a point to the axis of rotation; if k is a unit vector in the direction of the axis of rotation, then the angular velocity is given by

Given the angular velocity , the linear velocity of any point is where r is a vector from the origin (laying on the axis of rotation) to the point.
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Skew symmetric matrices

An n n matrix S is skew symmetric if and only if

The set of all such matrices is denoted by so(n). From this definition, we see that the diagonal elements of S are zero, i.e. sii = 0; also, we see that S so(3) contains only 3 independent entries and has the form

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Properties of skew symmetric matrices

For a vector a=[ax, ay, az]T we define

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The derivative of a rotation matrix

If R() SO(3), then R()RT () = I. Differentiating both sides w.r.t. yields

Multiplying both sides on the right by R and using the fact that ST = -S, we get d R( ) R T ( ) R( ) SR( ) = 0. d Since R()RT () = I , we obtain:

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Derivative of Rx, as an example

Hence: Similarly we can get

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Derivative of Rl,
Let Rl, be a rotation matrix about the axis defined by unit vector l. Then

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Angular velocity: general case

Consider angular velocity about an arbitrary, possibly moving, axis. Suppose that R(t) SO(3) is a time-dependent rotation matrix. Then

where (t) is the angular velocity of the rotating frame with respect to the fixed frame at time t.

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Proof that is the angular velocity vector

If p is a point rigidly attached to a moving frame, then

Differentiating, we obtain

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Addition of angular velocities (1/3)

Let o0x0y0z0, o1x1y1z1, and o2x2y2z2 be three frames such that - o0x0y0z0 is fixed, - all three share a common origin, - R01(t) and R12(t) represent time-varying relative orientations of frames o1x1y1z1 and o2x2y2z2. Also let ki,j denotes the angular velocity vector corresponding to the derivative of Rij, expressed relative to the frame okxkykzk.

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Addition of angular velocities (2/3)

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Addition of angular velocities (3/3)

For an arbitrary number of coordinate systems:

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Linear velocity of a point attached to a moving frame (1/2)

Suppose that p is rigidly attached to the frame o1x1y1z1 and that o1x1y1z1 is rotating relative to the frame o0x0y0z0. Then, we have

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Linear velocity of a point attached to a moving frame (2/2)

Suppose that the motion of o1x1y1z1 relative to o0x0y0z0 is given by a homogeneous transformation matrix

Dropping the argument t, subscripts and superscripts, we get

where r = Rp1 (vector from o1 to p expressed in the orientation of o0x0y0z0) and is the velocity at which the origin o1 is moving.
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Manipulator Jacobian

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Derivation of the Jacobian

Consider an n-link manipulator with joint variables q1, q2, , qn. Let q = [q1, q2, , qn]T. Let the transformation from the end-effector to the base frame be:

Let the angular velocity of the end-effector 0n be

Karl Gustav

Linear velocity of the end-effector is We seek expressions

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Jacob Jacobi (1804-1851)

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The manipulator Jacobian

The manipulator Jacobian:

Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (1804-1851)

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Angular velocity
If the ith joint is revolute: the axis of rotation is given by zi1; let i1i1,i represent the angular velocity of the link i w.r.t. the frame oi1xi1yi1zi1. Then, we have

If the ith joint is prismatic: the motion of frame i relative to frame i-1 is a translation and

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Overall angular velocity

By using already derived formula

we get
0 1 & 0 & & 0 n 1 0,n = 1q1 z0 + 2 q2 R10 z1 + K + n qn Rn 1 z n 1 =

& 0 & & 0 = 1q1 z0 + 2 q2 z10 + K + n qn z n 1 ,

where

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Angular velocity Jacobian

The complete Jacobian:

Jacobian for angular velocities:

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Linear velocity Jacobian

The linear velocity of the end effector is just By the chain rule for differentiation

we find Jacobian for linear velocities

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Case 1: prismatic joints

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Case 2: revolute joints

The linear velocity of the end-effector is of form

where

Hence we get

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Combining the linear and angular velocity Jacobians

The Jacobian is given by

where

and

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Computation of the Jacobian

We need to compute

The former is equal to the first three elements of the 3rd column of matrix T0i, whereas the latter is equal to the first three elements of the 4th column of the same matrix. Conclusion: it is straightforward to compute the Jacobian once the forward kinematics is worked out.
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Kinematic singularities

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Kinematic singularities
The 6n manipulator Jacobian J(q) defines mapping

& = J (q )q
All possible end-effector velocities are linear combinations of the columns Ji of the Jacobian

& & & = J1q1 + J 2 q2 + K + J n qn

The rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent columns (or rows) in the matrix; for JR6n: R

rank J min(6, n)
The rank of Jacobian depends on the configuration q; at singular configurations, rankJ(q) is less than its maximum value.
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Properties of kinematic singularities

At singular configurations:
certain directions of end-effector motion may be unattainable, bounded end-effector velocities may correspond to unbounded joint velocities, bounded joint torques may correspond to unbounded end-effector forces and torques.

Singularities correspond to points:

on the boundary of the manipulator workspace, within the manipulator workspace that may be unreachable under small perturbations of the link parameters (e.g. length, offset, etc.).
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Examples of kinematic singularities (1/2)

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Examples of kinematic singularities (2/2)

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Inverse velocity kinematics

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Inverse velocity problem

The Jacobian kinematic relationship:

The inverse velocity problem is to find joint velocities that produce the desired end-effector velocity. When Jacobian is square (manipulator has 6 joints) and nonsingular, one gets: If the number of joints is not exactly 6, J cannot be inverted; then the inverse velocity problem has a solution (obtained using e.g. Gaussian elimination) if and only if
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Pseudoinverse of Jacobian
When number of joints n is above 6, the manipulator is kinematically redundant; then, the inverse velocity problem can be solved using the pseudoinverse of J. Suppose that rank J = m and m<n. Then, the right pseudoinverse of J is given by Note that It holds where b Rn is an arbitrary vector. R
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Computation of pseudoinverse
Take the singular value decomposition of J as

where URmm and VRnn are both orthogonal matrices and R R Rmn is given by R

m
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Formula for pseudoinverse

The right pseudoinverse of J is

where T

m
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Measures of kinematic manipulability

Indicate how close is manipulator to a singular configuration. In terms of singular values i of the manipulator Jacobian J, kinematic manipulability is defined by:

= 1 2 L m
In terms of eigenvalues i of J or determinant of J, is given by:

= det JJ = 1 2 L m
Condition number of J is another manipulability measure: max i cond J = ; i = 1,L, m.
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min i