UNIT

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

2.1 CONDUCTIVITY
2.1.1 Introduction
In an ionic solid, the atom forming a cation gives up its valence electron that is captured by the atom forming an anion. Here the electrons are strictly localized. However in metals, the core electrons are localized at the atoms but the valence electrons are delocalized and belong to the entire solid. The behaviour and energy states of these delocalized electrons determine many properties of these solids. We shall try to understand the behavious of these electrons and see how they influence the property of the solid. The simplest approach is the classical free electron model that was successful in explaining some of the properties of metals. This was succeded by the more sophisticated band theory of solids. The general characteristics of electrical conductors are: (i) The current density in the steady state is proportional to the electric field strength (Ohms law). (ii) For pure specimens, the electrical conductivity () and the thermal conductivity (k) vary with temperature as follows: T1 and k = constant (for T > D) so that T is a constant independent of temperature (WiedemannFranz law); KT T5 and K T2 (for T < D) where D is the characteristic Debye temperature. The relation T5 is known as Bloch Gruneisen T5 law. (iii) For metals that exhibit the phenomenon of superconductivity, their resistivity disappears at temperature above 0 K and below the critical temperature (Tc) for the superconducting phase transition (Tc = 4.15 k) for mercury.
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(iv) For metals containing small amounts of impurities, the electrical resistivity () may be written as = 0 = p (T) where 0 is a constant that increases with increasing unpurity content and (T) is the temperature dependent part of the resistivity. This is known as Matthiessens rule. (v) For most metals the electrical resistivity decreases with increase of pressure. (vi) The resistivity of alloys that exhibit order-disorder transitions shows pronounced minimum corresponding to the ordered phase. Table 2.1: Electrical conductivity and concentration of electrons in some selected metals
Metal Number of valence electrons (Z) 1 4 2 1 3 2 2 Concentration of electrons in 1028/m3 8.47 13.2 13.2 5.90 18.1 9.27 17.0 Electrical conductivity at 100 K in W1 m1 2.9 1.5 6.2 1.6 2.1 4.3 8.0 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 Electrical conductivity at T = 300K 6.5 5.2 1.8 5.0 4.0 1.5 1.1 107 106 107 107 107 107 107

Copper Lead Zinc Gold Aluminium Cadmium Iron

2.1.2 Electron Drift in an Electric Field

When an electric field E is applied to a conductor an electric current is established in the conductor. The density j of this current is given by j = E The constant of proportionality is called the specific conductance or electrical conductivity of

1 . The flow of current in a conductor is an indication that the electrons in it, under the action of the applied field, move in a specific direction. As a result the distribution function of the electrons in the conductor undergoes a change. This directional motion of the electrons is called a drift. The average velocity of this drift motion is called drift velocity.
the conductor. Its unit is ohm1 m1. The resistivity, = The force F acting on an electron in an electric field E is F = eE where e is the electronic charge. The minus sign introduced because the charge on the electron is negative. The electron drift is in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Acted on by the applied field the electron will have to accelerate continuously. But in its accelerated motion, the electron collides with the defects in the lattice. As a result of the consequent scattering the electron loses the velocity it gains from the field. The effect of the lattice may be reduced formally to the action of a retarding force. This force is proportional to the velocity v and mass m of the electron. Thus the retarding force may be taken to be Kmv where K is a constant. We can then write the equation of motion of the electron as

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

33

dv = eE Kmv ...(2.1.1) dt After the field is applied the velocity of the electron rises till the retarding force which is proportional to the velocity equals the force due to applied field. When these forces become equal the acceleration ceases. Thereafter the electron moves with the drift velocity. If this drift velocity is vd, then m
0 = eE K mvd i.e., vd =

eE Km

...(2.1.2)

The ratio of the drift velocity to the applied field intensity is called carrier mobility. Thus Carrier mobility, m =

e Km

...(2.1.3)

Suppose that as soon as the velocity of the directional motion of the electrons attains its steady value, the field is cut off. Because of the collisions of the electrons with the lattice defects the velocity starts decreasing. After some time the electron gas resumes its equilibrium condition. Such a process which leads to the establishment of equilibrium in a system from which it was previously disturbed is called a relaxation process. When the applied filed is cut off the equation of motion of the electron becomes:

dv = Kmv dt dv = Kv dt

...(2.1.4)

This can be written as

dv = Kdt v
Integrating log v = Kt + C Let us now find the value of integration constant C using the known conditions. When t = 0, v = vd and hence C = |log vd |C = log vd. Now Eqn. 2.1.4a becomes log v = Kt + log vd or v = vd exp ( Kt) The time taken by an electron to reach a directional velocity which is is called the relaxation time denoted by . vd = vd exp ( K) e ...(2.1.4a)

1 of the drift velocity e

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This is possible or this leads to the result K = or vd =

1 eE . Thus Eqn. (2.1.2) becomes m

...(2.1.5)

eE m

V A

Fig. 2.1.1 Drifting electrons

Fig. 2.1.2 Scattering electron at ion cores

Let n be the density of electrons. The charge flowing per unit area per unit time is the current density. i.e., j = nevd [Referring Eqn. 2.1.2] or j =

ne 2 E m

...(2.1.6)

Defining the current density for unit electrial field as electrical conductivity, we get

j = or E

ne2 m

...(2.1.7)

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

35

If we take the experimental value of s for copper as 6 107 (-m)1 and n = 8.5 10 /m3, we find t = 2 10-14 see. In discussing electrical conductivity it is convenient to introduce the mobility of charge carriers. The mobility m is the magnitude of the ratio of the drift velocity to the applied electric field. Thus (Refer Eqn. 2.1.5).
28

= The unit of is

vd e = = m ne E

...(2.1.7a)

mm = m2 V1 s1 sec volt m 1 = ne 2

The electrical resistivity, =

2.1.3 Temperature Dependence of Conductivity

In most solids the two main types of internal energy are (i) the vibrational energy of the atoms about their mean lattice positions and (ii) the kinetic energy of the free electrons. If heat is supplied to the body its temperature rises and the internal energy increases. The important thermal properties of matter such as heat capacity, thermal expansion and thermal conductivity depend upon the changes in the energy of the atoms and free electrons. If an electrical field is applied to a solid the free electrons are accelerated. Their kinetic energy increases. Some of this kinetic energy is of course lost by collisions with the atoms in the lattice. The resulting current is proportional to the average velocity of the free electrons. This velocity is determined by the applied electrical field and also the collision frequency. We should make a distinction here between the two different velocities associated with the electrons. The velocity appearing in the Eqn. 2.1.5 is called the drift velocity (vd) which is superimposed on a much higher velocity called root mean square velocity (c ) due to the random motion of the electron which is possible even in the absence of the electric field. The random motion, which contributes zero current, exists also in the presence of the field. It is evident now that in the absence of an electric field the free electrons in a metal will be moving about at random in all directions and will be in temperature equilibrium with it. If the mass of an electron is m then at absolute temperature T it will possess an average random velocity given by the kinetic theory of gases. Thus

1 3 mc 2 = kT ...(2.1.8) 2 2 where k is the Boltzmann constant. Suppose an electric field E is applied. Under the influence of this eE where eE m is the force acting on the electron and m is the mass of the electron. The drift velocity is much smaller compared to random velocity . Further the drift velocity is not retained after a collision c with an atom because of the relatively large mass. Hence just after a collision the drift velocity is zero. If the mean free path is then the time that elapses before the next collision takes place is
field the electron acquires a drift velocity. The resulting acceleration of the electron is

. Hence the drift velocity acquired just before the next collision takes place is c

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u = acceleration time =

LM eE OP NmQ c

Thus the average drift velocity of the electron is

u eE = 2 2m c If the number of electrons per unit volume is n, then the number of electrons crossing unit area for unit time is nothing but current density, j.
vd = Thus i.e., j = nevd j = nevd = ne

R eE U S 2mc V T W

with

c =

3kT m ne 2E 2m m 3kT

Thus

j =

Thus electrical conductivity, = =

j = E ne 2 ne 2 12mkT

12mkT

...(2.1.9)

These two expressions are independent of current. Hence at constant temperature the electrical conductivity (i.e., the ratio of the current density to the applied field) is a constant. In other words at constant temperature the applied p.d is directly proportional to the current. This is Ohms law.

2.1.4 Impotentialness of Classical Free Electron Theory

Some of the drawbacks of classical free electron theory are listed below: 1. Classical theory failed to explain the variation of electronic specific heat at low temperatures, on the basis of Drudes model, it was concluded that the molar specific heat of electron gas for any metal was 3R (12.5 kJ/kmol). This value is many times the magnitude of specific heats found experimentally. 2. The mean free path of electrons in any metal, calculated on the basis of Drudes model was ten times less than the experimentally observed value. 3. The Lorenz number, L calculated for many metals using the standard relation

2 k 3 e

FG IJ H K

W =L= T

is equal to 2.45 108 watt m/K2 comes to be a constant. However, for many

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

37

metals, the Lorentz number varies with temperature at low temperatures. This is due to the fact all the electrons may not be participating in conduction process. W is the thermal conductivity of the metal. 4. Drudes classical free electron theory totally failed to explain the conduction mechanism in semiconductors and insulators. 5. The classical model could not explain the origin of Paulis paramagnetism. We shall now discuss one or two failures of classical free electron theory of metals with necessary theory. (i) Heat capacity of the electron gas: Classical free electron theory assumes that all the valence electrons can absorb thermal energy, move to higher energy states and contribute to heat capacity. According to the law of equipartition of energy, every free electron in a metal has an

3 KT. For a manovalent metal (copper) these will be NA (Avagadros number 2 of electrons = 6.02 1026) in one kmol. Hence the molar electronic specific heat is
average kinetic energy [Cv]el = with Thus i.e., U = [Cv]el =

dU dT 3 N kT 2 A
...(2.1.10)

dU = 1.5 NA k = 1.5 Ru dT [Cv]el = 1.5 R = 1.5 1.38 1023 6.02 1026

= 1.5 R or 12.5 103 J/kmol/k

This classical value of 1.5 R is about hundred times greater than the experimentally predicted value. (ii) Computation of mean free path: The microscopic expression for the resistivity (Eqn. 2.1.7) is ...(2.1.11) ne 2 The resistivity of the most useful metal copper at 20C is 1.69 108 ohm-m and the concentration of free electrons in copper, n = 8.5 1028/m3. Thus =
m ne 2 = 9.1 10 31

1.69 10 8 8.5 10 28 1.6 10 19

= 2.47 1014 sec But =

with =

3kT m

= c = 2.47 1014 1.154 105 = 2.85 nm

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The experimentally found value for is about ten times above this value. Classical theory could not explain this value.

2.1.5 Elementary Treatment of Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals

The general expression for the drift velocity is
eE ...(2.1.12) m where is the average time elapsed after collision. Thus it is obvious that the average deift velocity of free electrons is proportional to force eE. vd =

Therefore current density,

J = ne v b = ne 2 E m

...(2.1.13) ...(2.1.14)

But

J = E

Comparing these two equations, one gets

ne2 m If is the mean free paths and vF the speed of free electrons whose kinetic energy is equal to Fermi energy since only electrons near Fermi level contribute to the conductivity. The average time between collisions is given by = vF
= i.e., =

ne 2 m vF

...(2.1.15)

The drift velocity for unit electric field is called mobility. i.e.,
vd eE e = = mE m E Thus the electric conductivity,

ne 2 ne 2 = ne = ...(2.1.16) m mv F From expression (2.1.16) it is obvious at a given temperature the only factor which varies from one metal to the other is densities of free electron.
= One must also note that the energy kT (where T is of the order of 300 k) can activate only the free electrons near the Fermi level to move to unoccupied states and contribute to specific heat. We may therefore require an energy EF called (very high compared with kT = 0.025 eV at 300 k) Fermi energy to make all the electrons to more to the unoccupied states corresponding to a temperature TF called Fermi temperture. The unique relation connecting the various parameters in quantum theory of free electron is 1 2 mv F = kTF EF = ...(2.1.17) 2

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39

2.1.6 Relation Between Thermal Conductivity and Electrical Conductivity (Wiedemann-Franz Law)
Figure 2.1.3 shows the view of a copper rod of appreciable length with unit area of cross-section in the steady state.
T+ Ste am dT dx T T dT dx

A H e a t flo w E E + dE dx

dE dx

Fig. 2.1.3 Flow of heat through a copper rod at the steady state

Let = AB = BC be the mean free path of the electron. The excess of energy carried by an electron from A to B is

LM dE OP . Hence the excess of energy N dx Q LM OP N Q

transported by the process of conduction through unit area in unit time at the middle layer B is

nc dE 1 dE . Similarly the deficit of energy transported through B in the opposite direction is nc 6 dx dx 6

assuming time. Thus the net energy transported through unit area in unit time from A to B is:
1 dE 1 dE nc nc 6 dx 6 dx

LM OP N Q

1 nc is the number of free electrons flowing in a given direction through unit area in unit 6

The general expression for the quantity of heat energy transported through unit area for unit dT . Equating the two equations, one gets time is T dx

LM OP LM N Q N

LM OP = N Q

nc dE 3 dT

FG IJ FG dT IJ OP H K H dx K Q

FG IJ H K

T = But

nc dE 3 dT

FG IJ H K

dE is the energy required to raise the temperature by one degree and hence it is [cv]el. dT
T =
nc cv 3
el

Now

n cv 3

el

3k T m

...(2.1.18)

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But Thus

[cv]el = T =

3 k 2

with n = 1 electron

n 3 k 3 2

FG IJ H K

3k T nk = m 2

3k T m

The general expression for electrical conductivity by referring Eqn. 2.1.9. =

ne 2 12mk T 3k T m
2

Thus

nk T = 2

k T = 3 e

LM OP T NQ

R | S | T

12mk T ne
2

U | V | W
...(2.1.19)

This is called Wiedemann Franz law and the multiplying factor 3 (k/e)2 is called Lorentz number.

2.1.7 Heat Developed in Current Carrying Conductor (Joules Law)

The heat developed in a current carrying conductor is given by H = I2 R =

V2 R = E 2 Al

H =

bElg

l A

i.e.,

H = E2 Al W = E2

Thus heat developed per unit volume per second is But current density, j = E

jE 2 = jE = E2 E W will be found to be in watt/m3 (2.1.17)

W =

...(2.1.20)

In an isotropic medium, consider a particular electron which at the instant t = 0, has carried out a collision with the lattice, and let the velocity components of the electron be vx, vy and vz. Now at the instant (t > 0), the electron has yet to collide with the lattice again, and assuming an electric field of intensity E is applied along the negative x-direction, the velocity components of the electron are

vx +

FG e IJ Et H mK

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41

LM e EtOP in velocity is due to the acceleration due to the field on the electron. Nm Q Thus the increase in energy of the electron over the field is O e U 1 LR m M Sv + Et V v P (W) = 2 MT N m W PQ 1 L L 2e O LeO O m MM P E v t + M P E t P (W) = 2 NN m Q N m Q QP M
The increment
2

2 x

2 2

The above expression may be averaged over a large number of electrons which have all lived through the period without having suffered a collision, but which presumbly have a random distribution of their velocities. Thus are finds (W)t =

1 e m 2 m

FG IJ H K

E 2t 2 =

e 2Et 2 2m

...(2.1.21)

If P (t) represents the probability that an electron moves for a ture t without suffering a collision, then P (t) = exp (t/c). For isotropic scattering, the average time between collisions, is equal to the relaxation time . Also, the probability that an electron will suffer a collision during a time dt is given by

dt dt = c
So, the probability that the electron makes a collisions between t and t + dt is given by

LMexp FG t IJ OP FG dt IJ N H KQ H K

Thus, the average energy increase of the electrons during the period between two collisions is equal to (W) =

t=0

= We known that

LM e E OP NM 2m QP
2 2

zb

W t exp

FG t IJ dt H K
dt

z
0

t e

z
0

x n e ax dx =

n an + 1

e2 E 2 2 m If n is the number of electrons present in unit volume, the total energy dissipated per unit volume per second
or W =

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W = W =

n W
...(2.1.22)

n e 2E 2 2 = E2 m This agrees with the experimental work.

2.1.8 Thermoelectric Effect

It is a phenomenon related to the thermal conductivity of electrons in that it too is a consequence of the drift of electrons under a thermal gradient. These are two aspects to thermoelectric phenomena. The first is the Seeback effect in which a temperature between the two junctions of two dissimilar materials gives rise to an emf in the circuit. The second is the peltier effect in which, if a current is circulated in a circuit consisting of two dissimilar materials, is liberated at one junction and absorbed at the other. Both effects are the subject of considerable study because of their practical applications. The generation of electrical power using the Seeback effect offers the desirable freedom from removing parts, and similar advantages are available in the use of the Peltier effect in refrigeration. In either case one of the chief considerations is the size of the effect, which is a consequence of the detailed electronic structure of the two materials, and a simple theoretical treatment is not available. If emerges, however, that the parameters of the material which are significant in this respect are the same as for the conductivity, namely the effective mass of the electrons and the relaxation time. Thermoelectric effects of either sign can be observed, depending mainly on whether electron effects or hole effects are predominant. By careful selection of the parameters using doped semiconductors, thermoelectric power supplies now have efficiencies approacting 20% and thermoelectric refrigerators have been built which can maintains a temperature 50F below room temperature. The most familiar example of a metal-metal junction is the thermocouple, which is made of a configuration of the type A-B-A. If a current is passed through such a combination, the temperature of one of the functions is found to rise and that of the other to fall. This is called the Peltier effect. Conversely, if one junction is heated and the other cooled, a p.d develops across the combination. This is called Seeback effect. Apart from their normal use as temperature sensitive elements, in recent years attention has been paid to the possibility of using such devices as refrigerators and heat pumps (using the Peltier effect) or as electrical generators (using the Seeback effect). With metal-metal combinations, both effects are too small to be of any practical use (for example, the thermo-electric e.m.f developed for a copper-constantan thermocouple is 40 V per Kelvin temperature difference), but since the advant of semiconductors and the possibility of manufacturing metal-semiconductor junctions, the constriction of practical devices based on these effects has become a reality.

2.1.9 Thermionic Emission

When metals are heated to sufficiently high temperatures, they emit electrons. This is known as thermionic emission. The free electrons in the metal should be supplied with a minimum amount energy before they can escape from the metal by thermionic emission. This miniumum energy is called thermionic work function. The work function is different for different metals. Richardson and Dushmans equation. Consider a pure metal situated in an evacuated endosure. Let the metal be heated. It then emits electrons just as a heated liquid emits vapours. These

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43

electrons form a cloud over the metal just as a cloud of vapour is formed over an evaporating liquid. Just as in the case of vapour, the electrons in the electron clould will be returning into the metal. When equilibrium sets in, the number of electrons emitted from the metal per second will be equal to the number of electrons returning to the metal per second. Consider one mole of electrons remembering that one mole of electrons will contain Avagadros number of electrons (NA). Let the pressure exerted by these electrons on the metal be P Let the . specific volumes of electrons in the metal be u and specific volume in the cloud by v. Let the heat energy absorbed by the NA electrons when they escape from the metal be W. Let us assume that Clausius-Clapeyrons equation in thermodynamics can be applied to the electrons. We then have

dP vu ...(2.1.23) dT where T is the temperature of the metal and the enclosure. In reality, u << v. We can, therefore, write the above quation as
W = T

dP ...(2.1.24) dT The energy W consists of two parts: (i) energy required to provide the work function, which may be written as NA , where is the work function per electron, and (ii) the work done by the ejected electrons is moving against the pressure Pexerted by the electron cloud over metal, which
W = Tv can be written as Pv [just as W = zero volume to a volume V]. Therefore W = NA + Pv ...(2.1.25) Let us ignose the electric repulsion between electrons and assume that the cloud behaves as a perfect gas. We have Pv = RT = NA kT where k is Boltzmanns constant. Therefore W = NA + NA KT = NA ( + kT) Therefore (Referring Eqn. 2.1.23) NA ( + kT) = Tv But

z
V 0

P dV = PV for a gas expanding at constant pressure from

FG dP IJ H dT K

...(2.1.26)

Pv = RT = NA kT v =

N A kT P Substituting this in Eqn (2.1.26)

NA ( + kT) = T

N A kT dP dT P

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i.e., or

+ kT = T

dP = dT

FG + kT IJ dT H KT K
2

kT 2 dP P dT

Integrating both sides, we get loge P = i.e., loge P =

+ log e T + log e A kT 2 where loge A is a constant of integration

z z z

+ kT T2 dT kT 2 dT

dT + log e A

...(2.1.27)

+ log e T + log e A

Let Then

= I kT 2 loge P = I + loge T + loge A

dT

loge P loge T loge A = 1

log e

FG P IJ H AT K

= I

P = eI, or P = AT eI ...(2.1.28) AT If these are n electrons per unit volume of the gas, we have from the following general equation.
PV = RT = kA NA T if V = 1, NA = n and hence P = knT n = i.e., n =

AT e I P A I e = = kT kT k

P A I A e = BeI with B = = kT k k According to kinetic theory of gases, we have

1 3 mc 2 = kT 2 2 According to Knudsens cosine law, the number of electrons n0 crossing unit area per second is given by
n0 =

nc 6

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

45

1 6

BeI

3kT m

where m is the mass of the electron n0 = i.e., where

1 6

3K Be I T m

n0 = c e I T c =

1 6

3k B = constant m
kT

Richardson first assumed that the work function is independent of temperature, then
kT n0 = c e(/KT)

I =

dT
2

Thus current density, j = n0e = c e(/KT) where

T D = c e = constant T

j = D e/kT

...(2.1.29)

Equation (2.1.29) is the simplest form of Richardson and Dushman of themionic emission.

2.2 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF METALS

As was pointed out in the discussion of the free electron theory of metals, the valence electrons is metallic atoms, being loosdy bound, escape from the atom. These essentially free electrons provide a medium of negative charge which helps to bind the positive ions. That this leads to a lower energy state which can be seen from the following arguments. An electron in isolated atom is confined to a small volume around the nucleus. This confinement

D , where r is the radius of the atoms. r Consequently, the electron has a fairly substantial amount of kinetic energy, of the order of several eV However, in the crystalline, metallic state, the electrons are essentially free to be anywhere in . the entire crystal. As a result, these is considerable reduction in kinetic energy. This is the source of metallic bonding. The bond between two metallic atoms is somewhat weaker than ionic or covalent bonds. This leads to relatively low melting points, for example, 63C for K. However, the cohesive energy of the metals is fairly large since each valence electron interacts with several ions. The metallic bonds are not directional where allows the planes of atoms to slide over each other quite easily. Hence metals are found to be ductile and malleable rather than brittle. The existence of essentially free electrons gives rise to high electrical and thermal conductivity for metals.
gives rise to an uncertainty in the momentum p Because of these favourable properties metals are widely used in many areas mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.

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2.2.1 Properties of Insulating Materials

Insulating materials are those which offer very high resistance to the flow of electric current. They require extremely high voltage of the order of kilovolt or megavolt to send a few milli-ampere of current through them. They are non-metallic materials and are used to prevent leakage of current from are conductor to another or to earth. Almost all insulating materials have negative temperature. Co-efficient of resistance and as such their resistivity is reduced with increase in temperature. The function of any insulator is very important, for without which no electrical machines can work. Ideal insulators are those substances into which static electricfield penetrates uniformly. Primarily they are used for storage of electrostatic energy as in capacitor which are known as dielectrics. But here we prefer to deal with that part of its function which prevents flow of electric current to any desired conducting medium. The insulators provide mechanical strengths as well as insulation to the conductors. Wood, paper, mica, oil, asbestos, porcelain are some examples of insulating materials. Some important applications of insulators in the field of electrical engineering are: (a) To isolate the overhead conductors from earth in the transmission and distribution of electrical energy (b) In all rotary machines to isolate the winding from the body and other unwanted currenty path. (c) In transformers to isolate the winding from the core or magnetic path. (d) In industrial and house wiring to isolate the conductor from earthing. (e) In all domestic, commercial electrical equipments to isolate the conductor from earth or body. Majority of the breakdown in the field of electrical engineering is due to the falure of insulation. The importance of insulating material is ever increasing day by day and there are innumerable number of types of insulations are available in the market. The selection of the right type of insulating materials for a particular job is very important because the life of equipment will depend on the type of insulating materical used. All insulators when used should not only behave as insulators over range of electrical voltage but also should be strong enough mechanically, should not affected by heat, atmosphere, chemical and should be free from deformation due to aging. Therefore, the properties to be studied while selecting an insulator for a particular job are: (a) Electrical properties (b) Mechanical properties (c) Visual properties (d) Chemical properties Some of the important electrical properties of insulators are (a) Insulation resistance (b) Volume and surface resistance (c) Dielectric strength and dielectric loss (d) Breakdown voltage i.e., the voltage above which the material ceases to act as insulator.

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47

2.3 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
2.3.1 Introduction
Superconductivity is a phenomenon observed in some materials: there is disappearance of the electrical resistivity at temperatures approaching 0K. The discovery of this phenomenon was not an attempt of any body; but by charm of face. The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered by Kamerlingh Onnes (1911), when he was measuring the resistivity of mercury at low temperature. He observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops abruptly to zero at about 4.2 K. He concluded that the mercury has passed into a new state which is called the superconductivity state. The materials that display this behaviour are called superconductors and the temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical temperature Tc. The resistivity-temperature behaviours are contrasted in Fig. 2.3.1. The critical temperature varies from superconductor to superconductor but lies between less than 1 K and approximately 20 K for metals and alloys. Recently it has been demonstrated that some complex ceramics have critical temperature approaching 100 K and above. Superconductivity is Adonis and the adolescence is retained even after one hundred years. Four times Nobel Prize was awarded for discoveries and inventions in this area, and many more are aiming.
S uperconductor Im pure m etal P erfectly pure m etal

o 0 Tc T(in K )

Fig. 2.3.1 Variation of resistivity with temperature

The resistivity of metal falls with temperature T as per the law T when T > D T5 when T < D, D being the Debye temperature, but the experiments do not lead to the conclusion 0 as T 0. It is because any trace of impurity or crystal defects prevent the metals becoming perfect conductors and gives rise to a residual resistivity, 0. Then the question is whether superconductivity is related to purity of the metal. An emphatic no is the answer. Superconductivity is a different phenomenon. If impurities are present in a superconductor, then fall of takes place in a very small region of temperature instead of sharply at Tc.

2.3.2 Some More Aspects of Superconductivity

The phenomenon superconductivity can be explained satisfactorily on the basis of wave mechanics. In an ordinary metal, the electrical resistance is the result of collisions of the conduction electrons

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with the vibrating ions in the crystal lattice. In the superconductivity state, the electrons tend to be scattered in pairs rather than individually. This gives rise to an exchange force (similar to the force between the atoms in a hydrogen molecule and the force between nucleans (in a nucleus), between the electrons. The force is attractive; and is very strong if the electrons are of opposite spins and momenta. In the superconducting state, the forces of attraction between the conduction electrons exceed the forces of electrostatic repulsion. The entire system of conduction electrons then becomes a bound system. No transfer of energy takes place from the system to the lattice ions. If an electric field is established the bound system of electrons gain additional kinetic energy and give rise to a current. But they do not transfer this energy to the lattice, so that they do not get slowed down. As a consequence of this, the substance does not possess any electrical resistivity. This theory was put forward, by John Bardeen, L. N. Cooper and J. R. Schriffer in 1957. The bound pairs of electrons is called Cooper pairs. Normally, the resistivity of a superconductor is measured by causing a current to flow in a ring shaped sample (one can start the current by induction after removing a magnetic flux linking the ring), and observing the current as a function of time. If the sample is in a normal state, the current damps out quickly because of the resistance of the ring. But if the ring has zero resistance, the current, once set up, flows indefinitely without any decrease in value. According to experiments conducted, the current remained constant in the ring even for several years.

2.3.3 Magnetic Properties of Superconductors

Effect of magnetic field: One should also know that the superconducting state can be brought to the normal state by applying a magnetic field at which superconductivity vanishes is called critical magnetic field. Its value depends upon the nature of the material and its temperature.
H c (0) H c (0) N orm al state Hc S uperconductor Hc H c2 S uperconductor H c1 N ot superconductor

Tc

T c1 Tem perature

T c2 T c T

Fig. 2.3.2 Variation of Hc with temperature

The equation used in this connection is Hc(T) = H c 0 1

b g LMM N

T2 Tc2

OP PQ

...(2.3.1)

2.3.4 Critical Currents

The readers should recognize that the magnetic field which destroy the superconducting property need not be the external electrical field, it can be due to the current flowing through your

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

49

superconductor. Hence the maximum current flowing through the specimen at which this property is destroyed is called critical current. If a superconducting wire of radius r carries a current I, then as per
M a g n e tic lin es of fo rc e

I
r

Fig. 2.3.3 Superconducting wire carrying current

Amperes law,

i.e., at H = Hc, I = Ic Hence

H dl = I
H2r = I

Ic = 2 rHc

...(2.3.2)

If I becomes Ic superconductivity will be destroyed. If in addition to current, transverse magnetic field H is applied, the value of critical current decreases.
I

H Fig. 2.3.4 Current carrying superconductor in transverse magnetic field

Now

Hc = HI + 2H where HI is the field due to current HI = Hc 2H HI =

Ic = Hc 2H 2r

Ic = 2r (Hc 2H) This is called Silsbees rule.

...(2.3.3)

2.3.5 The Meissner Effect

When superconducting material is cooled below its critical temperature, it not only becomes resistanceless but perfectly diamagnetic also. That is to say that there is no magnetic field inside superconductor, whereas inside a merely resistanceless metal there may or may not be a magnetic field, depending on the circumstances. This interesting observation, when superconductor placed inside a magnetic field cooled below its critical temperature, all the magnetic flux is expelled out of it, called Meisnner effect.

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING MATERIALS

T < Tc T > Tc C ooling

B=0

B 0
Fig. 2.3.5 Meisnner Effect

B=0

The perfect diamagnetism is an account of some special bulk magnetic property of the superconductor. If there is no magnetic field inside the superconductor, it can be said that its relative permeability r is zero. Here the mechanism of diamagnetism is not considered.
0 H

M =H M

Fig. 2.3.6 Versus H in a superconductor

The general equation connecting magnetic induction and magnetic field is or B = o (H + M) H + M = and also i.e.,

B 0 = = 0 (under superconducting state B = 0) o o

H + M = 0 M = H

shows the magnetization curve for a superconductor. The magnetic susceptibility is M =

M = 1 H

...(2.3.4)

It must be noted that superconductivity is not only a strong diamagnetism but also a new type of diamagnetism. Critical field: Superconductivity can be destroyed by the application of a strong magnetic field called critical field, Hc even at T < Tc. The critical field depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature rises from T = 0 K to T = Tc.

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

51

i.e.,

Hc (T) = H c 0 1

L T O b g MM FGH T IJK PP Q N
2 c

...(2.3.5)

Figure 2.3.7 shows Hc vs Tc for some selected superconductors and the phase diagram.
A p plied m agnetic field strength C ritical m agn etic field 6 10
4

Hc N orm al

Pb 3 10 Sn Al 2 10 1 10 3 7 8
4

P S uperconductivity

0
(a)

T(K )

Tc

4 T(K )
(b)

Fig. 2.3.7 (a) Phase diagram of a superconductor (b) Critical fields of superconductors

2.3.6 Superelectrons
According to Two-fluid Model (a model introduced for explaining the electrodynamic property of superconductors), the conduction electrons in a superconducting substance fall into two classes: Superelectrons and normal electrons: The superelectrons experience no scattering, have zero entropy (perfect order), etc. The normal electrons behave in the usual fashion discussed in the free electron study chapter. The number of superelectrons depends on the temperature as stated below: ns = n 1

LM F T I OP MN GH T JK PQ
4 c

...(2.3.6)

1 ns n

Te T Fig. 2.3.8 Dependence of superelectrons on temperature

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING MATERIALS

This is plotted in Fig. 2.3.7. Thus at 0 K, all the electrons are superelectrons, but as T increases, the superelectrons decrease in number, and they become normal electrons at T = Tc.

2.3.7 Current Trends in Superconductivity

The failure to raise the transition temperature (Tc) of a metallic system beyond 23.2 K forced research to look into other kinds of systems for possible high temperature superconductivity. This effort seems to be paying off with the recent discovery of ceramic oxides found to be superconducting well beyond 100 K. Superconductivity around 90 K (High temperature superconductors): In March 1987, the Texas-Alabama group reported on the observation of stable and reproducable superconductivity between 93 K and 80 K in Y-Ba-Cu-O system. For the first time in history, superconductivity above the liquid nitrogen boiling point (77 K) was discovered. Research groups in India soon confirmed the existence of superconductivity in a system of normal composition Y1.2 Ba0.8 Cu2 O4, in the 90 K range. Superconductivity at 155 K: In Michigan, U.S., a research group synthesized fluorinated Y-Ba-Cu-O compounds of nominal composition Y1 Ba2 Cu3 F2 Oy (bulk material of multiphase) to achieve zero resistance at 155C. Superconductivity above 200 K: Recently some researches have observed a drop in the electrical dc resistance of their samples in the 200 K range. Unfortunately, in these cases repeated cooling and warming (thermal cycling) appears to disrupt superconductivity which is perhaps present only in tiny filaments embedded in a mostly non-superconducting sample. Researches at the national physical laboratory, New Delhi and at Wayne State University, Detroit, U.S. have observed in multiphase samples of Y-Ba-Cu-O a drop in electrical resistance in 200 K range. It has become possible to fabricate superconducting wires from ceramic materials, but the mechanical properties such as ductility, flexibility may not be so good as aluminium. A nightmare: Expressing concern over mounting transmission and distribution (T and D) losses in the power sector, the former president of India Prof. A.P Abdul Kalam asked the Union .J. Power Ministery to bring down the power loss from 31000 MW to 12000 MW in a couple of years comparing with that in developed countries. Mr. Kalam said if the country were to set up fresh capacity to cover of this loss, it would cost over Rs. 76000 crores; this is the magnitude of the problem we are faced with; he added while addressing a group of Engineers attached to Central Electricity Authority. Another method of solving this problem is summarized now: The phenomenon of superconductivity was observed in mercury about 100 years ago (1911). The transition temperature of the metal aluminium used liberally in transmission lines on account of their mechanical and electrical properties is 1.2 K. i.e., below this temperature electron-phononelectron interaction becomes stronger and cooper pairs are formed. All of them have the same de Broglie wavelength with very small momentum and hence scattering of cooper pairs becomes absent, mobility becomes infinity. This may brought down power loss almost nil. However this is possible only at 1.2 K. Huge amount of fund was made available in U.S. and in India for research in high temperature superconductors hoping aluminium will be made superconductor in the wide range say 0C to 45C by discovering new process, mechanism and techniques though the phenomenon was discovered about 100 years ago, but in vain. I hope we will succeed in this attempt in the years to come.

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

53

2.3.8 Field Applications of Superconductivity

Superconductivity as it is, does not find much applications. This is on account of the difficulty involved in reaching a low temperature of 273C and maintaining the equipment in that state but it is likely to find applications in the following main areas: (a) Electrical machines: By using superconductivity it is possible to manufacture electrical generators and transformers in exceptionally small sizes, having an efficiency nearly equal to 100%. (b) Power cables: A 200 kV cable with superconducting material will enable transmission of power over long distances using thin conductors without any significant power loss or voltage drop. (c) Electromagnets: Superconducting solenoids have been made which do not produce any heat during operation. Superconductivity gets destroyed if the magnetic field exceeds a critical value. In superconducting state, the magnetic field does not penetrate into the superconductor. It behaves as a substance with zero magnetic permeability. Therefore the external magnetic field in the superconductor repel each other. This property can be utilized in developing frictionless bearings with magnetic lubrication for use in gyroscopes and electric machines. Helium, an expensive gas is now used to attain a low temperature, required for superconductivity. Efforts have already being made to develop compounds which are superconductors at temperatures possible to obtain by easily available hydrogen gas.

2.3.9 Squid
Squid is an acronym for superconducting quantum interference device and the arrangement is as shown in Fig. 2.3.9. All squids make use of the fact that the maximum current in superconducting ring that contains a Josephson junction varies periodically as the magnetic flux through the ring changes. This periodicity is interpreted as an interference effect involving the wave functions of the cooper pairs. It consists of a ring superconducting material having two side arms A and B which act as entrance and exist for the supercurrent respectively.
P

l1
B A B

l2

Josephson junction

Fig. 2.3.9 A squid

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The insulating layers P and Q may have different thicknesses and let the currents through these layers be I1 and I2 respectively. The variations I1 and I2 versus the magnetic field is shown in Fig. 2.4.1. Both I1 and I2 vary periodically with the magnetic field, the periodicity of I1 being greater than that of I2. The variation of I2 is an interference effect of the two junctions while I1 is the diffraction effect that arises from the finite dimension of each junction. Since the current is sensitive to very small changes in the magnetic field, the SQUID can be used as a very sensitive galvanometer.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

2.1 Which one of the following is a trivalent metal? (a) Na (c) Hg 2.2 The temperature coefficient of resistivity is (a)
d dT

(b) Cu (d) Al
1 d dT

(b)

(c)

d dT

(d)

1 d dT

2.3 If j is the current density through a conductor in a field E, then (a) j

1 E

(b) j E (d) j

(c) j E

1 E2

2.4 R1 is the resistance of a copper wire of length l cm and radius r cm. If R2 is the resistance of another R copper wire of length l2 cm and radius 2r cm. Now 2 is R1 (a) (c)
l 2 l 4

(b) (d)

l2 4
l r

2.5 The length of copper wire is halved and diameter is doubled, the resistivity of copper (a) reduces by 50% (c) decreases by 60% (b) increases by 25% (d) remains the same

2.6 In the absence of an external field, the root mean square velocity c follows: (a) c T (c) c T 2 (b) c (d) c

1 T

1 T4

2.7 The resistance of an aluminium wire of length l1 and radius r1 is R1 ohm. If the length is halved and the radius doubled, the corresponding resistance R2 is

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

55

(a) 0.5R1 (c)

R1 8

(b) 4R1 (d) 16R1

2.8 The mobility of electron in a metal is 0.00132 m2/V-sec subjected to a field 50 V/m. The drift velocity of the electron is (a) 0.066 m/sec (c) 66 m/sec (b) 6.66 m/s (d) 6.6 107 m/sec

2.9 At Fermi temperature the number of electrons excited from the occupied states to the unoccupied states is (a) 10% (c) 50% 2.10 The formula for Fermi velocity is (a) vF =
kTF 2m

(b) 20% (d) 100%

(b) vF =
12 F

2kTF m
m 2kTF

(c) vF =

LM kT OP N 2m Q

(d) vF =

2.11 If the mobility of the electrons in a metal increases, the resistivity (a) decreases (c) first increases and then decreases (a) is the same for all metals (b) it varies exponentially (c) it is different for different metals (d) depending on the electronic structure of the metal 2.13 Depositing a layer of thorium on tungsten will (a) lower the work function (b) raise the work function (c) no effect on the work function 2.14 The Fermi energy of a metal is 1.4 eV, the Fermi temperature of the metal is approximately (a) 1.6 103 K (c) 1.6 105 K 2.15 Superelectrons become normal electrons at (a) zero degree kelvin (c) the critical temperature (b) 0C (d) Debye temperature (b) 1.6 104 K (d) 1.6 106 K (b) increases (d) first decreases and then increases

2.12 In thermionic emission the work function for a given current

2.16 If the temperature of a metal is reduced to a value below the critical temperature, the value of the critical magnetic field will (a) increase (c) may increase or decrease (b) decrease (d) keeps a constant value

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING MATERIALS

HINTS FOR SELECTED OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

2.4 R1 =

l r 2

and

R2 =

l 2

2r

R2 l 2 = R1 4 r 2

F r I GH l JK
2

b g

l 2 4 r 2

l 4

R2 l = Ans. R1 4 2.6 For molar volume P = PVm = 1 mN A 2 c 3 Vm 1 mN A c 2 = RT 3 3RT 3k T = mN A m P =

1 2 c 3

if the volume is 1 m3

c2 =

c =

3kT m
T
vd E

Hence 2.8

vd = E = 0.00132 50 vd = 0.066 m/s 2.14 EF = kTF 1.4 1.6 10 19 EF = TF = 1.38 1023 k TF = 1.62 104 K.

SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

2.1 Explain free electron gas model for metals. Ans. In most solids the two main types of internal energy are (i) the vibrational energy of the atoms about their mean lattice positions and (ii) the kinetic energy of the free electron. If heat is supplied to a body its temperature rises and the internal energy increases. The important thermal properties of matter such as heat capacity, thermal expansion and thermal conductivity depend upon the changes in the energy of the atom and free electrons. If an electric field is applied to a metal the free electrons are accelerated. Their kinetic energy increases. Some of the K.E is of course lost by

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

57

collisions with the atoms in the lattice. The resulting current is proportional to the average velocity of the free electrons. The velocity is determined by the applied electric field and also the collision frequency. Thus both thermal and electrical behaviour of matter depend on the free electrons in it. 2.2 Discuss some of the important factors which reduce electron mobility or scattering which in turn reduce the mobility. Ans. (i) Thermal agitation: Increase in temperature increases the resistance or scattering which in turns reduce the mobility. (ii) Plastic deformation: Internal stresses are caused by cold working which distort the energy levels at which electron transfer takes place. This is the other reason. (iii) Impurities: Lattice distortion and impurities cause irregularities and hence reduce the mean free path of the electrons and thus reduce the mobility of the electron. 2.3 Distinguish between the two velocities associated with the electron in metals. Ans. The velocity, vd =

eE is called drift velocity. This is super imposed on a much higher velocity m

known as random velocity ( ) due to the random motion of the electron (thermal motion). Just as c in an ordimary gas, the electrons have random motion even in the absence of the field. This is due to the fact that the electrons move about and occasionally scatter and change direction. The random motion, which contributes zero current, exists also in the presence of the field, but in this case there is an additional velocity opposite to the field. 2.4 Where metals and alloys are preferred? Ans. Metals are chosen in places where high conductivity and large temperature coefficient of resistance is desired. Alloys are chosen for heating purposes by I2R dissipation and for low temperature coefficient of resistance. 2.5 Why electrons and neutrons are diffracted easily by metallic crystals? Ans. Both neutrons and electrons have wave characteristics and the wavelength is of the order of grating elements in crystals. 2.6 Discuss briefly the important properties of superconducting materials. Ans. (i) At room temperature, superconducting materials have greater resistivity than other elements. (ii) The transition temperature Tc is different for different isotopes of an element. If decreases with increasing atomic weight of the isotopes. (iii) The superconducting property of a superconducting element is not lost by impurities to it but the critical temperature is lowered. (iv) There is no change in the crystal structure as revealed by x-ray diffraction studies. This means that superconductivity may be more concerned with the conduction electrons than with the atoms themselves. (v) The thermal expansion and elastic properties do not change in the transition. (vi) All thermoelectric effects disappear in superconducting state. (vii) When a sufficiently strong magnetic field is applied to a superconductor below the critical temperature, its superconducting property is destroyed. At any given temperature below Tc, there is a critical magnetic field Hc such that the superconducting property is destroyed by the application of a magnetic field. The value of Hc decreases as the temperature increases. 2.7 How will you know that a metal has become a superconductor? Ans. The simple method to study this problem is discussed below: A superconducting metal is connected with a source of electricity. A voltmeter is connected across as shown in figure. When the material is in normal conducting state a p.d is maintained at the ends

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING MATERIALS

of the wire or conductor. When the material is cooled below its critical temperature Tc, the potential disappears as shown in the figure below:

V V (a) V

V=0

(b)

2.8 Show that the following two definitions of the resistivity are equivalent. (a) resistance of a bar = (b) = Ans. (a) (b) Ohms law: V = IR R = V = E = =
V l = I a Il a

length of bar area of cross-section

electric field current density =

Ra l

...(1)

V I = = j l a E j or =
j E

...(2)

Both equations are the same.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
2.1 Outline free electron model of metals. Derive an expression for the electrical conductivity of a metal on the basis of classical free electron theory of metals. 2.2 What are the assumptions introduced by Drude-Lorentz to explain classical free electron theory of metals? Discuss the achievements and failures of this model. 2.3 Discuss the failures of classical theory of free electrons with special reference to specific heat and mean free path. 2.4 Obtain Wiedemann-Franz law. Give the significance of Lorentz number. 2.5 Enumerate the heat developed in a current carrying conductor and get the expression for the total energy dissipated per unit volume per second.

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

59

2.6 Discuss the properties of metals and insulators bringing in the important applications of them. 2.7 Give an account of the phenomenon of superconductivity. 2.8 Discuss the significance of critical temperature, critical magnetic field and critical current density in superconductors. 2.9 Distinguish between type I and type II superconductors with suitable diagrams. 2.10 List out the various applications of superconductors.

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

2.1 A copper wire of radius 1mm and length 10 metre carries a direct current of 5 ampere. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper if n = 5 1028/m3. Sol. The expression for drift velocity is vd = and i.e., or = =
eE m ne2 m

...(1)

m ne2

e = m ne

Substituting this in Eqn. (1), vd = E = E = vd = = E ne V IR = = l l

I a

FG I IJ l H lK a
= I nea

FG IJ FG I IJ H ne K H a K

5 5 1028 1.6 1019 103

vd = 1.99 104 m/s. 2.2 In the first case a copper wire of cross-sectional area 104 m2 and in which there is a current of 200 ampere is considered. If the free electron density of copper is 8.5 1025/m3, compute the drift velocity. If a p.d. of 1 volt is applied across 20 metre of this wire, express the new drift velocity in terms of the one calculated in the previous case. Relaxation time is 1014 sec. Sol. Case 1: If I is the current flowing, then I = n A vd e vd =
I 200 = nAe 8.5 1028 1.6 10 19 10 4

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vd = 1.47 104 m/s Case 2: E =

1 = 0.05 V/m 20

eE 1.6 10 19 0.05 10 14 1 = vd = = 8.8 105 m 9.1 10 31

vd v1 d

= 1.67 Ans.

2.3 Calculation of Fermi energy for some monovalent element yield the following results: Metal EF (eV) Cu 7.04 Li 4.72 Rb 1.82 Cs 1.53 Ag 5.51 K 2.12

If the Fermi velocity of the electron in one of the metals of the above series is 0.73 106 m/s, identify the metal. Also compute its Fermi temperature. Sol. i.e.,
1 2 m vF = E F 2

EF =

FG 1 IJ H 2K

9.1 1031 (0.73 106)2 joule

= 4.55 1031 1012 0.732 =

4.55 0.732 1019 1.6 1019

EF = 1.5 eV Ans. and or EF = k TF TF = 1.5 1.6 1019 EF = k 1.38 10 24 Ans.

TF = 1.75 104 K

2.4 For a specimen of V3 Ga, the critical fields are respectively 1.4 105 and 4.2 105A/m for 14 K and 13 K. Calculate the transition temperature and critical fields at 0 K and 4.2 K. Sol. The general formula is Hc (T) = H c 0 1

1.4 105 = H c

4.2

105

= Hc

L T b g MM FGH T IJK N L b0g MM1 FGH 14 IJK N T L b0g MM1 FGH 13 IJK N T
c c c

OP PQ OP PQ OP PQ

ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

61

1 = 3

eT eT

2 c 2 c

14 2
2

j 13 j

Tc2 Tc2

3 Tc2 3 142 = Tc2 132 2 Tc2 = 3 142 132 Tc = 14.47 K

1.4 105 = H c 0 1

b g LMM N

14 2 14.47
2

OP PQ

= Hc (0) 0.16

Hc =

1.4 105 = 2.3 106. 0.06

2.5 The resistivity of a superconductor becomes zero. Consequently the flux density is zero due to this abrupt change. Prove that the superconductor behaves as perfect diamagnetic. Sol. The general equation is B = 0 (H + M) Since B = 0 H = M or = Thus or
M = (r H
1

M = 1 H
1)

or

= 1 H

...(1)

1 = r r = 0

...(2)

Equations 1 and 2 show the possibility of perfect diamagnetism. Some Important Tables Table I: Critical field of some elements Element Al Cd Ga Pb Hg () Hg () Ta Sn BC (0) in 102 Wb/m2 0.99 0.30 0.51 0.51 4.13 3.40 8.30 3.06

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Table II. Properties of some selected superconducting elements Element Aluminium Cadmium Gallium Indium Tin Mercury Iridium Lead Tc (K) 1.196 0.52 1.09 3.4 3.72 4.12 0.11 7.175 Ho (A/m) 0.79 104 0.22 104 0.4 104 2.2 3.3 6.5 104 104 104 2.4 104 0.13 104 Type 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Element Zinc Tantalum Thlium Niobium Rhenium Thorium Zirconium Osmium Tc K 0.9 4.5 2.4 9.3 1.7 1.4 0.8 0.7 Ho A/m 0.42 104 6.6 104 1.4 104 15.6 1.3 0.5 104 104 104 1.6 104 0.37 104 Type 1 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

2.1 2.6 2.11 2.16 (d) (d) (a) (a) 2.2 (d) 2.7 (b) 2.12 (c) 2.3 (b) 2.8 (a) 2.13 (a) 2.4 (c) 2.9 (d) 2.14 (b) 2.5 (d) 2.10 (b) 2.15 (c)

GGG