Relations and Functions

A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of A B obtained by describing a

relationship between the first element a and the second element b of the ordered
pairs in A B. That is, R _ {(a, b) e A B, a e A, b e B}
The domain of a relation R from set A to set B is the set of all first elements of
the ordered pairs in R.
The range of a relation R from set A to set B is the set of all second elements of
the ordered pairs in R. The whole set B is called the co-domain of R. Range _
Co-domain
A relation R in a set A is called an empty relation, if no element of A is related to
any element of A. In this case, R = | c A A
Example: Consider a relation R in set A = {3, 4, 5} given by R = {(a, b): a
b
<
25, where a, b eA}. It can be observed that no pair (a, b) satisfies this condition.
Therefore, R is an empty relation.
A relation R in a set A is called a universal relation, if each element of A is related
to every element of A. In this case, R = A A
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} given by R = {(a,
b): a + b is an even number}.
Here, we may observe that all pairs (a, b) satisfy the condition R. Therefore, R is
a universal relation.
Both the empty and the universal relation are called trivial relations.
A relation R in a set A is called reflexive, if (a, a) e R for every a e R.
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A, where A = {2, 3, 4}, given by R =
{(a, b): a
b
= 4, 27 or 256}. Here, we may observe that R = {(2, 2), (3, 3), and
(4, 4)}. Since each element of R is related to itself (2 is related 2, 3 is related to
3, and 4 is related to 4), R is a reflexive relation.
A relation R in a set A is called symmetric, if (a
1
, a
2
) e R (a
2
, a
1
) e R, a
1
,
a
2
e R
Example: Consider a relation R in the set A, where A is the set of natural
numbers, given by R = {(a, b): 2 ab < 20}. Here, it can be observed that (b,
a) e R since 2 ba < 20 [since for natural numbers a and b, ab = ba]
Therefore, the relation R is symmetric.
A relation R in a set A is called transitive, if (a
1
, a
2
) e R and (a
2
, a
3
) e R (a
1
,
a
3
) e R for all a
1
, a
2
, a
3
e A
Example: Let us consider a relation R in the set of all subsets with respect to a
universal set U given by R = {(A, B): A is a subset of B}



Now, if A, B, and C are three sets in R, such that A c B and B c C, then we also
have A c C. Therefore, the relation R is a symmetric relation.
A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation, if R is altogether
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Example: Let (a, b) and (c, d) be two ordered pairs of numbers such that the
relation between them is given by a + d = b + c. This relation will be an
equivalence relation. Let us prove this.
(a, b) is related to (a, b) since a + b = b + a. Therefore, R is reflexive.
If (a, b) is related to (c, d), then a + d = b + c c + b = d + a. This shows that
(c, d) is related to (a, b). Hence, R is symmetric.
Let (a, b) is related to (c, d); and (c, d) is related to (e, f), then a + d = b + c and
c + f = d + e. Now, (a + d) + (c + f) = (b + c) + (d + e) a + f = b + e. This
shows that (a, b) is related to (e, f). Hence, R is transitive.
Since R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, R is an equivalence relation.
Given an arbitrary equivalence relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into
mutually disjoint subsets Ai called partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying:
All elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
No element of Ai is related to any element of Aj , i j
Aj = X and Ai Aj= |, i j
The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes.
A function f from set X to Y is a specific type of relation in which every element
x of X has one and only one image y in set Y. We write the function f as f: X
Y, where f (x) = y
A function f: X Y is said to be one-one or injective, if the image of distinct
elements of X under f are distinct. In other words, if x
1
, x
2
e X and f (x
1
) = f (x
2
),
then x
1
= x
2
. If the function f is not one-one, then f is called a many-one
function.
The one-one and many-one functions can be illustrated by the following figures:

A function f: X Y can be defined as an onto (surjective) function, if y e Y,
there exists x e X such that f (x) = y.



The onto and many-one (not onto) functions can be illustrated by the following
figures:

A function f: X Y is said to be bijective, if it is both one-one and onto. A
bijective function can be illustrated by the following figure:


Example: Show that the function f: R N given by f (x) = x
3
1 is bijective.

Solution:
Let x
1
, x
2
e R
For f (x
1
) = f (x
2
), we have
3 3
1 2
3 3
1 2
1 2
1 1 x x
x x
x x
=
=
=

Therefore, f is one-one.
Also, for any y in N, there exists
3
1 y + in R such that
( ) ( )
3
3 3
1 1 1 f y y y + = + = . Therefore, f is onto.
Since f is both one-one and onto, f is bijective.
Composite function: Let f: A B and g: B C be two functions. The
composition of f and g, i.e. gof, is defined as a function from A to C given by gof
(x) = g (f (x)), x e A





Example: Find gof and fog, if f: R R and g: R R are given by f (x) = x
2

1 and g (x) = x
3
+ 1.

Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
3
2
6 4 2
2 4 2
1
1 1
1 3 3 1
3 3
gof x g f x
g x
x
x x x
x x x
=
=
= +
= + +
= +

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
3
2
3
6 3
3 3
1
1 1
2 1 1
2
fog x f g x
f x
x
x x
x x
=
= +
= +
= + +
= +

A function f: X Y is said to be invertible, if there exists a function g: Y X
such that gof = I
X
and fog = I
Y
. In this case, g is called inverse of f and is written
as g = f
1

A function f is invertible, if and only if f is bijective.

Example: Show that f: R
+
{0} N defined as f (x) = x
3
+ 1 is an invertible
function. Also, find f
1
.

Solution:
Let x
1
, x
2
e R
+
{0} and f (x
1
) = f (x
2
)
3 3
1 2
3 3
1 2
1 2
1 1 x x
x x
x x
+ = +
=
=

Therefore, f is one-one.
Also, for any y in N, there exists
3
1 y e R
+
{0} such that
( )
3
1 f y = y.
f is onto.
Hence, f is bijective.
This shows that, f is invertible.
Let us consider a function g: N R
+
{0} such that ( )
3
1 g y y =
Now,



( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
3
3
3 3
1 1 1
1 1 1
gof x g f x g x x x
fog y f g y f y y y
= = + = + =
= = = + =

Therefore, we have
( )
{0}
I gof x
+

=
R
and fog (y) = I
N

( ) ( )
1
3
1 f y g y y

= =
A binary operation - on a set A is a function - : A A A
An operation - on a set A is commutative, if a - b = b - a a, b e A
An operation - on a set A is associative, if (a - b) - c = a - (b - c) a, b, c eA
An element e e A is the identity element for binary operation -: A A A, if a
- e = a = e a a e A
An element a e A is invertible for binary operation -: A A A, if there exists
b e A such that a - b = e = b - a, where e is the identity for -. The element b is
called inverse of a and is denoted by a
1
.

Example: Show that - is a binary operation defined on R {0} by a - b = ab
Also show that - is both commutative and associative. Find the identity element
of -, if it exists. Find the inverse of a where a e R {0}, if - is invertible.

Solution:
The operation - is defined for a, b, c e R.
Therefore, - is a binary operation.
Let a, b, c e R {0}.
Now, a - b = ab and b - a = ba
Since ab = ba, a - b = b - a
[Real numbers are commutative under multiplication]
Hence, - is commutative.
Now, a - (b - c) = a - (bc) = abc
(a - b) - c = (ab) * c = abc
a - (b - c) = (a - b) - c
Hence, - is associative.
Now, 1 e R {0} and a - 1 = a 1 = a and 1 - a = 1 a = a
Therefore, a - 1 = 1 - a = a
Thus, 1 is the identity element for the binary operation -.
Now, since a e R {0},
1
{0}
a
e R [a = 0]



However,
1
1 a
a
=
Therefore,
1
1
a
a