Exam 1: Chapters 1-4

ANSWER FOUR OF THE FOLLOWING FIVE QUESTIONS (5 POINTS EACH). Be sure to give full, comprehensive answers with enough detail to convince the reader that you understand the concepts. Be sure that your answer demonstrates knowledge and understanding of the course and text. Use subheadings and bulleted lists as appropriate.
1. Explain the terms ethnocentrism, ethical relativism, and moral

universalism, as they pertain to the social responsibility actions of MNCs. Is one approach preferred over another? (Chapter 2, pages 36-41) The term ethnocentrism refers to the attitude of MNCs which operate from the assumption that their ways of doing things are best- no matter where or under what conditions they are applied. Under the ethnocentric approach, an MNC applies the morality used in its home country- regardless of the host countrys system of ethics. For example, while Americans consider it unethical to employ child labor and have strict laws prohibiting it, child labor occurs in other countries as a source of cheap labor for firms and a means to supplement the familys income. Under ethical relativism, the company simply adopts the local moral code of the country in which it is operating (e.g., When in Rome, do as the Romans do). With this approach, companies run into value conflicts, for example, where companies continue to export silicone-filled breast implants (prohibited in the United States for health reasons). Companies such as Dow Corning have ceased foreign sales of breast implants citing its responsibility to apply the same standards internationally as it does domestically (in essence taking both an ethnocentric and universalist stance). Under moral universalism the company adheres to the same standards of ethical behavior in every part of the world where it operates. Moral universalism also implies that the MNCs adhere to a set of universal moral principles rather than principles derived from its home or host country. For example, certain minimum standards of human rights, labor rights, and concern for the environment fall within the category of moral universalism. A specific example of universal standards or principles used by MNCs is the Social Accountability 8000 (SA 8000). These are standards modeled on the manufacturing standard ISO 8000. The SA8000 proposes the following:

Do not use child or forced labor Provide a safe working environment Respect workers rights to unionize Do not regularly require more then 48-hour work weeks

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Pay sufficient wages to cover workers basic needs These standards would fall under moral universalism Other examples of universal standards are the International Codes of Conduct for MNEs discussed in Chapter 3. These codes were developed by the International Chamber of Commerce, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the International Labor Organization, and the United Nations. These organizations have promulgated codes of conduct for MNCs in areas such as technology transfer, consumer protection, employment practices, human rights, and other areas. Is one approach preferred over another? According to Bowie, the moral universalism approach is preferable to the ethnocentrism or moral relativism approaches.

2. a) Define and explain the term societal culture. (Chapter 3, pages 91-92)

Societal culture (or, the culture of a society) comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals that are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of the society and are passed on to succeeding generations. Essentially, societal culture is learned and shared by and among members of that society. There are several variable components of culture that determine attitudes of people towards work, time, materialism, individualism, and change. For example in U.S. culture, one is expected to be on time for appointments unlike some cultures where time is viewed as flexible. b) Give examples of operational conflicts that could occur in a crosscultural context because of different attitudes toward: 1) time, 2) change, 3) individualism. (Give of a country or region that would be different from the United States for each of the three variables). (Chapter 3, pages 105-107) Time: In many parts of the world time is looked upon on a different and longer perspective than in the United States. Americans tend to view time as a valuable limited resource to be spent, saved and used judiciously. Time is precious and deadlines and schedules are not only important but are crucial in business situations. There are however, contrasting perspectives about time. For example, in Latin America, a common attitude towards time is maana which usually means an indefinite time in the future. Similarly, the word bukra in Arabic can mean tomorrow, or some time in the future. While Americans usually regard a deadline as a firm commitment, Arabs often regard a deadline imposed on them as an insult. They feel that important things take a long time and should not be rushed. Change: The attitude towards change is directly related to a societys belief in the extent to which it can control the future. Western societies

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generally believe that an individual can exert some control over the future and can manipulate events, particularly in a business context. In contrast, in many non-Western societies, people believe that their destiny is under the control of external events, or the will of their God. The managerial implications of this cultural characteristic are that while Americans or other westerners believe that they can change themselves as individuals (e.g., improve their abilities as a leader), other societies may not believe such change is possible. Americans may also be more likely to hold individuals responsible for creating change in an organization (e.g., improving performance), whereas other societies with place less faith in the ability of an individual to bring about such change. Individualism: Americans are high on individualism- they value individual achievement, accomplishments, and rewards highly. In contrast, certain societies (e.g., China) place emphasis on group goals and group achievement. In China, a much more we consciousness prevails, and the group is the basic building block of social life and work. For the Chinese, conformity and cooperation take precedence over individual achievement, and the emphasis is on the strength of the family or community. 3. Explain each of Hofstedes four culture dimensions (individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity), and discuss the managerial implications of each. Give examples of countries that have each of the values. (Chapter 3 , pages 100-103) Hofstedes model of the four dimensions that underlie organization behavior are as follows: Power distance: is defined as the level of acceptance by society of the unequal distribution of power in institutions. In countries in which people display a high power distance (such as Malaysia, the Philippines, and Mexico) employees accept the bosss authority and they seldom bypass the chain of command. In such societies, an autocratic management style is expected and works well. In low power distance societies (such as Austria, Denmark, and Israel), superiors and subordinates regard each other as equal. In such societies, a more democratic style is expected and works well.

Uncertainty avoidance: refers to the extent to which people in a society feel threatened by ambiguous situations. People in societies where uncertainty avoidance is high (such as Japan, Portugal, and Greece) tend to be highly risk

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averse and there is a greater resistance to change than in societies where uncertainty avoidance is low. Managers in these societies tend to use more rules and procedures, employees are less aggressive, and lifetime employment is common. In countries with low uncertainty avoidance (such as Denmark, Great Britain, and to a lesser extent, the United States) company activities are less structured, and less formal, managers take more risks, and high job mobility is common. Individualism: refers to the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only and to neglect the needs of society. In individualist societies (such as the United States, Great Britain, and Australia), democracy, individual initiative, and achievement are highly valued. In collectivist societies (such as Japan, Pakistan and Panama), the group needs takes precedence over individual will. Collectivist societies value harmony, saving face, and emphasize the group in decision making. Masculinity: refers to the degree to which traditionally masculine values such as assertiveness, materialism and lack of concern for others prevail in a society. Femininity emphasizes a concern for others, for relationships, and for quality of life. In highly masculine societies (such as Japan and Austria), there is more job stress and organizational interests generally encroach on employees private lives. In contrast, in countries with low masculinity (such as Switzerland and New Zealand), there is less conflict and job stress, more women in high-level jobs, and reduced need for assertiveness. The United States lies somewhere inbetween masculinity and femininity. American women are encouraged to work, and families are often able to get some support for child care.

4. a) Explain the differences in communication styles between high-context and low-context cultures, giving a country or regional example for each. (Chapter 4, page 135)

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In high-context cultures (countries in Asia, the Middle East, Africa and the Mediterranean), feelings and thoughts are not explicitly expressed; instead one has to read between the lines and interpret meaning from ones general understanding. Key information is embedded in the context rather than clearly stated. People make assumptions about the message based on the background information they have about the person based on personal ties and knowledge of the person or surroundings. In low context cultures (Germany, United States, Switzerland, Scandinavia) business and personal relationships are more compartmentalized and communication is more explicit. Feelings and thoughts are expressed clearly in words and information is readily available.
b) Explain why these differences often cause noise in communication

between Americans and Arabs. (Chapter 4, pages 137-138) Arabs and Americans differ vastly in communication styles based in the fact that they come from very high and low context cultures respectively. Often these styles can cause noise. Middle Eastern culture emphasizes friendship, honor, religion and traditional hospitality. Family, friends, and connections are very important and take precedence over business transactions. Giving and receiving favors and being interrupted by friends and family during a business meeting may be common for an Arab but highly distracting for an American who may construe that the Arab does not consider the matter important enough to give it his full and undivided attention. Not only is the Arab culture high-context, it is also a high contact culture. Arabs stand and sit closer together and touch people of the same sex more often than Americans do. The distance preferred by Americans, the concept of maintaining their personal space bubble, may offend the Arab as being standoffish. A typical culture clash occurs when an American tries to give an Arab a strict deadline- the Arabs attitude to time is derived from the Muslim expression Bukra insha Allah meaning Tomorrow if Allah wills and the Arab feels insulted and considers the American rude, pushy and demanding. Again, Arabs coming from high-context cultures tend to meander, start business with social talk, discuss business for a while, then loop around to social issues and then again come back to business. Americans being used to a direct, linear and explicit form of communication often feel impatient and confused by this communication style.

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5. Explain the broad differences in communication style between Japanese and Americans. Then, give some specific examples of that would contrast the Japanese ningensei style with the more adversarial American style. (Chapter 4, pages 140-141) The Japanese ningensei or human beingness style of communication refers to the preference for humanity, reciprocity, a receiver orientation, and an underlying distrust of words and analytic logic. The Japanese believe that true intentions are not necessarily contained in words or contracts, but instead masked by them. In contrast to the typical Americans verbal agility and explicitness, Japanese communicate with the goal of defending and giving face for everyone concerned. In particular, the Japanese will avoid public disagreements. Some specific examples of the contrasting styles are given below: Japanese 1. Indirect verbal and nonverbal communication. 2. Relationship communication. 3. Strategically ambiguous communication. 4. Delayed feedback. 5. Uses fewer words. American More direct verbal and nonverbal communication. More task communication. Prefers more to-the-point communication. More immediate feedback Favors verbosity.

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