Pastoral Pathways: Climate Change Adaptation Lessons From Ethiopia

Pastoral pathways
Climate change adaptation lessons from Ethiopia

Siri Eriksen Andrei Marin
Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric
Norwegian University of Life Sciences
Te Development fund/Utviklingsfondet
All rights reserved

Published by the Development Fund
First published 2011
ISBN 978-82-91923-34-5 (Print)
ISBN 978-82-91923-35-2 (Digital)

Readers are encouraged to make use of, reproduce,
disseminate and translate materials from this
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to this publication and respective author(s)

For more information please contact the Development Fund
Utviklingsfondet
Grensen 9 B
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+47 23 10 96 00
www.utviklingsfondet.no

Authors:
Siri H. Eriksen and Andrei Marin
Department of International Environment and Development Studies
Norwegian University of Life Sciences
P.O. Box 5003
NO-1432 Aas
Norway

Collaborating organizations:
Afar Pastoral Development Association, Afar Region, Ethiopia
Ogaden Welfare and Development Association, Somali Region, Ethiopia

Production:
Gitte Motzfeldt, Siv Heln Strmland
Graphic design/layout: Ian Dent www.iandent.net
Photos: Utviklingsfondet, Andrei Marin, Maria lund, Sylvia Rani
Rognvik

Te Development Fund is a Norwegian independent non-governmental
organization (NGO). We support environment and development projects
through local partners in Asia, Africa and Latin America. We believe that
the fght against poverty must be based on sustainable management of
natural resources in local communities.
Contents
P4 Preface
P8 Executive summary
P121/ Climate change adaptation and
sustainable development
P162/ The vulnerability context and multiple
stressors among pastoralists
2.1 The Afar feld sites
2.2 Vulnerability and pastoral
management strategies in Afar

2.3 The context for pastoral vulnerability
and adaptation in Ethiopia: Afar and
Somali regions
P383/ Towards sustainable adaptation to
climate change
P444/ Lessons from pastoral pathways
References
Acknowledgements
Te authors would like to thank the local people in the Afar and Somali
sites for participating in the study. We are grateful to the Afar Pastoral
Development Association (APDA) and the Ogaden Welfare and De-
velopment Association (OWDA) for leading the local data collection
and providing valuable input to the study. We would also like to thank
Diress Tsegaye, Maria lund, Lars Otto Nss and Gitte Motzfeldt for
invaluable comments on an earlier draf. Lastly, we would like to thank
the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) for
funding this report.
4 POs|OrOIpO|hwOys.CIimO|eChOnQeOOOp|O|iOnIessOnsfrOmE|hiOpiO
Preface
PrefOCe 5
A
key aim of the Development Fund activities is to increase
the adaptive capacity of marginalized rural poor farmers
and pastoralists in the South. Furthermore we want to
respond to local, national, and global challenges that afect the live-
lihood of these farmers and pastoralist. Specifcally, we recognize
the need for integrated climate research and analytical knowledge
to enhance the quality and sustainability of our project and policy
work.
Tis report has two main objectives:
To increase the knowledge and understanding of key themes
of the program and policy work of the Development Fund
and its collaborating partner organizations in pastoral and
agro-pastoral rural areas of Ethiopia, and to give guidance for
future program planning in these areas.
To raise awareness among planners and policy makers and
strengthen understanding of the critical situation the pasto-
ralists are facing today, and to provide recommendations for
sustainable pastoral adaptation pathways in the future.
Human induced climate change is increasingly afecting the rural
poor, who ofen have the least capacity to respond to such change.
Any alterations in climatic conditions exacerbate an already chal-
lenging livelihood situation. Given that both environmental and
societal stressors experienced by the poor are driven in part by
global processes, we now understand that the traditional ways of
coping with climatic variability on their own will be insufcient in
addressing climatic changes in the long term. Terefore, increased
knowledge and an in-depth understanding of the stressors that
infuence peoples livelihoods is necessary in order to address on-
going and future changes.
1.
2.
Despite many studies questioning this view, pastoral communities
are ofen associated with degrading rangelands. A starting point
for understanding vulnerability contexts and adaptation to climate
change adaptation is a recognition that these communities are
custodians of the local environment. Te huge contribution these
mobile systems can make economically, socially and especially
environmentally needs to be considered by politicians and policy
makers alike as development strategies and adaptation policies are
formulated. Te Afar, with their protective environmental man-
agement laws have, for example, been able to manage and utilize
the scarce resources and maintain their livelihoods in one of the
hottest places on Earth. Pastoralists have considerable knowledge
and experience in dealing with climatic variability, which can be
expected to increase with climate change.
Ethiopias legacy of variable and unpredictable rainfall, causing
frequent droughts and heavy foods, undermines local as well as
national food and water security. Tis feature has implications
for economic growth and poverty reduction eforts, especially
for already vulnerable pastoral groups who are fully dependent
on the natural environment they inhabit. Te negotiations under
the United Nations Convention to Climate Change (UNFCCC)
are currently creating a global framework for national long term
adaptation planning. At the same time, Ethiopia is in the process
of developing regional adaptation plans. Tese plans will form
the basis for the Ethiopian National Adaptation Plan. Tese multi
stakeholder planning processes have the potential to identify and
address the multiple stressors facing the Afar and Somali people,
as outlined in this report. It is our hope that the knowledge gener-
ated through this report can provide useful tools for development
and adaptation planners and policy makers and hence facilitate
and strengthen their work.
Gitte Motzfeldt
Climate Change Advisor, the Development Fund
Knut Harald Ulland
Executive Director, the Development Fund
POs|OrOIpO|hwOys.CIimO|eChOnQeOOOp|O|iOnIessOnsfrOmE|hiOpiO
Afar women
fetching water
PrefOCe 7
Executivesummary
C
limate change highlights the need for a new type of de-
velopment. Tere is an urgent need to develop adaptation Tere is an urgent need to develop adaptation
approaches that ensure social equity and environmental
integrity. Specifcally, there is a need to reframe policy towards there is a need to reframe policy towards
responses that shif, rather than reproduce, the development para-
digm causing the climate problems and vulnerability in the frst
place. Tere are few examples of how this can be done in practice, Tere are few examples of how this can be done in practice,
however.
Tis study exemplifes what sustainable adaptation that is, adap-
tation to climate change that contributes to sustainable develop-
ment pathways means in a local context. Four normative princi-
ples have been developed that can guide policies and interventions
towards achieving development pathways that strengthen both
social equity and environmental integrity:
recognise the context of vulnerability, including multiple
stressors
acknowledge difering values and interests afecting adaptation
outcomes
integrate local knowledge into adaptation responses
consider potential feedbacks between local and global
processes
Tis study examines the practical implications of these principles
in an Ethiopian pastoralist context. Hence, pastoral pathways
past, present and future - can provide lessons for the type of soci-
etal transformations required to tackle the climate change problem.
Te analysis is based mainly on interview data collected in two
sites in Afar as well as insights from past studies in the region as
documented in published literature. In order to understand their In order to understand their
signifcance across contexts, some of the key issues identifed for
Afar are followed up with a smaller number of interviews in an-
other pastoral area, the neighbouring Somali region. Te vulner-
ability context, multiple stressors and local adaptation strategies
are investigated in order to identify the social, environmental and
development processes that shape adaptation options in both areas.
A crucial issue is the extent to which the local dynamics that is,
the interaction between local livelihood responses and the multiple
changes that they face (including climate variability and change,
confict and development policies) contribute to more or less
sustainable development pathways. Climate related events, com-
pounded by factors such as disease or confict, play a prominent
role in local history in both areas. A comparison of the Afar and
Somali study areas reveals that some of the main processes driv-
ing vulnerability are similar in both sites, even if some of the local
manifestations and responses difer. In both areas, respondents
perceive the climate to have changed over time, with higher tem-
peratures, reduced rainfall, more unreliable and localized rainfall,
and resulting drought events as a key livelihood concern. Tese
changes take place alongside a deterioration of the grasslands over
the past decades and a resulting shif from cattle to smallstock as
well as a dramatic reduction of herds. Such developments threaten
the viability of pastoralism, with many people being forced to turn
to other, ofen marginal livelihoods, such as the production of
charcoal in Afar and the collection and sale of grasses and other
rangeland products as well as migration to cities in the Somali
study area. Many also turn to trade as a response in both areas. Re-
maining pastoralists seek to migrate further with their animals in
search of pasture and water.
Tese responses to multiple stressors are ofen precarious and also
1.
2.
3.
4.
threaten the viability of pastoralism in the long term, however,
reinforcing vulnerability and inequity. Some activities such as the
cutting of live trees contribute to declining rangeland resources; in
addition, pastoral mobility is severely constrained. Tis is particu-
larly evident in Afar, where the expansion of agricultural schemes
and insecurity related to conficts with neighbouring Somali Issa
groups mean that key drought grazing areas increasingly become
unavailable. In both study areas, the loss of grazing areas is exac-
erbated by a process of individuals enclosing land for farming (in
Afar and Somali) and for harvesting of grass and forest products
(Somali). Tis development is a strategy by individuals to diversify
incomes in the face of declining pastoral incomes; however, the
loss of access to grazing further diminishes the adaptive capacity
of pastoralist systems. Te increased need for crisis mobility and
harvesting of rangeland resources for sale also put customary sys-
tems of resource management as well as systems of mutual support
under pressure, further threatening the adaptive capacity of the
community as a whole.
In order to achieve more socially and environmentally sustainable
pathways, a number of issues must be tackled. Te four norma-
tive principles of sustainable adaptation have very specifc local
signifcance in the context of Ethiopian pastoralism. First, the vul- First, the vul-
nerability context, although closely connected to climatic events
such as drought, food and perceived climatic changes, is driven
by multiple environmental and social processes. Tese include
sedentarisation and pressure to modernise toward farming that
relies on expansion of irrigation agriculture. While some of the
smaller scale conficts can be negotiated locally, the intensifying
conficts between the Afar and Somali are related to the political
system of ethnic federalism, where political infuence is tied to the
occupation and control of land by clans and ethnic groups. Hence,
unless political systems and development patterns are addressed at
a structural level, policies are unlikely to get to the root causes of
vulnerability.
Second, there are diferentiated interests and strategies within the
pastoral communities, between population groups and between
pastoralists and the government. For example, government poli-
cies aimed to strengthen cultivation diverge from local herders
aspirations to restock and sustain pastoralist livelihoods. At the
same time, the enclosure of land by infuential individuals is caus-
ing tension with pastoralists who lose access to key resources
needed to survive droughts. Current domination of some interests
and groups over others in power relations, policies and decision-
making processes can in efect lead to increased vulnerability and
maladaptation.
Tird, local knowledge and customs have been critical in managing
environmental variability, though they come under pressure when
droughts are severe. It is unclear whether formal laws and adminis-
trative systems are ofering support to these customary laws at the
moment and whether this can be done in ways that do not hijack
or delegitimise customary institutions or cause favouritism and in-
equities. A critical question is whether these traditional institutions
and informal relations are restored if climatic conditions improve
and the current crisis is ameliorated. Traditional knowledge can
also be reinforced with formal research to raise indigenous trees,
shrubs and grass well adapted to the local dry climate.
Fourth, fndings of the current study of the Afar and Somali chal-
lenge the way that globallocal linkages have been conceptualised
so far. While pastoralists contribute little to global environmental
or social problems, they are at the receiving end of many global
ExeCu|ivesummOry 9
strategies to respond to climate change, and potentially unfavour-
ably so. For example, irrigated sugar cane production (which may
contribute to biofuel production) limits a key Afar drought-coping
mechanism, the accessing of drought grazing near the Awash, at
the same time as it leads to increased risk of severe foods. Never-
theless, the pastoralists interviewed have a keen moral and global
conscience regarding their own environmental management prac-
tices and the potential impacts on the wider community.
Critically, the vulnerability context and peoples responses vary
between places and change over time. Terefore, sustainable ad-
aptation does not pertain to identifying a particular sustainable
practice or action, but to develop a set of actions that contribute to
socially and environmentally sustainable development pathways. A
key lesson from the identifcation of potential measures required to
achieve sustainable adaptation in the context of Ethiopian pastoral-
ism is that implementing measures at a single level only, whether
the national policy level or community response level, is insuf-
fcient. Instead, an understanding of vulnerability and social and
environmental sustainability must permeate actions at all scales
from the local to the international in order to shif development
pathways and efectively adapt to climate change.
Te case of Ethiopian pastoralism distinguishes some specifc
lessons regarding the dynamics that sustainable adaptation ap-
proaches must address. First, some of the processes perceived to
exert the most severe stress on local livelihoods, undermining abil-
ity to face droughts and climatic changes, are actually unintended
consequences of development interventions. Second, there is a
disconnect between local pastoralist values and aspirations and na-
tional policy ambitions to modernize through farming. Tird, the
resulting responses to climate change and other long-term changes
to some extent actually reinforce vulnerability, in particular the
enclosure and de facto privatisation of key communal drought re-
sources.
As demonstrated by this study, a shif is required in development
and political structures if socially and environmentally sustainable
pathways are to be found. Viewing development through the lens
of climate change vulnerability and adaptation may contribute to
identifying which transformation in current development path-
ways that is required. In particular, pastoral pathways in terms of
the dynamic vulnerability context and adaptations described here
provide valuable lessons regarding the actions and development
approaches through which the concept of sustainable adaptation
can potentially be realized in practice.
ExeCu|ivesummOry 11
Camels drinking
water at a riverbed
1/Climatechangeadaptationand
sustainabledevelopment
CIimO|eChOnQeOOOp|O|iOnOnOsus|OinObIeOeveIOpmen| 13
A
daptation to climate change is not simple or straightfor-
ward. With new funding mechanisms and increase in
formal climate change adaptation policy processes, there
is an urgent need to identify adaptation approaches that lead to
desired outcomes, such as actions and interventions that efectively
contribute to the quality of life and reduced vulnerability of diverse
population groups. Tis study exemplifes what sustainable adapta-
tion means in a local context, that is, adaptation to climate change
that contributes to sustainable development pathways. Te case
of pastoralists in Ethiopia is used to illustrate how vulnerability to
climate change can be meaningfully understood and how adapta-
tion strategies may be better designed and fostered if included in
the encompassing context of development strategies. Ethiopia has
a climate change national adaptation programme of action (NAPA)
in place and is also paying increasing attention to pastoral develop-
ment (Tadege 2007). Te country hence provides an excellent illus-
tration of the challenges and opportunities involved in realising the
potential for sustainable development in terms of achieving social
equity and environmental integrity in the long term. Te analysis
is based mainly on interview data collected in two sites in Afar as
well as insights from past studies in the region as documented in
published literature. In order to understand the signifcance of the
local context for vulnerability among pastoralists, some of the key
issues identifed for Afar are followed up with a smaller number
of interviews two sites in another pastoral area, the neighbouring
Somali region. By examining the causes of vulnerability, responses
to climatic and societal changes and the implications for sustain-
able adaptation, the study aims to contribute to identifying ways of
reducing the vulnerability of pastoralist groups in Ethiopia.
Tere is overwhelming scientifc evidence indicating that climate
change is no longer a distant prediction but a reality whose immi-
nent impacts on ecosystems and people are ofen underestimated.
Africa is generally regarded as being highly vulnerable to climate
change, because many of its people and economies depend to a
large extent on agricultural production, which is sensitive to cli-
mate change (Boko et al., 2007). Te horn of Africa and Ethiopia
in particular is ofen cited as an extreme case where the impacts
of present and future climate changes could lead to disasters simi-
lar to the famines of the 1980s (Conway and Schipper, 2010). An
identifcation of vulnerable areas based only on levels of climate
sensitivity nevertheless fails to take into account that disasters oc-
cur only when they hit already vulnerable people and that major
negative impacts cannot be attributed to climate change or envi-
ronmental change alone, but to a combination of environmental,
social, economic and political factors.Vulnerability can be seen
as present before the exposure to climate change takes place and
exposure is only one element of a complex context of biophysical,
socio-economic, institutional and technological forces and struc-
tures that shape the vulnerability context (OBrien et al., 2007).
Tis approach to studying vulnerability is fundamentally diferent
from many studies that perceive that people, livelihoods, or eco-
systems become vulnerable only afer they have been exposed to
climate change and where vulnerability is the negative outcome of
exposure minus the responses undertaken to counteract the im-
pacts of climate change.
Te present study focuses on how the long-term vulnerability
context of pastoralist groups can be changed, in terms of reducing
social inequity in access to adaptation options, enhancing long-
term environmental sustainability of options, and addressing the
social, environmental and development processes that shape these
options. In addition to climate risk to livelihoods, the study hence
focuses on local capacity to respond to change as well as the funda-
mental causes of vulnerability.
Local capacity to respond to change, including how pastoralists
have adapted to environmental variability for generations and the
conditions and arrangements that allow them to continue to do so,
such as land tenure rights, is an important aspect of adaptation to
climate change. Te exact nature of climate change in terms of the
specifc altered climatic conditions in diferent regions of Ethiopia
cannot easily be predicted, in particular with regard to rainfall
patterns. However, average temperatures are likely to increase by
several degrees over the next century, along with greater climatic
uncertainty and variations (Boko et al., 2007). Since peoples own
coping strategies are the main way that people have survived so far,
it is important that deliberate policy measures to strengthen adap-
tation build on and support such strategies. However, supporting
local coping strategies alone is not sufcient to adapt to climate
change. Te underlying causes of vulnerability must also be ad-
dressed. Processes such as land tenure change, economic marginal-
isation, loss of resource rights or changing investment patterns are
ofen generated at the regional and international level and outside
the scope of household or village-based strategies. Such structural
factors need to be addressed at regional, national and potentially
international levels and are critical in determining whether lo-
cal livelihood and coping strategies become meagre strategies for
survival or strategies for success securing a decent life in the long
term (Ziervogel et al., 2006).
1.1Vulnerabilitytoclimatechange:Achallengenow!
1.2Theurgencyofunderstandingthevulnerabilitycontext
1.3Climatechangehighlightstheneedforanewtypeofdevelopment
Pastoral experiences, in addition to generating understanding of
what adaptation may mean in their particular context, can also
help to elaborate the notion of sustainable adaptation; that is fnd-
ing ways of adapting to climate change that contribute to socially
and environmentally sustainable development. Tere is increasing
attention being paid to the need for global transformation towards
more sustainable pathways (Eriksen et al., 2011). Tis is highlight-
ed by the issue of climate change, which is fundamentally caused
by development problems such as economic growth, consumption
patterns, and economic and political relations based on inequity
and high energy use. Conventional social and economic develop-
ment pathways have also ofen ignored the climatic and natural
conditions as well as peoples previous adaptations to their natural
environment and ecosystems, undermining resilience. As a conse-
In this report, we explore the implications of the vulnerability
context of Ethiopian pastoralists for how sustainable adaptation
pathways could potentially be achieved in practice. A crucial issue
is the extent to which the local dynamics that is, the interaction
between local livelihood responses and the multiple changes that
they face (including climate variability and change, confict and
development policies) contribute to more or less sustainable
development pathways. Tis approach raises a number of ques-
tions: What social, political, economic, cultural, technological and
biophysical conditions create vulnerability, and what processes
and relations drive this context? What are the ongoing social and
environmental changes that pastoralists have to manage, and how
do these changes afect their vulnerability context and ability to
manage change in future? How do current policies and develop-
ment interventions interact with the socio-environmental changes
and vulnerability context? What are the strategies and traditional
knowledge that pastoral groups currently use to achieve their as-
pirations and a meaningful life in the face of multiple stressors,
including climate variability and change?
Importantly, what are the difering values and interests afecting
adaptation outcomes, and how are these diferent interests negoti-
ated within a community, between communities, and between
pastoralists, the state and other actors? How may these processes
afect the vulnerability of diferent social groups and individu-
als unequally, favouring some and disadvantaging others? Whose
knowledge, problem perception and solutions are recognised in
decision-making and formal policies? How are local knowledge
and practices integrated with scientifc knowledge and adaptation
interventions?
Finally, we need to understand what globallocal linkages are
embodied in local responses; do local responses contribute to or
undermine sustainability in other areas or globally, for example
through increased emissions, or are local strategies to manage
climate variability infuenced by climate measures elsewhere?
Fundamentally, what are the current societal transformations and
can they be altered to contribute to more socially equitable and
environmentally sustainable pathways? Are there examples of
existing policies and interventions that strengthen local adapta-
tion, especially among the most vulnerable, in a way that does not
undermine the welfare of other groups or environmental integrity?
Can such measures be further developed and included in regional
or national climate change policies?
Tese questions expand on and operationalise the four norma-
tive principles characterising policies and interventions that may
contribute to achieving development pathways strengthening both
social equity and environmental integrity, identifed by Eriksen et
al. (2011):
Recognise the context for vulnerability, including multiple
stressors.
Acknowledge difering values and interests afecting adapta-
tion outcomes.
Integrate local knowledge into adaptation responses.
Consider potential feedbacks between local and global proc-
esses.
Te next section describes the vulnerability context, multiple
stressors and local adaptation strategies in the Afar and Somali
regions. Te following section explores the meaning of the four key
features of sustainable adaptation in an Ethiopian pastoral context;
that is, the implications of fndings from the Afar and Somali re-
gions for how we understand sustainable adaptation. Te conclu-
sions comment on the lessons for how we understand sustainable
adaptation, and the potentials (and barriers) for current societal
development and future policies to support more sustainable
pathways in Ethiopia. Te study aims to contribute to such policy
outcomes in two ways: frst, by developing suggestions for how
adaptation to climate change can be strengthened among vulner-
able pastoralist groups, that can be tested in ongoing development
programmes; and second, to provide valuable input to the dryland
development Programs of the Development Fund Ethiopia, that
have special outreach to pastoralist in the Afar and Somali regions,
and the Horn of Africa more generally. Trough this analysis, we
hope to illustrate how policy eforts to promote adaptation to cli-
mate change can beneft from an understanding of local peoples
set of opportunities and constraints as shaped by the larger socio-
economic and political context generated by encompassing devel-
opment strategies.
1.
2.
3.
4.
quence, adjustment to current practices, technologies and institu-
tions within the current development regime is not enough; there
is a need for a diferent approach to adaptation and development
in the face of climate change that can address the shortcomings of
current development pathways. Tere is a need to reframe policy
towards responses that shif, rather than reproduce the develop-
ment causing the climate problems and vulnerability in the frst
place.
Such a diferent approach involves shifing adaptation and devel-
opment paradigms. Structural development problems need to be
addressed in order to efectively adapt. Te climate problem, and
its implications in terms of the vulnerability context on the ground,
highlights the need to rethink development. Sustainable adapta-
tion represents one potential way of rethinking development in
the face of climate change. It has emerged from climate change
vulnerability studies focusing on how multiple stressors that is,
the interaction between climatic and a wide range of socio-envi-
ronmental processes create the local vulnerability context. Lev-
els of vulnerability and processes through which people become
vulnerable difer greatly both between and within groups and over
time (Ziervogel et al., 2006; Leichenko and OBrien, 2008; Eriksen
et al., 2011). Peoples responses to change and the outcome from
such responses difer accordingly. Te concept of sustainable adap-
tation has hence grown out of an awareness that the general notion
of climate adaptation can have unintended negative efects both on
peoples and on the environment and that there is a need to think
critically about what types of adaptation are desirable and which
groups or interests are promoted at the expense of others through
particular adaptation actions. Specifcally, there is a need to focus
on fnding solutions that promote social equity and environmental
integrity.
1.4Howtostudysustainableadaptationinapastoralcontext
Afar herders increasingly
switch from cattle to
small stock such as goats
CIimO|eChOnQeOOOp|O|iOnOnOsus|OinObIeOeveIOpmen| 15
2/Thevulnerabilitycontextandmultiple
stressorsamongpastoralists
POs|OrOIis|vuInerObiIi|yOnOmuI|ipIes|ressOrs 17
I
n this section, we frst examine the vulnerability context
among the Afar, focusing in detail on two woredas (districts).
We then distinguish some key features of multiple stressors
and adaptation among pastoralists drawing on a comparison of the
Afar and Somali regions.
Te Afar, as well as the Somali, live intimately with climatic vari-
ability and change, traditionally adapting to the very hot and dry
conditions through pastoral livelihoods and detailed knowledge of
their local environment, such as local ecological and meteorologi-
cal signs. At the same time, their daily lives are shaped by mul-
tiple societal transformations such as the political and economic
changes taking place in Ethiopia, including the drive to modernise
rural areas. Afer the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
(FDRE) regime took over from the military Derg regime in 1991,
the government divided the country into nine ethnically based
administrative regions (Hagmann, 2005). Te Afar region is lo-
cated in north-eastern Ethiopia sharing international border with
Eritrea and Djibouti, which also have signifcant Afar populations.
Te region is the fourth largest in Ethiopia (100,860 km2), with
an estimated population of 1.4 million people. It is divided into
5 zones and 30 districts (woredas). Most of the people in the re-
gion are rural (87%) and more than 80% of them rely on livestock
production as their main livelihood (Davies, 2006; FDRE, 2008).
Te Afar region is predominantly arid; the average rainfall for
the period 19902000 was 188 mm/year at Dubti (Davies, 2006).
In addition, the region is one of the hottest inhabited places on
Earth, with temperatures sometimes exceeding 50C (Davies and
Bennett, 2009). Te pastoral livelihood relies on a mobile, fexible
utilisation of seasonal pastures by using diferent species of ani-
mals (camels, cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys). Te livestock and
their products (meat, milk, butter) are used for subsistence and
trade.
Te Afar region borders the Somali region in the east. Similar to
the Afar, international boundaries dissect Somali populations,
with related Somali groups residing in the neighbouring Djibouti,
Kenya and Somalia. Te Afar and Somali regions are by far the two
poorest regions in the country: about 70% of the population fall
into the poorest 20% of the population in the country. Te adult
literacy rates are also the lowest in the country: 27% (men) and
16% (women) in Afar and 22% (men) and 10% (women) in Somali
(Macro International Inc, 2008). Te Somali region is the second
largest in Ethiopia at approximately 280,000 km and a population
of 4.4 million. Both Afar and Somali are sparsely populated with
about 15 people per square kilometre. Like Afar, the Somali region
population is mainly rural (86%) with livelihoods based mainly on
livestock production (FDRE, 2008). Somali populations have also
been actively involved in trade. Te area is dry but also exposed to
fooding; in 2005, for example, there was major fooding when the
Shebelle River burst its banks leading to deaths and widespread
damage. Tere are 9 zones and 53 woredas; however, the num-
ber of woredas has been changing (increasing) over time and the
boundary with other regions has been disputed. Ethnic federalism,
involving political representation based on domination of a ter-
ritory, means that more and more clans claim their own districts
(Hagmann, 2005). Te Somali region is ofen perceived as volatile,
partly because of localised conficts between clans and partly be-
cause of Somalia-led attempts to create a Greater Somalia involv-
ing military attacks on Ethiopia. Tere was also a proliferation of
rivalling clan-based political parties when multi-party democracy
based on ethnic identity was introduced in 1991 (Hagmann, 2005).
2.1TheAfarfeldsites
Background about the sites
Two districts were selected for data collection in Afar: Mille and
Uwwa. Tese two display some similar features in terms of pastoral
livelihoods and frequent exposure to drought. At the same time
they exemplify some difering features typical of the Afar region;
Mille is close to a river and farming schemes while Uwwa is out on
the drier plains. Interviews in Mille were carried out in a relatively
more settled village with permanent housing which can be partly
explained by the presence of a banana plantation that was oper-
ating during the Derg regime (19741987). Tis plantation was
closed afer the end of the Derg socialist era and inhabitants, who
are mainly pastoralists, now migrate more with their animals than
they used to. Te nearby Dubti and Ayssaita woredas are also home
to a large sugar cane plantation (60,000 hectares) sustained by irri-
gation provided by the recent damming (in 2009) at Tendaho of the
Awash river. Tis is one of the main rivers in Ethiopia and an im-
portant source of water in an otherwise very arid region. Mille dis-
trict is upstream from the dam, named afer the main tributary of
the Awash that fows from the Ethiopian highlands in the west. Te
Mille site is on the banks of the river near where it joins the Awash.
It is described by the Afar as kallo or wet, riverside area. Te
Uwwa site, meanwhile, is part of the vast semi-dry grazing lands
in the west of the region termed dukaa. Dukaa has no permanent
river but the pasture is generally better than in alta, the third topo-
graphic division in the Afar region. Te kallo areas support both
agro-pastoralists and pastoralists whereas the dukaa is the area
to which herds mass-migrate for pasture when the rain falls, sup-
porting the pastoralist lifestyle. Te alta supports only pastoralists
requiring more movement than dukaa to balance the ecology.
In Uwwa, interviews were carried out in four villages. Te popu-
lation is much more dispersed and mobile than in Mille, relying
even more on pastoralism. Te area was selected because of its
high exposure to drought over the past years. Tese diferences are
refected in the population features: Mille woreda has a population
of 79,000 of which 85% are rural, while Uwwa woreda has a popu-
lation of 47,000 that is almost exclusively rural (98%).
Te two sites also exemplify some other key features shaping the
social context in Afar. Te Mille site is exposed to confict with
pastoralist Issa Somali, an issue increasingly afecting grazing,
security and livelihoods in large parts of south-eastern Afar and
forming part of the recent political development in Ethiopia (Ali,
2008; Hagmann and Mulugeta, 2008). In Uwwa, interactions and
to some extent confict is taking place with the agro-pastoralist
Amhara. Te Afar have had strong market and social interactions
with neighbouring highlander groups, an interaction that may be
changing with pastoral livelihoods coming under pressure both
in the highlands and in Afar (Simonsen, 1996; Tesfay and Tafere,
2004; Tafere, 2006). Both sites have received food aid; however,
they display very diferent levels of development interventions.
While a dam and the plantation are large-scale development inter-
ventions prominent in Mille, there has been very little intervention
or even NGO presence in the Uwwa site. Te Mille district site is
* In order to ensure anonymity of the respondents, the particular villages where interviews were conducted are not named here.
also geographically closer to the government administration and
more accessible by road. By contrast, the road to the Uwwa site is a
community-constructed road. Mille illustrates some of the dramat-
ic changes to vulnerability context caused by development schemes
indeed an unintended consequence of the dam has been dramat-
ic fooding threatening livestock, grazing, farmland and posses-
sions. In addition, Mille illustrates a development that is typical for
Afar; that is, the enclosure of land for farming in the Awash valley
and subsequent reduction in access to dry season grazing lands for
pastoralists (Kassa, 2001; Tesfay and Tafere, 2004).

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Zone 2 Zone 2 Zone 2
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Afdera Afdera Afdera
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Dulacha Dulacha Dulacha
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Harar
Harar
Harar Harar Harar Harar
Mek'ele Mek'ele Mek'ele
Mek'ele
Mek'ele
Mek'ele Mek'ele Mek'ele Mek'ele
Obock Obock Obock
Obock
Obock
Obock Obock Obock Obock
Djibouti Djibouti Djibouti
Djibouti
Djibouti
Djibouti Djibouti Djibouti Djibouti
Ali Sabieh Ali Sabieh Ali Sabieh
Ali Sabieh
Ali Sabieh
Ali Sabieh Ali Sabieh Ali Sabieh Ali Sabieh
Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa Addis Ababa
Balho Balho Balho
Balho
Balho
Balho Balho Balho Balho
Dorra Dorra Dorra
Dorra
Dorra
Dorra Dorra Dorra Dorra
Yoboki Yoboki Yoboki
Yoboki
Yoboki
Yoboki Yoboki Yoboki Yoboki
Ayssaita Ayssaita Ayssaita
Ayssaita
Ayssaita
Ayssaita Ayssaita Ayssaita Ayssaita
Mille Mille Mille
Mille
Mille
Mille Mille Mille Mille
Arissa Arissa Arissa
Arissa
Arissa
Arissa Arissa Arissa Arissa
Aysha Aysha Aysha
Aysha
Aysha
Aysha Aysha Aysha Aysha
Assab Assab Assab
Assab
Assab
Assab Assab Assab Assab
Beylul Beylul Beylul
Beylul
Beylul
Beylul Beylul Beylul Beylul
Zeila Zeila Zeila
Zeila
Zeila
Zeila Zeila Zeila Zeila
Dire Dawa Dire Dawa Dire Dawa
Dire Dawa
Dire Dawa
Dire Dawa Dire Dawa Dire Dawa Dire Dawa
Gawane Gawane Gawane
Gawane
Gawane
Gawane Gawane Gawane Gawane
Maichew Maichew Maichew
Maichew
Maichew
Maichew Maichew Maichew Maichew
Weldiya Weldiya Weldiya
Weldiya
Weldiya
Weldiya Weldiya Weldiya Weldiya
Sifani Sifani Sifani
Sifani
Sifani
Sifani Sifani Sifani Sifani
Axum Axum Axum
Axum
Axum
Axum Axum Axum Axum
Samara Samara Samara
Samara
Samara
Samara Samara Samara Samara
Galafi Galafi Galafi
Galafi
Galafi
Galafi Galafi Galafi Galafi
Alito Alito Alito
Alito
Alito
Alito Alito Alito Alito Manda Manda Manda
Manda
Manda
Manda Manda Manda Manda
Country_Boundaries
Water_Bodies
zones
woredas
Main_road
main_river
railway
Figure 1/ Map of Afar Region
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Uwwa
Mille
Adadilo
Ethiopia
Addis Ababa
Afar
Amhara
Benishangul-Gumuz
Dire Dawa
Gambela
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Harari
Oromiya
Somali
Southern Region
Tigray
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
How we conducted the study
In each area, we conducted four group discussions covering four
themes: A) climatic and other important events; B) long-term
changes; C) development and institutions; and D) interactions)..
Each of the four group discussions was conducted with a targeted
group: male elders for A, women for B, administrators for C, and
youth for D. Tis provided depth regarding the perception of each
group regarding a particular team. Given the overlap between
the themes, difering perceptions between groups could also be
elucidated though ideally such diferences could have been better
elaborated had more group discussions covering the perception
of all groups for all themes been possible. We complemented the
overview acquired from group discussions with 20 key informant
interviews in each site. Te interviews were designed to gather
in-depth information, each covering one of themes A to D. Re-
spondents were purposefully selected with the help of local key
informants (a health coordinator in Mille and a head of mosque in
the Uwwa site) to display a balanced range of key socio-economic
characteristics (men/women, young/old, rich/poor). An efort was
made to ensure inclusion of vulnerable households in the sample.
In Uwwa, a gender balance could not easily be achieved because
women respondents were unavailable: owing to the severe drought
in April 2010, several women were fully occupied collecting water
and some had migrated. Interviews were carried out in the Afar
language by a team consisting of an APDA (Afar Pastoralist Devel-
opment Association) employee as well as a local Afar member.
The key role of climate in local knowledge
Climatic conditions and dramatic events form an integral part of the local history and context for making daily decisions. Seasonal vari-
ability in Afar is described as several named seasons (Table 1).
Table 1/ Local seasons in the Afar sites
Local name Months Description
Gilal November to January Cool weather
Daba/daddah December Showers/winter rains
Suggum March to April Short rain period
Hagai May to June Hot, dry period
Karma July to September Main rain period
Dababa October to November Showers unusual between the main seasons
People in both the Mille and Uwwa sites hold detailed knowledge pertaining to climatic and other unusual events, codifed in collective
memory of the past and related to catastrophes, with suggestive local names. For example, when asked to recount climatic events in re-
cent Afar history, both the elders and key informants mentioned the same events, and gave symbolic local names to some of them (Table
2). While many of the events are present in both sites, the local historical accounts also indicate that the severity and character of events
can be highly localised.
Table 2/ Named events in recent local history
Mille site Uwwa site
1996 Qubili (clouds and no rain)
1998 Arkakis* (not knowing what to do)
2002 Gosonu (camel disease, killed many camels)
2003 Qubili (cloud and no rain) drought and livestock disease
2004 Arkakis* (scattered) drought forced all people to migrate,
scatter around
2006 Kurbeyta Xaa (place name confict with neighbouring
group, in which 33 Afar died)
2006 Dumus (expectation) no rain for a whole year, waiting long
for the rains
2007 Laa sele (cattle are fnished). Drought, confict and disease.
Baggexo (diarrhoea) 83 people died
2007 Caben sele (the remainder is lost)**
2008/ 2010 Gaala sele (camels are fnished). In 2010, camels
drank food water and died
2008 Goad maale (cut by the axe)
2009 Flood from the dam 2009 Caben sele (the remainder is lost)**
2010 Yeden lee (the tying of the water). Flood from the dam 2010 Drought and migration
* Arkakis refers to being scattered beyond the ability to know where to go, and hence has slightly diferent but related meanings in the two sites
** Te new drought killed the remainder of the animals from the previous drought (in 2006 in one of the villages, in 2008 in two other villages)
2.2VulnerabilityandpastoralmanagementstrategiesinAfar
Unusual events: The product of interaction
between multiple stressors, responses and
local outcomes
Te local naming of events reveals several conspicuous features:
frst, people compare unusual weather occurrences with a model
of what is normal; that is, names identify conditions and outcomes
that are more extreme than those experienced in normal seasonal
or year-to-year variability. For example, in 1996 in Mille, there
were clouds but no rain; this was unusual. Te severe and wide-
spread drought of 1998 also lef people wondering where to go,
with the dilemma that if animals were being moved they might
die on the way to distant pastures. Te year 2010 was termed the
tying of the water in Mille in reference to the widespread and
persistent foods that forced people and livestock to stay in the
food waters, waiting for their retreat. Similarly, in Uwwa, main
events in the recent local history were identifed to be connected
to climate, such as the years 2003 (clouds but no rain) and 2006
(no rain for a whole year). Most respondents referred to specifc
negative weather events that they identifed as unusual in intensity
and frequency.
However, people ofen register specifc weather events in combi-
nation with their impacts (on people and livestock). Events are
thought of in terms of the interaction between stressors, responses
and outcomes: the vulnerability context. Isolating climate stress-
ors from other stressors contributing to the event, and treating
responses and impacts separately, as is sometimes practised in
climate change impacts and vulnerability analyses, is not meaning-
ful to them. Hence, a second feature, the close linkages between
climate and other stressors, local responses and outcomes in how
events are recollected, was very clear in the naming of events in
both sites. For example, major events that male elders and other
key informants identifed in both Mille and Uwwa were conficts
and disease epidemics. Te importance of such events was evident
in the fact that they named particular years in relation to such
events: In Mille, the 2006 event was given the name of a place
where a signifcant violent confict between Afar and Issa Somali
pastoralists took place, leading to a high number of casualties on
both sides. Other years (e.g. 2007 in Mille) were identifed with ref-
erence to diseases such as acute watery diarrhoea afecting people
and diseases caused by foods or droughts afecting livestock, espe-
cially camels. Similarly, the 2002 event in Uwwa was named afer a
camel disease. Such events have signifcant negative impacts: cam-
els are not only an important source of food and wealth; they are
also the most important means of transport out of areas afected by
drought.
Te names also indicated the impacts of the events and provide
an insight into what people themselves perceive as unusual envi-
ronmental efects and social coping strategies. For example, Uwwa
informants identifed 2004 as Arkasis, meaning scattered, and
referred to the fact that, because of the drought, people from one
of the villages took their animals to neighbouring villages, many
animals dying on the way from starvation or disease. Similarly, the
year 2008 was identifed as Goad maale or cut by the axe in ref-
erence to the fact that there was no grass because of the extended
drought and people resorted to cutting tree branches to feed their
animals; everybody was carrying an axe to cut such branches. Un-
fortunately, the strategy was unable to prevent some animals from
starving to death that year.
Events such as confict and disease outbreak interact closely with
changes in the climate and in access to resources. Diseases out-
breaks can be caused by droughts and foods directly (for example
camels who drank food waters got sick and died) or indirectly
(such as drought in surrounding areas forcing other people and
livestock to move into Mille, bringing diseases with them and in-
fecting local livestock). In Mille, the efects of droughts have been
further compounded by the increased exposure of humans and
their herds to crocodile and hyena attack as a result of competition
for resources and low river water. During drought, Mille pastoral-
ists are also forced to graze in areas considered unsafe because
of Issa attacks (the eastern side of the Awash river), with the risk
of violent confict. In Uwwa, infux of other pastoralists during
drought, or the need of Uwwa pastoralists to move to other areas
in search of pastures, can bring conficts but also cooperation and
potential incomes.
20
Afar dryland
vegetation
Disease and confict also exacerbate the negative impacts of
drought and foods. According to group discussions and key infor-
mant interviews, people appear to have to face the combination of
these stressors more ofen now than before, with potentially dev-
astating efects on people and their livelihoods. Terefore, in order
to understand the relevance for adaptation to climate change, local
vulnerability and local responses apparent in connection with local
events need to be investigated in the context of longer-term envi-
ronmental, social and economic change.
Longer-term changes: A deteriorating
vulnerability context?
Climate models do not yet provide the resolution in time or
space to allow us to identify the extent to which recent changes
in climatic conditions are due to anthropogenic climate change
or natural climatic variations over time. While climate models
can provide scenarios of average temperature and precipitation
conditions for larger areas, local livelihoods are adapted to very
specifc temperature and rainfall patterns (Meze-Hausken, 2004).
Many of the observations and knowledge of weather presented by
Mille and Uwwa residents are connected to the rains: their tim-
ing, quantities and spatial distribution. Rain and its characteristics
appear in peoples narratives to control every aspect of their liveli-
hood: from pasture production, animal health, human malnutri-
tion to adaptive strategies.
People in Mille agree that in recent years, rains have come late or
not at all. Some say that rains come at the wrong time, or that one
or several of the three rainy seasons (winter rains, daddah; short
rains, suggum; main rains, karma) are afected, with winter rains
and short rainy seasons sometimes disappearing altogether. Tis
can have a signifcant negative impact on pastoralists livelihoods:
when the frst rains (afer the dry season) disappear, the lean pe-
riod when livestock are deprived of sufcient fodder is prolonged,
making such bottleneck periods increasingly challenging. Hence,
the timing, length and reliability of seasons are perceived to have
changed. One middle-aged male informant of medium wealth ex-
plains:
Te summer [hagai, hot period] is much longer and the winter
[gilal and daddah, cool weather with some rains] shorter. Te
rain does not come on time and especially there is no rain for a long
time.
Tis observation is reiterated by a 40-year old very poor woman:
Te temperature is now much hotter in the summer; we did not
have proper rain for the past four years and seasons do not come at
the time they are expected.
Rains are also said to have become patchy, making the location of
pasture resources unpredictable and increasing the need to move
between patches that had received rain and therefore have enough
pasture. As explained by a 45-year-old man of medium wealth:
Te most important climatic trend in Uwwa district was unequivo-
cally identifed as more frequent and severe droughts. In turn,
droughts are identifed as emerging in connection to the absence of
rains and increased temperatures during recent years:
I have noticed that the environment is getting drier. Drought used to
be [once] each eight years, now it is one afer the other (40-year-old
man of medium wealth).
Respondents in Uwwa also identifed changes to the seasons onset
Te temperature is getting hotter. We were
getting rain at least three times in one year [but
now] the nature of the rain is diferent. Tere is
rain in one corner and not in another corner.
Dry pastures
Box1/Floodexperienceofapoor
widowinMille
In the August foods (2010), Kadiga lost 45 goats
they were drowned as they slept the night the
foods came. Te remaining 15 goats from her
herd needed to be grazed away from the village
as there was no remaining pasture at the time of
the interviews. Terefore she gave them to her 14-
year-old daughter who joined a group of herders
and moved away with the animals toward Addaar.
Te widow remained in the village with her four
other children and sold frewood, something she
began in order to make a living afer losing so
many goats. Her dream was to re-establish her-
self as a goat-herder perhaps in a diferent place
but meanwhile to support her need by selling
frewood.
Flood destroying browsing resources and infrastructure
and length, in particular a tendency that one or several consecutive
rainy seasons start late, and higher temperatures as key changes to
the climate regime:
Temperatures are very high, summer begins before winter ends.
Rain is much more infrequent (20-year-old woman, very vulner-
able).
Interestingly, residents of Uwwa confrm the observations from
Mille that rains, when they do arrive, have become more localised.
A very poor 23-years-old man observes:
Te rain is very localised. In one area it rains and not in another
area.
Particularly severe foods are specifc to the Mille site. Unlike the
smaller seasonal foods which normally replenish vegetation in the
Awash river, recent fooding caused by a combination of rain else-
where and closing of the dam have led to a new type of food that
completely inundates farmland, rangelands and settlements for
extended periods of time, such as in 2010.
Recollecting past weather as more favourable than the present may
be part of human nature; nevertheless, the detail and level of agree-
ment in local accounts of change is conspicuous. Tis may indicate
that longer-term changes, such as increasing unpredictability of
key seasons and meteorological parameters, are indeed occurring.
It may also indicate reduced capacity to face climatic variability
and uncertainty in general. Hence smaller meteorological events
may have more dramatic efects on local livelihoods than previous-
ly, as a combination of socio-environmental changes creates a more
severe vulnerability context. Indeed, it appears that several devel-
opments have eroded precisely the capacity that may become more
important with climate change and increased climatic uncertainty:
that is, mobility, knowledge and institutions designed to live with
climatic variations and maximise dynamic ecological resources.
Box2/Changesintreeresources,
Mille
Te previous trees that helped us in the drought
have gone: for example Madeera, this was a
drought fruit Te trees that helped the animals
in drought time have been eradicated [by the]
drought (clan elder, medium wealth).
Tere were many diferent trees in our area but
now most of the trees have perished Tere is
no life without trees animals need the trees and
we need the animals (23- yearold man, very
poor).
[Over the past two or three decades] the num-
ber of indigenous trees and grasses are diminish-
ing, especially Adangalita and Adayto, which are
very good for the camels and the grasses Sardoy
le, Malil and Bukut. Due to the Mille River di-
version it swamped the village and those useful
trees are replaced by Sargantoand Prosopis
julante. Prosopis does not let any other trees or
grass grow. Sarganto is only useful for building
houses (middle-aged herder).
Drivers of vulnerability
Tis process of decreasing capacity and increasing vulnerability is
multifaceted and takes place through various pathways. Both Mille
and Uwwa interviews confrm an Afar-wide trend of decreasing
livestock herds and shifs from livestock to smallstock over the
past decades (Kassa, 2001). Te declining herds were ofen associ-
ated with closely interlinked processes of changes in climatic and
rangeland conditions. More severe weather events were perceived
to directly contribute to animal losses.
In particular, higher temperatures and less rain lead to intense
droughts. Pasture production and water availability decline, in
turn leading to high livestock mortality and human malnutrition
and higher incidence of disease among humans and livestock alike
(both get weaker and are more prone to diseases). Mille informants
also claim that hot weather cause camels to miscarry, though this
may be the result of combined hot weather and insufcient brows-
ing resources. As indicated in the interviews and local naming of
events, consecutive droughts have led to huge losses of animals and
many families have been unable to restock. One particular Mille
herder (considered of average wealth today) gave a quantitative
representation of how severe the reduction in number of livestock
had been:
Before [the environmental changes] I was having 50 camels, 200
goats and 30 cattle. I am now lef with 2 camels and 20 goats.
An important environmental efect of droughts that all informants
in Uwwa were very concerned with was the death of many trees in
the area. Local residents recognised that forests have also been de-
pleted by the increasing production of charcoal and wood for con-
struction, but they also propose that drought plays an important
role. Several informants in Mille describe a similar trend (Box 2).
In Mille, the combination of foods and droughts were seen to
degrade rangelands. Te number of trees has signifcantly reduced
in recent years as a result. Te recent dramatic foods have also
caused degradation of agricultural land, reducing the alternative
sources of food for most people. According to Mille residents,
increasingly hot summers are also leading to less regeneration of
trees which in turn means that they can no longer be used for fod-
der. Te combined efects of drought and cutting of trees seem also
to have led to ecosystem changes where valuable tree species are
being replaced by invasive species that are not valuable as fodder,
indeed some of them (Prosopis julifora) represent one of the most
important environmental problems in East Africa and the Afar
region in particular (Shiferaw et al., 2004).
Trees are used as alternative sources of fodder for browsing live-
stock (camels, goats and sheep) in times of drought. Some indig-
enous tree species, such as Dobera glabra, are important sources of
food and fodder during drought that are now threatened in many
areas (Tsegaye et al., 2007). Trees also reduce land degradation and
maintain a better microclimate for livestock (shade and moisture).
According to local residents, drought and deforestation seem to
be locked in a feedback loop where decreasing forest is leading to
increased droughts, further diminishing forest resources. Several
studies in Afar confrm a trend of declining grasslands, loss of
trees and invasion of bushy vegetation during the past decades.
Tis trend reduces the grazing quality of the rangelands severely
and makes them more suitable to browsers, with people shifing to
small stock such as sheep and goats rather than cattle (Simonsen,
1996; Tsegaye et al., 2010b).
Te causes of these changes may be diverse, including climatic
variability and change, altered grazing patterns due to the loss of
key rangelands, and the invasion of alien species. In interviews,
unfavourable events and changes were also explained as being
caused by local peoples sins against the religious precepts (all Afar
are Muslims). Nevertheless, the detailed accounts of such sins
point more to a need for social cohesion rather than an abstract
religious doctrine: the sins most commonly mentioned were gos-
sip, clan discrimination, adultery, stealing of livestock and camels,
dishonesty and lack of loyalty, while the increased chewing of khat,
a leaf with amphetamine-like efects, is also seen as a threat. It ap-
pears therefore that most residents perceive difcult weather (and
especially droughts) as a divine act of retribution for their sins
against moral customs.
Diferent sources of information (traditional forecasts, govern-
ment early warning, and moral norms of conduct) infuence local
pastoralists adaptation strategies, particularly their mobile use
of resources. A religious world-view explaining environmental
change is also informed by various other forms of knowledge and
inputs that are used opportunistically to make sense of the situa-
tions and guide actions. Local pastoralists seem to make extensive
use of traditional forms of weather forecasts (even though these
are forbidden by religious doctrine). By using the position of
particular stars and the moon at specifc points in time and divi-
nation by special stones, local people are able to predict to some
extent the occurrence or non-occurrence of rains, or the arrival
of droughts. Knowledge of indicator plant species is also used to
predict drought (Kebebew et al., 2001). In Afar, teams of scouts
are regularly sent out to other areas to observe the state of the
rangelands, efects of rainfall and the suitability for grazing. In ad-
dition to traditional knowledge, many of the people interviewed
also used formal scientifc information regarding the climate, if
not to explain then at least to predict events, such as the govern-
ment warning about the likely occurrence of a food in the region
in mid-2010. Te reason most of the families chose not act upon
this information and chose to remain in the area is not clear. One
explanation could be that the warning for food was too general
in terms of geography, local people mentioning that they did not
know if the food would occur specifcally in their own village
or other places in the region mentioned by the state-issued food
warning.
Changing pastoral adaptive capacity
Although the most important adaptation to drought and reduced
quality of rangelands was to increase mobility, interviews indicated
that such mobility was also becoming more difcult and less viable.
When asked to identify the main socio-economic changes that
afect their livelihoods, people in Mille invariably mentioned the
need to increase their mobility, to move in search of pastureland
and water. People both in Mille and Uwwa were being forced to
migrate further and more ofen, with several negative consequenc-
es. When moving to a diferent area, water resources may be scarce
or difcult to locate, herds may be attacked by wild animals when
migrating, or people and livestock may be afected by diseases
that are present in the receiving areas. Informants also mentioned
that the danger of disease and resource depletion was also pres-
ent when droughts were not afecting their district, since people
from neighbouring areas may be forced to migrate to Uwwa and
thus they may bring human or livestock diseases and reduce their
water and pasture resources. Yet, the drought was recognised as
Afar cattle adapted
to extreme heat
an emergency situation that legitimised others to come to Uwwa.
Tis behaviour of welcoming those in need is bound by traditional
culture. Indeed, people conceded that there was no alternative to
migrating.
While mobility has always been an important element in adapting
to climatic variability, the new type of crisis mobility was seen to
have negative social consequences. As a result of increased migra-
tion, the social life was perceived to be changing in both sites and
the society in danger of becoming more atomised. Whereas things
were done collectively in the past, in recent times everybody was
forced to take individual decisions related to migration and thus
the community was fragmenting. In Uwwa, local people referred
to the necessary drought migration as having a signifcant nega-
tive impact on social life and relations:
Social changes afect us because before we were doing everything
together Now everybody is trying to survive for himself (20-year-
old woman, very vulnerable).
Because of drought we are not interacting as we used to and our
social structure is not so strong [anymore] (clan elder, 60 years old,
medium wealth).
One aspect of this weakened interaction and atomised social struc-
ture is that the traditional institutions of wealth-sharing (zakka)
- whereby richer herders give gifs of livestock to poor ones - as
well as clan member assistance are diminishing, both in Mille and
Uwwa. Fewer people (or virtually no one) are disproportionately
rich, most people being severely afected by the series of bad years.
Fewer herders can aford to give away animals without signifcantly
increasing their own vulnerability. Te drought induced cattle
losses combined with a shif to browsers rather than grazers due
to deteriorating grasslands means that Zakka is no longer is being
paid in cattle but in sheep and goats. Tere was a sense among
respondents that the system of wealth-sharing is important and
should continue but that at present the social fabric was being
eroded. Social cohesion and institutions of mutual support are of-
ten critical for the poor in surviving climate events and adapting to
environmental change; at the same time, these systems are coming
under pressure. A key question for adaptive capacity is the extent
to which local institutions for mutual support and decision-mak-
ing can adapt to the changing forms of mobility and reduced num-
ber of cattle to maintain social cohesion.

Box3/Zakka
Zakka is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and is
practised among the Afar in the following way:
At the end of the fasting month of Ramadan
each year those over a certain wealth-level
must give 10% of their earnings to the poor.
Wealth rating is determined by the clan leaders
and the religious leaders. Te cut-of rate has
decreased from 40 to 25 animals per household
because Afar households generally own fewer
animals than before. According to key infor-
mants, cattle losses may have been between 30
and 50 percent over the past decade.
Afar herder
with his goats
Drivers of vulnerability
Even if many of the proximate causes of drought, degradation and
declining herds were perceived as local, such as the cutting of trees,
moral sin and in-migration, people were keenly aware of the fun-
damental externally driven processes threatening the viability of
pastoralism in Afar. Te Afar have consistently lost key rangeland
resources, in particular drought grazing areas, to development
schemes, settlements and to neighbouring groups (in particular the
Issa, a Somali clan that raid large areas in the Afar Region) over the
past decades (Kassa, 2001; Ali, 2008). Mille provides a particularly
stark illustration of these processes.
When asked what he or she thought were the main issues that
the government should address for the area, a Mille informant
responded unequivocally: Te food and the confict with the Issa
(35-year-old woman, very poor). A major development project,
the damming of the Awash river in the Awash valley, has had huge
impacts on their pastoral livelihoods. Te Tendaho dam fows back
over the land into Mille district for 35 km. Te dam was frst put
into use in 2009 mainly for the purpose of providing irrigation
services for large areas cultivated with sugar cane and maize. How-
ever, pastoralist respondents all recount how waters food back up
the river washing away houses, inundating grazing lands, sweeping
away livestock and leaving families split up and stranded for days.
Te Mille respondent explains:
While any benefts of the dam are not at present apparent to people
interviewed, the negative efects have been immediate and dra-
matic.
Hence the combination of loss of livestock and possessions, land
degradation and loss of rangelands associated with the fooding is a
severe stressor on livelihoods. At the same time, though Mille and
Uwwa have received government food aid and some NGO atten-
tion (Mdecins Sans Frontires and APDA), the sites both illustrate
that much of the support that would make it easier to tackle the
combined onslaught of drought and disease, such as veterinary
facilities, water harvesting structures, assistance to restock afer
drought, or mobile health and education units, is sorely missing. In
Afar, development schemes along the Awash river have contribut-
ed to the persistent loss of drought grazing areas under successive
governments over the past decades (Kassa, 2001), making droughts
harder to survive. Te situation is particularly stark in large parts
of Afar, including Mille, because remaining important grazing ar-
eas are at the same time increasingly becoming unsafe as a result of
conficts with Issa, neighbouring the Afar in the east. Te confict
takes the form of mutual raiding with deaths and loss of livestock:
Last month [March] we were in confict with the Issa: one from each
side was killed and the Issa looted 50 cattle and Afar took 30 cattle.
(43-year-old woman, poor)
Te character of the confict is described as having changed, how-
ever, shifing the balance of power and making it less manageable
for the Afar. As two respondents explain: Before it was pastoralist
against pastoralist but now the Issa are well equipped and organised
by backing it is now a politics to take the land (45-year-old wom-
an, very vulnerable). Before it looked like the Issa were looking for
resources, for animals but now it is totally changed to a political mis-
sion (28-year-old man of medium wealth). Te long-term efect of
this prolonged confict on vulnerability is that grazing areas on the
eastern side of the Awash River are now unsafe, constraining pas-
toral livelihoods. Tis is an issue which is beyond the scope of the
clan leaders and local administrators to solve and where it is neces-
sary to turn to the government. However, despite some attempts
at mediating in negotiations, the government is perceived as not
very active or successful. Several studies describe how since 1991
political power and access to resources have been tied to an ethnic
group or clans control over territory (Vaughan, 2006; Ali, 2008;
Hagmann and Mulugeta, 2008). Pastoral use of land, and hence
claim to this land, has become political, driving domination by one
group over land rather than the interaction and fuidity required
in pastoral migratory strategies in the face of variable climate and
grazing. Tis backdrop helps us better understand the confict be-
tween the Afar and Issa, which is felt as an increasing threat both
to the Afar as a group, and to the ability to graze animals during
drought and hence sustain their herds. Te Issa Somali are ofen
seen by the Afar as being favoured both in historical relations to
imperial and government regimes and through current political
strongholds in Djibouti and Somalia (Ali, 2008). Te situation
among Somali and Issa groups is likely to be highly diferentiated
and complex with regard to political infuence and vulnerability,
however, since herds have declined dramatically in the Somali re-
gion, too (GebreMichael and Kife, 2008). Causes of confict may
be difcult to address locally since they are tied to the ethnic feder-
alism and state formation itself.
Te fooding and confict constraining grazing together are the
two major processes driving current vulnerability in the two sites,
as illustrated by the adverse impacts of recent droughts. Develop-
ment schemes and the AfarIssa confict also indirectly afect other
Afar groups whose grazing lands are not directly lost. For example,
when people from other places are forced to migrate to Uwwa,
because of drought or the closing of the dam on the Awash, this
may cause confict: Te damming of the Awash has afected us as
people are migrating from Awash river and fnished our grass (50-
year-old man, medium wealth). Migration connected to drought
can also lead to other types of confict, mentioned by Uwwa
residents to be increasing. When Burka residents were forced by
drought to move to the highlands of the Amhara ethnic groups
and graze in the vicinity of the farms, this led to confict. Tis is a
situation acknowledged by the Afar in Burka as unavoidable, even
if unfortunate. However, these less political conficts seem easier
to handle through local traditional and government institutions.
Te potential conficts are being mediated by diferent institutions,
and the ability to protect the interests of the clan seems particularly
valued. For example, when asked which clan is the best to interact
with, several informants (belonging to a diferent clan) identi-
fed Maasaara as the best clan both because they were identifed
as the original clan in the area, the frst on the land, and because
they were good to argue for their people. Te local government
seemed to also be appreciated by some informants for its ability to
negotiate and solve border conficts between the Amhara and Afar
regions.
Adaptation to multiple stressors
Despite potential conficts, interaction with neighbouring groups
through trade and sharing of grazing lands is generally peaceful
and has been a key part of pastoral livelihoods. Such interaction
is integral to strategies to adapt to climatic and ecological vari-
ability in the short term and the multiple stressors in the long
term. Residents of Uwwa in particular trade with highlanders
(Amhara, Oromo, Tigrinya) and mentioned that trade was an im-
We see it as negative because the dam was
constructed not for us and then also the water
returns to us and foods us afecting our
livelihoods.
portant adaptation to multiple stressors. In addition, the Afar in
Mille recount how their livelihoods are changing and infuencing
their interactions with other groups in terms of increasingly taking
up trading, or opening up shops. Te sale of goats and butter to
highlanders is important to many. Te Afar are also receiving com-
mission from highlanders production of charcoal and wood for
construction purposes from local forests.
Te increase in trade as a response to loss of herds and income
shows the potential of pastoralist groups to reorganise their activi-
ties and adapt to and survive further exposure to multiple stress-
ors. Increasing trade is not unproblematic as a response, however.
Generally, the trading and interaction with these groups from the
highlands are seen as benefcial, but there are also problems. Some
people perceive that highlanders control the food market and
make the price of food higher. Uwwa residents expressed that their
economic context was deteriorating, arguing that their econo-
mies are increasingly afected by an unfavourable evolution of the
markets. All other items they purchase (food, clothing, etc.) have
dramatically increased in price while animal products have not,
leaving them disadvantaged in relation to the market.
In Mille, a similar evolution of prices was quantifed by an infor-
mants:
Tere is a great change in the market prices. Before we were getting
50 kilograms of grain for 150 ETB [$9] but now its 250 ETB [$15].
Everything is expensive (25-year-old poor man).
Others claimed prices had climbed even more, from 90 ETB [$5]
to 300 ETB [$18] for 50 kilograms of grain. Tese deteriorating
conditions compound the pressure on mutual support systems:
Some of these changes in prices may be temporary since the price
of livestock ofen falls while the price of food increases during
drought. Trade may become more proftable when rains return.
Te accounts above nevertheless show the precariousness of rely-
ing on trade alone as a drought income since this is precisely when
trade relations are most disadvantageous and prices and market
conditions can most easily be controlled by traders from outside.
In addition, the production of charcoal and construction wood is
not without problems, as the cutting of live trees is contributing
to environmental degradation. Tere are specifc rules for most
types of natural resource use: for instance the cutting of live trees
is forbidden, as is grass-cutting on communal land. Nevertheless,
drought and vulnerability means that the Afar have little choice
but to let the practice continue: Even though we want to make a
solution for charcoal, there are those who use charcoal for income.
Terefore the elders and clan elders try to make solution for those
who are cutting without consideration (43-year-old woman, poor).
Traditional law includes the fama/mahisso system where a tradi-
tional association leader can punish those violating laws regarding
management of grazing land, water sources, migration routes and
trees. Clans also have a tradition of desso/maganna, where grazing
land is reserved for hard times and to prevent over-grazing. Tis
system also regulates interaction between clans and households in
the use of common grazing areas. Traditional environmental man-
agement systems are under pressure, and a key question is the ex-
tent to which they can adapt to the increasing vulnerability context
and sustain their legitimacy, key to efective management of local
resources in the long run.
Another major adaptation to the decline in herds among the Afar
is the taking up of cultivation. An important socio-economic
change identifed by Mille residents was that, despite their prefer-
ence for mobile pastoralism as a way of life and livelihood, they
perceive that government plans are toward sedentarisation, rather
than being pastoralist-oriented. Indeed, some people went on to
explain that this government orientation combined with all the
other changes would force them to become farmers. Such a change
was dependent on the government providing water that could sup-
port reliable irrigation for crops: I prefer to be a pastoralist but
due to the challenges, if we get equipment like water pump from the
government, I would try to do farming (45-year old man, herder
of medium wealth, Mille). Several respondents suggested that the
government supply tools, seeds, advice and pumps that would en-
able them to farm maize as an additional income:
We frstly want a solution to the food afecting
us worse each year. Secondly, if the government
gives us motor/generator, we can pump water
from the Awash River to do farming in the
Derg years there was a huge government farm
here producing bananas this was good for us
all.
(35-year old woman, very poor)
Everything in the market is at a high price
it has become extremely difcult to get what
we need Due to high prices, the character
of marketing has changed and our lives are
changing, we cannot aford to help each other like
we used to.
(23-year-old man, very poor)
Afar girl assisting
in farming
Such a surprising contradiction between what was identifed as a
preferred lifestyle (pastoralism) and what was presented as a pos-
sible adaptation can only be partly explained by the history of culti-
vation in the area, with the previous banana plantation still holding
some appeal. An important element is also the economic trend that
favours agricultural produce over animal products such as meat
and milk/butter: as mentioned above, at least during the past cou-
ple of years, the prices of agricultural products such as grains have
increased disproportionately in relation to the prices for animal
products. A conscious government prioritisation of cultivation in-
teracts with changes in land tenure and national politics of resource
control, driving the enclosure of land for farming in the Awash val-
ley of Afar in particular (Gedamu et al., 1999). As described in detail
by Kassa (2001), infuential individuals in the local community, such
as clan leaders, set aside foodplain lands for farming. By enclosing
communal areas or land that has reverted from state farming to clan
management, individuals gain sanctioned control over areas of land
that are key for drought grazing. Te incomes from farming go to
the individual, or, typically, the farmer abandons the farm because
of poor harvests afer a few years and rents it out to a commercial
investor from outside the community for a good income. Tis de
facto privatisation of land is ofen accepted locally because it is
done by a member of the community (rather than by an outsider)
and ofen one who is infuential through higher levels of education
or political/clan leadership. Te individual may also employ local
people or share some of the incomes with key people in the commu-
nity. Such enclosure is forcefully argued as a community adaptation
strategy in the face of declining herds and grazing lands: farming
can constitute a form of community diversifcation of incomes and
adaptation of livelihood systems in the face of multiple stressors.
Taking up irrigated agriculture has also been reported as a response
to drought and loss of livestock elsewhere in Afar (Gedamu et al.,
1999). Crucially, the enclosure of land by a local prevents other
groups (of a diferent clan or ethnic origin) from taking control over
the land; that is, it ensures that control over land remains local. Te
threat of outside groups taking control of key lands is likely to feel
increasingly real given the shif to ethnic territoriality since 1991, as
explained earlier.
Nevertheless, even if enclosure of farmlands may give good in-
comes and potential adaptation to climatic variability to some indi-
viduals, it represents a maladaptation to the community as a whole
that is an adaptation that in efect increases rather than reduces
vulnerability - since the majority lose access to key drought grazing
resources. It therefore further undermines the adaptive capacity
of pastoralism in the area. It may also contribute to increasing in-
ternal tensions and competition for land resources between those
who control the farmland and those excluded from the land (and
its incomes), as explained by Kassa (2001). De facto privatisation
of land is also likely to increase local inequities, since the develop-
ment favours those who are infuential and can secure access to the
enclosed lands or its incomes, while those who lose access to key
resources are most likely to have to reduce their herds or leave live-
stock herding altogether.
Te vulnerability context, though specifc to the two study sites in
Afar, is driven by several processes common to a wider pastoralist
context in Ethiopia. Many of the long-term changes and adapta-
tions observed in the Afar sites were also taking place in the So-
mali sites. Two group interviews and 12 key informant interviews
were carried out in two kebeles in Adadley (Adadilo) District in
Gode zone using similar methodology to that used in Afar ,with an
interview team led by OWDA (Ogaden Welfare and Development
Association). Te two kebeles are located about 25 km from Gode
town. Tey were selected because they are drought prone and are
both pastoral and agro-pastoral; hence they may be prone to some
of the same pressures to shif to farming as in Afar. Tere are only
seasonal streams and farming is rain-fed. Rainfall in the region
is bimodal, falling in AprilJune and OctoberDecember, but is
highly unreliable (GebreMichael and Kife, 2008). Te two kebeles
are both inhabited by the Tolmoge and Wafato clans (belonging to
the Ogaden clan) in diferent proportions and experience regular
conficts. Tese clans are hence diferent from the Issa clans that
are in confict with the Afar. Drought and confict feature promi-
nently in the local history of named dramatic events (see Table 3)
and the area also experienced a severe drought in 2009.
2.3ThecontextforpastoralvulnerabilityandadaptationinEthiopia:AfarandSomali
regions
Table 3/ Named events in recent local history in the Somali sites
Year Local name Description
1974 Dabadheer the long tailed drought
Many pastoralists became destitute. Te area received external
aid for the frst time. Some migrated to Somalia
1984 Qamaeer the hard drought Major loss of livestock and famine. Received external aid
1986
Dagalkii Abdallaha iyo Awlyahan the Abdalla
Awlyahan confict
Violent confict over clan land ownership claims
1990/91 Qixii arrival of refugees Infux of refugees afer regime collapse in Somalia
1994
Kebele 1: Hurgufa sweeping drought
Kebele 2: Sima equaliser
Severe loss of drought afecting cattle, smallstock and camels
Te better-of and poor became more similar in wealth as
everyone lost almost all their livestock
19992000 Dabagunud the extended drought
Many lost their livestock, had to leave pastoralism and move to
other areas (urban and peri-urban settlements)
Decline of pastoralism across contexts
A comparison of the Afar and Somali sites reveal that some of the
main processes driving vulnerability are similar in both sites, even
if some of the local manifestations and responses difer. Tis indi-
cates that, despite the difering contexts, there are some processes
that may be important more generally for pastoralism in Ethiopia.
Table 4 summarises the climatic stresses, multiple processes of
change, and short-term and long-term responses to these, in the
two areas.
In both the Somali and Afar sites, respondents report climatic
changes over time, with drought as a key livelihood concern along
with the decline of rangelands. In other studies in the Somali
region too, people recount how both rainy seasons increasingly
fail while rainfall is highly localised, though these changes are not
necessarily detected in aggregate climate data (GebreMichael and
Kife, 2008). Similar observations have been made elsewhere in
Ethiopia (Meze-Hausken, 2004). Together with reduced access to
drought grazing areas, this has led to a decline of pastoralism over
time. In both areas, people recount how many families are unable
to restock afer drought, having to leave pastoralism altogether.
In the Afar sites, in particular in Mille, this process is speeded up
and exacerbated by confict with the Issa and the fooding and loss
of rangelands resulting from the recent damming of the Awash.
Afar informants ofen explained the confict with the Issa as being
driven by drought and the loss of access to some pastures they per-
ceived as their own. Changing land rights was confrmed by Soma-
li informants from Adadley district as an underlying tension, de-
riving from long-lasting feuds over land ownership between them
and the Abdalla Tollomoge clan. Nevertheless, higher level violent
confict could also be triggered by specifc events that seemed, for
the Somali pastoralists, to be disconnected from environmental
conditions. Teir violent confict with the Abdalla in 1986 is a tell-
ing example in this sense (see Box 4).
Box4/ConfictintheSomalisite
1986 was identifed as Dagaalkii Abdallaha
iyo Awlyahan ka (or Adballa and Awlyahan
confict, Alwyan being the local Somali clan).
In a group discussion on 24 October 2010,
people explained the nature of this confict:
a violent confict between the two clans over
clan feuds and land ownership claims. Harus
village was the epicentre of the confict. Te
killing by the Abdalla Tollomogue clan of Nur
and Ibrahim Ugas Abdi, sons of a local chief,
escalated low-scale existing confict and skir-
mishes into a major war, involving hundreds
of fghters on both sides.
Such tensions appear to be manageable through negotiations using
traditional leaders and the local government administration. In the
Somali site, respondents reported peaceful interaction over grazing
lands to be increasing. Studies from elsewhere in Somali Region
recount how pastoralists and agro-pastoralists fnd peaceful shar-
ing arrangements during times of drought, benefting asset-poor
agro-pastoralists in particular (Bogale and Korf, 2009). However,
when interaction between groups is connected to regional and
national politics of resource control and political power, such as in
the AfarIssa confict, such local mechanisms are insufcient.
Implications for destitution, inequity and
vulnerability
Te decline of pastoralism has important implications for vulner-
ability and equity. First of all, pastoralism is a form of resource
management that is well adapted to climatic variability and change,
and its decline probably reduces the adaptive capacity of the com-
munity as a whole. Second, those pushed out of pastoralism are
ofen destitute and very vulnerable, relying on networks of mutual
support or forms of trade that are precarious in terms of levels of
income, unreliable prices and demand controlled by actors outside
the community. Te systems of mutual support, though very difer-
ent in nature (one religious and based on wealth-sharing and the
other more pragmatic and based on loans of livestock), are report-
ed as under stress and weakening in both sites. Tis is probably in
part due to the general impoverishment of the community, a key
vulnerability concern. A critical question is the extent to which
such systems can adapt and reorganise to continue to provide a
safety network for the poorest once the most critical drought has
ceased. Although loss of livestock is nearly universal with a reduc-
tion in large herd owners and everyone becoming more equal,
especially in the Afar site, inequity may still increase because of the
creation of destitute groups. Te Somali site appears to have more
alternative incomes through established trade. Trade, including
petty trade by women, as well as reliance on food aid, is reported to
be increasing in the Somali region (GebreMichael and Kife, 2008);
nevertheless, many in this site are pushed into migration to towns
and collection of forest products for a living.
Tird and critically, many of the responses to multiple stressors
seem to reinforce the decline of pastoralism, and the increase in
vulnerability and inequity. Enclosure of land for private use is a
process taking place in both Afar and Somali, though in slightly
diferent forms. In the Somali site, people gather grass either from
temporary enclosures or from the open areas where the rain water
is retained for a while and they sell it to people with domestic ani-
mals living in Gode town. Some families also enclose land for their
own grazing, for collection of forest products for sale, or for farm-
ing. Tis observation indicates that it may not be just the memory
of the banana plantation that drives the wish among some of the
Mille respondents to turn to farming; the Somali respondents also
express that the government should provide tools and pumps for
irrigation farming as an alternative to pastoralism.
Signifcantly, the fact that inputs are perceived to be required from
the state in order for individuals to start farming indicates that
this activity may have incomes that are too marginal to support
the required capital investments by individuals. While enclosures,
whether for farming or grass production, may provide an ad-
ditional income for a family in the face of drought and declining
pastures and herds, it severely diminishes the adaptive capacity of
the community because it excludes remaining pastoralists from
key drought grazing resources. An interesting question is the lo-
cal institutional dynamics that allow the enclosure of communal
drought grazing resources, the extent to which they are uninten-
tionally supported by agricultural policies and political systems,
and whether or not such dynamics can be altered to instead protect
key communal resources. In particular, the importance of clans
and ethnic groups occupying land in order to secure political
power and land access seems to provide a communal justifca-
tion for allowing private enclosures in Afar. In the current ethnic
Box5/Institutionsforwealth
redistribution
Te institutions for mutual support in the Somali
site appear much more elaborate than in Afar,
and importantly, not connected to the religious
argument (as zakka). However, according to re-
spondents, these institutions are decreasing in
importance, confrming the fnding from the Afar
sites. Traditional Somali mechanisms include Ho-
logoyn, the giving of livestock to someone who
has lost his through misfortune; Irmansi, the giv-
ing of lactating animals to families without such
animals; and Hirsi, the collecting of milk to give
to poor families. A key informant expressed that
these practices were common in the past but now
decreasing. Drought and life miseries have be-
come very common and everyone is busy with his
own problems and the tendency of helping each
other is disappearing (26-year-old man, vulner-
able). It can be difcult to gauge such change. In
Mille there was no clear agreement regarding any
reduction in zakka; one reason for this could be
that people may overstate its importance (explain
how things should be rather than how they are in
practice) since it is religiously prescribed and re-
lated to being a good Muslim. If these more prag-
matic institutions in the Somali site also decline, it
points to a situation of institutional change, where
some arrangements that ensured adaptation are
suspended or abandoned in recognition of the
limits to the adaptation that such arrangements
can provide. Tis fexibility in the institution of re-
distribution may be a valuable adaptation in itself
since, had it continued indefnitely, it could force
all into poverty.
A respondent laments: We have a lot of
stagnant water brought by the upstream Adadle
seasonal rivers and extensive land suitable for
irrigation If the government provides us with
water pumps and other agricultural supports we
could have produced food and fodder and helped
ourselves.
(30-year-old woman, medium wealth)
federalism system, clan leaders are also aforded increased infu-
ence and power through connections with the formal government
administration, meaning that checks and balances to their actions
and accountability to the local population may diminish. In order
to prevent maladaptation, it is important that the adaptive capacity
of the community as a whole, rather than individual interests, takes
precedence. Enclosing private land may increase social inequity
if this option is only available for the most infuential in the com-
munity. In the Somali site, the local government administration
banned private enclosures because it benefted only a small num-
ber of individuals and created tension between people.
Another process that may reinforce vulnerability and the decline
of pastoralism is the increased cutting of branches and collec-
tion of fodder and forest products for own consumption and sale
both during drought in the short term and by those pushed out of
pastoralism in the long term. Vegetation may replenish with the
return of the rains, but if the local rules governing drought reserves
and rangeland management are not implemented over longer time
periods, rangelands may deteriorate in quality contributing to the
need to migrate even further and to declining herds. It should be
borne in mind that many of those who collect forest products are
the most destitute and vulnerable, and unless they can return to
pastoralism or other viable livelihood options are found, simply ex-
cluding people from the collection of forest products may increase
vulnerability and inequity. Te reorganisation of social institutions,
both in providing mutual support and in managing natural re-
sources, appears key for adaptive capacity in the long term.
Observations in both sites indicate that pastoralism, mobility and
trade have been the cornerstones of adaptive capacity, and that
pastoralists fexibly reorganise both herds and income sources with
changing climatic and social conditions. However, the livelihood
activities into which many are now pushed more permanently
with the decline of pastoralism are not socially or environmentally
sustainable in the long term. A central issue for adaptive capacity
is therefore the extent to which pastoralists can regain their rights
of access to key resources such as grazing and water in the face of
structural factors such as increased territoriality for political rea-
sons and the policy prioritisation of modern agriculture. Unless
such developments are addressed at a government level, there may
be limits to the ability of local level eforts, such as community-
based adaptation, to strengthen adaptive capacity. In both sites,
there have been some development interventions, such as provi-
sion of water and veterinary/health facilities that clearly address
some of the compounding factors during drought and which may
slow the decline of pastoralism. However, so far, many of these ef-
forts have been driven by NGOs rather than government eforts.
Future larger-scale government eforts may learn and build on
existing experiences in terms of their efect on vulnerability, equity
and adaptive capacity at the community (rather than individual)
level.
Box6/Maladaptationandsustainable
adaptation
Maladaptation signifes a type of adaptation to a
change that results in negative consequences that
are counterproductive to the purpose of reducing
vulnerability and greenhouse gas emissions. Bar-
nett and ONeill (2010) identify fve types of mal-
adaptation. Tese are actions that:
Increase emissions of greenhouse gases
Disproportionately burden the most vulner-
able
Have high opportunity costs
Reduce incentive to adapt
Lead to path dependency
Te lessons from Afar and Somali suggest that
current some of the current adaptations to mul-
tiple stressors may contribute to reducing societys
adaptive capacity overall and that of the vulnerable
in particular, increase emissions of greenhouse
gases, lead to depletion of rangeland resources,
and create a precarious path dependency. In order
to be more efective, adaptations need to contrib-
ute to more socially and environmentally sustain-
able pathways (Eriksen et al., 2011).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Afar man cuts
tree branchers
Table 4. Multiple stressors, vulnerability and adaptation in Afar and Somali sites
Feature Afar Somali
Climatic stressors Increased frequency and severity of
droughts
Rains fail more ofen, especially winter and
short rains
Rains come at the wrong time, ofen late
Increasing temperatures, the hot period
starts earlier and lasts longer
Shorter cool period
Rains more geographically localised
More frequent and severe foods
Less rainfall, shorter rainy season and
longer dry seasons
More frequent droughts

Rainy season is unpredictable
Increasing temperatures
Key compounding factors during recent
drought
Disease, especially during drought
Price increase and less control over markets
Disease, especially during drought
Price increase, markets less predictable
Government ban on cross-border trade
Drought responses Migration with cattle (Dubte, Amhara and
Issa bufer zone)
Send scouts to fnd grass and water
Herd splitting
Sale of animals and animal products
Sale of charcoal, fuelwood and construction
materials
Trade
Assistance from relatives and social
networks
Food aid
Migration of herds

Herd splitting
Sale of livestock and milk
Sale of charcoal, fuelwood and construction
materials
Reducing food consumption
Collecting bush products
Sale of grass from enclosures
Trade
Assistance from relatives and social
networks
Food aid
Least vulnerable during drought Tose with a lot of livestock
Tose able to move with livestock
(physically strong)
Tose with camels and goats (hardy) and a
diversity of livestock (can split herds)
Relatively wealthier people
Tose with camels and sheep (hardy
animals) and families with enough man-
power to take herds to distant places
Communities with diversifed incomes
Feature Afar Somali
Most vulnerable during drought Tose physically unft to walk far (children,
pregnant women, old)
Te poor/destitute depending on systems
of mutual support and food aid
Poor families, in particular cattle and sheep
herders
Poor families with few options and who
depend on systems of mutual support
Longer-term changes Tose lacking assets and man-power
Increasing conficts with Issa and with
highlanders
Good interaction and cooperation between
many clans
Loss of dry season pastures to agriculture
and development schemes
Degradation of rangelands due to drought/
food and cutting
Alien invasive species
Less grass and forest, more bush
Loss of viability of pastoralism
Declining herds
Weakening of systems of mutual support
(zakka)
Tose who own no livestock
Clan feuds, disputes over land ownership,
local politics
Good interaction and cooperation between
many clans
Loss of dry season pastures to enclosures

Growing concerns of deforestation due to
drought and cutting of trees
New species appear that are not good for
livestock. Valuable species disappear

Loss of viability of pastoralism
Declining herds
Elaborate systems of mutual support,
declining
Adaptation to multiple stressors Migrate further
Continuous use of drought grazing
reserves, weakened implementation of
rules restricting use of rangeland and tree
resources
Change in herd composition (from
grazers such as cattle and sheep to drought
resistant browsers, esp camels and goats)
Trade and production of charcoal
Marginal involvement in trade of products
(milk, butter)
Search for jobs outside pastoralism

Increased interest in farming
Increased reliance on food aid
Some migrate further, some enclose
rangelands and migrate less with cattle
Purchasing animal feeds
Increasing positive interaction with other
clans over grazing and water access
Change in herd composition (from grazers
such as cattle to drought resistant browsers,
especially camels and goats)
Petty trade, trade in livestock, fuel wood,
local construction materials
Decreasing dependence on pastoralism,
migration to towns, casual employment
Collection and sale bush products such as
frewood and grasses by the destitute
Fencing in of rangelands and sell products
from these enclosures
Increased interest in farming
Increased reliance on food aid
3/Towardssustainableadaptation
!OwOrOssus|OinObIeOOOp|O|iOn 39
T
he features of the two cases described above are highly rel-
evant to the four normative principles of sustainable adapta-
tion. Teir connections to sustainable adaptation are sum-
marised in Table 5.
First, the vulnerability context, although closely connected to climatic
events such as drought, food and perceived climatic changes, is
driven by multiple environmental and social processes. Tese include
sedentarisation and pressure to modernise toward farming that relies
on expansion of irrigation agriculture, general trends also observed
elsewhere in pastoral areas in Ethiopia (Hagmann and Mulugeta,
2008). In addition, although smaller-scale localised conficts are man-
aged through negotiations, the state has so far been unable to provide
security and arbitration in larger-scale conficts (such as AfarIssa),
contributing to drought vulnerability. Tere is also a need to expand
provision of basic water, health and veterinary services to address fac-
tors that compound the efect of drought. At the same time, droughts
and loss of grazing land force people to increase their mobility, pro-
cesses contributing to increased risk of confict and disease. Along
with a lack of efective systems of support for restocking and ensuring
viable mobility, pastoralists are becoming cumulatively more vulner-
able. Unless some of these development patterns are revisited, policies
are unlikely to get to the root causes of vulnerability.
Second, there are diferentiated interests and strategies within the
pastoral communities, between population groups and between
pastoralists and the government. Te government prioritises mod-
ernisation and cultivation, as manifested in the damming of the
Awash and development of irrigation agriculture (GebreMichael and
Kife, 2008). Some of these developments are seen by pastoralists
as threatening their interests, in particular access to pastures, while
reinforcing a mutual suspicion and the perception that pastoralists
are not consulted in development. At the same time, however, indi-
viduals within pastoralist communities want to engage in irrigation
agriculture and beneft from enclosing land. While representing a
diversifcation of livelihoods, it undermines access to drought grazing
by other groups in the community. In efect, in its present form and
extent, this development is a maladaptation that may create inequities
and undermine pastoralism over time. A real risk is that power and
resource appropriation being linked to control over land as well as the
strong relationships between clan leaders/infuential individuals and
government administration can be reinforced if adaptation policy
measures involve a disbursement of development funds through
these same structures.
Tird, local knowledge and customs have been critical in managing
environmental variability. However, as demonstrated in this study,
such rules come under pressure when droughts are severe. Moreover,
these systems are undermined by increasing climatic unpredictability,
marginalisation and destitution, forcing people to migrate further
and use up emergency grazing areas and cut trees. Te system is also
weakened by the fact that it operates in parallel with the formal law
system rather than as an integrated part of the law system. A separate
study conducted by APDA in 2009/2010 suggested that the practice
of Afar traditional law is diminishing as a result of the deterioration
of pastoralist lifestyles and the displacement of pastoralists which dis-
rupts clan land-use boundaries (APDA, 2010). It is unclear whether
formal laws and administrative systems are ofering support to these
customary laws at the moment and whether this can be done in ways
that do not hijack or delegitimise customary institutions or cause
favouritism and inequities. In addition, informal social mechanisms
of support are weakened by a near universal destitution process leav-
ing very few individuals wealthy enough to be able to help others.
Increased crisis migration with livestock is also undermining social
cohesion and communal decision-making as people increasingly
have to fend for themselves through individual decision-making. A
critical question is whether these traditional institutions and informal
relations are restored if climatic conditions improve and the current
crisis is ameliorated. Traditional knowledge can also be reinforced
with formal research to raise indigenous trees, shrubs and grass well
adapted to the local dry climate.
Fourth, fndings of the current study of the Afar and Somali challenge
the way that globallocal linkages have been conceptualised so far.
While pastoralists contribute little to global environmental or social
problems, they are at the receiving end of many global strategies
to respond to climate change, and potentially unfavourably so. For
example, irrigated sugar cane production limits a key Afar drought-
coping mechanism, the accessing of drought grazing near the Awash,
at the same time as it leads to increased risk of foods. If used for the
production of biofuel, irrigated sugarcane plantations may neverthe-
less be portrayed as a climate change measure to reduce global emis-
sions from fossil fuels. In order to support social and environmental
sustainable pathways, it is imperative that climate measures do not
increase the vulnerability of population groups, however.
Te pastoralists interviewed have a keen moral and global conscience
regarding their environmental management practices and the poten-
tial impact on the wider community. Such a conscience can be built
upon carefully as adaptation options are explored that maintain a
moral and environmental balance, avoiding severe negative impacts
on other groups or on environmental integrity and hence contribut-
ing to sustainable pathways. Wealthier societies may have something
to learn from pastoralists. Nevertheless, it is critical that the moral
conscience is not co-opted by any infuential individuals to further
particular vested interests. A question of global relevance is the extent
to which promoting the switch from pastoralism to farming, and the
related switch from communal to private land management systems,
may increase energy-intensive production forms and hence green-
house gas emissions (as well as increasing vulnerability).
Critically, the vulnerability context and peoples responses vary be-
tween places and change over time. Terefore, sustainable adaptation
does not pertain to identifying a particular sustainable practice or
action, but to develop a set of actions that contribute to socially and
environmentally sustainable development pathways. Te four norma-
tive principles can guide adaptation responses, and this study exem-
plifes the practical implications in an Ethiopian pastoralist context.
Hence pastoral pathways past, present and future - can provide
lessons for the type of societal transformations required to tackle the
climate change problem.
An agro-pastoral Somali
woman farming her felds
Table 5/ Implications of pastoral vulnerability for how sustainable adaptation pathways can be supported in practice
Normative
principles of
sustainable
adaptation
Key features in the Afar and Somali sites
Implications for actions to support sustainable
adaptation pathways
Recognize the
context for
vulnerability,
including
multiple
stressors
Exposure to climatic events, their impacts and coping
strategies closely linked in daily life
Importance of climate variability for pastoralist activities
Increased variability (geographic and seasonal) described
by respondents, making it difcult to plan grazing
Severe impacts of human and animal disease and confict
Loss of drought grazing areas to private enclosures of
farmland and rangelands
Cumulative vulnerability, loss of animals leading to
further losses and lack of coping options in consecutive
droughts, inability to restock, long-term decline in animal
numbers due to droughts and declining grazing/browsing
Destitution: people forced out of pastoralism into urban
migration, farming, charcoal production and sale of forest
products
Weakening ability of social relations of reciprocity to act
as safety net since very few pastoralists are rich enough to
assist those who are poor
Flooding resulting from damming of river and rains
causing loss of lives and livelihoods and environmental
degradation in Mille

Increased need for mobility leading to insecurity, such as
the adverse impacts of Issa-Afar conficts in Mille

Trade as adaptation, limited by unfavourable market
conditions
Recognise and support pastoralist mechanisms to manage
climate variability, such as facilitating mobility and trade
Address multiple stressors that exacerbate drought/food
efects, such as animal and human disease; establish
mobile education, health and veterinary units and
mechanisms to restock and recover from previous
droughts/foods
Reinstate or strengthen systems that secure communal
access to drought grazing areas, limiting privatisation
Support eforts and traditional mechanisms to manage
trees and drought grazing areas, as well as identify ways
of strengthening the rehabilitation of these areas

Address destitution (restocking, social measures) and
strengthen alternative livelihoods in order to decrease use
of charcoal production as crisis income
Identify ways to support or bufer social network systems
in times of severe stress, work with traditional and
religious leaders
Revise management of dam to avoid severe fooding
and loss of grazing land, identify ways to provide
compensation for land lost to dam in terms of new
grazing areas, rights and income opportunities
Address structural causes of confict, such as features of
ethnic territoriality and a lack of security.
Facilitate regulated fair trading systems and markets
infrastructure; establish minimum prices, guaranteed
purchase of pastoralists products
Acknowledge
that diferent
values and
interests afect
adaptation
outcomes
Government drive to modernise, expand farming and
sedentarise vs. pastoralist wish to restock and increase
their mobility

Individual privatisation of drought grazing land through
enclosures for farming and collection of rangeland
resources vs. communal need for access to drought
grazing
Rethink development interventions such as the dam in
terms of efects on diferent pastoralist groups
Strengthen pastoralism and niche livelihood options
based on sustainable management of local resources and
fair trading arrangements
Reverse current privatisation of land and strengthen
customary and formal systems to ensure communal
access to drought grazing areas.
Avoid supporting livelihood options that require
enclosure of drought grazing lands; avoid development
plans (e.g. dams) that exacerbate vulnerability of
pastoralists and may become maladaptations (irrigated
cash-crops).
Normative
principles of
sustainable
adaptation
Key features in the Afar and Somali sites
Implications for actions to support sustainable
adaptation pathways
Acknowledge
that diferent
values and
interests afect
adaptation
outcomes
(contd.)
Use of forest products during drought and by the
destitute, negotiated through customary institutions
Trade relations between groups, perceived unfair prices
and lack of market control
Negotiation between groups and clans regarding drought
grazing, violent confict between Mille Afar with Somali
Issa over land, potentially linked to political process of
ethnic federalism
Migration (due to drought and the dam) leading to
confict between Uwwa Afar and Amhara groups and
neighbouring Afar groups
Little infuence of most pastoralists in shaping state
development interventions, while some clans or groups
potentially more powerful and with better links to
government administration
Formal government administration and customary
institutions operating partly in parallel
Balance the need for forest product-based livelihoods and
longer-term environmental integrity and drought grazing
for those still in pastoralism, for example by negotiation
through customary institutions.
Acknowledge difering interests and power relations
between groups
Recognise the need for interaction between several ethnic
groups sharing the same land, and the need for fuidity in
use and occupation.
Examine the potential for legislation or development
interventions that ameliorate the current territorialisation
of power and competition between ethnic groups

Strengthen customary and state mechanisms to
resolve conficts, fostering cooperation between the
two, accountability to the local population, and more
general (less selective) access of people to government
administrations
Include the knowledge and problem understanding of
customary institutions in decision making processes
regarding adaptation and development
Integrate local
knowledge
into adaptation
responses
Detailed knowledge of climatic events, local climatic
conditions, grazing lands and ways to forecast the
weather; increasing unpredictability of the weather
a challenge to indigenous systems of forecasting and
planning
Traditional law regulating management of natural
resources and strategies to manage drought, such as
preserving trees and drought grazing areas
Integrate scientifc and traditional meteorology and
ecological knowledge to strengthen each other

Recognise traditional resource management and drought
management strategies when considering land allocations
to development or other state purposes; recognise that
customary institutions must not be undermined through
co-option or selective support by the state
Consider
potential
feedbacks
between local
and global
processes
Global or moral conscience present: peoples sins against
moral custom as well as environmental degradation
perceived as cause of deteriorating climate conditions
Expansion of irrigation agriculture requiring increased
energy use, potentially locking development into high-
emission technologies, land and water requirements
negatively afecting other groups and areas

Impact of global/Northern climate priorities such
as biofuel production on local vulnerability through
expanded irrigated cultivation of sugar/biofuel crops
Build on global and moral conscience in fostering
development that does not adversely afect others; ensure
that drought is not co-opted by particular interest groups/
infuential people to convince people to take actions that
achieve vested interests and hidden agendas
Build on and develop local technologies, practices and
resources for a common equitable development; avoid
development options that are expensive, high-energy and
beneft only a few individuals at the expense of the larger
community
Consider the conficting and converging interests
between pastoral needs and global demand for biofuel;
prioritise the needs and rights of local people in
shaping any biofuel production schemes including the
distribution of costs and benefts
Afar girl in front
of her house
4/Lessonsfrompastoralpathways
LessOnsfrOmpOs|OrOIpO|hwOys 45
T
he features of Ethiopian pastoralism, as exemplifed by Afar
and Somali, have some specifc and perhaps surprising impli-
cations for how climate change adaptation can be supported.
Te cases illustrate a very particular aspect of pastoral vulnerability
to climate change; that is, their vulnerability is placed at an intersec-
tion between several powerful discourses, which have been described
as: pastoral groups and dryland areas are inherently violent; resource
scarcity causes confict; pastoral overgrazing and mismanagement
cause environmental degradation (Hagmann and Mulugeta 2008;
Benjaminsen, 2008); and climate change adaptation is a matter of
technology change and adjustment of inappropriate practices in
the face of identifed future changes in climatic conditions (Eriksen
and Lind, 2009; Eriksen et al., 2011). Te cases of Afar and Somali
comprehensively discredit these discourses. Tey illustrate the need
for approaches to adaptation intervention based on a diferent type
of understanding in order for development and adaptation policies
for pastoral areas to contribute to the reduction of vulnerability and
strengthening of social equity and environmental integrity. Some of
the problems pastoralists face stem from development approaches
based on the discourses listed above and are unlikely to be solved with
only technological change or adjustment to local practices. Measures
based on conventional pastoral and climate change discourses may
even reinforce and exacerbate vulnerability, inequity and environ-
mental degradation.
Ethiopian policies pay increasing attention both to climate change
adaptation and the development of pastoral areas. Insights from this
study can provide some guidance for how these eforts can be further
developed. Understanding of vulnerability fundamentally shapes the
types of adaptation and development intervention that can be formu-
lated and implemented. A key lesson from the identifcation of poten-
tial measures required to achieve sustainable adaptation in the context
of Ethiopian pastoralism is that implementing measures at a single
level only, whether the national policy level or community response
level, is insufcient. Instead, an understanding of vulnerability and
social and environmental sustainability must permeate actions at all
scales from the local to the international in order to shif development
pathways and efectively adapt to climate change. Te way such mea-
sures can potentially complement each other is exemplifed in Table 6.
Te case of pastoralism among the Afar and Somali also has several
specifc lessons that may be applicable to a wider context regarding
features of adaptation and development policies that are required to
achieve more sustainable development pathways in terms of social
equity and environmental integrity. First, some of the processes per-
ceived to exert the most severe stress on local livelihoods, undermin-
ing ability to face droughts and climatic changes, are actually unin-
tended consequences of development interventions. Te case of Mille
is an important example, where the damming of the Awash River led
to regular fooding. Second, there is a disconnect between local values
and aspirations and national policy ambitions to modernize through
farming. Tis leads to distrust and very diferent perceptions as to the
types of development intervention required locally. Te government
is not perceived as present and supportive of local needs nor are de-
velopment decisions understood as being infuenced by pastoralists.
Tis means that the indigenous knowledge and customary rules and
laws used in managing climatic and environmental variability change
inherent in local institutions are unlikely to be integrated in ofcial
adaptation responses and may even be unintentionally undermined
by development and climate change policy eforts. As a result, the
disconnect may diminish adaptive capacity through the decline of
pastoralism, weakening of social institutions, and increasing destitu-
tion and inequities. Tird, the resulting responses to climate change
and other long-term changes to some extent actually reinforce vulner-
ability, in particular the enclosure and de facto privatisation of key
communal drought resources. In addition, the severe vulnerability
context and destitution are putting social institutions under pressure,
making the predicament of the most vulnerable even more precari-
ous. As demonstrated by the case of Ethiopian pastoralism, a shif
is required in development and economic and political structures if
socially and environmentally sustainable pathways are to be found.
Viewing development through the lens of climate change vulnerabil-
ity and adaptation may contribute to identifying and shifing to such
pathways. In particular, pastoral pathways as described here provide
valuable lessons for how the concept of sustainable adaptation can be
realized in practice.
4/Lessonsfrompastoralpathways
Table 6/ Exemplifcation of adaptation actions at diferent geographic scales
Normative principles
of sustainable
adaptation
Local level actions
Regional level
actions (including
regional adaptation
plans)
National level
policies (including
development
policies and NAPA*)
International
mechanisms
(including the
Climate convention,
environmental and
trade agreements)
Recognize the context for
vulnerability, including
multiple stressors
Rethink local power
structures and
institutions that
allow privatisation of
communal lands

Provision of water, and
mobile health, veterinary
and education units that
reduce compounding
efects during drought
Develop rules to regulate
enclosure of communal
grazing lands
Develop systems to
support restocking afer
drought
Question irrigation as
development strategy,
strengthen pastoral
rights to key adaptation
resources

Critically examine
how the system of
ethnic federalism can
be reformed to better
address clan-based
territoriality, conficts
and limits to mobility;
support trade and
interaction between
ethnic groups and clans
Highlight consequences
of development
paradigms for
vulnerability and
emissions, such as
privatization of land and
shifing from pastoralism
to farming
Highlight the need
for community-based
adaptation to be
supported through shifs
in regional and national
development pathways
Acknowledge that
diferent values
and interests afect
adaptation outcomes
Strengthen local
democratic processes
to ensure greater equity
and local accountability;
prioritise the adaptive
capacity of the
community as a whole,
the pastoral system and
the most vulnerable
over individuals vested
interests
Include local knowledge
and problem perceptions
in adaptation policy
development
Include local and
pastoral concerns in
governing development
schemes, such as
regulation of the dam to
avoid fooding
Address disconnect
between local values
and national policy
ambitions; develop
efective mechanisms to
include local knowledge
and problem perceptions
in adaptation policy
development and
decision-making
Guide national
development of
mechanisms for
disbursement of
adaptation funding
that ensure that current
inequities or exploitative
power relations are not
reinforced
Integrate local
knowledge into
adaptation responses
Strengthen local
institutions for
environmental
management and mutual
support
Develop safety networks
to bufer social
institutions during times
of stress
Identify ways to
integrate formal
and traditional law
regarding environmental
management
Develop niche dryland
resources and markets;
increase investment in
research and promotion
of indigenous tree species
Include local knowledge
in scientifc assessments
and policy processes;
identify ways in which
local customary
institutions, development
practitioners and the
international research
community together
can examine the climate
change problem
Consider potential
feedbacks between local
and global processes
Build on a moral
conscience; develop local
technologies, practices
and technologies that
enhance community
level adaptive capacity
without adversely
afecting other
communities or
environmental integrity
Avoid development
schemes or livelihood
transformations that
increase inequity and
vulnerability
Critically assess
development strategies to
avoid being locked into
unsustainable pathways
(diminishing adaptive
capacity, exacerbating
impoverishment among
vulnerable groups and
increasing emissions)
Consider how global
climate change policies
and investment patterns
may promote global
production of biofuels
over local reduction of
vulnerability; address
investment systems that
promote energy- and
water-intensive forms of
agricultural production
as well as privatization of
resources
*NAPA, National Adaptation Programme of Action
LessOnsfrOmpOs|OrOIpO|hwOys 47
Goats the means of survival
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