PHYSICS FORMULAS 2425

Types of Errors:
Personal errors due to bias or mistakes. Systematic errors due to miscalibration of instruments,
personal bias, or reaction time.

Formulas for Velocity: [units: v: m/s; a: m/s2; x: m; t:

s]
v = v 0 + at v = v 0 +v

(for constant a) (for constant a) average velocity

Random errors are unknown or unpredictable, such as

voltage or temperature fluctuations, vibration, etc.

2
at 2 + 2ax

Accuracy - how close measurement comes to accepted value Precision - how consistent or repeatable measurements are

x = v 0t + v
2 2

(for constant a)

Calculation of Errors:
Multiplication:

operation: A = L W

=v0 (for constant a) Rocket Science: The relationship between velocity and the
burning of fuel.

error: A = ( L W + W L )

Division:

M operation: D = V
error:

v f v i = u ln

Mi Mf

u = speed of the exhaust relative the to rocket [m/s]

M M V D = + V V2
Quadratic Equation:

Addition of Multiple Vectors:

g = 9.8 m/s = 32 f/s gmoon = 1.62 m/s2

x=

b b 2 4ac 2a

r r r r R = Ar+ B + C r Resultant = Sum of the vectors r r Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx x-component A x = A cos r r r r Ry = Ay + By + C y y-component A y = A sin

R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 Magnitude (length) of R or tan R = Ry Rx Angle of the resultant R = tan 1 Ry Rx

Law of Cosines:
R= A + B 2 AB cos
2 2

y R A B x

Unit Vectors:
Cross Product or Vector Product: Positive direction:

sin =

R B sin

i j=k

j i = k i i = 0

Newton's Laws:
First Law: Law of Inertia. An object at rest will remain at
rest unless acted on by an external force. An object in motion will remain in motion unless . . . Second Law: F = ma , = I The sum of external forces on a object is equal to its mass (or inertia for rotational forces) times the acceleration. Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Law of Gravity: F = force of attraction exerted on each body G = gravitational constant 6.67 10-11 m1m2 F=G 2 [N m 2/kg] or [m3/kg s2] r r = distance between centers [m]

Dot Product or Scalar Product:

i j = 0

ii =1

j i

Velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time: k

v=

d dx dy dz ( xi + yj + zk) = i + j+ k dt dt dt dt

Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time:

a=

dv y dv dv d ( v x i + v y j + v zk ) = x i + j+ z k dt dt dt dt

Mass/Density:
M =V D

[kilograms]

Drag:
1 D = 2 CAv 2

mass = volume density

Projectile Motion:
v x0 = v0 cos 0 v y0 = v0 sin 0 x = v x 0t v y = v y 0 gt horizontal component of velocity vertical component of velocity horizontal distance to find apex, let vy = 0 vertical distance vertical distance
gx 2 2(v 0 cos0 ) 2

vt =

2mg CA

D = Drag Force [N] C = Coeficient of drag [ ] = density [kg/m3] (air: 1.2, water: 1000) A = effective cross-sectional area [m2] v = speed [m/s] vt = Terminal Velocity [m/s] g = acceleration due to gravity [9.8 m/s2]

Force:

[F is in Newtons; m is kilograms]
2

1 y = y 0 + v y 0 t 2 gt 2

Newtons = kg m / s = dynes = grams cm / s 2

F = ma

grams g

y = (tan 0 ) x
2 2

= dynes 10, 000 1000 1 lb = 4. 448 N

v y = v y 0 2 gy

vertical velocity

Relative Motion:

v PA = v PB + v BA

t J F= t F=

force = mass X acceleration

force = force =

change in momentum time interval impulse time interval

The relative velocity of object P with respect to A is equal to the velocity of P with respect to B plus the velocity of B with respect to A. For velocities approaching the speed of light, the formula changes to:

conservative force - work done is independent of the path taken non-conservative force - depends on the path taken
F =G m 1m 2 r2

v PA

v PB + v BA = 1 + v PB v BA / c 2

force of gravitational attraction, where G is the constant of universal gravitation

6. 673 1011
N m 2 kg 2

c = the speed of light = 299,792,458 m/s

Atwood's Machine: Inclined Plane:

F = mg sin W = mg Fn = mg cos
(the normal force)

[F and W are in Newtons; m is kilograms] Fk

Acceleration in m/s2:

m2 m1 a= g m1 + m2
m1

F W Fn Tension in Newtons:

Fk = k Fn tan a=

2m1 m2 T = g m1 + m2
Tension:
[Newtons]

m2

(force of friction, opposite the direction of movement) = k The coefficient of friction k is found when the

angle is adjusted for zero acceleration of the sliding object. g sin (acceleration)

T m
T = m (g + a ) T = m (g a )

Fn

(where m is accelerating upward) (where m is accelerating downward)

Work:

PE s =

[joules or Newton-meters]

1 2

kx

(elastic potential energy)

F F cos s
(work done on the object by F)

Simple Harmonic Motion:

T= 1 f m k
(T is period in seconds; f is frequency in Hz)

T = 2
W = ( F cos )s
W g = mgy

T = period (s) m = mass (kg) k = spring constant (N/m)

(acceleration) x is the location in meters

a=

W = Fd
i

mgy

work = force displacement = PE i PE f (work done by gravity, y is

k x m

v=

W = KE f KEi

vertical distance in meters)

k 2 ( A x2) m x = A cos( 2 f t )
L g

(A is amplitude in m; x is position) (x is position in m; f is frequency Hz)

The work done by a conservative force on a particle is independent of the path taken.
see also: Energy, Spring

Pendulum:
T = 2
First Order Approximation for small angles L is length in m; g is gravity Third Order Approximation

Power:

[watts]

P=

dW dt
W

T = 2

L 1 9 sin 4 1 + sin 2 + g 4 2 64 2

Power is the rate of work. P =

= Fv

watts =

joules second

Waves:
v = f v=
(f is frequency in Hz; is wavelength in m) (F is tension in N; is mass per unit length of string in kg/m) see also: Oscillation

Energy:
KE = PE = mgy
1 2

[joules]
2

mv

(kinetic energy)

(gravitational potential energy, y is vertical distance in meters)

Collisions: In all collisions, momentum is conserved and the

center of mass is unaffected. In an elastic collision, kinetic energy KE = 1 mv 2 is conserved. 2

1 1 KE = KE f KE i = 2 mv 2 2 mv 0 2 = Work

A falling object loses potential energy as it gains kinetic energy. In an isolated system, energy can be transferred from one type to another but total energy remains the same.
W net = KE = PE E total = KE + PE (mechanical energy) PE i + KE i = PE f + KE f

m1v1i + m2 v 2 i = m1v1 f + m2 v 2 f v1 f = v2 f

(momentum) (elastic only)

[i = initial;
2

f = final, energy is

conserved]
mgy
i

m1 m2 2m2 v1i + v m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2i m m1 2m1 v1i + 2 v = m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2i p = mv

(elastic only)

+ 1 mv i = mgy f + 1 mv f 2 2
2

[y = vertical distance]

E = mc

E is the mass energy, m is mass, c is the

8

Momentum: [kg m/s]

speed light 3.00 10 m/s See also: Rotation and Torque

F =

dp dt

Spring:
F = kx F =
1 2

Linear Momentum in a system of particles: M = total mass of the system [m] P = Mv cm vcm = velocity of the center of mass [m/s]

[F is in Newtons; W is in Joules; x is in meters; k is in Newtons per meter: N/m]

Impulse: [kg m/s]

J = p = F t = mv f mv i

Hooke's Law (force required to compress a

spring with a spring constant k a distance x) (average force required to compress a spring--or average force output from a decompression over a distance x) spring in

impulse = force duration or the change in momentum see also Force

kx

W =

1 2

kx
1 2

(work done on a spring by an applied force)

2

W = kx

(work done by a spring)

Center of Mass: The center of mass of a body or a system

of bodies is the point that moves as though all of the mass were concentrated there and all external forces were applied there. xcm = distance from origin [m] 1 n x cm = mi x i M = total mass [m] M i =1 m = mass of object [m] This can be applied to x = distance of object from origin y and z axis as well. [m]

Torque:

=rF = rFt = r F = rF sin

= torque (vector) (positive is in the

counterclockwise direction) [N m]

= magnitude of the torque r = radius [m] F = force [N] r = perpendicular distance

between axis and an extended line running through F. = the angle between r and F [ or rad]

Rotation and Torque: [ is in radians]

= t = 0 + t = 0 t + 1 t 2 2 2 = 0 2 + 2 = t v t = r v cm = r a t = r
2

= I
Inertia:
sphere: [kg m2]
I = mr Is =
2 5

= the net torque acting on a

body [N m]

average angular speed [rad/s] (if constant acceleration) [rad/s] (if constant acceleration) [radians] (if constant acceleration) average angular acceleration [rad/s2] tangential speed [m/s] velocity of the center of mass [m/s] at = tangential acceleration [m/s2] r = radius [m] = angular acceleration [rad/s2] ar = radial acceleration or centripetal acceleration [m/s2]
(directed inward to center)

I = Inertia [kg m2] = angular acceleration [rad/s2]

I =
2

mr

(inertia)
1 2

orbiting object:

ring:
2 2

Ir =

m (r 1 + r 2 )
2 2

mr ml

disk or cyl.:

Id =

1 2

mr

2 2

thin rod (on side): I =

1 12

rod (axis end): I = 1 ml 3

cylinder on its side (axis ctr): I = m

r2 4

l + 12
2

Parallel Axis Theorem: If you know the rotational inertia

of a body about any axis that passes through its center of mass, you can find its rotational intertia about any other axis parallel to that axis with the parallel-axis theorem:

ar =

vt = r 2 r
at ar

I = I cm + Mh 2

v = speed [m/s] r = radius [m] = angular speed [rad/s]

I = Inertia [kg m2] Icm = Inertia with axis at the center of mass [kg m2] M = mass [kg] h = distance from the center of mass to the axis [m]

Kinetic Energy: [Joules]

a = at 2 + a r 2 Fc = ma r = m 2 r 2 T= = v
Kepler's Third Law (planetary motion)

total acceleration [m/s2]

KE r = 1 I 2 rotational kinetic energy 2 1 KEt = 2 mv 2 translational kinetic energy KE = 1 I cm 2 + 1 mv cm 2 rolling kinetic energy 2 2
Yo-yo:

vt 2 r

Fc = centripetal force [N]

ar = radial acceleration or centripetal acceleration [m/s2]
(directed inward to center)
T

T = period [s]

F = T Mg = Ma = TR = I
0

T = tension [N] M = mass [kg] R0 = radius of

axle [m]

where T = the period

2 G = 6. 673 1011 N m2

a = R0 a= g 1 + I / MR0 2

4 2 3 2 r = K sr 3 T = GM s

kg

K s = 2. 97 10

19 s 2
m3

R0

Mg

Angular Momentum:

Oscillation:
The Position Function for oscillating motion:

l = I rigid body on fixed axis [kg m2/s or J s] l = r p = m(r v ) l = angular momentum of a

particle [J s] r = a position vector p = linear momentum [kg m2/s or J s] m = mass [kg] v = linear velocity [m/s] Angular momentum is conserved when torque is zero.
I i i = I f f

x = x m cos( t + )

= = T=

2 = 2 f T k (spring) m 1 f

x = position [m] xm = amplitude [m] = angular frequency [rad/s] t = time [s] = phase angle [rad] ( t + ) = phase of the motion
[rad] k = spring constant [N/m] T = period [s] f = frequency [Hz] F = force [N] m = mass [kg] I = moment of inertia [kg m2] h = distance between axis and center of mass [m]

An Optimally Banked Curve:

tan =

rg

Elasticity in Length: Young's Modulus [Pa or N/m2]

m (spring) k I T = 2 mgh T = 2 F = ma = ( m 2 ) x

Y=

Fl0 AL
V P

F = force [N] A = crossectional

area [m2]

l0 = initial length [m] L = chg. in length [m]

Volume Elasticity: Bulk Modulus [Pa or N/m2]

B =

U ( t ) = 1 kx m 2 cos 2 ( t + ) 2 K ( t ) = 1 kx m 2 sin 2 ( t + ) 2 E = U + K = 1 kx m 2 2

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy

V= original vol. [m3] V = chg. in vol.

[m3]

P = change in pressure [Pa or N/m2]

Total Mechanical Energy

Pressure in a liquid: (due to gravity) [Pa or N/m2]

1 atm = 1.01 105 Pa = 760 torr = 14.7 in2

x' = velocity of the oscillating object [m/s] x'' = acceleration of the oscillating object m/s2]

P = P0 + gh

P0 = atmospheric pressure if applicable [Pa or N/m2] = density [kg/m3] g = gravity [m/s2] h = height [m]
f a F A

d (cos u) = u'sin u dx
Equations of a Line:
y = mx + b Ax + By + C = 0 Ax + By = Ax

d (sin u ) = u' cos u dx

f F = a A

f = force [N] a = area [m2] F = force [N] A = area [m2]

y y1 = m ( x x1 )
1

(m = A / B )

slope-intercept first degree point-slope point-slope, alt. 2-point

+ By 1

Rate of Flow:

y 2 y1 y y1 = ( x x1 ) x 2 x1
R = rate of flow [m3/s] A = crossectional area [m2] v = velocity [m/s]
x a

R = A1v1 = A2 v 2
Bernoulli's Equation:

y b

=1

(m = b / a )

intercept
a = x-intercept b = y-intercept

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols/notes December 6, 1997

P + 1 v12 + gy1 = P2 + 1 v 2 2 + gy 2 2 2 1
P1 = pressure [Pa or N/m2] v = velocity [m/s] y = height [m]
For a horizontal pipe: = density [kg/m3] g = gravity [m/s2]

P + 1 v12 = P2 + 1 v 2 2 2 2 1