[Reprinted from TW: AERONAUTICAL JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY. Aw 1993} An aerodynamic model for flapping-wing flight J.D. DeLaurier Institute of Aerospace Studies, University of Toronto, Downsview, Ontario, Canada PRINTED BY MANOR PARK PRESS LIMITED. EDISON ROAD, HAMPDEN PARK. EASTHOURNE, SUSSEX. ENGLAND. AND PUBLISHED BY THE ROYAL AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY. $ HAMILTON PLACE LONDON WIV BO. ENGLAND.An aerodynamic model for ABSTRACT ‘A design-oriented model for the unsteady aerodynamics of @ fapping wing has been developed using a modified strip theory approach. Within this constraint, vortex-wake effects are account- ced for as well as panial leading edge suction and post stall behaviour. Also, the contributions of sectional mean angle of attack, camber, and friction drag are_ added, which allows this ‘model to be used for the calculation ofthe average lift as well ax the thrust, power required, and propulsive efficiency of a Napping wing in equilibrium fight. An example of such calculations is pre- Sented in the performance prediction of a mechanical flying pterosaur replica NOMENCLATURE AR Wing aspect ratio 2 Semispan length © ‘Acrofoil chord h Plunging displacement of leading edge in flapping direction (lyn Finite-wing Theodorsen function Ci “pendant dette y Eaton) C” Drecocticen Neral ec ofc ob F, Nachos fc deine by Eaton 21) Fe) ample components oC) gen hy Equation) £0 © eae eueny dfn by Eqn) ttn fi Pihing momen Nosema the wags hod tower Rn Reyos umber rte F, eating edge suction fre G Righrace V—Reltve ow vliy tector aeion, given by Eatin) vy awn vl tte esto oon 3° Gente dng npn Manuscript received 7 October 1991, acepted 22 January 1993, Paper No. 1853 flapping-wing flight J.D. DeLaurier Institute of Aerospace Studies, University of Toronto, Downsview, Ontario, Canada & Relative angle of attack at the é-chord location du to the wing’s motion The flow's relative angle of atack at the 2Je-chord location, given by Equation (1) Angle of section’ eri line By Magnitude of the dynamic tvist’s ner variation 88 ——_Dynamically-varying pitch angle, (8-0) © Cheleansle, defined by Equation (33) 1) Propusive efficiency 1, Leading edge suetion efficiency ©) Ptchangle of chord with respect to U 8, Pitchangle of Napping axis with respect o U © Mean pitch ange of chord with respect to Mapping axis "Atmospheric density © Flapping frequen, rads Subsoripts 2 Apparent mass @e Aerodynamic centre © Gireulation f Crossflow fF Fretion in Input out Oxtput Sep Separated flow Superscripts are Mean value Time derivative INTRODUCTION ‘The motivation for this work is based onan interest in mechanical flapping-wing fight. For that reason the analysis is. very design oriented, capable of being readily implemented for the performance prediction of a variety of candidate configurations. Most previous work seems to fall, roughly, into two categories, ‘The first, and most common, is the quasi-steady model where un steady wake effects are ignored. That is, flapping Frequencies are assumed to be slow enough that shed wake effects are negligible. ‘Although such an assumption gives a great simplification to the aerodynamic modelling, this category can still contain a wide ange of sophistication in its detailed approaches, One ofthe sim plest examples is given by Kichemann and von Holst where a rigid elliptical-planform wing is assumed to be performing. span ‘wise uniform motions, whereas Schmeidler®.» presents a much ‘errata sounal A 869 Otamore detailed analysis using lifting-line theory © predict the Performance of a root-lapping wing. One of the most refined Versions of the lifting-line approach is offered by Betteridge and Archer where they use their analysis 10 investigate the possibility of optimised flapping behaviour ‘The quasi-steady approach also includes models of intermediate complexity, where the aerodynamic effects are concentrated at certain representative spanwise points on the wing. Walker) chooses three points along the semispan of a oot-lapping wing, and assumes the motion to be such that the lift and drag are constant values on the downstroke and different constants on the ‘upstroke, Norberg® chooses a single representative point, at 70% fof the semispan, performing sinusoidal motion with constant lift-curve slope coefficients throughout the fapping cycle. ‘The second category accounts for the unsteady aerodynamic effects by modelling the wake in a variety of ways. Among those analyses that include the mean lift required for equilibrium fight (s compared with studies of animal swimming), Philps, Est, and Pratt”) represent the unsteady wake of a root-flapping non twist ing rigid wing with diserete nonplanar vortex elements which include spanwise vortices spaced one per half cycle aft of the ‘quarter-chord bound vortex. A similar model was developed by Blackwell and Archer! for their study of the propulsive charac teristics of a twisting wing, root flapping with constant, but ‘unequal, upsroke and dosenstroke motions ("savvtooth motion”) All of the above analyses assume that the wing is spanwise rigid. That is, the wing’s semispan length (measured along 2 span- wise axis moving with the wing) is assumed to stay constant {hroughout the flapping motion’s full cycle. A remarkable departure from this time-honoured assumption was offered by Rayner when, upon noting that a lifting wing can produce nega tive thrust on the upstroke, he formulated a model assuming the wing to be aerodynamically active only on the dowastroke. Thus, the vortex wake is a series of closed rings. However, Lighthill!® noted how the lift requirement for most bird flight compels some serodynamic activity on the upstroke, and described an extension ‘of Rayner’s model") in which upstroke lift is allowed, but that a span difference between upstroke and downstroke produces the ret thrust. ‘The present analysis does not assume a variable span. Since the ‘motivation was 10 study the feasibility of mechanical fapping- ‘Wing igh, it was fle that an important first step was to see if this \was achievable without having to envision a span variation mech. anism, However, the kinematics do allow for spanwise bending land twisting. Further, this model assumes a continuous sinusoidal motion, with equal times between the upstroke and downstroke. This, along with the high aspect ratio envisioned for the wing, justified the assumption of a modified strip theory where the finite span unsteady-wake effects are accounted for by modified Theodorsen functions. This analysis also differs from previous work in that camber and partial leading edge suction effects are accounted for. Too often, researchers interested in animal fight have chosen, as their starting point, an inviscid flow theory which assumes 1008 leading edge suction. However, the realty is tht the wings of fly ing animals can be highly cambered with litle, if any, leading edge suction. Post stall behaviour is accounted for in this analysis. It may ‘wel be that the variable span model for lapping Right can reais. tically allow totally attached flow. However, flapping wings with the presently assumed kinematics appear to be characterised by significant flow separation over potions of the cycle. Infact, such behaviour may not be undesirable for producing the average lift and thrust required for sustained flight. An example is shown of an efliciently designed mode! pterosaur wing for which this theory predicted, and experiment showed, significant outer panel flow separation, METHOD OF ANALYSIS ‘The Kinematics for each section of the wing ate ilusiated in Figure 1. Upon using the leading edge as a reference point, the section’s motion consists of a plunging velocity, fi, and a pitch angle, 8. Note that fis not necessarily perpendicular to the mean- stream velocity, U. IF the wing is root flapping, as shown in Fig. 2, then f would be perpendicular tothe flapping axis. ‘The wing's aspect ratio is assumed to be large enough thatthe flow over each section is essentially chordwise (in the mean- stream direction). Therefore, the section's circulatory” normal force is piven by oy, Pe pay V is the flows relative velocity at the Yechord. location, and ,(0)=2x{ar-+e4 +8) ® The parameters in Equation (2) ae illustrated in Fig. 1, where itis, seen thatthe angle of the zero lift Line, dy, isa fixed value forthe serofoil, and 8 is the section's mean pitch angle. Further, 8 is given by the sum: 5-5,48, ° where 8, isthe anele of the apping axis with respect tothe tncan-steam velocity, U, and 8, the man angle ofthe chord ith respect othe Rapping axis: Note that if the wing doesnot havea Mapping as (sch for whoe-wing mations). then Os the wings mean pitch ange of Figure 1. Wing section aerodynamic forces and motion variables. Figure 2. Assumed stip theory equivalence to whole wing motion DeLawier Ara! A 1988