Foundation Engineering DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING COURSE TITLE: - CENG 3204 FOUNDATION

ON ENGINEERING COURSE OUTLINE

1. SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1 PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION 1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM 1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION 1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS LABORATORY TESTS GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS DATA PRESENTATION

1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS 2.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS 2.3.1 Shallow Foundations 2.3.2 Deep Foundations 2.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN 2.4.1 General 2.4.2 Loads on Foundations 2.4.3 Pressure Distribution beneath of Foundations 2.4.4 Settlement of Foundations 2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

3. DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

3.1 INTROUCTION 3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive allowable soil pressure 3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength parameters and C 3.1.3 Structural Considerations

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3.2 ISOLATED OR SPREAD FOOTINGS 3.3 COMBINED FOOTINGS 3.4 STRAP OR CANTILEVER FOOTINGS 3.5 MAT/ RAFT FOUNDATION

4. Analysis and Design of Retaining Structures

4.1 CONVENTIONAL RETAINING WALLS 4.2 SHEET PILE WALLS 4.3 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL REINFORCEMENT TECHNIQUES

References
1. Principles of Foundation Engineering By Alemayehu Teferra 2. Foundation Analysis and Design By J. E. Bowles 3. Foundation Design , Principles and practices By Donald P. Coduto 4. Foundation Design and Construction By M.T. Tomlinson 5. Foundation Design By W.C. Teng

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1. SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1 PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over which the structure has to be built. Soil characteristics vary both with respect to depth from the ground surface and stretch in the horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime objective of soil exploration for a building, bridge or other civil Engineering works, to analyze the nature of soil in all respects. The main purposes of soil exploration are: a. Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical sites. b. Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation c. Selection of alternative methods of construction. d. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure. e. Location and selection of construction materials. The soil exploration should provide the following data: 1. Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity or settlement calculation) 2. Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil) 3. Location of ground water level

1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon i. The nature of sub-soil ii. The type of structure iii. The importance of structure The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration program, the purpose of the program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost involved in the soil exploration is a function of the total cost of the project. It is always advisable to spend a little more on soil investigation to understand clearly the nature of the soil so that suitable foundation can be recommended. Often an indication of the extent of an exploration of Dire Dawa university Institute of Technology

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program can be estimated from the history of foundations successes and failures in an area are very helpful. Also, for planning the program, the engineer should be well acquainted with the current methods of soil boring, sampling and testing and have some idea of the limitations on both the field and laboratory equipments and methods. The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the following steps: I. Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of the general topographic and geological character of the site. II. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc. III. A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit to establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly the location of the ground water level. For small projects this step may be sufficient to establish foundation criteria, in which case the exploration program is finished. IV. A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality and/or erratic, a more detailed investigation may be undertaken this may involve sinking several boreholes, taking soil samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding and other field tests.

1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface are Test pits Boring and sampling Field tests Geophysical methods Laboratory tests

1.3.1 Test Pits

The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m. The use of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined visually, thus

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the boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabric can be accurately determined. It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soil samples: in cohesive soils block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and tube samples can be obtained from the sides of the pit.

1.3.2 Soil Boring and Sampling 1.3.2.1 Soil Boring

This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths for visual inspection as well as laboratory tests. The most commonly used methods of boring are: Auger boring Wash boring Percussion drilling Rotary drilling a) Auger boring: - Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are of two types. Post-hole and helical augers. They are used for shallow borings depth 3 to 7.5m in soils, which possess sufficient cohesion to sand unsupported. This boring method provides highly disturbed soil samples. Power operated augers (helical) can be used to great depths, even to 30m, and used in almost all types of soils above water table.

Fig.1.1 Hand Augers a) helical and b) post hole

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b) Wash boring: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light chopping bit and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure. Loosened soil particles rise as suspended particles through the annular space between casing and drill rod. This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks. Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more. Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper samplers.

Fig.1.2 Wash boring

c) Percussion drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy chisel into the bottom of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer or sand pump. Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not favored. Casing is generally required. Maximum depth of boring is 60m.

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d) Rotary drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which cuts the material at the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating fluids, which may be water, bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid method for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock). In this method undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths by using suitable samplers. Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

1.3.2.2 Soil Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or trial pits. These are: - Disturbed and Undisturbed samples. a) Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed to a considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment. Disturbed samples, however, need to be truly representative of the stratum. limits etc. b) Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-situ structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining reliable information on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit. Undisturbed samples in cohesionless deposits are extremely difficult to obtain. Because of this the above characteristics are provided by field tests. Disturbed samples are satisfactory for performing classification tests such as, sieve analysis, Atterberg

Types of Samplers It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate to deep holes. The process of boring, driving the coring too, raising and withdrawing the to swell as a result of stress coring tool and extruding the sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance. In addition, samples taken from holes may tend relief. Samples should be taken only from a newly- drilled or newly extended hole, with care being taken to avoid contact with water. As soon as they are brought to the surface, core tubes should be labeled inside and outside, the ends sealed with wax and capped, and then stored away from extremes of heat or cold and vibration. Sample disturbance may be

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reduced by using an appropriate type of sample tube. The types of tube samplers in common a) Split Spoon Sampler: - A standard split spoon sampler has a 2 outside diameter, 1 inside diameter tube, 18 to 24 long. The tube is split longitudinally in the middle. While the sample is being taken, the two halves of the spoon are held together at the ends by short pieces of threaded pipe, one of which couples, it to the drill rod and the other serves as the cutting edge. The sampler is forced or driven into the soil to obtain a sample and is then removed from the hole. With these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock, cohesive and cohesionless soils are obtained. This sampler is used for making standard penetration test.

b) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler: - It is a thin walled seamless brass or steel tubing, with common out side diameter of 2 to 3 and length of 30 to 36. The lower end is beveled to form a cutting edge and it can be slightly tapered to reduce the wall friction and the upper end fitted for attachment to the drill rod. In order to take sample the sampler is pushed downward into the soil by static force instead of being driven by a hammer. This sampler is used to take undisturbed samples from cohesive soils. c) Piston Samplers: - They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their cutting ends. While taking sample, the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed down. The piston aids the retention of the soil in the tube during withdrawal. Piston samples provide bestundisturbed samples of cohesive soils.

1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and bearing capacities of soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling. The most commonly used field tests are; Penetration or sounding tests Vane shear test Plate loading test Pile loading test 1.4.1 Penetration Tests Penetration tests are the most useful tests. They are conducted mainly to get information on the relative density of soils with little or no cohesion. The tests are based on the fact that the relative density of a soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of the soil against

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From this, correlations between values of penetration

resistance versus angle of internal friction (), bearing pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have been developed. Penetration tests are classified as static and dynamic penetration tests.

a) Static Penetration Tests.

1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test: -This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia. rotating handle. 25 half-turns. The test consists of weights: 5, 10, 10.25,25, and 25kgs(=100 kg), screw point, driving rod ( 20 to 22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a The depth of penetration is measured for each loading after which the number of half-turns is counted by 100Kg.load; the penetration depth is then measured after If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

100

75 50

25

HT/20cm penetration

Fig. 1.3 Swedish weight sounding equipment, penetration diagram The correlation between density of frictional soils and consistency of cohesive soils and ht/m (half-turns per meter) are as given below. Dire Dawa university Institute of Technology

Depth

Foundation Engineering Frictional Soils Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense Cohesive Soils Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff Hard 0 ht/m 0 100 ht/m 100-200 ht/m 200 - 500 ht/m >500 ht/m <50ht/m 50 -150ht/m 150 - 300ht/m 300 - 500ht/m > 500ht/m Density (kN/m ) 11-16 14.5 - 18.5 17.5 - 21 17.5 - 22.5 21 - 24 Density (kN/m3) 16 19 17.5 21 19 22.5
3

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2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -This method is widely used in Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm , rods ( ), casing pipe ( ). The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of 10mm/sec. The pressure exerted on the rod is measured with a proving ring, manometer or a strain gauge. Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From this test point resistance and skin frictional resistance can be determined separately. The cone is 1 pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone 20cm into the soil is recorded. The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the pipe is also recorded. The readings thus taken are plotted against depth. The correlation between the cone (point) resistance and relative density of frictional soils are given in Table 1.1
st 2

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Foundation Engineering Soils Relative Density Very loose soil Loose soil Medium dense Dense Very dense Point Resistance (kN/m ) < 2500 2500 5000 5000 10,000 10,000 15,000 > 15,000
2

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Table 1.1 Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of Frictional

Cone resistance (point resistance) in kN/m2

Skin friction Point resistance

Casing (skin) resistance in kN/m

Fig. 1.4 Static cone penetration testing equipment, penetration diagram

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Depth

Foundation Engineering According to Meyerhof: N = (Ckd) where

12

(1.1)

N = Standard penetration number Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm )

2

For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from the following relationship. ES =3/2( Ckd) (1.2)

b) Dynamic Penetration Tests

1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -This is the most common of the field tests and measures the resistance of the soil to dynamic penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon sampler which is driven into the soil at the bottom of a borehole (sometimes cased). The sampler is attached to drill rods and the dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 76cm onto the top of the rods as shown in Fig.11.5. The sampler is initially driven 15cm below the bottom of the borehole. It is then further driven 30cm. The number of blows required to drive the last 30cm is termed as the standard penetration value denoted by N. The standard penetration number has been correlated to soil characteristics such as: density, angle of shearing resistance, , unconfined compressive strength, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3. Table 1.2 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Angle of Internal Friction and Relative Density of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck). N Relative Density 0-4 <28
0

4 -10 28 -30
0

10-30 30-36
0

30 - 50 35 - 40
0

> 50 >42
0

Very loose

Loose

Medium

Dense

Very dense

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Foundation Engineering and Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi and Peck). N qu(kN/m )
Consistency
2

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Table 1.3 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined Compressive Strength

0 -2 0 -25 Very soft

2-4 25 -50 Soft

4-8 50 -100 Medium

8 -15 100 -200 Stiff

15-30 200-400 Very stiff

>30 >400 Hard

RAM 63.5 kg ANVIL

MOTOR

89mm CASING
SAMPLER 2 (STANDARD)

Fig. 1.5 Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment The relationship between and Dr may be expressed approximately by the following equation (Meyerhof). =30+0.15Dr
0 0

..

(1.3)

For granular soil, containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt. =30+0.15Dr (1.4)

For granular soil, containing less than 5 percent fine sand and silt. In the equations Dr is expressed in percent.

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Foundation Engineering Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT The N. values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be corrected.

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i. When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated silts, correction is usually made for possible build up of pore water pressure. The SPT values, greater than 15 are modified as follows N = 15 + (N 15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck where N= corrected value N= actual value ii. The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden correction is applied only to cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). suggested by Gibbs and Holtz and widely used is as follows. pressure. This The correction

N =

345' N 2 2N, for o 276 kN/m ( o '+69)

2

o = effective overburden pressure in kN/m N =

35 N ' 2 2N, for o 28kN/m ( o '+7)

2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: - This is another useful test, which is normally used to determine the relative resistance offered by the different soil layers. The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed fit. The cone is driven into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed. The number of blows required to penetrate 30 cms depth is called as Nc value. In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is used. Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the rod increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The maximum depth suggested for this test is about 6 m. If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure forced through the pipe and the cone as shown in Fig 11.6. The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above along the drill rod eliminating thereby the frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The former method is called as dry method and the latter wet method.

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15

rod Bore-hole
0

60

Fig. 1.6 Dynamic cone penetration testing equipment. To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general practice is to convert Nc to N values of SPT Nc = N/C where N = blow count for SPT Nc = blow count for dynamic cone C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used. Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesionless soils like SPT (1.5)

1.4.2 Vane Shear Test

This test is useful in determining the in-place shear strength of very soft and sensitive clays, which lose a large part of their strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling operation. The strength parameter obtained is consolidated- undrained shear strength, Cu. In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane shear test is planned to be performed and the vane is carefully pushed into the soil. A torque necessary to shear the cylinder of soil defined by the blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm of the

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apparatus with a constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The maximum torque is then measured

From the measured maximum torque one may estimate the shearing resistance of the tested clay from the following formula

T 2 H D3 D + 2 12
T = Torque

(1.6)

where

D = Diameter of Vane H = Height Since for quick condition = Cu, one ultimately arrived the in-situ value of cohesion

Fig.1.7 Vane shear test

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1.4.3 Plate Loading Test

In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the soil through a steel plate, and readings of the settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a relationship between bearing pressure and settlement for the soil can be obtained. Fig. 1.8 shows the arrangement and typical load settlement curve for a plate load test. The test procedure used for performing the test is as follows: 1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate. 2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the case of cohesionless soil (to prevent early displacement of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be positioned in cast in-situ concrete. 3. Loading platform should be properly erected. 4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant). 5. Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to draw the expansion curve). Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from settlement consideration. If the maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate of width Bp under the same intensity of loading is given by

S=

Sp ( 2 Bf ) 2 (B f + B p ) 2

(1.7)

Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the footing could be read from the load settlement curve. The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation. However from plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be determined using the following expression S = Sp

Bt Bp

(1.8)

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Dead Weight

Load Loaded platform Pressure gauge Hydraulic jack Short block Settlement dial gauge

Bp Bearing pressure (kPa) Settlement, Sp (cm) Fig. 1.8 Plate loading test, test result Limitation of Plate Loading Test Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not fully occur during the test. For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially saturated or rather unsaturated clayey soils. Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not homogeneous within the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation. Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least to depth of 1 to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation

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Pressure bulb

Firm soil Soft soil

Fig. 1.9 Pressure bulbs for the plate and the actual foundation.

1.4.4 Pile Loading Test

This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The load arrangement and testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test. From the results of this test the allowable bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a group of friction piles can be estimated.

1.5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited to establishing location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or locating gravel or sand deposits (by resistivity method). The seismic method is based on the fact that sound waves travel faster through rocks than through soils. The resistivity method makes use of the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel). These methods are normally employed as preliminary or supplementary to other methods of exploration.

1.6 LABORATORY TESTS

Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of soils, stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical characteristics of soils. Results of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole records and results of field test. The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are Grain size analysis

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Foundation Engineering Atterberg limits Natural moisture content Unit weight Unconfined compression test Direct shear test Triaxial compression test Consolidation test Compaction test Chemical analysis

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1.7 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT

Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because of this its location should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy. Water table level can be determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a borehole. Water levels in bore holes may take a considerable time to stabilize, this time, known as the response time, depending on the permeability of the soil. Measurements, therefore, should be taken at regular intervals until the water level becomes constant. The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole. The depth can also be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open ends of the leads touch the water in the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated by glow of the indicator lamp.

1.8 DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS. 1.8.1 Depth of Boring

The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by the depth of soil affected by foundation bearing pressures. According to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes for various foundation conditions may be used.

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i. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be used. pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used. iv. For group of piled foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times width of pile group, the depth being measured from a depth of two- thirds of the length of the piles. v. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3.0m inside bedrock. According to Teng, for high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but should be extended below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts.

iii. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones of

1.8.2 Number of Borings

Boring is an expensive undertaking. One should therefore minimize the number of borings for a construction in a given site. From experience Teng has suggested the following guideline for preliminary exploration.
Distance between boring (m) Project Multi-story building One or two story building Bridge piers, abutments, television towers, etc Horizontal stratification of soil Uniform 45 60 Average 30 30 30 Erratic 15 15 75 Minimum number of boring for each structure 4 3 1-2 for each foundation unit

Highways

300

150

30

1.9 DATA PRESENTATION

The results of borings, samplings, penetration tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually plotted graphically on a sheet of drawing paper. The graphical presentation should include.

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a. A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes, test pits, etc and their identification b. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as established from the drillings or test pits records. c. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface, showing the boundaries between identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer, thickness of soft clay layers etc. d. The penetration number, the unconfined compression strength, Atterberg limits, natural moisture content, and other appropriate laboratory data may be shown on each boring on the soil profile. e. The location of ground water table should also be shown on the soil profile.

1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test pits, field and laboratory tests and site observation. Most reports have the following contents. 1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out. 2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the site. 3. General geology of the area. 4. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits) 5. Laboratory test results. 6. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions. 7. Conclusion: recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable bearing pressure and methods of construction.

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2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR

SELECTIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the ground is called foundation. The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to increase the lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below ground level and other artificial arrangements in the form of concrete block, grillage, raft, piles etc. at its base so as to provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a large area of the soil lying underneath.

2.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations are used for the following purposes. i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath. ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement. iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material. iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations. v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

2.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS.

Foundations can be broadly classified into the following two categories o Shallow foundations o Deep foundations

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2.3.1 Shallow Foundations

The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the ground level are known as shallow foundations. The purpose of this type of foundations is to distribute the structural loads over a considerable base area at the foundation bed. Since spread foundations (shallow foundations) are constructed in open excavations, therefore, they are termed as open foundations Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: a. Spread or Isolated footings b. Combined footing c. Cantilever footing d. Continuous or wall footing e. Raft foundation

Spread or Isolated Footings:- They are used to support individual column.

Isolated footings are stepped type, simple type or slope type, having projections in the base concrete. To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also provided at the base. The reinforcement provided is in the form of steel bars and is placed in both directions.

C b

D b

A Plan a Plan Column Footing D b

Section A-A

C a Plan

D a

Column Footing

Column Footing Pedestal D b b

Section D-D

Section C-C

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Foundation Engineering Single spread footing Stepped spread footing Sloped spread footing Fig. 3. 1 Spread or isolated footings

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Combined Footing:- A combined footing supports two or sometimes three column in a

row. Combined footing is used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or other considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations. The combined footing can be rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can be trapezoidal if there is a space limitation and they carry unequal loads. Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.

A A b a Plan Columns Footing D a D a b1 a Plan Columns Footing C C b2

Section A.A Combined footing (rectangular)

Section C.C Combined footing (trapezoidal)

Fig. 3. 2 Combined footing

Cantilever or Strap Footing: - Cantilever footing consists of two individual footings

connected by a beam called a strap. It is also sometimes called as strap footing. Cantilever footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a trapezoidal

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combined footing becomes quite narrow, with resulting high bending moments. The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil so a strap doesnt transfer any pressure to the soil.

A
a2

A
a1

b1

b2
Strap beam D2

D1

b1

Section A-A

b2

concrete slab is provided as foundation of wall and three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the structure. Columns

Wall Dire Dawa university Institute of Technology

Property line

Fig. 3. 3 Cantilever or strap footing

Continuous or Wall Footing:- In this type of footing a single continuous reinforced

A C
Wall

b
Plan

Plan

Foundation Engineering Footing Footing Column

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D
b Section A.A Wall on footing b Section C-C Columns on footing Fig. 3. 4 Continuous or wall footing

Raft Foundation:- A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area, and it may prove more economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where the soil mass contains compressible layers so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control the raft tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement.

Flat plate mat foundation

Two-way beam and slab (Ribbed mat) Fig. 3. 5 Raft footing

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2.3.2 Deep Foundations.

When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to carry the load even by a raft foundation, then eventually shallow foundation has to be ruled out, and a deep foundation, taken to an available firm stratum, is adopted. Deep foundation may be in the form of Piles or Well (i.e., Caissons). A pile is relatively a small diameter shaft, which is used to transmit the loads to deeper soil layers capable of supporting the loads. A well on the other hand is a large diameter circular body, usually, sunk into the ground, by removing the ground soil and it is usually adopted for structures across rivers streams, where heavy scouring is involved, such as for supporting the piers of a road or a railway bridge, or some monumental building.

2.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN 2.4.1 General

The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is 1. To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, loadbearing walls with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and torques coming into the foundation units. 2. To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata below the ground level, as given by the soil investigation report. 3. To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth based on soil strength or structural requirement considerations. 4. To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and allowable bearing pressure. 5. To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure. If these are excessive the bearing pressure will have to be reduced or the foundation taken to a deeper and less compressible stratum or the structure will have to be founded on piles or other special measures taken

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2.4.2 Loads on Foundation

An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it can be properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following loads. a) Dead load: - Weight of structure - All material permanently attached to structure - Static earth pressure acting permanently against the structure below ground surface. - Water pressures acting laterally against basement walls and vertically against slab. b) Live load: - temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its useful life. c) Wind load: - lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building codes provide magnitude of design wind pressure. d) Earth-quake load: - lateral load coming from earthquake motion. The building code. e) Dynamic load: - load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case, separate foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be considered in design. total lateral force (base shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with local

2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered a. Function of the structure b. Loads it must carry c. Subsurface conditions d. Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure. Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at a decision.

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Foundation Engineering and the loads to be transmitted to the foundation ii. Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.

30

i. Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the superstructure

iii. Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or not a. b. c. They could be constructed under existing conditions. They are capable of carrying the required load. They experience serious differential settlements.

The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated. iv. Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may require additional information on loads and subsurface conditions. Determine the approximate size of footing or the approximate length and number of piles required v. Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation. vi. Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between performance and cost.

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31

3. Design of shallow Foundations

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the common types of shallow foundations. The main foundation types that are considered here are: isolated or spread footings, combined footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations. Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer safely to the ground the dead load of the superstructure and all external forces acting upon it. The type and magnitude of the loading will usually be furnished by the engineer design the superstructure. It is up to the foundation engineer to collect all the information regarding the purpose of the superstructure, the material that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity to settlements in general and to differential settlement in particular and all other pertinent information that may influence the successful selection and execution of the foundation design. The foundation engineer should also select the soil stratum that most suitable for the support of the superstructure. The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so that the variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear. The distribution of pressure will be uniform if the centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied loads. The requirements in design of foundations are: 1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil. 2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further there should be no differential settlement. In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the presumptive allowable soil pressure as dictated by prevalent code or know the appropriate strength parameters of the soil, i.e., the angle of internal friction, , and cohesion, C.

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3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive allowable soil pressure.

Through many years of practice, it has been possible to estimate the allowable soil pressure for different types of soils for uncomplicated soil conditions. Accordingly different Building codes give allowable average soil pressure. Here EBCS 7 is presented. Table 3,1 Presumed Design Bearing resistance * under static loading( EBCS 7) Supporting Ground Type Massively crystalline igneous and metamorphic basalt, gneiss) Foliated metamorphic rock (slate, Medium schist) and sound hard 2800 1400 These values are based on the Weathered or broken-rock (soft Soft limestone) Soft shale Soft 850 assumptions that are down Decomposed rock to be rock the carried to foundations rock ( Description Compactness** or Consistency*** Hard and 5600 hard 2800 Presumed Design Bearing Resistance (kPa) granite, sound Remarks

Sedimentary rock (hard shale, Medium Rocks siltstone, sandstone, limestone) and sound

unweathered assessed as soil below.

Noncohesive

Gravel, sand and gravel

Dense Medium dense

560 420

Width foundation

of

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Foundation Engineering soils Loose 280

33

(B) not less than 1m

Sand

Dense Medium dense Loose

420 280 140 Ground water level assumed to be depth not less than B below the base of the foundation.

Cohesive soils

Silt

Hard Stiff Medium stiff Soft

280 200 140 70 420 280 140 70 Not applicable

Clay

Hard Stiff Medium stiff Soft Very soft

* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the depth of embedment of the foundation. ** Compactness: dense: N> 30 medium dense: N is 10 to 30 loose: N< 10, where N is standard penetration value *** Consistency: hard: qu > 400kPa stiff: qu = 100 to 200kPa

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Foundation Engineering medium stiff qu = 50 to 100kPa

34

soft: qu = 25 to 50 kPa, where qu is unconfined compressive strength

3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength parameters and C.
For cases where presumptive allowable soil pressures can not be used, one should determine the soil strength parameters and C. These parameters may be approximated or determined from laboratory tests. Using the value of and C thus obtained, one can easily determine the area of the foundation in question using bearing capacity equations. In applying the bearing capacity equations one should differentiate two states of loading, namely, the initial or instantaneous loading condition and the final or long- term loading condition. In the initial loading condition, the load is assumed to act instantaneously. At this stage the pore water pressure in the soil does not have time to dissipate. This situation corresponds to the quick or undrained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters are designated by u and Cu - in most cases u = 0. In the final or long-term loading condition, the load is assumed to act gradually as construction progresses thus giving the pore water pressure in the soil ample time to dissipate. Here the situation corresponds to the slow or drained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters in this case are designated by and C. The ultimate load that may be applied on a foundation with sides a and b may be determined from the following equation

Vult = A*ult ----------------------------------------------------------Where A = a b= effective area (Fig. 3.1) a = a-2ea = effective length b = b-2eb= effective width

(3.1)

ult = ultimate bearing capacity of the footing

ea and eb = Eccentricities in the long and short directions, respectively.

The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the ultimate load

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35 (3.2)

Vult =Fs* P ------------------------------------------------------------------------------Where Fs = factor of safety P = actual sustained load on the foundation

b b a a

.
eb

ea

Fig 3.1 Effective width and length of a foundation One may then express Eqn. (3.1) as

Fs *P = A ult -------------------------------------------------------------------From which it follows

(3.3)

A =

Fs * P

ult

----------------------------------------------------------------------

(3.4)

From Eqn. (3.4) one easily determines the required area since all the quantities on the right hand side of the equation are known. The ultimate bearing capacity, qult, may be determined from the following equation

ult
Where

= CNc Scdcic+ b

N Sd i + q Nq Sqdqiq

---------------------

(3.5)

qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing, C = Cohesion,

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Foundation Engineering q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.

36

= effective unit weight of soil

Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors Sc, Sq ,S = Shape factors dc ,dq, d = Depth factors ic, iq, i , = Inclination factors For initial loading conditions, where u = 0, the failure surface of the soil consist of straight lines and an arc of a circle. The bearing capacity coefficient would have the values Nc =5.14, Nq= 1.0, N = 0. Eqn. (3.5) may be written as

ult

= 5.14CuSc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq ---------------------------------

(3.6)

3.1.3 Structural Considerations.

Before going into the structural design, one should check if the settlement of the selected foundation is within the prescribed safe limits. If the settlement exceeds the safe limits, one should increase the dimensions of the foundations until the danger of settlement is eliminated. The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design. One should check the adequacy of the thickness of the footing and provide the necessary reinforcement to withstand punching shear, diagonal tension (wide beam shear), bending moment and bond stress.

Shear resistance according to EBCS-2

i. Punching Shear Resistance

Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2 u d where k1 = ( 1+50e) 2.0

(MN)

K2 = 1.6 d 1.0 ( d in meters)

For members where more than 50% of the bottom reinforcement is c urtailed , k2= 1

d=

dx + dy 2

e =

ex + . ey 0.015

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Foundation Engineering d is the average effective hight in the x and y directions ii. Diagonal Tension (Wide beam) shear resistance

37

Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd where k1 = ( 1+50) 2.0

(MN)

K2 = 1.6 d 1.0 ( d in meters)

For members where more than 50 % of the bottom reinforcement is c urtailed , k2= 1

As bw d

iii. Development length

ld =

f yd
4 f bd
s

(cm)

f f yd = yk
f ctd =

; fbd = f ctd

0.35 f ck c

Where As= area of tension reinforcement (m2) bw= width of web or rib of a member(m) d = the distance from extreme compression to centroid of tension reinforcement (m) fbd= design bond strength (MPa) fck = characteristics compressive strength of concrete (MPa) fctd = design tensile strength of concrete (MPa) fyd = design yield strength of reinforcement (MPa) fyk = characteristics yield strength of concrete (MPa) u = periphery of critical section (m)

c = partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5 s = partial safety factor for steel = 1.15 = geometrical ratio of reinforcement e =effective geometrical ratio of reinforcement

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ex = geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the x-direction ey= geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the y-direction =diameter of reinforcement bar (m)

3.2 Isolated or Spread Footings I. Depth of footing

The depth of embedment must be at least large enough to accommodate the required footing thickness. This depth is measured from the lowest adjacent ground surface to the bottom of the footing. Footings should be carried below a) zone of high volume change due to moisture fluctuation b) top (organic) soil c) peat and muck d) unconsolidated (or fill) material According to EBCS-7 minimum depth of footing should be 50cm for footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing should be 60cm and 90cm below ground surface on rocky and soil formations, respectively. Footing at different elevations: - When adjacent footings are to be placed at different levels, the distance between the edges of footings shall be such as to prevent undesirable overlapping of stresses in soils and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing due to excavation for the lower footing. A minimum clear distance of half the width of the footing is recommended.

II. Proportioning of footing

The required area of the footing and subsequently the proportions will be determined using presumptive allowable soil pressure and/or the soil strength parameters discussed previously. and C as

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III. Structural Design

i) Punching shear:- This factor generally controls the depth of footings. It is the normal practice to provide adequate depth to sustain the shear stress developed without reinforcement. The critical section that is to be considered is indicated in Fig. 3.2

A a a +3d a

b +3d b

Critical section

P 1.5d
Critical section

1.5d

d
Average soil pressure,

b Section A-A Fig. 3.2 Critical section for punching shear

From the figure it is apparent the concrete shear resistance along the perimeter according to EBCS2 would be

2( a +3d + b+ 3d) dVup

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(3.7)

Foundation Engineering Where Vup = punching shear resistance The net force on the perimeter due to the soil pressure would be

40

{a b [(a'+3d )(b'+3d )]} ult

From equilibrium consideration, Eqn. (3.7) and Eqn. (3.8) should be equal

(3.8)

2( a +3d + b+ 3d) dVup = {a b

[(a ' + 3 d )(b '+ 3 d )]} ult

2a' dVup + 6d 2Vup + 2b' dVup + 6d 2Vup = ab a' b'3a' d 3b' d 9d 2 ult
2a' dVup + 6d 2Vup + 2b' dVup + 6d 2Vup + 3a' dult + 3b' dult + 9d 2ult = (ab a' b')ult

2a' dVup + 2b' dVup +12d 2Vup + 9d 2 ult + 3a' d ult + 3b' d ult = (ab a' b') ult d (2a'Vup + 2b'Vup + 3a' ult + 3b' ult ) + d 2 (12Vup + 9 ult ) = (ab a' b') ult

d 2 (12Vup + 9 ul t ) + d (2Vup (a'+b' ) + 3 ult (a'+b' )) = (ab a' b') ult

d 2 (12Vup + 9 ul t ) + d (2Vup + 3 ult )(a'+b' )) = (ab a' b') ult

d 2 (12Vup + 9 ult ) + d (2Vup + 3 ult )(a'+b' ) = (Afooting Acolumn) ult
For square columns a = b and round colmns with diameter a, Eqn. (3.9) would be (3.9)

d 2 (12Vup + 9 ult ) + d (2Vup + 3 ult )(2a' ) = (Afooting Acolumn ) ult

(3.10)

In the above equations, all quantities with the exception of d are known. By soltving one of the equations the effective depth necessary to sustain the punching shear may be determined.

ii)

Diagonal Tension (wide beam shear)

The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be adequate to withstand the diagonal tension developed. Hence one should also check the safety against diagonal tension. The critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 3.3 .

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Foundation Engineering b C D B a d a d b D B

41

Critical section

Critical section

d
Average soil pressure,

b Section B-B Fig. 3.3 Critical section for diagonal tension The shear forces are calculated along the plane C-C and D-D

V C-C = (b/2 d - b/2) ault V D-D = (a/2 d - a/2) bult ..

The actual shear stress is then calculated from v C-C =

(3.11) (3.12)

VC C ad VD D v D-D = . bd

(3.13)

(3.14)

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Foundation Engineering These calculated actual shear stresses should be compared with diagonal shear resistance.

42

iii) Bending Moment

The external moment on any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a vertical plane through the footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical plane. The critical sections for the bending moment vary according to the type of columns. According to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section for moment shall be taken as follows: a) At the face of column, pedestal or wall for footings supporting a concrete pedestal or wall b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings supporting a masonry wall c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base for footings supporting a column with base plates.

Critical sections varies according to the type of column as given in a,b and c

b Concrete Column Column Critical section

a)

D
b

d ld
Available embedment length

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Masonry column

Critical section

b)

D
X x/2 b

d ld
Available embedment length Steel column X x/2 Critical section

Base plate

c)

D ld
b

Available embedment length Fig. 3.4 Critical sections for moments

Flexural Reinforcement
1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing. 2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as follows: a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing

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b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement given by Eqn.(3.15) shall be distributed uniformly over a band width ( centered on center line of column or pedestal) equal to the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of the reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly out side the center band width of the footing.

Re inf orcement in band width 2 = Total re inf orcement in short direction + 1

Where is the ratio of long side to short side of footing (a/b).

(3.15)

IV. Development length

The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient distance into the concrete to develop proper anchorage. This distance is called the development length. The necessary development length may be calculated using the following equation.

ld =

f yd
4 f bd

Minimum Footing cover (According to EBCS2-1995) The thickness of footing above bottom reinforcement shall not be less than 150mm for footing on soil, nor 300mm for footing on piles. Concrete cover to reinforcement (According to EBCS2-1995) Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater than 75mm Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover should be greater than 40mm. Spacing of reinforcement The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the largest of the following values: (EBCS2-1995) a) b) c) 20mm the diameter of the largest bar the maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm

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Foundation Engineering The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm

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Examples
3.1 Determine the dimensions of a square footing necessary to sustain an axial column load of 850kN as shown in Fig. below, if a) an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of 150kN/m2 is used. b) Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C = 7.5 kN/m2 ; =22.50

P=850kN

= 19.1kN/m3
2m GWL B

Solution
a) Using presumptive value

A=

as

850 = 5.67m 2 = B 2 150

The dimension of the footing would be 2.40m X 2.40m b) Using the bearing capacity formula i) Initial loading condition

= 5.1Cu Sc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq

Shape factors Sc = 1.2 , Sq = 1

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Depth factors dc = (1+0.4(2/B)) , dq = 1 Load inclination factors ic = 1 Hence , iq = 1

ult = 5.1*40 *1.2*(1+0.8/B)*1+ 19.1*2*1**1*1 = (244.8+195.84/B +38.2)

A ult = P Fs

A=

P * Fs

ult

850 * 2 = B2 253 + 195.84 / B

253 B2 +195.84B 1700 = 0

The dimension of the footing would be 2.25m X 2.25m

ii) Final or long term loading condition

ult

= CNc Scdcic+ B N Sd i + q Nq Sqdqiq

Bearing capacity factors

Nc= 17.45, N = 6.82, Nq = 8.23

Shape factors Sc = 1+(Nq/ Nc)=1.47, S = 0.6 , Depth factors dc = 1+ 0.4 (2 / B)=1+0.8/B, d = 1, dq = 1+2 tan 22.5(1-sin22.5)2(Df / B) =1+0.63/B Load inclination factors ic = 1, i= 1 , iq = 1 Hence Sq = 1+ tan = 1.41

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ult = 7.5*17.45*1.47*(1+0.8/B)*1+ B *9.1* 6.82* 0.6*1*1 + 19.1*2*8.23* 1.41*(1+0.63/B)*1 = 192.39 +153.91/B +18.62B +443.28 + 279.27/B

A* ult = P* Fs B =
2

P * Fs

ult

850 * 2 635.67 + 433.18 + 18.62 B B

18.62*B3 + 635.67*B2 + 433.18*B = 1700

From the above the dimension of the footing would be 1.35m X1.35m 3.2 Given R.C. column size 30X50 cm with 422. P = 1500kN M = 375 kN-m Ultimate soil bearing pressure = 400kPa fyk = 300MPa fyd = 300/1.15 = 260.87 MPa C25 fck= 20MPafctk = 1.5 MPa, Required:- Design of rectangular R.C. footing P M

l2 b 30 50 l1

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Solution Size of footing

Let l1 = l2 Then

a 50 b 30 = a b = 50 30 = 20cm = 0.2m 2 2
M 375 = = 0.25m P 1500

Eccentricity, ea =

Contact pressure

P M

min
max =
P 6 e a P 6e a 1 + 1 + = A a ab a 1500 6 * 0.25 1 + 400 = (0.2 + b )b (0.2 + b ) 400(0.20b + b 2 ) = 1500 + 2550 (0.2 + b )

max

400b 3 + 160b 2 1484b 2550 = 0

by trial and error b= 2.345 m

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Foundation Engineering Take b= 2.4m Then a = b+0.20m = 2.60m

49

Actual contact pressure

max = min =

1500 6 * 0.25 1 + = 379.07 kN / m 2 < ult (2.6)2.4 (2.6) 1500 6 * 0.25 1 = 101.70kN / m 2 > 0 (2.6)(2.4) (2.6)

ok ok

Thickness of the footing i, Punching shear

The Punching shear resistance according to EBCS-2 is given by

Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2ud (MN) Take d= 0.40m and = min = 0.5/fyk = 0.5 /300 = 0.0017 k1 = ( 1+50) = (1 +50*0.0017) =1.085 k2 = 1.6 d =1.6 -0.4 = 1.2
u = 2(3d +b) +2(3d+a) = 12d +2b + 2a = 12*0.4 +2*0.5 +2*0.3 =6.4 Then

Vup = 0.25*1*1.085 *1.2 *6.4*0.4=0.83328MN = 833.28kN

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Foundation Engineering P M 2.15 0.45m 1.5d 1.5d 0.45m

50

101.70kN/m2

379.07kN/m2
1

0.45 * (379.07 101.70) = 149.71kN / m 2 2.60 2.15 * (379.07 101.7) 2 = 101.7 + = 331.06kN / m 2 2.60 +2 331.06 + 149.71 = 1 * 1.7 = * 1.7 = 408.65kN / m 2 2 V = 408.65 * 1.5 = 612.98kN

1 = 101.7 +

Net shear force developed = 1500 612.98 = 887.02 kN > Vup not ok ! Since the developed shear force is greater than the punching shear resistance, one may increase the depth.

Take d= 0.45m and = min = 0.5/fyk = 0.5 /300 = 0.0017 k1 = ( 1+50) = (1 +50*0.0017) =1.085 k2 = 1.6 d =1.6 -0.45 = 1.15
u = 2(3d +b) +2(3d+a) = 12d +2b + 2a = 12*0.45 +2*0.5 +2*0.3 =7 Then

Vup = 0.25*1*1.085 *1.15 *7*0.45=0.98260MN = 982.60kN

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Foundation Engineering P M 2.225 0.375m 1.5d 1.5d 0.375m

51

101.70kN/m2
1 2

379.07kN/m2

0.375 * (379.07 101.70) 1 = 101.7 + = 141.71kN / m 2 2.60 2.225 * (379.07 101.7) 2 = 101.7 + = 339.07 kN / m 2 2.60 +2 339.07 + 141.71 = 1 *1.85 = * 1.85 = 444.72kN / m 2 2 V = 444.72 * 1.65 = 733.79kN
Net shear force developed = 1500 733.79 = 766.21 kN < Vup ok !

The depth satisfies the punching shear requirement for the assumed min.

ii, Wide beam shear

P M 1.05m 1.55m d

101.7kN/m2

379.07kN/m2

1
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Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column,

= 101.7 +
1 =

(379.07 101.7 )(1.55 + 0.45) = 315.06kN / m

2.60

max + 379.07 + 315.06 (1.05 d ) = 0.6 = 208.24kN / m 2 2

Vd = 208.24 *2.4 =499.78kN

Developed wide beam shear The wide beam shear resistance according to EBCS-2 is given by Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)

= 0.25*1*1.085*1.15*2.4*0.45 =0.33689MN =336.89kN < Vd not ok !

Since the developed shear force is greater than the wide beam shear resistance, one may increase the depth Take d = 0.60m Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column,

= 101.7 +

(379.07 101.7 )(1.55 + 0.60

2.60

= 331.06kN / m 2
1 =
max + 379.07 + 331.06 (1.05 d ) = 0.45 2 2

= 159.78kN / m
Developed wide beam shear Vd = 159.78 *2.4 =383.47kN Wide beam shear resistance Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd

(MN) = 0.25*1*1.085*1*2.4*0.60 =0.3906MN =390.60kN > Vd ok !

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Bending Moment

M 1.35m 1.05m

101.70kN/m2

379.07kN/m2

= 101.70 +

1.55 * (379.07 101.7) = 267.06 N / m 2 2.60

1 2 2 = (1.05)(267.06) = 280.41kN / m

1 = (1.05)(379.07 267.06) = 58.81kN / m

1.05 2 M = 1 (1.05) + 2 ( ) b 2 3 2 1.05 M = (58.81) (1.05) + (280.41)( ) 1 = 188.38kN m / m 3 2

Moment capacity of concrete

M = 0.32 f cd bd 2 = 0.32 11.33 10 3 1.0 (0.6 ) = 1305 .22kN m / m

2

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Calculation of reinforcement Long direction

2M 1 1 f cd bd 2 11 .33 2 188 .38 = = 0 .0021 > min 1 1 2 260 .87 11 .33 10 3 1 .0 (0 .6 ) As = bd = 0 .0021 100 60 = 12 .6 cm 2 / m

f cd f yd

use 16
spacing = as 100 2.01 100 = = 16cm As 12.6

Use 16c/c16cm

Short direction

1.15m 0.85m

Average contact pressure,

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55

avg =
avg =

max + min
2

379.07 + 101.7 = 240.39kN / m 2 2

1 . 05 M = 1 ( 2

) a 1 . 05 M = 240 . 39 ( 2

) 1 = 126 . 21 kN m / m

2M 1 1 f cd bd 2 11.33 2 126.21 = = 0.0014 < min 1 1 2 260.87 11.33 10 3 1.0 (0.584) As = min bd = 0.0017 100 58.4 = 9.928cm 2 / m f = cd f yd

spacing =
Use 16c/c20cm

as 100 2.01 100 = = 20.2cm As 9.98

Since there is no much difference between a and b, distribute these reinforcement uniformly.

Development length

ld =
f yd = f yk

f yd
4 f bd

s = 260.87 MPa

; f bd = f ctd
0 . 35 20 = 1MPa 1 .5

f ctd =

0 . 35

f ck

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ld =

f yd
4 f bd

1.6 260.87 = 104.35cm 4 1

ldavailable = 100cm < ld , bend the bars upward with a minimum length of 10cm

3.3

Combined Footing
a) Area of use :- Used to carry two or more columns in one row -used to carry two columns when X = L/2, X= distance to center of gravity of column load

A) Rectangular Combined footing

X B c.g L L

b) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid Linear soil pressure distribution under footing c) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing with effective widths at exterior and interior columns being a +d/2 and a +d respectively

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a+d/2 L

a+d

d) Design procedure i) determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity(c.g.)of footing area coincides that of the c.g. of loads i.e., L = 2x ii) determine the width of footing(B) such that the allowable soil pressure is not exceeded i.e.,

B=

P L all

iii) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footing iv) calculate depth of footing v) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

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B) Trapezoidal combined footing

Area of use:- used in case where exterior column carries largest load and X < L/2 but X X > L/3

B1

c.g

B2

L L

a) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid Linear soil pressure distribution under footing b) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing similar to that of rectangular combined footing. c) Design procedure 1) determine the sizes of footing (L,B1,B2) from conditions that i) the minimum required are

A=

all

B + B2 A= 1 L 2
ii) the c.g. of footing are coincides that of column loads. The distance to the c.g. of trapezoidal footing x is calculated from

X '=

L 2 B2 + B1 3 B2 + B1

2) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footing. In this case, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are 2nd degree and 3rd degree curves, respectively.

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3.4 Strap or Cantilever Footings

Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined footings when the cost of combined footings is relatively high. Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam connecting two pads (footings) to transmit unbalanced shear and moment from the statically unbalanced footing to the second fotting. Design Assumptions strap is infinitely rigid strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To confirm with this, strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil under strap is loosened).

a1

Strap

a2

b1 a P1

b a XC WS XS

b2

P2

a1

a2

a1
a/2 e a/2 R1

a2
XR R2

1. a) Assume a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction force R1.

e=

a1 a ' 2

e = XC X R
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b) Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking moments about R2.

R1 = P1

Xc X + Ws s XR XR

In this equation the weight of the strap, Ws, may be neglected if the strap is relatively short. c) Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration

R2 = P + P2 + Ws R1 1
2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and all.

b1 = b2 =

R1 a1 * a1 R2 a 2 * a2

(For square footing

b2 = a2 =

a2

R2

. For rectangular footing assume some value

of a2 and determine b2). It should be noted that the actual bearing pressures under the footings should not very different from each other in order to minimize differential settlement. 3. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the footings. 4. Select depths of footings for shear requirement. 5. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement. 6. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject to uniform soil pressure. 7. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment obtained above.

3.5

Mat/Raft Foundation

Mat or raft foundation is a large concrete slab supporting several columns in two or more rows. It is used where the supporting soil has low bearing capacity. The bearing capacity increased by combining all individual footings in to one mat since bearing capacity is proportional to width and depth of foundations. In addition to increasing the bearing

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settlement does not approach the extreme values of isolated footings. Thus mat foundations are often used for supporting structures that are sensitive to differential settlement.

Design of uniform mat

Design Assumptions mat is infinitely rigid planner soil pressure distribution under mat

Design Procedure
i) ii) Determine the line of action of the resultant of all the loads acting on the mat Determine the contact pressure distribution as under a) If the resultant passes through the center of gravity of the mat, the contact pressure is given by

Q A

b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and ey in the x and y direction

Qe y Q Qex x y A Iyy Ixx

The maximum contact pressure should be less than the allowable soil pressure c) Divide the slab mat into strips in x and y directions. Each strip is assumed to act as independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and the columns loads. d) Determine the modified column loads e) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for each strip. f) Select depth of mat for shear requirement g) Select steel reinforcement for moment requirement

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ey X

4. Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining walls

Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability of earth or other material where conditions disallow the mass to assume its natural slope. Common Types of retaining walls 1. Gravity walls:- made of plain concrete or stone masonry - depends upon its weight for stability - trapezoidal in section with the base projecting beyond the face and back of the wall. - no tensile stress in any portion of the wall - economically used for walls less than 6m high

2.

Cantilever walls - made of reinforced concrete material - inverted T-shaped in section with each projecting acts as a cantilever

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Vertical stem Toe Heal

3. Counterfort walls - made of reinforced concrete materials - consists of cantilever wall with vertical brackets known as counterfort placed behind face of wall - ordinarily used for walls height greater than 6.0m

Counterfort

4. Buttress walls same as counterfort except that the vertical brackets are on the opposite side of the backfill

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Vertical stem Toe Heal

Common Proportions of Retaining walls

The usual practice in the design of retaining walls is to assign tentative dimensions and then check for the overall stability of the structure. In figures shown below the common proportions based on experience are indicated for the three types of retaining walls.

i) Gravity Wall

30cm to H/2 1 50 lt = Df/2 to Df lh = 10 to 15cm H

Df = H/8 to H/6 B = H/2 to H

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Min. 30cm

1 50 lt = B/3 Df = H/12 to H/10 B = 0.4 to 0.7H bs = H/12 to H/10 H

i) Counterfort wall

Min. 30cm

1 H 50

Df = H/14 to H/12 H/14 to H/12

Min. 30cm H/14 to H/12

B = 0.4 to 0.7H Forces on Retaining Walls The forces that should be considered in the design of retaining walls include i) ii) Active and passive earth pressures Dead weight including the weight of the wall and portion of soil mass that is considered to act on the retaining structure

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PA

WC

WS Fr

qt Rs Fr = Rstan + CB ,

qh

Rs = WC +Ws +PA sin

= to (of foundation soil) , C= C to C (of foundation soil)

Stability of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls should be designed to provide adequate stability against sliding, overturning, foundation bearing failure and overall or deep foundation failure. 1. Sliding stability Factor of safety =

Horizontal resisting force FR = Horizontasliding force PAh

Factor of safety 1.5 for granular soils Factor of safety 2.0 for cohesive soils

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Sum of moments to resist overturning M s = Sum of overturning moments Mo

R

PAv

PA

PAh h1

b1

Ms = Wb1, Mo = PAhh1-PAvB Factor of safety 1.5 for granular backfill Factor of safety 2.0 for cohesive backfill If the line of action of the resultant force on wall acts within the middle third width of the base, wall is safe against overturning 3. Foundation stability R

W
Y Rv Rh qt B qh PA

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qt

qh

Rv 6e 1 B B

Where e= eccentricity of Rv qt qall , qall = qult/F.S F. S = Factor of safety = 2 and 3 for granular and cohesive soils, respectively. 4. Deep foundation failure ( Overall stability) If layer of weak soil is located within a depth of about 1 times the height of the retaining wall the overall stability of retaining wall should be investigated. E.g. using Swedish circle method

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