Mobile Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

Frequencies q Signals q Antennas q Signal propagation

q

Multiplexing q Spread spectrum q Modulation q Cellular systems

q

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.1

Frequencies for communication

twisted pair coax cable optical transmission

1 Mm 300 Hz

10 km 30 kHz

100 m 3 MHz

1m 300 MHz

10 mm 30 GHz

100 m 3 THz

1 m 300 THz

VLF

LF

MF

HF

VHF

UHF

SHF

EHF

infrared

visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency LF = Low Frequency MF = Medium Frequency HF = High Frequency VHF = Very High Frequency

UHF = Ultra High Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light

Frequency and wave length:

= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS05 2.2

Frequencies for mobile communication

q q

VLF, LF, MF HF not used for wireless VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
q q

simple, small antenna for cars deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

q q

small antenna, beam forming large bandwidth available some systems planned up to EHF limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance frequencies)
l

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range

q q

weather dependent fading. E.g signal loss caused by heavy rain

MC SS05 2.3

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Europe Cellular Phones GSM 450 -457, 479486/460-467,489 496, 890 -915/935 960, 1710-1785/18051880 UMTS (FDD) 19201980, 2110-2190 UMTS (TDD) 19001920, 2020-2025 CT1+ 885-887, 930932 CT2 864 -868 DECT 1880-1900 IEEE 802.11 2400-2483 HIPERLAN 2 5150-5350, 5470 5725 R F-Control 27, 128, 418, 433, 868 USA AMPS, TDMA, C D M A 824-849, 869-894 TDMA, C D M A, GSM 1850-1910, 1930-1990 Japan PDC 810 -826, 940 -956, 1429-1465, 1477-1513

Cordless Phones

PACS 1850-1910, 19301990 PACS-U B 1910-1930

PHS 1895-1918 JCT 254 -380

Wireless LANs

902-928 IEEE 802.11 2400-2483 5150-5350, 5725 -5825 R F-Control 315, 915

IEEE 802.11 2471-2497 5150-5250

Others

R F-Control 426, 868

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.4

Signals I
q q q q

physical representation of data function of time and location signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data classification
q q q q

continuous time/discrete time continuous values/discrete values analog signal = continuous time and continuous values digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

signal parameters of periodic signals: period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
q

sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier: s(t) = At sin(2 f t t + t)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.5

Fourier representation of periodic signals

1 g (t ) = c + an sin( 2nft ) + bn cos( 2nft ) 2 n =1 n =1

0 t

0 t

ideal periodic signal

real composition (based on harmonics)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.6

Fourier Transforms and Harmonics

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.7

Signals II
q

Different representations of signals

q q q

amplitude (amplitude domain) frequency spectrum (frequency domain) phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)
A [V] t[s] Q = M sin I= M cos

A [V]

f [Hz]

q q

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier transformation Digital signals need
q q

infinite frequencies for perfect transmission modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
MC SS05 2.8

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

Antennas: isotropic radiator

q q q q

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for radio transmission Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally) Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

z y x

z x

ideal isotropic radiator

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.9

Antennas: simple dipoles

q

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4 /2

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y x side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) y z top view (xz-plane) z x

simple dipole

Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.10

Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)

x side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane)

z top view (xz-plane) z

directed antenna

sectorized antenna

top view, 3 sector

top view, 6 sector

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.11

Antennas: diversity
q q

Grouping of 2 or more antennas

q

multi-element antenna arrays switched diversity, selection diversity

l

Antenna diversity
q q

receiver chooses antenna with largest output

diversity combining
l

combine output power to produce gain l cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

/2 /2

/4

/2

/4

/2

+ ground plane

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.12

Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
q q

communication possible low error rate detection of the signal possible no communication possible signal may not be detected signal adds to the background noise

Detection range
q q

sender transmission distance detection interference

Interference range
q q

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.13

Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line) Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in real environments (d = distance between sender and receiver) Receiving power additionally influenced by q fading (frequency dependent) q shadowing q reflection at large obstacles q refraction depending on the density of a medium q scattering at small obstacles q diffraction at edges

shadowing

reflection

refraction

scattering

diffraction

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.14

Real world example

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.15

Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

signal at receiver

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.16

Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
q q q

signal paths change different delay variations of different signal parts different phases of signal parts

quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in
q q

distance to sender obstacles further away

power

long term fading

slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)

short term fading t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.17

Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
q q q q

channels ki k1 c t c t k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

space (si) time (t) frequency (f) code (c)

Goal: multiple use of a shared medium Important: guard spaces needed!

s1

f s2 c t f

s3

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.18

Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time Advantages: q no dynamic coordination necessary k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 q works also for analog signals
c

k6

Disadvantages: q waste of bandwidth if the traffic is distributed unevenly q inflexible q guard spaces
t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.19

Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time Advantages: q only one carrier in the medium at any time q throughput high even for many users
c

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

Disadvantages: q precise synchronization necessary

t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.20

Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time Example: GSM Advantages:
q q q

better protection against tapping protection against frequency selective interference higher data rates compared to code multiplex

k1 c

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

but: precise coordination required

t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.21

Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

All channels use the same spectrum at the same time Advantages:
q q q

bandwidth efficient no coordination and synchronization necessary good protection against interference and tapping lower user data rates more complex signal regeneration
t

Disadvantages:
q q

Implemented using spread spectrum technology

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.22

Modulation
Digital modulation
q q q

digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband) ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier smaller antennas (e.g., /4) Frequency Division Multiplexing medium characteristics Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)

Analog modulation
q

Motivation
q q q

Basic schemes
q q q

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.23

Modulation and demodulation

digital data 101101001

digital modulation

analog baseband signal

analog modulation

radio transmitter

radio carrier

analog demodulation radio carrier

analog baseband signal

synchronization decision

digital data 101101001 radio receiver

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.24

Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying 1 q Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
q q q

very simple low bandwidth requirements very susceptible to interference

1 0 1

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

q

needs larger bandwidth

t

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

q q

more complex robust against interference

t

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.25

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

q q q q q q

bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the carrier frequencies special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts MSK (Minimum Shift Keying) bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or inverted is chosen the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other Equivalent to offset QPSK even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.26

Example of MSK
1 data even bits odd bits 0 1 1 0 1 0 bit even odd signal value 0101 0011 hnnh - - ++

low frequency

h: high frequency n: low frequency +: original signal -: inverted signal

high frequency

MSK signal

t No phase shifts!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.27

Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):
q q q q q Q

bit value 0: sine wave bit value 1: inverted sine wave very simple PSK low spectral efficiency robust, used e.g. in satellite systems 2 bits coded as one symbol symbol determines shift of sine wave needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK more complex

10

11

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):

q q q q I

00 A

01

Often also transmission of relative, not absolute phase shift: DQPSK Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

t 11 10 00 2.28 01

MC SS05

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and phase modulation q it is possible to code n bits using one symbol q 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK q bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable PSK schemes
Q 0010 0011
f a

0001 0000 I 1000

Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol) Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase f , but different amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have different phase, but same amplitude. used in standard 9600 bit/s modems

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.29

Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream q High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream q Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers q QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM q Example: 64QAM
q q q q

good reception: resolve the entire 64QAM constellation poor reception, mobile reception: resolve only QPSK portion 6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most significant determine QPSK HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit), LP uses remaining 4 bit

10 I

00 000010 010101

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.30

Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the interference Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special code protection against narrow band interference
power interference spread signal power detection at receiver f protection against narrowband interference signal spread interference

Side effects:
q q

coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS05 2.31

Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df

dP/df user signal broadband interference narrowband interference

i)

ii) f sender dP/df dP/df f

dP/df

iii) f

iv) receiver f

v) f

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.32

Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel quality

2 3 4

narrowband channels

frequency narrow band signal channel quality 2 2 2 guard space

spread spectrum channels

spread spectrum

frequency

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.33

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
q

many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal reduces frequency selective fading in cellular networks
l

Advantages
q q tb user data 0 tc chipping sequence 01101010110101 = resulting signal 01101011001010 1 XOR

base stations can use the same frequency range l several base stations can detect and recover the signal l soft handover

Disadvantages
q

precise power control necessary

tb: bit period tc: chip period

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.34

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread spectrum signal X chipping sequence modulator radio carrier transmitter

user data

transmit signal

correlator received signal demodulator radio carrier chipping sequence receiver lowpass filtered signal X products integrator sampled sums data decision

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.35

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency
q

sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period simple implementation uses only small portion of spectrum at any time not as robust as DSSS simpler to detect

Two versions
q q

Advantages
q q q

Disadvantages
q q

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.36

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb user data 0 f f3 f2 f1 f f3 f2 f1 t td t fast hopping (3 hops/bit) 1 td slow hopping (3 bits/hop) 0 1 1 t

tb: bit period

td: dwell time

MC SS05 2.37

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband signal modulator modulator spread transmit signal

user data

transmitter

frequency synthesizer

hopping sequence

received signal

narrowband signal data demodulator demodulator

hopping sequence

frequency synthesizer

receiver

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.38

Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain transmission area (cell) Mobile stations communicate only via the base station Advantages of cell structures:
q q q q

higher capacity, higher number of users less transmission power needed more robust, decentralized base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally fixed network needed for the base stations handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary interference with other cells

Problems:
q q q

Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side (GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/ MC SS05 2.39

Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f4 f3 f5 f1 f2 f3 f6 f7 f2 f4 f5 f1

Fixed frequency assignment:

q q q q q

certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell problem: different traffic load in different cells base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already used in neighbor cells more capacity in cells with more traffic assignment can also be based on interference measurements

Dynamic frequency assignment:

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.40

Frequency planning II
f3 f1 f2 f3 f3 f1 f2 f3 f3 f1 f2 f3 f2 f4 f3 f6 f3 f6 f7 f5 f7 f5 f1 f2

f2 f3 f1

f2 f3 f1

3 cell cluster

f5 f1 f2

f2 f4 f3

7 cell cluster

f2 f2 f2 f1 f f1 f f1 f h h 3 3 3 h1 2 h1 2 g2 h3 g2 h3 g2 g1 g1 g1 g3 g3 g3

3 cell cluster with 3 sector antennas

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.41

Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load Additional traffic appears as noise to other users If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller, http://www.jochenschiller.de/

MC SS05

2.42