An Introduction to TCP/IP

For Embedded System Designers

019-0074 020701-G

An Introduction to TCP/IP
019-0074 020701G Printed in U.S.A. 2001 Z-World Inc. All rights reserved. Z-World reserves the right to make changes and improvements to its products without providing notice.

Trademarks
Dynamic C is a registered trademark of Z-World Inc. Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation

Z-World, Inc.
2900 Spafford Street Davis, California 95616-6800 USA
Telephone: 530.757.3737 Fax: 530.757.3792 or 530.753.5141 www.zworld.com

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................1 2. Ethernet Basics ...........................................................................................................3
2.1 Ethernet Address .........................................................................................................................3 2.2 Physical Connections ..................................................................................................................3 2.2.1 Cables.........................................................................................................................4 2.3 Frames .........................................................................................................................................4 2.3.1 Collisions ..................................................................................................................5

3. Networks .....................................................................................................................7
3.1 LAN.............................................................................................................................................7 3.1.1 Repeaters and Bridges ...............................................................................................7 3.2 WAN............................................................................................................................................8 3.2.1 Packet Switches .........................................................................................................8 3.2.2 Forwarding a Packet ..................................................................................................8 3.3 VPN.............................................................................................................................................9 3.4 Network Devices .........................................................................................................................9 3.4.1 Routers .......................................................................................................................9 3.4.2 Firewalls.....................................................................................................................9 3.4.3 Gateways..................................................................................................................10 3.5 Network Architecture................................................................................................................10 3.5.1 Client/Server Networks............................................................................................10 3.5.1.1 Port Numbers ........................................................................................11

4. Network Protocol Layers ..........................................................................................13

4.1 Layering Models .......................................................................................................................13 4.2 TCP/IP Protocol Stack ..............................................................................................................14

5. TCP/IP Protocols ......................................................................................................15

5.1 IP ...............................................................................................................................................16 5.1.1 IP Address................................................................................................................16 5.1.2 IP Address Classes...................................................................................................16 5.1.3 Netmasks..................................................................................................................16 5.1.4 Subnet Address ........................................................................................................17 5.1.5 Directed Broadcast Address.....................................................................................17 5.1.6 Limited Broadcast Address......................................................................................17 5.2 IP Routing .................................................................................................................................17 5.3 ARP ...........................................................................................................................................18 5.4 The Transport Layer ..................................................................................................................18 5.4.1 UDP .........................................................................................................................18 5.4.2 TCP ..........................................................................................................................18 5.4.2.1 TCP Connection/Socket .......................................................................19 5.4.2.2 TCP Header ..........................................................................................19 5.4.3 ICMP........................................................................................................................21 5.5 The Application Layer ..............................................................................................................21 5.5.1 DNS .........................................................................................................................21 5.5.1.1 DCRTCP.LIB Implementation of DNS ...............................................22

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6. Dynamic C TCP/IP Implementation.........................................................................23

6.1 TCP/IP Configuration Macros.................................................................................................. 23 6.1.1 IP Addresses Set Manually ..................................................................................... 23 6.1.2 IP Addresses Set Dynamically ................................................................................ 24 6.1.3 Default Buffer Size.................................................................................................. 24 6.1.4 Delay a Connection ................................................................................................. 24 6.1.5 Runtime Configuration............................................................................................ 25 6.2 Skeleton Program...................................................................................................................... 25 6.3 TCP Socket ............................................................................................................................... 26 6.3.1 Passive Open ........................................................................................................... 26 6.3.1.1 Example of Passive Open .................................................................... 27 6.3.2 Active Open............................................................................................................. 28 6.3.3 TCP Socket Functions............................................................................................. 29 6.3.3.1 Control Functions ................................................................................ 29 6.3.3.2 Status Functions ................................................................................... 30 6.3.3.3 I/O Functions ....................................................................................... 31 6.4 UDP Interface ........................................................................................................................... 31 6.4.1 Opening and Closing ............................................................................................... 32 6.4.2 Writing..................................................................................................................... 32 6.4.3 Reading.................................................................................................................... 32 6.4.4 Checksums .............................................................................................................. 32 6.5 Program Design ........................................................................................................................ 33 6.5.1 State-Based Program Design................................................................................... 33 6.5.2 Blocking vs. Non-Blocking..................................................................................... 33 6.5.3 Blocking Macros ..................................................................................................... 34 6.6 Multitasking and TCP/IP .......................................................................................................... 34

7. References.................................................................................................................35 Notice to Users .........................................................................................................37

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1. Introduction
This manual is intended for embedded systems engineers and support professionals who are not familiar with basic networking concepts. An overview of an Ethernet network and the TCP/IP suite of protocols used to communicate across the network will be given. The implementation details that are discussed in this manual pertain to versions of Dynamic C prior to 7.05. Improvements and additions to the TCP/IP suite of protocols are fully documented in the Dynamic C TCP/IP Users Manual.

An Introduction to TCP/IP

An Introduction to TCP/IP

2. Ethernet Basics
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of protocols independent of the physical medium used to transmit data, but most data transmission for Internet communication begins and ends with Ethernet frames. The Ethernet can use either a bus or star topology. A bus topology attaches all devices in sequence on a single cable. In a star topology all devices are wired directly to a central hub. 10Base-T uses a combination called a star-shaped bus topology because while the attached devices can share all data coming in on the cable, the actual wiring is in a star shape. The access method used by the Ethernet is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect (CSMA/CD). This is a contention protocol, meaning it is a set of rules to follow when there is competition for shared resources.

2.1 Ethernet Address

All Ethernet interfaces have a unique 48-bit address that is supplied by the manufacturer. It is called the Ethernet address (also known as the MAC address, for Media Access Control). Ethernet-enabled Z-World boards store this value in Flash Memory (EEPROM) that is programmed at the factory. If you need unique Ethernet addresses for some product you are making, you can obtain them from the IEEE Registration Authority. To read the MAC address of a TCP/IP Development Board, run the utility program display_MAC.c. It is located on the Technical Support Sample Program Web page: http://www.rabbitsemiconductor.com/support_center/rab20_support.html. It is also included with Dynamic C, version 7.04 and above.

2.2 Physical Connections

A Realtek RTL8019 10Base-T interface chip provides a 10 Mbps Ethernet connection. This chip is used on many Ethernet-enabled Z-World boards. The corresponding port can be connected directly to an Ethernet network. By using hubs and routers, a network can include a large number of computers. A network might include all the computers in a particular building. A local network can be connected to the Internet by means of a gateway. The gateway is a computer that is connected both to the local network and to the Internet. Data that must be sent out over the Internet are sent to the local network interface of the gateway, and then the gateway sends them on to the Internet for routing to some other computer in the world. Data coming in from the Internet are directed to the gateway, which then sends them to the correct recipient on the local network.

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2.2.1 Cables
Ethernet cables are similar to U.S. telephone plug cables, except they have eight connectors. For our purposes, there are two types of cablescrossover and straight-through. In most instances, the straight-through cables are used. It is necessary to use a crossover cable when two computers are connected directly without a hub (for example, if you want to connect your PCs Ethernet directly to the Rabbit Semiconductor TCP/IP Development Board.) Some hubs have one input that can accept either a straight-through or crossover cable depending on the position of a switch. In this case make sure that the switch position and cable type agree.

Ethernet cables

HUB Gateway To Internet

Local Network Computers

Figure 1. Ethernet Network

2.3 Frames
Bits flowing across the Ethernet are grouped into structures called frames. A frame must be between 46 and 1500 bytes in size. An Ethernet frame has four parts: 1. A Preamble of 8 bytes that helps synchronize the circuitry, thus allowing small bit rate differences between sender and receiver. 2. A Header of 14 bytes that contains a 6 byte destination address, 6 byte source address and a 2 byte type field. 3. A Data area of variable length that, along with the header, is passed to the IP layer (aka. the Network layer). 4. A Trailer of 4 bytes that contains a CRC to guard against corrupted frames. If the destination address is all 1 bits, it defines a broadcast frame and all systems on the local network process the frame. There are also multicast frames. A subset of systems can form a multicast group that has an address that does not match any other system on the network. All systems in a particular subset process a packet with a destination address that matches their subset. A system can belong to any number of subsets. A system may put its interface(s) into promiscuous mode and process all frames sent across its Ethernet. This is known as "sniffing the ether." It is used for network debugging and spying.

An Introduction to TCP/IP

2.3.1 Collisions
In a star-shaped bus topology, all systems have access to the network at any time. Before sending data, a system must determine if the network is free or if it is already sending a frame. If a frame is already being sent, a system will wait. Two systems can listen on the network and hear silence and then proceed to send data at the same time. This is called a collision. Ethernet hardware has collision detection sensors to take care of this problem. This is the Collision Detect (CD) part of CSMA/CD. The colliding data is ignored, and the systems involved will wait a random amount of time before resending their data.

An Introduction to TCP/IP

An Introduction to TCP/IP

3. Networks
A network is a system of hardware and software, put together for the purpose of communication and resource sharing. A network includes transmission hardware, devices to interconnect transmission media and to control transmissions, and software to decode and format data, as well as to detect and correct problems. There are several types of networks in use today. This chapter will focus on three of them:

LAN - Local Area Network WAN - Wide Area Network VPN - Virtual Private Network

3.1 LAN
The most widely deployed type of network, LANs were designed as an alternative to the more expensive point-to-point connection. A LAN has high throughput for relatively low cost. LANs often rely on shared media, usually a cable, for connecting many computers. This reduces cost. The computers take turns using the cable to send data.

3.1.1 Repeaters and Bridges

LANs typically connect computers located in close physical proximity, i.e., all the computers in a building. Repeaters are used to join network segments when the distance spanned causes electrical signals to weaken. Repeaters are basically amplifiers that work at the bit level; they do not actively modify data that is amplified and sent to the next segment. Like repeaters, bridges are used to connect two LANs together. Unlike repeaters, bridges work at the frame level. This is useful, allowing bridges to detect and discard corrupted frames. They can also perform frame filtering, only forwarding a frame when necessary. Both of these capabilities decrease network congestion. Bridged LANs can span arbitrary distances when using a satellite channel for the bridge. The resulting network is still considered a LAN and not a WAN.

An Introduction to TCP/IP

3.2 WAN
To be considered a WAN, a network must be able to connect an arbitrary number of sites across an arbitrary distance, with an arbitrary number of computers at each site. In addition, it must have reasonable performance (no long delays) and allow all of the computers connected to it to communicate simultaneously. This is accomplished with packet switches.

Computer

Switch at Site 1
High-speed Connection

Switch at Site 2

Switch at Site 3

Switch at Site 4

Figure 2. WAN with 4 switches.

3.2.1 Packet Switches

Packet switches are small computers with CPUs, memory and I/O devices. They move complete packets, using a technique called Store and Forward. An incoming packet is stored in a memory buffer and the CPU is interrupted. The processor examines the packet and forwards it to the appropriate place. This strategy allows the switch to accept multiple packets simultaneously. As the figure above illustrates, WANs currently do not need to be symmetric.

3.2.2 Forwarding a Packet

A data structure contains the information that tells the switch where to send the packet next. This is called a routing table. The destination address in the packet header determines the routing table entry that is used to forward the packet. It could be forwarded to a computer attached to the switch that is examining the packet or it could be to another switch in the WAN.

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3.3 VPN
VPNs are built on top of a publicly-accessible infrastructure, such as the Internet or the public telephone network. They use some form of encryption and have strong user authentication. Essentially a VPN is a form of WAN; the difference is their ability to use public networks rather than private leased lines. A VPN supports the same intranet services as a traditional WAN, but also supports remote access service. This is good for telecommuting, as leased lines dont usually extend to private homes and travel destinations. A remote VPN user can connect via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) in the usual way. This eliminates long-distance charges. The user can then initiate a tunnel request to the destination server. The server authenticates the user and creates the other end of the tunnel. VPN software encrypts the data, packages it in an IP packet (for compatibility with the Internet) and sends it through the tunnel, where it is decrypted at the other end. There are several tunneling protocols available: IP security (IPsec), Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) and Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP).

3.4 Network Devices

Some network devices (repeaters, bridges and switches) were discussed in the previous sections. These are all dedicated hardware devices. Network devices can also be non-dedicated systems running network software.

3.4.1 Routers
A router is a hardware device that connects two or more networks. Routers are the primary backbone device of the Internet, connecting different network technologies into a seamless whole. Each router is assigned two or more IP addresses because each IP address contains a prefix that specifies a physical network. Before a packet is passed to the routing software, it is examined. If it is corrupted, it is discarded. If it is not corrupted, a routing table is consulted to determine where to send it next. By default, routers do not propagate broadcast packets (see Directed Broadcast Address on page 17). A router can be configured to pass certain types of broadcasts.

3.4.2 Firewalls
A firewall is a computer, router, or some other communications device that controls data flow between networks. Generally, a firewall is a first-line defense against attacks from the outside world. A firewall can be hardware-based or software-based. A hardware-based firewall is a special router with additional filter and management capabilities. A software-based firewall runs on top of the operating system and turns a PC into a firewall. Conceptually, firewalls can be categorized as Network layer (aka Data Link layer) or Application layer. Network layer firewalls tend to be very fast. They control traffic based on the source and destination addresses and port numbers, using this information to decide whether to pass the data on or discard it. Application layer firewalls do not allow traffic to flow directly between networks. They are typically hosts running proxy servers. Proxy servers can implement protocol specific security because

An Introduction to TCP/IP

they understand the application protocol being used. For instance, an application layer firewall can be configured to allow only e-mail into and out of the local network it protects.

3.4.3 Gateways
A gateway performs routing functions. The term default gateway is used to identify the router that connects a LAN to an internet. A gateway can do more than a router; it also performs protocol conversions from one network to another.

3.5 Network Architecture

There are two network architectures widely used today: peer-to-peer and client/server. In peer-topeer networks each workstation has the same capabilities and responsibilities. These networks are usually less expensive and simpler to design than client/server networks, but they do not offer the same performance with heavy traffic.

3.5.1 Client/Server Networks

The client/server paradigm requires some computers to be dedicated to serving other computers. A server application waits for a client application to initiate contact.

Table 1. Summary of Differences between Client and Server Software

Client Software An arbitrary application program that becomes a client when a remote service is desired. It also performs other local computations. Actively initiates contact. Invoked by a user and executes for one session. Capable of accessing multiple services as needed, but actively contacts only one remote server at a time.

Server Software A special-purpose, privileged program dedicated to providing one service. It can handle multiple remote clients at the same time. Passively waits for contact. Invoked when the system boots and executes through many sessions. Accepts contact from an arbitrary number of clients, but offers a single service or a fixed set of services.

Can require powerful hardware and a sophisticated Does not require special hardware or a sophisticated operating system, depending on how many clients operating system. are being served.

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3.5.1.1 Port Numbers Port numbers are the mechanism for identifying particular client and server applications. Servers select a port to wait for a connection. Most services have well-known port numbers. For example, HTTP uses port 80. When a web browser (the client) requests a web page it specifies port 80 when contacting the server. Clients usually have ephemeral port numbers since they exist only as long as the session lasts. Some of the common well-known TCP port numbers are listed in the table below.

Port Number 7 20/21 23 25 53 80

Listening Application Echo request File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Telnet Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Domain Name Server HTTP Server

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4. Network Protocol Layers

Computers on a network communicate in agreed upon ways called protocols. The complexity of networking protocol software calls for the problem to be divided into smaller pieces. A layering model aids this division and provides the conceptual basis for understanding how software protocols together with hardware devices provide a powerful communication system.

4.1 Layering Models

In the early days of networking, before the rise of the ubiquitous Internet, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed a layering model whose terminology persists today.
Table 2. ISO 7-Layer Reference Model

Name of Layer

Purpose of Layer

Layer 7 Layer 6 Layer 5 Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

Specifies how a particular application uses a network. Specifies how to represent data. Specifies how to establish communication with a remote system. Specifies how to reliably handle data transfer. Specifies addressing assignments and how packets are forwarded. Specifies the organization of data into frames and how to send frames over a network. Specifies the basic network hardware.

The 7-layer model has been revised to the 5-layer TCP/IP reference model to meet the current needs of protocol designers.
Table 3. TCP/IP 5-Layer Reference Model

Name of Layer

Purpose of Layer

Layer 5 Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1

Application Transport Internet Network Physical

Specifies how a particular application uses a network. Specifies how to ensure reliable transport of data. Specifies packet format and routing. Specifies frame organization and transmittal. Specifies the basic network hardware.

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4.2 TCP/IP Protocol Stack

TCP/IP is the protocol suite upon which all Internet communication is based. Different vendors have developed other networking protocols, but even most network operating systems with their own protocols, such as Netware, support TCP/IP. It has become the de facto standard. Protocols are sometimes referred to as protocol stacks or protocol suites. A protocol stack is an appropriate term because it indicates the layered approach used to design the networking software
Sender Application
Virtual Connection

Receiver Application

Identical Message

Transport
Identical Message

Transport

Network
Identical Message

Network

Data Link
Identical Message

Data Link

Hardware

Physical Connection

Hardware

Figure 3. Flow of data between two computers using TCP/IP stacks.

Each host or router in the internet must run a protocol stack. The details of the underlying physical connections are hidden by the software. The sending software at each layer communicates with the corresponding layer at the receiving side through information stored in headers. Each layer adds its header to the front of the message from the next higher layer. The header is removed by the corresponding layer on the receiving side.

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5. TCP/IP Protocols
This chapter discusses the protocols available in the TCP/IP protocol suite. The following figure shows how they correspond to the 5-layer TCP/IP Reference Model. This is not a perfect one-toone correspondence; for instance, Internet Protocol (IP) uses the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), but is shown here at the same layer in the stack.

FTP

BOOTP DHCP TFTP PING

SMTP

HTTP Application

DNS

TCP Transport

UDP

ICMP

ARP Network

IP

Ethernet
Data Link
Figure 4. TCP/IP Protocol Flow

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5.1 IP
IP provides communication between hosts on different kinds of networks (i.e., different data-link implementations such as Ethenet and Token Ring). It is a connectionless, unreliable packet delivery service. Connectionless means that there is no handshaking, each packet is independent of any other packet. It is unreliable because there is no guarantee that a packet gets delivered; higherlevel protocols must deal with that.

5.1.1 IP Address
IP defines an addressing scheme that is independent of the underlying physical address (e.g, 48-bit MAC address). IP specifies a unique 32-bit number for each host on a network. This number is known as the Internet Protocol Address, the IP Address or the Internet Address. These terms are interchangeable. Each packet sent across the internet contains the IP address of the source of the packet and the IP address of its destination. For routing efficiency, the IP address is considered in two parts: the prefix which identifies the physical network, and the suffix which identifies a computer on the network. A unique prefix is needed for each network in an internet. For the global Internet, network numbers are obtained from Internet Service Providers (ISPs). ISPs coordinate with a central organization called the Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA).

5.1.2 IP Address Classes

The first four bits of an IP address determine the class of the network. The class specifies how many of the remaining bits belong to the prefix (aka Network ID) and to the suffix (aka Host ID). The first three classes, A, B and C, are the primary network classes.
Class A B C D E First 4 Bits 0xxx 10xx 110x 1110 1111 Number Of Prefix Bits 7 14 21 Multicast Reserved for future use. Max # Of Networks 128 16,384 2,097,152 Number Of Suffix Bits 24 16 8 Max # Of Hosts Per Network 16,777,216 65,536 256

When interacting with mere humans, software uses dotted decimal notation; each 8 bits is treated as an unsigned binary integer separated by periods. IP reserves host address 0 to denote a network. 140.211.0.0 denotes the network that was assigned the class B prefix 140.211.

5.1.3 Netmasks
Netmasks are used to identify which part of the address is the Network ID and which part is the Host ID. This is done by a logical bitwise-AND of the IP address and the netmask. For class A networks the netmask is always 255.0.0.0; for class B networks it is 255.255.0.0 and for class C networks the netmask is 255.255.255.0.

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5.1.4 Subnet Address

All hosts are required to support subnet addressing. While the IP address classes are the convention, IP addresses are typically subnetted to smaller address sets that do not match the class system. The suffix bits are divided into a subnet ID and a host ID. This makes sense for class A and B networks, since no one attaches as many hosts to these networks as is allowed. Whether to subnet and how many bits to use for the subnet ID is determined by the local network administrator of each network. If subnetting is used, then the netmask will have to reflect this fact. On a class B network with subnetting, the netmask would not be 255.255.0.0. The bits of the Host ID that were used for the subnet would need to be set in the netmask.

5.1.5 Directed Broadcast Address

IP defines a directed broadcast address for each physical network as all ones in the host ID part of the address. The network ID and the subnet ID must be valid network and subnet values. When a packet is sent to a networks broadcast address, a single copy travels to the network, and then the packet is sent to every host on that network or subnetwork.

5.1.6 Limited Broadcast Address

If the IP address is all ones (255.255.255.255), this is a limited broadcast address; the packet is addressed to all hosts on the current (sub)network. A router will not forward this type of broadcast to other (sub)networks.

5.2 IP Routing
Each IP datagram travels from its source to its destination by means of routers. All hosts and routers on an internet contain IP protocol software and use a routing table to determine where to send a packet next. The destination IP address in the IP header contains the ultimate destination of the IP datagram, but it might go through several other IP addresses (routers) before reaching that destination. Routing table entries are created when TCP/IP initializes. The entries can be updated manually by a network administrator or automatically by employing a routing protocol such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP). Routing table entries provide needed information to each local host regarding how to communicate with remote networks and hosts. When IP receives a packet from a higher-level protocol, like TCP or UDP, the routing table is searched for the route that is the closest match to the destination IP address. The most specific to the least specific route is in the following order:

A route that matches the destination IP address (host route). A route that matches the network ID of the destination IP address (network route). The default route.
If a matching route is not found, IP discards the datagram.

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IP provides several other services:

Fragmentation: IP packets may be divided into smaller packets. This permits a large
packet to travel across a network which only accepts smaller packets. IP fragments and reassembles packets transparent to the higher layers.

Timeouts: Each IP packet has a Time To Live (TTL) field, that is decremented every time
a packet moves through a router. If TTL reaches zero, the packet is discarded.

Options: IP allows a packet's sender to set requirements on the path the packet takes
through the network (source route); the route taken by a packet may be traced (record route) and packets may be labeled with security features.

5.3 ARP
The Address Resolution Protocol is used to translate virtual addresses to physical ones. The network hardware does not understand the software-maintained IP addresses. IP uses ARP to translate the 32-bit IP address to a physical address that matches the addressing scheme of the underlying hardware (for Ethernet, the 48-bit MAC address). There are three general addressing strategies: 1. Table lookup 2. Translation performed by a mathematical function 3. Message exchange TCP/IP can use any of the three. ARP employs the third strategy, message exchange. ARP defines a request and a response. A request message is placed in a hardware frame (e.g., an Ethernet frame), and broadcast to all computers on the network. Only the computer whose IP address matches the request sends a response.

5.4 The Transport Layer

There are two primary transport layer protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). They provide end-to-end communication services for applications.

5.4.1 UDP
This is a minimal service over IP, adding only optional checksumming of data and multiplexing by port number. UDP is often used by applications that need multicast or broadcast delivery, services not offered by TCP. Like IP, UDP is connectionless and works with datagrams.

5.4.2 TCP
TCP is a connection-oriented transport service; it provides end-to-end reliability, resequencing, and flow control. TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of data, which are treated in bytes. The delivery of data in the proper order is guaranteed. TCP can detect errors or lost data and can trigger retransmission until the data is received, complete and without errors.

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5.4.2.1 TCP Connection/Socket A TCP connection is done with a 3-way handshake between a client and a server. The following is a simplified explanation of this process.

The client asks for a connection by sending a TCP segment with the SYN control bit set. The server responds with its own SYN segment that includes identifying information that
was sent by the client in the initial SYN segment.

The client acknowledges the servers SYN segment.

The connection is then established and is uniquely identified by a 4-tuple called a socket or socket pair: (destination IP address, destination port number) (source IP address, source port number) During the connection setup phase, these values are entered in a table and saved for the duration of the connection. 5.4.2.2 TCP Header Every TCP segment has a header. The header comprises all necessary information for reliable, complete delivery of data. Among other things, such as IP addresses, the header contains the following fields: Sequence Number - This 32-bit number contains either the sequence number of the first byte of data in this particular segment or the Initial Sequence Number (ISN) that identifies the first byte of data that will be sent for this particular connection. The ISN is sent during the connection setup phase by setting the SYN control bit. An ISN is chosen by both client and server. The first byte of data sent by either side will be identified by the sequence number ISN + 1 because the SYN control bit consumes a sequence number. The following figure illustrates the three-way handshake.

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Host A (Client)

SYN Segment ISN=A, ACK=0

Host B (Server)

SYN/ACK Segment ISN=B, ACK=A+1

ACK Segment Seq # =A+1, ACK=B+1

Figure 5. Synchronizing Sequence Numbers for TCP Connection

The sequence number is used to ensure the data is reassembled in the proper order before being passed to an application protocol. Acknowledgement Number - This 32-bit number is the other hosts sequence number + 1 of the last successfully received byte of data. It is the sequence number of the next expected byte of data. This field is only valid when the ACK control bit is set. Since sending an ACK costs nothing, (because it and the Acknowledgement Number field are part of the header) the ACK control bit is always set after a connection has been established. The Acknowledgement Number ensures that the TCP segment arrived at its destination. Control Bits - This 6-bit field comprises the following 1-bit flags (left to right):

URG - Makes the Urgent Pointer field significant. ACK - Makes the Acknowledgement Number field significant. PSH - The Push Function causes TCP to promptly deliver data. RST - Reset the connection. SYN - Synchronize sequence numbers. FIN - No more data from sender, but can still receive data.

Window Size - This 16-bit number states how much data the receiving end of the TCP connection will allow. The sending end of the TCP connection must stop and wait for an acknowledgement after it has sent the amount of data allowed.
20 An Introduction to TCP/IP

Checksum - This 16-bit number is the ones complement of the ones complement sum of all bytes in the TCP header, any data that is in the segment and part of the IP packet. A checksum can only detect some errors, not all, and cannot correct any.

5.4.3 ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol is a set of messages that communicate errors and other conditions that require attention. ICMP messages, delivered in IP datagrams, are usually acted on by either IP, TCP or UDP. Some ICMP messages are returned to application protocols. A common use of ICMP is pinging a host. The Ping command (Packet INternet Groper) is a utility that determines whether a specific IP address is accessible. It sends an ICMP echo request and waits for a reply. Ping can be used to transmit a series of packets to measure average roundtrip times and packet loss percentages.

5.5 The Application Layer

There are many applications available in the TCP/IP suite of protocols. Some of the most useful ones are for sending mail (SMTP), transferring files (FTP), and displaying web pages (HTTP). These applications are discussed in detail in the TCP/IP Users Manual. Another important application layer protocol is the Domain Name System (DNS). Domain names are significant because they guide users to where they want to go on the Internet.

5.5.1 DNS
The Domain Name System is a distributed database of domain name and IP address bindings. A domain name is simply an alphanumeric character string separated into segments by periods. It represents a specific and unique place in the domain name space. DNS makes it possible for us to use identifiers such as zworld.com to refer to an IP address on the Internet. Name servers contain information on some segment of the DNS and make that information available to clients who are called resolvers.

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5.5.1.1 DCRTCP.LIB Implementation of DNS The resolve() function in DCRTCP.LIB immediately converts a dotted decimal IP address to its corresponding binary IP address and returns this value. If resolve() is passed a domain name, a series of queries take place between the computer that called resolve() and computers running name server software. For example, to resolve the domain name www.rabbitsemiconductor.com, the following code (available in SAMPLES\TCP\DNS.C) can be used. #define #define #define #define MY_IP_ADDRESS "10.10.6.101" MY_NETMASK "255.255.255.0" MY_GATEWAY "10.10.6.19" MY_NAMESERVER "10.10.6.19"

#memmap xmem #use dcrtcp.lib main() { longword ip; char buffer[20]; sock_init(); ip=resolve("www.rabbitsemiconductor.com"); if(ip==0) printf("couldnt find www.rabbitsemiconductor.com\n"); else printf("%s is www.rabbitsemiconductors address.\n, inet_ntoa(buffer,ip)); } Your local name server is specified by the configuration macro MY_NAMESERVER. Chances are that your local name server does not have the requested information, so it queries the root server. The root server will not know the IP address either, but it will know where to find the name server that contains authoritative information for the .com zone. This information is returned to your local name server, which then sends a query to the name server for the .com zone. Again, this name server does not know the requested IP address, but does know the local name server that handles rabbitsemiconductor.com. This information is sent back to your local name server, who sends a final query to the local name server of rabbitsemiconductor.com. This local name server returns the requested IP address of www.rabbitsemiconductor.com to your local name server, who then passes it to your computer.

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6. Dynamic C TCP/IP Implementation

The Dynamic C TCP/IP protocol suite is contained in a number of Dynamic C libraries. The main library file is DCRTCP.LIB. IP version 4 is supported, not version 6. This chapter will describe the configuration macros and the functions used to initialize and drive TCP/IP. The implementation details that are discussed here pertain to versions of Dynamic C prior to 7.05. Improvements and additions to the TCP/IP suite of protocols are fully documented in the Dynamic C TCP/IP Users Manual.

6.1 TCP/IP Configuration Macros

TCP/IP can be configured by defining configuration macros at compile time, by using the tcp_config() function (and other functions) at runtime or by using the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Some ISPs require that the user provide them with a MAC address from the controller. Run the utility program discussed in Section 2.1 to display the MAC address.

6.1.1 IP Addresses Set Manually

Four pieces of information are needed by any host on a network: 1. The IP address of the host (e.g., the TCP/IP Development Board). 2. The part of the IP address that distinguishes machines on the hosts network from machines on other networks (the netmask). 3. The IP address of the router that connects the hosts network to the rest of the world (the default gateway). 4. The IP address of the local DNS server for the hosts network. This is only necessary if DNS backups are needed. MY_IP_ADDRESS, MY_NETMASK, MY_GATEWAY and MY_NAMESERVER respectively correspond to these four critical addresses.

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6.1.2 IP Addresses Set Dynamically

The macro USE_DHCP enables the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). If this option is enabled, a DHCP client contacts a DHCP server for the values of MY_IP_ADDRESS, MY_NETMASK, MY_GATEWAY and MY_NAMESERVER. DHCP servers are usually centrally located on a local network and operated by the network administrator.

6.1.3 Default Buffer Size

There are two macros used to define the size of the buffer that is used for UDP datagram reads and TCP packet reads and writes: tcp_MaxBufSize and SOCK_BUF_SIZE. tcp_MaxBufSize is deprecated in Dynamic C version 6.57 and higher and is being kept for backwards compatibility. It has been replaced by SOCK_BUF_SIZE. If SOCK_BUF_SIZE is 4096 bytes, the UDP buffer is 4096 bytes, the TCP read buffer is 2048 bytes and the TCP write buffer is 2048 bytes. In Dynamic C versions 6.56 and earlier, tcp_MaxBufSize determines the size of the input and output buffers for TCP/IP sockets. The sizeof(tcp_Socket) will be about 200 bytes more than double tcp_MaxBufSize. The optimum value for local Ethernet connections is greater than the Maximum Segment Size (MSS). The MSS is 1460 bytes. You may want to lower tcp_MaxBufSize, which defaults to 2048 bytes, to reduce RAM usage. It can be reduced to as little as 600 bytes. tcp_MaxBufSize will work slightly differently in Dynamic C versions 6.57 and higher. In these later versions the buffer for the UDP socket will be tcp_MaxBufSize * 2, which is twice as large as before.

6.1.4 Delay a Connection

Sometimes it is appropriate to accept a connection request when the resources to do so are not available. This happens with web servers when web pages have several graphic images, each requiring a separate socket. The macro USE_RESERVEPORTS is defined by default. It allows the use of the function tcp_reserveport(). When a connection to the port specified in tcp_reserveport() is attempted, the 3-way handshaking is done even if there is not yet a socket available. This is done by setting the window parameter in the TCP header to zero, meaning, I can take 0 bytes of data at this time. The other side of the connection will wait until the value in the window parameter indicates that data can be sent. When using tcp_reserveport(), the 2MSL (for Maximum Segment Lifetime) waiting period for closing a socket is avoided. Using the companion function, tcp_clearreserve(), causes the connection to the port to be done in the conventional way.

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6.1.5 Runtime Configuration

Functions are provided to change configuration values at runtime. The most general one is tcp_config(). It takes two strings. The first string is the setting to be changed and the second string is the value to change it to. The configuration macros MY_IP_ADDRESS, MY_NETMASK, MY_GATEWAY, and MY_NAMESERVER can all be overridden by this function. tcp_config("MY_IP_ADDRESS","10.10.6.101"); Some of the tcp_config() functionality is duplicated by other Dynamic C TCP/IP functions. tcp_config() can override the macro MY_IP_ADDRESS, and so can the sethostid function.

6.2 Skeleton Program

The following program is a general outline for a Dynamic C TCP/IP program. The first couple of defines set up the default IP configuration information. The memmap line causes the program to compile as much code as it can in the extended code window. The use line causes the compiler to compile in the Dynamic C TCP/IP code using the configuration data provided above it. #define MY_IP_ADDRESS "10.10.6.101" #define MY_NETMASK "255.255.255.0" #define MY_GATEWAY "10.10.6.19" #memmap xmem #use dcrtcp.lib main() { sock_init(); for (;;) { tcp_tick(NULL); } } To run this program, start Dynamic C and open the SAMPLES\TCPIP\PINGME.C file. Edit the MY_IP_ADDRESS, MY_NETMASK, and MY_GATEWAY macros to reflect the appropriate values for your device. Run the program and try to run ping 10.10.6.101 from a command line on a computer on the same physical network, replacing 10.10.6.101 with your value for MY_IP_ADDRESS. The main() function first initializes the DCRTCP.LIB TCP/IP stack with a call to sock_init(). This call initializes internal data structures and enables the Ethernet chip, which will take a couple of seconds with the RealTek chip. At this point, DCRTCP.LIB is ready to handle incoming packets. DCRTCP.LIB processes incoming packets only when tcp_tick() is called. Internally, the functions tcp_open(), udp_open(), sock_read(), sock_write(), sock_close(), and sock_abort() all call tcp_tick(). It is a good practice to make sure that tcp_tick() is called periodically in your program to insure that the system has had a chance to process packets. When you ping your device, the Ethernet chip temporarily stores the packet, waiting for DCRTCP.LIB to process it. DCRTCP.LIB removes the packet the next time tcp_tick() gets called, and responds appropriately.

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A rule of thumb is to call tcp_tick() around 10 times per second, although slower or faster call rates should also work. The Ethernet interface chip has a large buffer memory, and TCP/IP is adaptive to the data rates that both end of the connection can handle; thus the system will generally keep working over a wide variety of tick rates. A more difficult question is how much computing time is consumed by each call to tcp_tick(). Rough numbers are less than a millisecond if there is nothing to do, 10s of milliseconds for typical packet processing, and 100s of milliseconds under exceptional circumstances.

6.3 TCP Socket

For Dynamic C version 6.57 and above, each socket must have an associated tcp_Socket of 145 bytes or a udp_Socket of 62 bytes. The I/O buffers are in extended memory. For earlier versions of Dynamic C, each socket must have a tcp_Socket data structure that holds the socket state and I/O buffers. These structures are, by default, around 4200 bytes each. The majority of this space is used by the input and output buffers. There are two ways to open a TCP socket: passive or active.

6.3.1 Passive Open

To wait for someone to contact your device, open a socket with tcp_listen(). This type of open is commonly used for Internet servers that listen on a well-known port, like 80 for HTTP. You supply tcp_listen() with a pointer to a tcp_Socket data structure, the local port number others will be contacting on your device, and the IP address and port number that are valid for the device. If you want to be able to accept connections from any IP address or any port number, set one or both to zero. To handle multiple simultaneous connections, each new connection will require its own tcp_Socket structure and a separate call to tcp_listen(), but using the same local port number (lport value.) The tcp_listen() call will immediately return, and you must poll for the incoming connection. You can use the sock_wait_established macro, which will call tcp_tick() and block until the connection is established or you can manually poll the socket using sock_established.

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6.3.1.1 Example of Passive Open The following example waits for a connection on port 7, and echoes back each line as you enter it. To test this program, change the configuration information and start it running. From a connected PC, telnet to the device using port 7. #define MY_IP_ADDRESS "10.10.6.101" #define MY_NETMASK "255.255.255.0" #define MY_GATEWAY "10.10.6.19" #memmap xmem #use "dcrtcp.lib" #define PORT 7 tcp_Socket echosock; main() { char buffer[2048]; int status; sock_init(); while(1) { tcp_listen(&echosock,PORT,0,0,NULL,0); sock_wait_established(&echosock,0,NULL,&status); printf("Receiving incoming connection\n"); sock_mode(&echosock,TCP_MODE_ASCII); while(tcp_tick(&echosock)) { sock_wait_input(&echosock,0,NULL,&status); if(sock_gets(&echosock,buffer,2048)) sock_puts(&echosock,buffer); } sock_err: switch(status) { case 1: /* foreign host closed */ printf("User closed session\n"); break; case -1: /* time-out */ printf("\nConnection timed out\n"); break; } } }

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6.3.2 Active Open

When your Web browser retrieves a page, it is actively opening one or more connections to the Web servers passively opened sockets. To actively open a connection, call tcp_open(), which uses parameters that are similar to the tcp_listen() call. It is necessary to supply exact parameters for ina and port, but the lport parameter can be zero, which tells DCRTCP.LIB to select an unused port between 1024 and 65536. When you call tcp_open(), Dynamic C tries to contact the other device to establish the connection. tcp_open() will fail and return a zero if the connection could not be opened due to routing difficulties, such as an inability to resolve the remote hosts hardware address with ARP. #define #define #define #define MY_IP_ADDRESS "10.10.6.101" MY_NETMASK "255.255.255.0" MY_GATEWAY "10.10.6.19" MY_NAMESERVER "10.10.6.19"

#define WEBSITE "www.zweng.com" #define FILE "/" #define PORT 80 #memmap xmem #use "dcrtcp.lib" main() { int status; tcp_Socket s; char buffer[2048]; longword ip; sock_init(); ip=resolve(WEBSITE); tcp_open(&s,0,ip,PORT,NULL); sock_wait_established(&s,0,NULL,&status); sock_mode(&s,TCP_MODE_ASCII); sprintf(buffer,"GET %s\r\n",FILE); sock_puts(&s,buffer); while(tcp_tick(&s)) { sock_wait_input(&s,0,NULL,&status); if(sock_gets(&s,buffer,2048)) printf("%s\n",buffer); } return 0; sock_err: switch(status) { case 1: /* foreign host closed */ printf("User closed session\n"); break; case -1: /* time-out */ printf("\nConnection timed out\n"); break; } }
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6.3.3 TCP Socket Functions

There are many functions that can be applied to an open TCP socket. They fall into three main categories: control, status, and I/O. Each function is explained in the Dynamic C TCP/IP Users Manual. 6.3.3.1 Control Functions

sock_abort() sock_close() sock_flush()

sock_flushnext() tcp_listen() tcp_open()

tcp_open() and tcp_listen() have already been explained in the active and passive sections. sock_close() should be called when you want to end a connection. A call to sock_close() may not immediately close the connection because it may take some time to send the request to end the connection and receive the acknowledgements. If you want to be sure that the connection is completely closed before continuing your program, you can call tcp_tick() with the address of the socket. When tcp_tick() returns zero, then the socket is completely closed. Please note that if there is data left to be read on the socket, the socket will not completely close. There may be some reason that you want to cancel an open connection. In this case, you can call sock_abort(). This function will cause a TCP reset to be sent to the other end, and other future packets sent on this connection will be ignored. For performance reasons, data may not be immediately sent from a socket to its destination. If your application requires the data to be sent immediately, you can call sock_flush(). This function will cause DCRTCP.LIB to try sending any pending data immediately. If you know ahead of time that data will need to be sent immediately, call sock_flushnext()on the socket. This function will cause the next set of data written to the socket to be sent immediately, and is more efficient than sock_flush().

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6.3.3.2 Status Functions

sock_bytesready() sock_established() sock_rbleft() sock_rbsize() sock_rbused()

sock_tbleft() sock_tbsize() sock_tbused() tcp_tick()

When you supply tcp_tick() with a pointer to a TCP socket, it will first process the packets and then check to see if the socket has an established connection. It returns a zero if the socket is no longer open because of an error condition or if the socket has been closed. You can use this functionality after calling sock_close() on the socket to determine whether the socket is completely closed. sock_close(&my_socket); while(tcp_tick(&my_socket)) { // check time-out, do idle work... } The status functions can be used to avoid blocking when using sock_write() and some of the other I/O functions. The following blocks of code illustrate a way of using the buffer management and socket management functions to avoid blocking. The first block of code checks to make sure that there is enough room in the buffer before adding data with a blocking function. The second makes sure that there is a string terminated with a new line in the buffer, or that the buffer is full before calling sock_gets(). if(sock_tbleft(&my_socket,size)) { sock_write(&my_socket,buffer,size); } or: sock_mode(&my_socket,TCP_MODE_ASCII); if(sock_bytesready(&my_socket) != -1) { sock_gets(buffer,MAX_BUFFER); }

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6.3.3.3 I/O Functions

sock_fastread() sock_fastwrite() sock_getc() sock_gets sock_preread()

sock_putc() sock_puts() sock_read() sock_write()

There are two modes of reading and writing to TCP sockets: ASCII and binary. By default, a socket is opened in binary mode, but you can change that with a call to sock_mode(). When a socket is in ASCII mode, DCRTCP.LIB assumes that the data is an ASCII stream with record boundaries on the newline characters for some of the functions. This behavior means sock_bytesready() will return >=0 only when a complete newline-terminated string is in the buffer or the buffer is full. The sock_puts() function will automatically place a newline character at the end of a string, and sock_gets() will strip the newline character. When in binary mode, do not use sock_gets().

6.4 UDP Interface

sock_fastread() sock_fastwrite() sock_getc() sock_gets sock_putc() sock_puts() sock_read() sock_recv() sock_recv_from() sock_recv_init() sock_write() udp_open()

The UDP protocol is useful when sending messages where either a lost message does not cause a system failure or is handled by the application. Since UDP is a simple protocol and you have control over the retransmissions, you can decide if you can trade low latency for high reliability. Another advantage of UDP is the ability to broadcast packets to a number of computers on the same network. When done properly, broadcasts can reduce overall network traffic because information does not have to be duplicated when there are multiple destinations.

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6.4.1 Opening and Closing

The udp_open() function takes a remote IP address and port number. If they are set to a specific value, all incoming and outgoing packets are filtered on that value (i.e., you talk only to the one socket). If the remote IP address is set to -1, it receives any packet, and outgoing packets are broadcast. If the remote IP address is set to 0, no outgoing packets may be sent until a packet has been received. This first packet completes the socket, filling in the remote IP address and port number with the return address of the incoming packet. Multiple sockets can be opened on the same local port, with the remote address set to 0, to accept multiple incoming connections from separate remote hosts. When you are done communicating on a socket that was started with a 0 IP address, you can close it with sock_close() and reopen to make it ready for another source.

6.4.2 Writing
The normal socket functions you used for writing to a TCP socket will work for a UDP socket, but since UDP is a significantly different service, the result could be different. Each atomic write sock_putc(), sock_puts(), sock_write(), or sock_fastwrite()places its data into a single UDP packet. Since UDP does not guarantee delivery or ordering of packets, the data received may be different either in order or content than the data sent.

6.4.3 Reading
There are two ways to read packets using DCRTCP.LIB. The first method uses the normal sock_getc(), sock_gets(), sock_read(), and sock_fastread() functions. These functions will read the data as it came into the socket, which is not necessarily the data that was written to the socket. The second mode of operation for reading uses sock_recv_init(), sock_recv(), and sock_recv_from(). The sock_recv_init() function installs a large buffer area that gets divided into smaller buffers. Whenever a datagram arrives, DCRTCP.LIB stuffs that datagram into one of these new buffers. sock_recv() scans the buffers for any datagrams received by that socket. If there is a datagram, the length is returned and the user buffer is filled, otherwise it returns zero. The sock_recv_from() function works like sock_recv(), but it allows you to record the IP address where the datagram originated. If you want to reply, you can open a new UDP socket with the IP address modified by sock_recv_from(). There is no way to send UDP packets without a socket. After calling sock_recv_init() on the socket, you should not use sock_getc(), sock_read(), or sock_fastread().

6.4.4 Checksums
There is an optional checksum field inside the UDP header. This field verifies only the header portion of the packet and doesnt cover any part of the data. This feature can be disabled on a reliable network where the application has the ability to detect transmission errors. Disabling the UDP checksum can increase the performance of UDP packets moving through DCRTCP.LIB. This feature can be modified by:
sock_mode(s, UDP_MODE_CHK); sock_mode(s, UDP_MODE_NOCHK);
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// enable checksums // disable checksums

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6.5 Program Design

When designing your program, you must place some thought into how it will be structured. If you plan on using the state-based approach, you need to select the appropriate functions.

6.5.1 State-Based Program Design

One strategy for designing your program with Dynamic C is to create a state machine within a function where you pass it the socket. This method allows you to handle multiple sockets without the services of a multitasking kernel. This is the way the HTTP.LIB functions are organized (see HTTP in the Dynamic C TCP/IP Users Manual). The general states are waiting to be initialized, waiting for a connection, a bunch of connected states, and waiting for the socket to be closed. Many of the common Internet protocols fit well into this state machine model. An example of state-based programming is SAMPLES\TCPIP\STATE.C. This program is a basic Web server that should work with most browsers. It allows a single connection at a time, but could easily be extended to allow multiple connections.

6.5.2 Blocking vs. Non-Blocking

The sock_fastread() and sock_preread() functions read as much data as is available in the buffers, and return immediately. Similarly, sock_fastwrite() fills the buffers and returns the number of characters that were written. When using these functions, it is your responsibility to ensure that all of the data were written completely. offset=0;
while(offset<length) { bytes_written=sock_fastwrite(&socket,buffer+offset,length-offset); if(bytes_written<0) { // error handling } offset+=bytes_written; }

The other functions do not return until they have completed or there is an error. If it is important to avoid blocking, you can check the conditions of an operation to insure that it will not block.
sock_mode(socket,TCP_MODE_ASCII); ... if (sock_bytesready(&my_socket) != -1){ sock_gets(buffer,MAX_BUFFER); }

In this case sock_gets() will not block because it will be called only when there is a complete new line terminated record to read.

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6.5.3 Blocking Macros

To block at a certain point and wait for a condition, DCRTCP.LIB provides some macros to make this task easier. In this program fragment, sock_wait_established is used to block the program until a connection is established. Notice the time-out (second parameter) value of zero. This tells Dynamic C to never time-out. Associated with these macros is a sock_err label to jump to when there is an error. If you supply a pointer to a status integer, it will set the status to an error code. Valid error codes are -1 for time-out and 1 for a reset connection. tcp_open(&s,0,ip,PORT,NULL); sock_wait_established(&s,0,NULL,&status); //... sock_err: switch(status) { case 1: /* foreign host closed */ printf("User closed session\n"); break; case -1: /* time-out */ printf("\nConnection timed out\n"); break; }

6.6 Multitasking and TCP/IP

The TCP/IP engine may be used with the C/OS real-time kernel. The line #use ucos2.lib must appear before the line #use dcrtcp.lib

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7. References

1. A two-part article, Introduction to TCP/IP, in Embedded Systems Programming discusses issues related to programming embedded systems. http://www.embedded.com/internet/9912/9912ia1.htm 2. Ethereal is a good, free program for viewing network traffic. It works under various Unix operating systems and under Windows. http://www.ethereal.com 3. Computer Networks and Internets, Douglas E. Comer. Published by Prentice Hall. ISBN 013-239070-1. This book gives an excellent high-level description of networks and their interfaces. 4. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1 The Protocols, W. Richard Stevens. Published by AddisonWesley. ISBN 0-20-163346-9. This book gives many useful low-level details about TCP/IP, UDP and ICMP.

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Notice to Users
Z-WORLD PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE-SUPPORT DEVICES OR SYSTEMS UNLESS A SPECIFIC WRITTEN AGREEMENT REGARDING SUCH INTENDED USE IS ENTERED INTO BETWEEN THE CUSTOMER AND Z-WORLD PRIOR TO USE. Life-support devices or systems are devices or systems intended for surgical implantation into the body or to sustain life, and whose failure to perform, when properly used in accordance with instructions for use provided in the labeling and users manual, can be reasonably expected to result in significant injury. No complex software or hardware system is perfect. Bugs are always present in a system of any size. In order to prevent danger to life or property, it is the responsibility of the system designer to incorporate redundant protective mechanisms appropriate to the risk involved. The TCP/IP software is designed for use only with Rabbit Semiconductor chips.

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