Devi Ahilya Vishvavidyalaya

1/12/2007

School of Computer Science

hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in

What is a Computer Program?

A program is a set of step-by-step

instructions to the computer telling it to carry out the tasks that you want it to do to produce the results you want.

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What is Programming?
Programming consists of two distinct steps: algorithmic design (the problem solving stage, analogous to the work of an architect designing a building) coding (the construction phase)
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Levels of Programming Languages

Machine language Assembly Language High Level Languages

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Machine Language
Actual binary code that gives basic instructions to the computer. These are usually simple commands like adding two numbers or moving data from one memory location to another. Different for each computer processor
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Assembly Language
A way for humans to program computers directly without memorizing strings of binary numbers. There is a one-to-one correspondence with machine code.
For example ADD and MOV are mnemonics for addition and move operations that can be specified in single machine language instructions.

Different for each computer processor

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High-level language
Permits humans to write complex programs without going step-by step. High-level languages include Pascal, FORTRAN, Java, Visual Basic, and many more. One command in a high-level language may translate to tens of machine language instructions.
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Translation
Computers can only run machine language programs directly. Assembly language programs are assembled, or translated into machine language. Likewise, programs written in high-level languages, like Java, must also be translated into machine language before they can be run. To do this translation compile a program.

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Translation
#include <stdio.h> int main() { printf(Hello World); return 0; }
10100110 01110110 00100110 00000000 11111010 11111010 01001110 10100110 11100110 10010110 11001110 00101110 10100110 01001110 11111010 01100110 01001110 10000110 etc...

Source code

Executable code

Compilers and linkers translate a high level program into executable machine code 1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in

Structured Programming
STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING A technique for organizing and coding computer programs in which a hierarchy of modules is used, each having a single entry and a single exit point, and in which control is passed downward through the structure withOUT UNconditional branches to higher levels of the structure. Three types of control flow are used: (1) sequential, (2) selection, and (3) iteration.

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Programming language C
C is a general purpose programming language. C is a middle level language. C is a structured language.

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Programming language C
Why C is called a middle level language? C contains the features of high level language portability it is easy to adapt software written for one type of computer to another type. the functionality low level language. - operators such as &, |,>,< etc. simulate to low level instruction codes. - Direct manipulation of bits, bytes and addresses.

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Writing C Programs
A programmer uses a text editor to create or modify files containing C code. Code is also known as source code. A file containing source code is called a source file. After a C source file has been created, the programmer must invoke the C compiler before the program can be executed (run).

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Invoking the tcc Compiler

At the prompt, type tcc pgm.c where pgm.c is the C program source file. There is a better way use of IDE instead of command.
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The Result : pgm.obj, pgm.exe

If there are no errors in pgm.c, this command produces an executable file, which is one that can be executed (run). The tcc compiler puts exe extension of the executable file. Also the obj file contains the machine level code. To execute the program, at the prompt, type pgm.exe Although we call this process compiling a program, what actually happens is more complicated.
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3 Stages of Compilation
Stage 1: Preprocessing

Performed by a program called the preprocessor Modifies the source code (in RAM) according to preprocessor directives (preprocessor commands) embedded in the source code

Strips comments and white space from the code The source code as stored on disk is not modified.

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3 Stages of Compilation (cont)

Stage 2: Compilation
Performed by a program called the compiler Translates the preprocessor-modified source code into object code (machine code) Checks for syntax errors and warnings Saves the object code to a disk file, if instructed to do so (we will not do this).
If any compiler errors are received, no object code file will be generated. An object code file will be generated if only warnings, not errors, are received.
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3 Stages of Compilation (cont)

Stage 3: Linking
Combines the program object code with other object code to produce the executable file. The other object code can come from the RunTime Library, other libraries, or object files that you have created. Saves the executable code to a disk file. On the Linux system, that file is called a.out.
If any linker errors are received, no executable file will be generated.
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Program Development
Editor
Source File pgm.c

Preprocessor
Modified Source Code in RAM

Compiler
Program Object Code File pgm.obj Other Object Code Files (if any)

Linker
Executable File pgm.exe
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A Simple C Program
/* Filename: Author: Date written: Description: */ #include <stdio.h> int main ( void ) { printf ( Hello, World!\n ) ; return 0 ; }
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hello.c Brian Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie ?/?/1978 This program prints the greeting Hello, World!

Anatomy of a C Program
program header comment preprocessor directives (if any) int main ( ) { statement(s) return 0 ; }
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Program Header Comment

A comment is descriptive text used to help a reader of the program understand its content. All comments must begin with the characters /* and end with the characters */ These are called comment delimiters The program header comment always comes first.

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Preprocessor Directives
Lines that begin with a # in column 1 are called preprocessor directives (commands). Example: the #include <stdio.h> directive causes the preprocessor to include a copy of the standard input/output header file stdio.h at this point in the code. This header file was included because it contains information about the printf ( ) function that is used in this program.
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stdio.h
When we write our programs, there are libraries of functions to help us so that we do not have to write the same code over and over again. Some of the functions are very complex and long. Not having to write them ourselves make it easier and faster to write programs. Using the functions will also make it easier to learn to program!
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int main ( void )

Every program must have a function called main. This is where program execution begins. main() is placed in the source code file as the first function for readability. The reserved word int indicates that main() returns an integer value. The parentheses following the reserved word main indicate that it is a function. The reserved word void means nothing is there.
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The Function Body

A left brace (curly bracket) -- { -- begins the body of every function. A corresponding right brace -- } -- ends the function body. The style is to place these braces on separate lines in column 1 and to indent the entire function body 3 to 5 spaces.

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printf (Hello, World!\n) ;

This line is a C statement. It is a call to the function printf ( ) with a single argument (parameter), namely the string Hello, World!\n. Even though a string may contain many characters, the string itself should be thought of as a single quantity. Notice that this line ends with a semicolon. All statements in C end with a semicolon.
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return 0 ;
Because function main() returns an integer value, there must be a statement that indicates what this value is. The statement return 0 ; indicates that main() returns a value of zero to the operating system. A value of 0 indicates that the program successfully terminated execution. Do not worry about this concept now. Just remember to use the statement.
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Another C Program
/***************************************** ** File: proj1.c ** Author: ___________ ** Date: 9/15/01 ** E-mail: _________________ ** ** This program prompts the user for two integer values then displays ** their product. ** ***********************************************/

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Another C Program (cont)

#include <stdio.h> int main( void ) { int value1, value2, product ; printf(Enter two integer values: ) ; scanf(%d%d, &value1, &value2) ; product = value1 * value2 ; printf(Product = %d\n, product) ; return 0 ; }
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Tokens
The smallest element in the C language is the token. It may be a single character or a sequence of characters to form a single item.

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Tokens are:
Tokens can be:
Numeric constants Character constants String constants Keywords Names (identifiers) Punctuation Operators

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Numeric Constants
Numeric constants are an uninterrupted sequence of digits (and may contain a period). They never contain a comma. Examples:
123 98.6 1000000

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Character Constants
One character from a defined character set. Surrounded on the single quotation mark. Examples:
A a $ 4
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String Constants
A sequence characters surrounded by double quotation marks. Considered a single item. Examples:
DAVV I like ice cream. 123 DHOOM-2 car
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Keywords
Sometimes called reserved words. Are defined as a part of the C language. Can not be used for anything else! Examples:
int while for

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Names
Sometimes called identifiers. Can be of anything length, but on the first 31 are significant (too long is as bad as too short). Are case sensitive:
abc is different from ABC

Must begin with a letter and the rest can be letters, digits, and underscores. There can be one exception to beginning letter that variable name can start with underscore( _ ) but it is used by C library.
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Punctuation
Semicolons, colons, commas, apostrophes, quotation marks, braces, brackets, and parentheses. ; : , [ ] { } ( )

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Operators
There are operators for:

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assignments mathematical operations relational operations Boolean operations bitwise operations shifting values calling functions subscripting obtaining the size of an object obtaining the address of an object referencing an object through its address
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What Are Variables in C?

Variables in C have the same meaning as variables in algebra. That is, they represent some unknown, or variable, value. x=a+b z + 2 = 3(y - 5) Remember that variables in algebra are represented by a single alphabetic character.
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Naming Variables
Variables in C may be given representations containing multiple characters. But there are rules for these representations. Variable names (identifiers) in C
May only consist of letters, digits, and underscores May be as long as you like, but only the first 31 characters are significant May not begin with a digit May not be a C reserved word (keyword)
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Reserved Words (Keywords) in C

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auto case const default double enum float goto

break char continue do else extern for if

School of Computer Science

int register short sizeof struct typedef unsigned volatile

long return signed static switch union void while

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Naming Conventions
C programmers generally agree on the following conventions for naming variables.
Begin variable names with lowercase letters Use meaningful identifiers Separate words within identifiers with underscores or mixed upper and lower case. Examples: surfaceArea surface_Area surface_area Be consistent!
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Naming Conventions (cont)

Use all uppercase for symbolic constants (used in #define preprocessor directives). Note: symbolic constants are not variables, but make the program easier to read. Examples: #define PI 3.14159 #define AGE 52

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Case Sensitivity
C is case sensitive
It matters whether an identifier, such as a variable name, is uppercase or lowercase. Example: area Area AREA ArEa are all seen as different variables by the compiler.
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Which Are Legal Identifiers?

AREA 3D Last-Chance x_yt3 num$ lucky*** area_under_the_curve num45 #values pi %done

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Declaring Variables
Before using a variable, you must give the compiler some information about the variable; i.e., you must declare it. The declaration statement includes the data type of the variable. They must be declared just after the start of block (i.e. start of a function) and before any other executable statement. Examples of variable declarations: int meatballs ; float area ;
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Declaring Variables (cont)

When we declare a variable
Space is set aside in memory to hold a value of the specified data type That space is associated with the variable name That space is associated with a unique address

Visualization of the declaration

int meatballs ;
meatballs garbage FE07
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int
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Notes About Variables

You must not use a variable until you somehow give it a value. You can not assume that the variable will have a value before you give it one.
Some compilers do, others do not! This is the source of many errors that are difficult to find.

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Simple Data Types

Type char unsigned char signed char int unsigned int signed int short int unsigned short int signed short int long int signed long int unsigned long int float double long double 1/12/2007 Typical Size in Bits 8 8 8 16 16 16 16 16 16 32 32 32 32 64 80 Minimal Range 128 to 127 0 to 255 128 to 127 32,768 to 32,767 0 to 65,535 Same as int 32,768 to 32,767 0 to 65,535 Same as short int 2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 Same as long int 0 to 4,294,967,295 1E37 to 1E+37 with six digits of precision 1E37 to 1E+37 with ten digits of precision 1E37 to 1E+37 with ten digits of precision hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 50

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Using Variables: Initialization

Variables may be be given initial values, or initialized, when declared. Examples:
length

int length = 7 ; float diameter = 5.9 ; char initial = A ;

7
diameter

5.9
initial

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Using Variables: Assignment

Variables may have values assigned to them through the use of an assignment statement. Such a statement uses the assignment operator = This operator does not denote equality. It assigns the value of the right-hand side of the statement (the expression) to the variable on the left-hand side. Examples: diameter = 5.9 ; area = length * width ; Note that only single variables (LValue) may appear on the left-hand side of the assignment operator.
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Functions
It is necessary for us to use some functions to write our first programs. Functions are parts of programs that perform a certain task and we have to give them some information so the function can do the task. We will show you how to use the functions as we go through the course and later on will show you how to create your own.

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Getting Input from User

Every process requires some input from the user. Variables hold the input values. We have a function called scanf( ) that will allow us to do that. The function scanf needs two pieces of information to display things.
The data type of input values Address where to store the values

scanf( %f, &diameter );

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Displaying Variables
Variables hold values that we occasionally want to show the person using the program. We have a function called printf( ) that will allow us to do that. The function printf needs two pieces of information to display things.
How to display it What to display

printf( %f\n, &diameter );

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printf( %f\n, diameter );

The name of the function is printf. Inside the parentheses are:
print specification, where we are going to display:
a floating point value (%f) We want to have the next thing started on a new line (\n).

We want to display the contents of the variable diameter.

printf( ) has many other capabilities.

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Backslash Codes
Code
\b \f \n \r \t \" \' \\ \v \a \? \N \xN
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Meaning
Backspace Form feed New line Carriage return Horizontal tab Double quote Single quote Backslash Vertical tab Alert Question mark Octal constant (where N is an octal constant) Hexadecimal constant (where N is a hexadecimal constant)
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Format Specifiers for printf and scanf

Data Type long double double float unsigned long int long int unsigned int int short char
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Printf specifier %Lf %f %f %lu %ld %u %d %hd %c

Scanf specifier %Lf %lf %f %lu %ld %u %d %hd %c

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Both printf and scanf Returns a Value

We can call printf as i=810;
n=printf(%d,i);

We also can call a scanf m=scanf(%d%f,&i,&f) What will be the value of n & m if every thing goes fine.
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Example: Declarations and Assignments

#include <stdio.h> int main( void ) { int inches, feet, fathoms ; fathoms = 7 ; feet = 6 * fathoms ; inches = 12 * feet ;

inches

garbage
feet

garbage
fathoms

garbage
fathoms 7 feet 42 inches 504

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Example: Declarations and Assignments (contd)

printf (Its depth at sea: \n) ; printf ( %d fathoms \n, fathoms) ; printf ( %d feet \n, feet) ; printf ( %d inches \n, inches) ; return 0 ; }

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Enhancing Our Example

What if the depth were really 5.75 fathoms? Our program, as it is, couldnt handle it. Unlike integers, floating point numbers can contain decimal portions. So, lets use floating point, rather than integer. Lets also ask the user to enter the number of fathoms, by using the scanf( ) function.
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Enhanced Program
#include <stdio.h> int main ( void ) { float inches, feet, fathoms ; printf (Enter the depth in fathoms : ) ; scanf (%f, &fathoms) ; feet = 6 * fathoms ; inches = 12 * feet ; printf (Its depth at sea: \n) ; printf ( %f fathoms \n, fathoms) ; printf ( %f feet \n, feet) ; printf ( %f inches \n, inches) ; return 0 ; }
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scanf (%f, &fathoms) ;

The scanf( ) function also needs two items:
The input specification %f. (Never put a \n into the input specification.) The address of where to store the information. (We can input more than one item at a time if we wish, as long as we specify it correctly.)

Notice the & in front of the variable name. It says to use the address of the variable to hold the information that the user enters.
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Final Clean Program

#include <stdio.h> #define FEET_PER_FATHOM 6 #define INCHES_PER_FOOT 12 int main( void ) { float inches ; float feet ; float fathoms ;

/* number of inches deep */ /* number of feet deep */ /* number of fathoms deep */

/* Get the depth in fathoms from the user */ printf (Enter the depth in fathoms : ) ; scanf (%f, &fathoms) ;
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Final Clean Program (cont)

/* Convert the depth to inches */ feet = FEET_PER_FATHOM * fathoms ; inches = INCHES_PER_FOOT * feet ; /* Display the results */ printf (Its depth at sea: \n) ; printf ( %f fathoms \n, fathoms) ; printf ( %f feet \n, feet); printf ( %f inches \n, inches); return 0 ; }
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Good Programming Practices

Place each variable declaration on its own line with a descriptive comment. Place a comment before each logical chunk of code describing what it does. Do not place a comment on the same line as code (with the exception of variable declarations). Use spaces around all arithmetic and assignment operators. Use blank lines to enhance readability.
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Good Programming Practices (cont)

Place a blank line between the last variable declaration and the first executable statement of the program. Indent the body of the program 3 to 5 spaces -- be consistent! Comments should explain why you are doing something, not what you are doing it.
a = a + 1 /* add one to a */ /* WRONG */ /* count new student */ /* RIGHT*/
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Another Sample Program

#include <stdio.h> #define PI 3.14159 int main ( void ) { float radius = 3.0; float area; area = PI * radius * radius; printf( The area is %f.\n, area ); return 0 ; }
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Arithmetic Operators in C
Name Operator Example num1 + num2 initial - spent fathoms * 6 sum / count m%n

Addition + Subtraction Multiplication * Division / Modulus %

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Division
If both operands of a division expression are integers, you will get an integer answer. The fractional portion is thrown away. Examples : 17 / 5 = 3 4 / 3 = 1 35 / 9 = 3

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Division (cont)
Division where at least one operand is a floating point number will produce a floating point answer. Examples : 17.0 / 5 = 3.4 4 / 3.2 = 1.25 35.2 / 9.1 = 3.86813 What happens? The integer operand is temporarily converted to a floating point, then the division is performed.
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Division By Zero
Division by zero is mathematically undefined. If you allow division by zero in a program, it will cause a fatal error. Your program will terminate execution and give an error message. Non-fatal errors do not cause program termination, just produce incorrect results.
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Modulus
The expression m % n yields the integer remainder after m is divided by n. Modulus is an integer operation -- both operands MUST be integers. Examples : 17 % 5 = 2 6%3 = 0 9%2 = 1 5%8 = 5
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Uses for Modulus

Used to determine if an integer value is even or odd 5 % 2 = 1 odd 4 % 2 = 0 even If you take the modulus by 2 of an integer, a result of 1 means the number is odd and a result of 0 means the number is even.

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Arithmetic Operators Rules of Operator Precedence

Operator(s) () Precedence & Associativity Evaluated first. If nested, innermost first. If on same level, evaluated left to right. Evaluated second. If there are several, evaluated left to right. Evaluated third. If there are several, evaluated left to right. Evaluated last, right to left.

* / % + =

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Using Parentheses
Use parentheses to change the order in which an expression is evaluated. a+b*c Would multiply b * c first, then add a to the result. If you really want the sum of a and b to be multiplied by c, use parentheses to force the evaluation to be done in the order you want. (a + b) * c Also use parentheses to clarify a complex expression.
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Practice With Evaluating Expressions

Given integer variables a, b, c, d, and e, where a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4, evaluate the following expressions: a+b-c+d a*b/c 1+a*b%c a+d%b-c e=b=d+c/b-a
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Relational Operators
< > <= >= == != less than greater than less than or equal to greater than or equal to is equal to is not equal to

Relational expressions evaluate to the integer values 1 (true) or 0 (false). All of these operators are called binary operators because they take two expressions as operands.
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Practice with Relational Expressions

int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 ; Expression Value a < c b <= c c <= a a>b b >= c
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Expression a + b >= c a + b == c a != b a + b != c

Value

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Arithmetic Expressions: True or False

Arithmetic expressions evaluate to numeric values. An arithmetic expression that has a value of zero is false. An arithmetic expression that has a value other than zero is true.

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Practice with Arithmetic Expressions

int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 ; float x = 3.33, y = 6.66 ; Expression Numeric Value a+b b-2*a c-b-a c-a y-x y-2*x
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True/False

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Increment and Decrement Operators

The increment operator ++ The decrement operator - Precedence: lower than (), but higher than * / and % Associativity: right to left Increment and decrement operators can only be applied to variables, not to constants or expressions
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Increment Operator
If we want to add one to a variable, we can say: count = count + 1 ; Programs often contain statements that increment variables, so to save on typing, C provides these shortcuts: count++ ; OR ++count ; Both do the same thing. They change the value of count by adding one to it.
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Postincrement Operator
The position of the ++ determines when the value is incremented. If the ++ is after the variable, then the incrementing is done last (a postincrement). int amount, count ; count = 3 ; amount = 2 * count++ ; amount gets the value of 2 * 3, which is 6, and then 1 gets added to count. So, after executing the last line, amount is 6 and count is 4.
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Preincrement Operator
If the ++ is before the variable, then the incrementing is done first (a preincrement). int amount, count ; count = 3 ; amount = 2 * ++count ; 1 gets added to count first, then amount gets the value of 2 * 4, which is 8. So, after executing the last line, amount is 8 and count is 4.
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Code Example Using ++

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int i = 1 ; /* count from 1 to 10 */ while ( i < 11 ) { printf (%d , i) ; i++ ; /* same as ++i */ } return 0 ; }
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Decrement Operator
If we want to subtract one from a variable, we can say: count = count - 1 ; Programs often contain statements that decrement variables, so to save on typing, C provides these shortcuts: count-- ; OR --count ; Both do the same thing. They change the value of count by subtracting one from it.
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Postdecrement Operator
The position of the -- determines when the value is decremented. If the -- is after the variable, then the decrementing is done last (a postdecrement). int amount, count ; count = 3 ; amount = 2 * count-- ; amount gets the value of 2 * 3, which is 6, and then 1 gets subtracted from count. So, after executing the last line, amount is 6 and count is 2.
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Predecrement Operator
If the -- is before the variable, then the decrementing is done first (a predecrement). int amount, count ; count = 3 ; amount = 2 * --count ; 1 gets subtracted from count first, then amount gets the value of 2 * 2, which is 4. So, after executing the last line, amount is 4 and count is 2.
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A Hand Trace Example

int answer, value = 4 ; Code value = value + 1 ; value++ ; ++value ; answer = 2 * value++ ; answer = ++value / 2 ; value-- ; --value ; answer = --value * 2 ;
1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 91

Value
4

Answer
garbage

Lvalue Required
answer++ = value-- / 3 ;
In C any value that is having an address is called an Lvalue.

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Practice
Given int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 ; What is the value of this expression? ++a * b - c-What are the new values of a, b, and c?

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More Practice
Given int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4 ; What is the value of this expression? ++b / c + a * d++ What are the new values of a, b, c, and d?

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Assignment Operators
= += -= Statement a=a+2; a=a-3; a=a*2; a=a/4; a=a%2; b=b+(c+2); d=d*(e-5);
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*= /= %= Equivalent Statement a += 2 ; a -= 3 ; a *= 2 ; a /= 4 ; a %= 2 ; b += c + 2 ; d *= e - 5 ;
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Practice with Assignment Operators

int i = 1, j = 2, k = 3, m = 4 ; Expression i += j + k j *= k = m + 5 k -= m /= j * 2
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Value

Code Example Using /= and ++ Counting the Digits in an Integer

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int num, temp, digits = 0 ; temp = num = 4327 ; while ( temp > 0 ) { printf (%d\n, temp) ; temp /= 10 ; digits++ ; } printf (There are %d digits in %d.\n, digits, num) ; return 0 ; }
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Operator Precedence and Associativity

Precedence Associativity () left to right/inside-out ++ -- ! + (unary) - (unary) (type) right to left * / % left to right + (addition) - (subtraction) left to right < <= > >= left to right == != left to right && left to right || left to right = += -= *= /= %= right to left , (comma) right to left
1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 98

Review: Structured Programming

All programs can be written in terms of only three control structures
The sequence structure
Unless otherwise directed, the statements are executed in the order in which they are written.

The selection structure

Used to choose among alternative courses of action.

The repetition structure

Allows an action to be repeated while some condition remains true.
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Selection: the if statement

if ( condition ) { statement(s) }

/* body of the if statement */

The braces are not required if the body contains only a single statement. However, they are a good idea and are required by the 104 C Coding Standards.
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Examples
if ( age >= 18 ) { printf(Vote!\n) ; } if ( value == 0 ) { printf (The value you entered was zero.\n) ; printf (Please try again.\n) ; }
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Good Programming Practice

Always place braces around the body of an if statement. Advantages:
Easier to read Will not forget to add the braces if you go back and add a second statement to the body Less likely to make a semantic error

Indent the body of the if statement 3 to 5 spaces -- be consistent!

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Selection: the if-else statement

if ( condition ) { statement(s) } else { statement(s) }
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/* the if clause */

/* the else clause */

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Example
if ( age >= 18 ) { printf(Vote!\n) ; } else { printf(Maybe next time!\n) ; }
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Example
if ( value == 0 ) { printf (The value you entered was zero.\n) ; printf(Please try again.\n) ; } else { printf (Value = %d.\n, value) ; }
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Good Programming Practice

Always place braces around the bodies of the if and else clauses of an if-else statement. Advantages:
Easier to read Will not forget to add the braces if you go back and add a second statement to the clause Less likely to make a semantic error

Indent the bodies of the if and else clauses 3 to 5 spaces -- be consistent!

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The Conditional Operator

expr1 ? expr2 : expr3 If expr1 is true then expr2 is executed, else expr3 is evaluated, i.e.: x = ((y < z) ? y : z); OR (y < z) ? printf(%d is smaller,y): printf(%d is smaller,y);

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Nesting of if-else Statements

if ( condition1 ) { statement(s) } else if ( condition2 ) { statement(s) } ... /* more else clauses may be here */ else { statement(s) /* the default case */ }
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Example
if ( value == 0 ) { printf (The value you entered was zero.\n) ; } else if ( value < 0 ) { printf (%d is negative.\n, value) ; } else { printf (%d is positive.\n, value) ; }
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Gotcha! = versus ==
int a = 2 ; if ( a = 1 ) /* semantic (logic) error! */ { printf (a is one\n) ; } else if ( a == 2 ) { printf (a is two\n) ; } else { printf (a is %d\n, a) ; }
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Gotcha (cont)
The statement if (a = 1) is syntactically correct, so no error message will be produced. (Some compilers will produce a warning.) However, a semantic (logic) error will occur. An assignment expression has a value -- the value being assigned. In this case the value being assigned is 1, which is true. If the value being assigned was 0, then the expression would evaluate to 0, which is false.
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Logical Operators
So far we have seen only simple conditions. if ( count > 10 ) . . . Sometimes we need to test multiple conditions in order to make a decision. Logical operators are used for combining simple conditions to make complex conditions. && || !
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is AND is OR is NOT

if ( x > 5 && y < 6 ) if ( z == 0 || x > 10 ) if (! (bob > 42) )

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Example Use of &&

if ( age < 1 && gender == m) { printf (Infant boy\n) ; }

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Truth Table for &&

Expression1 0 0 nonzero nonzero Expression2 0 nonzero 0 nonzero Expression1 && Expression2 0 0 0 1

Exp1 && Exp2 && && Expn will evaluate to 1 (true) only if ALL subconditions are true.
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Example Use of ||
if (grade == D || grade == F) { printf (See with your Juniors !\n) ; }

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Truth Table for ||

Expression1 0 0 nonzero nonzero Expression2 0 nonzero 0 nonzero Expression1 || Expression2 0 1 1 1

Exp1 && Exp2 && && Expn will evaluate to 1 (true) if only ONE subcondition is true.
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Example Use of !
if ( ! (x == 2) ) /* same as (x != 2) */ { printf(x is not equal to 2.\n) ; }

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Truth Table for !

Expression 0 nonzero ! Expression 1 0

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Gotcha! && or ||
int a = 0 ; int b=1; if ( (a++ == 1) && (b++==1 ) ) /* semantic (logic) error! */ { printf (First Gotcha\n) ; } else if ( (a++ == 0) || (b++==1 ) ) { printf (Second Gotcha\n) ; } else { printf (a is %d\n, a) ; }
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Gotcha (cont)
While evaluating a condition if first subpart of a Complex condition having && operator is false than the remaining subpart will not be evaluated.

Similarly While evaluating a condition if first subpart of a Complex condition having || operator is true than the remaining subpart will not be evaluated.
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Some Practice Expressions

int a = 1, b = 0, c = 7; Expression a b c a+b a && b a || b !c !!c a && !b a < b && b < c a > b && b < c a >= b || b > c
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Numeric Value

True/False

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More Practice
Given int a = 5, b = 7, c = 17 ; evaluate each expression as True or False. 1. c / b == 2 2. c % b <= a % b 3. b + c / a != c - a 4. (b < c) && (c == 7) 5. (c + 1 - b == 0) || (b = 5)
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Review: Repetition Structure

A repetition structure allows the programmer to specify that an action is to be repeated while some condition remains true. There are three repetition structures in C, the while loop, the for loop, and the do-while loop.

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The while Repetition Structure

while ( condition ) { statement(s) } The braces are not required if the loop body contains only a single statement. However, they are a good idea and are required by the 104 C Coding Standards.

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Parts of a While Loop

Every while loop will always contain three main elements:
Priming: initialize your variables. Testing: test against some known condition. Updating: update the variable that is tested.

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Simple While Loop

OUTPUT: Index: Index: #include <stdio.h> Index: #define MAX 10 Index: 1. Priming main () Index: Index: { 2. Test Condition Index: int index =1; Index: while (index <= MAX) { Index: printf ("Index: %d\n", index);Index: index = index + 1; 3. Update } } 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Example
while ( children > 0 ) { children = children - 1 ; cookies = cookies * 2 ; }

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Good Programming Practice

Always place braces around the body of a while loop. Advantages:
Easier to read Will not forget to add the braces if you go back and add a second statement to the loop body Less likely to make a semantic error

Indent the body of a while loop 3 to 5 spaces -- be consistent!

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Another while Loop Example

Problem: Write a program that calculates the average exam grade for a class of 10 students. What are the program inputs?
the exam grades

What are the program outputs?

the average exam grade

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The Pseudocode
<total> = 0 <grade_counter> = 1 While (<grade_counter> <= 10) Display Enter a grade: Read <grade> <total> = <total> + <grade> <grade_counter> = <grade_counter> + 1 End_while <average> = <total> / 10 Display Class average is: , <average>

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The C Code
#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int counter, grade, total, average ; total = 0 ; counter = 1 ; while ( counter <= 10 ) { printf (Enter a grade : ) ; scanf (%d, &grade) ; total = total + grade ; counter = counter + 1 ; } average = total / 10 ; printf (Class average is: %d\n, average) ; return 0 ; }
1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 131

Versatile?
How versatile is this program? It only works with class sizes of 10. We would like it to work with any class size. A better way :
Ask the user how many students are in the class. Use that number in the condition of the while loop and when computing the average.

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New Pseudocode
<total> = 0 <grade_counter> = 1 Display Enter the number of students: Read <num_students> While (<grade_counter> <= <num_students>) Display Enter a grade: Read <grade> <total> = <total> + <grade> <grade_counter> = <grade_counter> + 1 End_while <average> = <total> / <num_students> Display Class average is: , <average>

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New C Code
#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int numStudents, counter, grade, total, average ; total = 0 ; counter = 1 ; printf (Enter the number of students: ) ; scanf (%d, &numStudents) ; while ( counter <= numStudents) { printf (Enter a grade : ) ; scanf (%d, &grade) ; total = total + grade ; counter = counter + 1 ; } average = total / numStudents ; printf (Class average is: %d\n, average) ; return 0 ; }
1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 134

Why Bother to Make It Easier?

Why do we write programs?
So the user can perform some task

The more versatile the program, the more difficult it is to write. BUT it is more useable. The more complex the task, the more difficult it is to write. But that is often what a user needs. Always consider the user first.

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Using a Sentinel Value

We could let the user keep entering grades and when hes done enter some special value that signals us that hes done. This special signal value is called a sentinel value. We have to make sure that the value we choose as the sentinel isnt a legal value. For example, we cant use 0 as the sentinel in our example as it is a legal value for an exam score.
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The Priming Read

When we use a sentinel value to control a while loop, we have to get the first value from the user before we encounter the loop so that it will be tested and the loop can be entered. This is known as a priming read. We have to give significant thought to the initialization of variables, the sentinel value, and getting into the loop.
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New Pseudocode
<total> = 0 <grade_counter> = 1 Display Enter a grade: Read <grade> While ( <grade> != -1 ) <total> = <total> + <grade> <grade_counter> = <grade_counter> + 1 Display Enter another grade: Read <grade> End_while <average> = <total> / <grade_counter> Display Class average is: , <average>

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New C Code
#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int counter, grade, total, average ; total = 0 ; counter = 1 ; printf(Enter a grade: ) ; scanf(%d, &grade) ; while (grade != -1) { total = total + grade ; counter = counter + 1 ; printf(Enter another grade: ) ; scanf(%d, &grade) ; } average = total / counter ; printf (Class average is: %d\n, average) ; return 0 ; }
1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 139

Final Clean C Code

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int counter ; /* counts number of grades entered */ int grade ; /* individual grade */ int total; /* total of all grades */ int average ; /* average grade */ /* Initializations */ total = 0 ; counter = 1 ;

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Final Clean C Code (cont)

/* Get grades from user */ /* Compute grade total and number of grades */ printf(Enter a grade: ) ; scanf(%d, &grade) ; while (grade != -1) { total = total + grade ; counter = counter + 1 ; printf(Enter another grade: ) ; scanf(%d, &grade) ; } /* Compute and display the average grade */ average = total / counter ; printf (Class average is: %d\n, average) ; return 0 ; }
1/12/2007 School of Computer Science hmehta.scs@dauniv.ac.in 141

Using a while Loop to Check User Input #include <stdio.h>

int main ( ) { int number ; printf (Enter a positive integer : ) ; scanf (%d, &number) ; while ( number <= 0 ) { printf (\nThats incorrect. Try again.\n) ; printf (Enter a positive integer: ) ; scanf (%d, &number) ; } printf (You entered: %d\n, number) ; return 0 ; }
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Counter-Controlled Repetition (Definite Repetition)

If it is known in advance exactly how many times a loop will execute, it is known as a counter-controlled loop.
int i = 1 ; while ( i <= 10 ) { printf(i = %d\n, i) ; i=i+1; }
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Counter-Controlled Repetition (cont)

Is the following loop a counter-controlled

loop?
while ( x != y ) { printf(x = %d, x) ; x=x+2; }
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Event-Controlled Repetition (Indefinite Repetition)

If it is NOT known in advance exactly how many times a loop will execute, it is known as an event-controlled loop.
sum = 0 ; printf(Enter an integer value: ) ; scanf(%d, &value) ; while ( value != -1) { sum = sum + value ; printf(Enter another value: ) ; scanf(%d, &value) ; }
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Event-Controlled Repetition (cont)

An event-controlled loop will terminate when some event occurs. The event may be the occurrence of a sentinel value, as in the previous example. There are other types of events that may occur, such as reaching the end of a data file.

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The 3 Parts of a Loop

#include <stdio.h> int main () { int i = 1 ; /* count from 1 to 100 */ while ( i < 101 ) { printf (%d , i) ; i=i+1; } return 0 ; }

initialization of loop control variable

test of loop termination condition

modification of loop control variable

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The for Loop Repetition Structure

The for loop handles details of the counter-controlled loop automatically. The initialization of the the loop control variable, the termination condition test, and control variable modification are handled in the for loop structure. for ( i = 1; i < 101; i = i + 1) { initialization modification } test

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When Does a for Loop Initialize, Test and Modify?

Just as with a while loop, a for loop initializes the loop control variable before beginning the first loop iteration, modifies the loop control variable at the very end of each iteration of the loop, and performs the loop termination test before each iteration of the loop.

The for loop is easier to write and read for counter-controlled loops.
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A for Loop That Counts From 0 to 9

for ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 1 ) { printf (%d\n, i) ; }

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We Can Count Backwards, Too

for ( i = 9; i >= 0; i = i - 1 ) { printf (%d\n, i) ; }

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We Can Count By 2s ... or 7s or Whatever

for ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i + 2 ) { printf (%d\n, i) ; }

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The do-while Repetition Structure

do { statement(s) } while ( condition ) ; The body of a do-while is ALWAYS executed at least once. Is this true of a while loop? What about a for loop?
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Example
do { printf (Enter a positive number: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; if ( num <= 0 ) { printf (\nThat is not positive. Try again\n) ; } } while ( num <= 0 ) ;

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An Equivalent while Loop

printf (Enter a positive number: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; while ( num <= 0 ) { printf (\nThat is not positive. Try again\n) ; printf (Enter a positive number: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; }

Notice that using a while loop in this case requires a priming read.
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An Equivalent for Loop

printf (Enter a positive number: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; for ( ; num <= 0; ) { printf (\nThat is not positive. Try again\n) ; printf (Enter a positive number: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; }

A for loop is a very awkward choice here because the loop is event-controlled.
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So, Which Type of Loop Should I Use?

Use a for loop for counter-controlled repetition. Use a while or do-while loop for eventcontrolled repetition.
Use a do-while loop when the loop must execute at least one time. Use a while loop when it is possible that the loop may never execute.

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Infinite Loop
Infinite Loop: A loop that never ends.
Generally, you want to avoid these! There are special cases, however, when you do want to create infinite loops on purpose.

Common Exam Questions:

Given a piece of code, identify the bug in the code. You may need to identify infinite loops.
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Infinite Loop Example #1

#include <stdio.h> #define MAX 10 main () { int index =1; while (index <= MAX) { printf ("Index: %d\n", index); } }
Index: Index: Index: Index: Index: 1 1 1 1 1

[forever]

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Infinite Loop, Example #2

#include <stdio.h> /*no MAX here*/ main () { int index = 1; while (index > 0) { printf ("Index: %d\n", index); index = index + 1; } }
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Index: Index: Index: Index: Index:

1 2 3 4 5

[forever] ?

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Nested Loops
Loops may be nested (embedded) inside of each other. Actually, any control structure (sequence, selection, or repetition) may be nested inside of any other control structure. It is common to see nested for loops.

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Nested for Loops

for ( i = 1; i < 5; i = i + 1 ) { for ( j = 1; j < 3; j = j + 1 ) { if ( j % 2 == 0 ) { printf (O) ; } else { printf (X) ; } } printf (\n) ; }
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How many times is the if statement executed?

What is the output ?

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The break Statement

The break statement can be used in while, do-while, and for loops to cause premature exit of the loop.

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Example break in a for Loop

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { OUTPUT: int i ; for ( i = 1; i < 10; i = i + 1 ) 1234 { if (i == 5) Broke out of loop at i = 5. { break ; } printf (%d , i) ; } printf (\nBroke out of loop at i = %d.\n, i) ; return 0 ; }
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The continue Statement

The continue statement can be used in while, do-while, and for loops. It causes the remaining statements in the body of the loop to be skipped for the current iteration of the loop.

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Example continue in a for Loop

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { int i ; for ( i = 1; i < 10; i = i + 1 ) { if (i == 5) { continue ; } printf (%d , i) ; } printf (\nDone.\n) ; return 0 ; }
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OUTPUT: 12346789 Done.

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Debugging Tips
Trace your code by hand (a hand trace), keeping track of the value of each variable. Insert temporary printf() statements so you can see what your program is doing.
Confirm that the correct value(s) has been read in. Check the results of arithmetic computations immediately after they are performed.
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Multiple Selection
So far, we have only seen binary selection. if ( age >= 18 )
if ( age >= 18 ) { printf(Vote!\n) ; } } else { printf(Maybe next time!\n) ; } { printf(Vote!\n) ;

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Multiple Selection (cont)

Sometimes it is necessary to branch in more than two directions. We do this via multiple selection. The multiple selection mechanism in C is the switch statement.

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Multiple Selection with if

if (day == 0 ) { printf (Sunday) ; } if (day == 1 ) { printf (Monday) ; } if (day == 2) { printf (Tuesday) ; } if (day == 3) { printf (Wednesday) ; } if (day == 4) { printf (Thursday) ; } if (day == 5) { printf (Friday) ; } if (day == 6) { printf (Saturday) ; } if ((day < 0) || (day > 6)) { printf(Error - invalid day.\n) ; }

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Multiple Selection with if-else

if (day == 0 ) { printf (Sunday) ; } else if (day == 1 ) { printf (Monday) ; } else if (day == 2) { printf (Tuesday) ; } else if (day == 3) { printf (Wednesday) ; } else if (day == 4) { printf (Thursday) ; } else if (day == 5) { printf (Friday) ; } else if (day = 6) { printf (Saturday) ; } else { printf (Error - invalid day.\n) ; }

This if-else structure is more efficient than the corresponding if structure. Why?

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The switch Multiple-Selection Structure

switch ( integer expression ) { case constant1 : statement(s) break ; case constant2 : statement(s) break ;

...
default: statement(s) break ; }
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switch Statement Details

The last statement of each case in the switch should almost always be a break. The break causes program control to jump to the closing brace of the switch structure. Switch statement can only test for equality condition (==). A switch statement will compile without a default case, but always consider using one.

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Good Programming Practices

Include a default case to catch invalid data. Inform the user of the type of error that has occurred (e.g., Error - invalid day.). If appropriate, display the invalid value.

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switch Example
switch ( day ) { case 0: printf (Sunday\n) ; break ; case 1: printf (Monday\n) ; break ; case 2: printf (Tuesday\n) ; break ; case 3: printf (Wednesday\n) ; break ; case 4: printf (Thursday\n) ; break ; case 5: printf (Friday\n) ; break ; case 6: printf (Saturday\n) ; break ; default: printf (Error -- invalid day.\n) ; break ; }

Is this structure more efficient than the equivalent nested if-else structure?

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Why Use a switch Statement?

A nested if-else structure is just as efficient as a switch statement. However, a switch statement may be easier to read. Also, it is easier to add new cases to a switch statement than to a nested if-else structure.

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The char Data Type

The char data type holds a single character. char ch; Example assignments: char grade, symbol; grade = B; symbol = $; The char is held as a one-byte integer in memory. The ASCII code is what is actually stored, so we can use them as characters or integers, depending on our need.
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The char Data Type (cont)

Use scanf (%c, &ch) ; to read a single character into the variable ch. (Note that the variable does not have to be called ch.) Use printf(%c, ch) ; to display the value of a character variable.

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char Example
#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { char ch ; printf (Enter a character: ) ; scanf (%c, &ch) ; printf (The value of %c is %d.\n, ch, ch) ; return 0 ; }

If the user entered an A, the output would be: The value of A is 65.
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The getchar ( ) Function

The getchar( ) function is found in the stdio library. The getchar( ) function reads one character from stdin (the standard input buffer) and returns that characters ASCII value. The value can be stored in either a character variable or an integer variable.

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getchar ( ) Example
#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { char ch ; /* int ch would also work! */ printf (Enter a character: ) ; ch = getchar( ) ; printf (The value of %c is %d.\n, ch, ch) ; return 0 ; }

If the user entered an A, the output would be: The value of A is 65.
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Problems with Reading Characters

When getting characters, whether using scanf( ) or getchar( ), realize that you are reading only one character. What will the user actually type? The character he/she wants to enter, followed by pressing ENTER. So, the user is actually entering two characters, his/her response and the newline character. Unless you handle this, the newline character will remain in the stdin stream causing problems the next time you want to read a character. Another call to scanf() or getchar( ) will remove it.
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Improved getchar( ) Example

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { char ch, newline ; printf (Enter a character: ) ; ch = getchar( ) ; newline = getchar( ) ; /* could also use scanf(%c, &newline) ; */ printf (The value of %c is %d.\n, ch, ch) ; return 0 ; }

If the user entered an A, the output would be: The value of A is 65.
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Additional Concerns with Garbage in stdin

When we were reading integers using scanf( ), we didnt seem to have problems with the newline character, even though the user was typing ENTER after the integer. That is because scanf( ) was looking for the next integer and ignored the newline (whitespace). If we use scanf (%d, &num); to get an integer, the newline is still stuck in the input stream. If the next item we want to get is a character, whether we use scanf( ) or getchar( ), we will get the newline. We have to take this into account and remove it.
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EOF Predefined Constant

getchar( ) is usually used to get characters from a file until the end of the file is reached. The value used to indicate the end of file varies from system to system. It is system dependent. But, regardless of the system you are using, there is a #define in the stdio library for a symbolic integer constant called EOF. EOF holds the value of the end-of-file marker for the system that you are using.
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getchar( ) Example Using EOF

#include <stdio.h> int main () { int grade, aCount, bCount, cCount, dCount, fCount ; aCount = bCount = cCount = dCount = fCount = 0 ; while ( (grade = getchar( ) ) != EOF ) { switch ( grade ) { case A: aCount++; break ; case B: bCount++; break ; case C : cCount++; break ; case D: dCount++; break ; case F: fCount++; break ; default : break ; } } return 0 ; }
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Incremental Programming Review

Write your code in incomplete but working pieces. For example, for your projects, Dont write the whole program at once. Just write enough to display the user prompt on the screen. Get that part working first (compile and run). Next, write the part that gets the value from the user, and then just print it out.

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Increment Programming Review (cont)

Get that working (compile and run). Next, change the code so that you use the value in a calculation and print out the answer. Get that working (compile and run). Continue this process until you have the final version. Get the final version working.

Bottom line: Always have a working version of your program!

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Problem: Write an interactive program that allows the user to calculate the interest accrued on a savings account. The interest is compounded annually. The user must supply the principal amount, the interest rate, and the number of years over which to compute the interest.

Example of Incremental Programming

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Rough Algorithm
Print explanation of the program Get <principal> from user Get <interest rate> from user Get <number of years> from user <amount> = <principal> While (<number of years> > 0 )
amount = amount + (amount X <interest rate>) <number of years> = <number of year> + 1

End_while <interest accrued> = <amount> - <principal> Display report

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Report Design
Interest rate : 7.0000 % Period : 20 years Principal at start of period : 1000.00 Interest accrued : 2869.68 Total amount at end of period : 3869.68

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Version #1
/* Filename: interest.c * Author: Hemant Mehta * Date written: 11/14//06 * Description: This program computes the interest accrued in an account * that compounds interest annually. */ #include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { /* Print Instructions */ printf (This program computes the interest accrued in an account that\n); printf (compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount\n); printf (of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.\n\n); return 0; }
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Output #1
This program computes the interest accrued in an account that compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.

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Version #2
/* Filename: interest.c * Author: ___________ * Date written: 11/14//99 * Description: This program computes the interest accrued in an account * that compounds interest annually. */ #include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { float principal, rate ; int years ; /* Print Instructions */ printf (This program computes the interest accrued in an account that\n) ; printf (compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount\n) ; printf (of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.\n\n) ; /* Get input from user */ printf (Enter the principal amount : ) ; scanf (%f, &principal) ; printf (Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7%% enter .07) : ) ; scanf (%f, &rate) ; printf (Enter the number of years : ) ; scanf (%d, &years) ; printf (\nprincipal = %f, rate = %f, years = %d\n, principal, rate, years ) ; return 0 ; }
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Output #2
This program computes the interest accrued in an account that compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years. Enter the principal amount : 1000.00 Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7% enter .07) : .07 Enter the number of years : 20 principal = 1000.000000, rate = 0.070000, years = 20

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Version #3
/* Filename: interest.c * Author: ____________ * Date written: 11/14//99 * Description: This program computes the interest accrued in an account * that compounds interest annually. #include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { float principal, rate, amount, interest ; int years, i ; */

/* Print Instructions */ printf (This program computes the interest accrued in an account that\n); printf (compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount\n); printf (of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.\n\n); /* Get input from user */ printf (Enter the principal amount : ); scanf (%f, &principal); printf (Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7%% enter .07) : ) ; scanf (%f, &rate); printf (Enter the number of years : ); scanf (%d, &years);

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Version #3 (cont)
/* Save the original principal amount by varying another variable, amount */ amount = principal; /* Calculate total amount in the account after the specified number of years */ for ( i = 0 ; i < 1 ; i++ ) { amount += amount * rate ; } /* Calculate accrued interest */ interest = amount - principal ; printf (\nprincipal = %f, rate = %f, years = %d\n, principal, rate, years ) ; printf (amount = %f, interest = %f\n); return 0 ; }

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Output #3
This program computes the interest accrued in an account that compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years. Enter the principal amount : 1000.00 Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7% enter .07) : .07 Enter the number of years : 20 principal = 1000.000000, rate = 0.070000, years = 20 amount = 1070.000000, interest = 70.000000

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Version #4
/* Filename: interest.c * Author: ____________ * Date written: 11/14//99 * Description: This program computes the interest accrued in an account * that compounds interest annually. #include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { float principal, rate, amount, interest ; int years, i ; */

/* Print Instructions */ printf (This program computes the interest accrued in an account that\n); printf (compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount\n); printf (of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.\n\n); /* Get input from user */ printf (Enter the principal amount : ); scanf (%f, &principal); printf (Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7%% enter .07) : ) ; scanf (%f, &rate); printf (Enter the number of years : ); scanf (%d, &years);

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Version #4 (cont)
/* Save the original principal amount by varying another variable, amount */ amount = principal; /* Calculate total amount in the account after the specified number of years */ for ( i = 0 ; i < 2 ; i++ ) { amount += amount * rate ; } /* Calculate accrued interest */ interest = amount - principal ; printf (\nprincipal = %f, rate = %f, years = %d\n, principal, rate, years ) ; printf (amount = %f, interest = %f\n); return 0 ; }

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Output #4
This program computes the interest accrued in an account that compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years. Enter the principal amount : 1000.00 Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7% enter .07) : .07 Enter the number of years : 20 principal = 1000.000000, rate = 0.070000, years = 20 amount = 1144.900000, interest = 144.900000

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Version #5
/* Filename: interest.c * Author: ____________ * Date written: 11/14//99 * Description: This program computes the interest accrued in an account * that compounds interest annually. #include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { float principal, rate, amount, interest ; int years, i ; */

/* Print Instructions */ printf (This program computes the interest accrued in an account that\n); printf (compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount\n); printf (of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.\n\n); /* Get input from user */ printf (Enter the principal amount : ); scanf (%f, &principal); printf (Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7%% enter .07) : ) ; scanf (%f, &rate); printf (Enter the number of years : ); scanf (%d, &years);

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Version #5 (cont)
/* Save the original principal amount by varying another variable, amount */ amount = principal; /* Calculate total amount in the account after the specified number of years */ for ( i = 0 ; i < years ; i++ ) { amount += amount * rate ; } /* Calculate accrued interest */ interest = amount - principal ; printf (\nprincipal = %f, rate = %f, years = %d\n, principal, rate, years ) ; printf (amount = %f, interest = %f\n); return 0 ; }

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Output #5
This program computes the interest accrued in an account that compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years. Enter the principal amount : 1000.00 Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7% enter .07) : .07 Enter the number of years : 20 principal = 1000.000000, rate = 0.070000, years = 20 amount = 3869.680000, interest = 2869.680000

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Final Version
/* Filename: interest.c * Author: ____________ * Date written: 11/14//99 * Description: This program computes the interest accrued in an account * that compounds interest annually. #include <stdio.h> int main ( ) { float principal, rate, amount, interest ; int years, i ; */

/* Print Instructions */ printf (This program computes the interest accrued in an account that\n); printf (compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount\n); printf (of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years.\n\n); /* Get input from user */ printf (Enter the principal amount : ); scanf (%f, &principal); printf (Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7%% enter .07) : ) ; scanf (%f, &rate); printf (Enter the number of years : ); scanf (%d, &years);

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Final Version (cont)

/* Save the original principal amount by varying another variable, amount */ amount = principal; /* Calculate total amount in the account after the specified number of years */ for ( i = 0 ; i < years ; i++ ) { amount += amount * rate ; } /* Calculate accrued interest */ interest = amount - principal ; /* Print report */ printf (Interest rate : %.4f %%\n, 100 * rate ) ; printf ( Period : %d years\n\n, years ) ; printf ( Principal at start of period : %9.2f, principal ); printf ( Interest accrued : %9.2f, interest ); printf (Total amount at end of period : %9.2f, amount); return 0 ; }

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Final Output
This program computes the interest accrued in an account that compounds interest annually. You will need to enter the amount of the principal, the interest rate and the number of years. Enter the principal amount : 1000.00 Enter the interest rate as a decimal (for 7% enter .07) : .07 Enter the number of years : 20 Interest rate : 7.0000 % Period : 20 years Principal at start of period : 1000.00 Interest accrued : 2869.68 Total amount at end of period : 3869.68

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Top-Down Design
If we look at a problem as a whole, it may seem impossible to solve because it is so complex. Examples: writing a tax computation program writing a word processor Complex problems can be solved using topdown design, also known as stepwise refinement, where We break the problem into parts Then break the parts into parts Soon, each of the parts will be easy to do
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Advantages of Top-Down Design

Breaking the problem into parts helps us to clarify what needs to be done. At each step of refinement, the new parts become less complicated and, therefore, easier to figure out. Parts of the solution may turn out to be reusable. Breaking the problem into parts allows more than one person to work on the solution.

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An Example of Top-Down Design

Problem:
We own a home improvement company. We do painting, roofing, and basement waterproofing. A section of town has recently flooded (zip code 21222). We want to send out pamphlets to our customers in that area.

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The Top Level

Get the customer list from a file. Sort the list according to zip code. Make a new file of only the customers with the zip code 21222 from the sorted customer list. Print an envelope for each of these customers.
Main

Read
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Sort

Select

Print
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Another Level?
Should any of these steps be broken down further? Possibly. How do I know? Ask yourself whether or not you could easily write the algorithm for the step. If not, break it down again. When you are comfortable with the breakdown, write the pseudocode for each of the steps (modules) in the hierarchy. Typically, each module will be coded as a separate function.
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Structured Programs
We will use top-down design for all remaining programming projects. This is the standard way of writing programs. Programs produced using this method and using only the three kinds of control structures, sequential, selection and repetition, are called structured programs. Structured programs are easier to test, modify, and are also easier for other programmers to understand.
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Another Example
Problem: Write a program that draws this picture of a house.

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The Top Level

Draw the outline of the house Draw the chimney Draw the door Draw the windows
Main Draw Outline Draw Chimney Draw Door Draw Windows

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Pseudocode for Main

Call Draw Outline Call Draw Chimney Call Draw Door Call Draw Windows

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Observation
The door has both a frame and knob. We could break this into two steps.
Main Draw Outline Draw Chimney Draw Door Frame Draw Door Draw Knob Draw Windows

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Pseudocode for Draw Door

Call Draw Door Frame Call Draw Knob

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Another Observation
There are three windows to be drawn.
Main Draw Outline Draw Windows

. . .

Draw Window 1

Draw Window 2

Draw Window 3

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One Last Observation

But dont the windows look the same? They just have different locations. So, we can reuse the code that draws a window.
Simply copy the code three times and edit it to place the window in the correct location, or Use the code three times, sending it the correct location each time (we will see how to do this later).

This is an example of code reuse.

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Reusing the Window Code

Main Draw Outline Draw Windows Draw a Window

. . .

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Pseudocode for Draw Windows

Call Draw a Window, sending in Location 1 Call Draw a Window, sending in Location 2 Call Draw a Window, sending in Location 3

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Review of Structured Programming

Structured programming is a problem solving strategy and a programming methodology that includes the following guidelines: The program uses only the sequence, selection, and repetition control structures. The flow of control in the program should be as simple as possible. The construction of a program embodies topdown design.

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Review of Top-Down Design

Involves repeatedly decomposing a problem into smaller problems Eventually leads to a collection of small problems or tasks each of which can be easily coded The function construct in C is used to write code for these small, simple problems.
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Functions
A C program is made up of one or more functions, one of which is main( ). Execution always begins with main( ), no matter where it is placed in the program. By convention, main( ) is located before all other functions. When program control encounters a function name, the function is called (invoked). Program control passes to the function. The function is executed. Control is passed back to the calling function.
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Sample Function Call

#include <stdio.h> int main ( ) printf is the name of a predefined { function in the stdio library printf (Hello World!\n) ; return 0 ; } this is a string we are passing as an argument (parameter) to the printf function
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this statement is is known as a function call

Functions (cont)
We have used few predefined functions such as: printf scanf getchar Programmers can write their own functions. Typically, each module in a programs design hierarchy chart is implemented as a function. C function names follow the same naming rules as C variables.
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Sample Programmer-Defined Function #include <stdio.h>

void printMessage ( void ) ; int main ( ) { printMessage ( ) ; return 0 ; } void printMessage ( void ) { printf (A message for you:\n\n) ; printf (Have a nice day!\n) ; }
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Examining printMessage
#include <stdio.h> void printMessage ( void ) ; int main ( ) { printMessage ( ) ; return 0 ; } void printMessage ( void ) { printf (A message for you:\n\n) ; printf (Have a nice day!\n) ; } function definition
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function prototype

function call

function header function body

The Function Prototype

Informs the compiler that there will be a function defined later that:
returns this type has this name takes these arguments void printMessage (void) ;

Needed because the function call is made before the definition -- the compiler uses it to see if the call is made properly
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The Function Call

Passes program control to the function Must match the prototype in name, number of arguments, and types of arguments void printMessage (void) ; int main ( ) same name no arguments { printMessage ( ) ; return 0 ; }
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The Function Definition

Control is passed to the function by the function call. The statements within the function body will then be executed.
void printMessage ( void ) { printf (A message for you:\n\n) ; printf (Have a nice day!\n) ; }

After the statements in the function have completed, control is passed back to the calling function, in this case main( ) . Note that the calling function does not have to be main( ) .
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General Function Definition Syntax

type functionName ( parameter1, . . . , parametern ) { variable declaration(s) statement(s) } If there are no parameters, either functionName( ) OR functionName(void) is acceptable. There may be no variable declarations. If the function type (return type) is void, a return statement is not required, but the following are permitted: return ;
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OR

return( ) ;
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Using Input Parameters

void printMessage (int counter) ; int main ( ) { int num; printf (Enter an integer: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; printMessage (num) ; one argument return 0 ; of type int } void printMessage (int counter) { int i ; for ( i = 0; i < counter; i++ ) { printf (Have a nice day!\n) ; } }
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matches the one formal parameter of type int

Final Clean C Code

#include <stdio.h> void printMessage (int counter) ; int main ( ) { int num ;

/* number of times to print message */

printf (Enter an integer: ) ; scanf (%d, &num) ; printMessage (num) ; return 0 ; }

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Final Clean C Code (cont)

/************************************************************************* ** printMessage - prints a message a specified number of times ** Inputs: counter - the number of times the message will be ** printed ** Outputs: None /*************************************************************************/ void printMessage ( int counter ) { int i ; /* loop counter */ for ( i = 0; i < counter; i++ ) { printf (Have a nice day!\n) ; } }

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Good Programming Practice

Notice the function header comment before the definition of function printMessage. Your header comments should be neatly formatted and contain the following information: function name function description (what it does) a list of any input parameters and their meanings a list of any output parameters and their meanings a description of any special conditions

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Functions Can Return Values

/**************************************************************************** ** averageTwo - calculates and returns the average of two numbers ** Inputs: num1 - an integer value ** num2 - an integer value ** Outputs: the floating point average of num1 and num2 *****************************************************************************/ float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) { float average ; /* average of the two numbers */ average = (num1 + num2) / 2.0 ; return average ; }

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Using averageTwo
#include <stdio.h> float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) ; int main ( ) { float ave ; int value1 = 5, value2 = 8 ; ave = averageTwo (value1, value2) ; printf (The average of %d and %d is %f\n, value1, value2, ave) ; return 0 ; } float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) { float average ; average = (num1 + num2) / 2.0 ; return average ; }
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Parameter Passing
Actual parameters are the parameters that appear in the function call.
average = averageTwo (value1, value2) ;

Formal parameters are the parameters that appear in the function header.
float averageTwo (int num1, int num2)

Actual and formal parameters are matched by position. Each formal parameter receives the value of its corresponding actual parameter.
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Parameter Passing (cont)

Corresponding actual and formal parameters do not have to have the same name, but they may. Corresponding actual and formal parameters must be of the same data type, with some exceptions.

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Local Variables
Functions only see (have access to) their own local variables. This includes main( ) . Formal parameters are declarations of local variables. The values passed are assigned to those variables. Other local variables can be declared within the function body.

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Parameter Passing and Local Variables

#include <stdio.h> float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) ; int main ( ) { float ave ; int value1 = 5, value2 = 8 ; ave = averageTwo (value1, value2) ; printf (The average of ) ; printf (%d and %d is %f\n, value1, value2, ave) ; return 0 ; } value1 value2 ave num1 num2 average float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) { float average ; average = (num1 + num2) / 2.0 ; return average ; }

5
int
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int float int int float
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Same Name, Still Different Memory Locations

#include <stdio.h> float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) ; int main ( ) { float average ; int num1 = 5, num2 = 8 ; average = averageTwo (num1, num2) ; printf (The average of ) ; printf (%d and %d is %f\n, num1, num2, average) ; return 0 ; } num1 num2 average num1 num2 average float averageTwo (int num1, int num2) { float average ; average = (num1 + num2) / 2.0 ; return average ; }

5
int
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8
int float int int float
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Changes to Local Variables Do NOT Change Other Variables with the Same Name #include <stdio.h>
void addOne (int number) ; int main ( ) { int num1 = 5 ; addOne (num1) ; printf (In main: ) ; printf (num1 = %d\n, num1) ; return 0 ; } num1 5 int
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void addOne (int num1) { num1++ ; printf (In addOne: ) ; printf (num1 = %d\n, num1) ; } num1 int OUTPUT In addOne: num1 = 6 In main: num1 = 5
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Call by Value and Call by Reference

By Default the function calling is by Value i.e. there is no relation between actual and formal parameter. Change in formal parameter doesn't affect actual parameter. In case if we require the value updated by a function, there is a provision for single updated value by using return type of the function. But in case we require more than one value the we must call the function by reference. In case of call by reference we use pointers.

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Header Files
Header files contain function prototypes for all of the functions found in the specified library. They also contain definitions of constants and data types used in that library.

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Commonly Used Header Files

Header File <stdio.h> <math.h> <stdlib.h> Contains Function Prototypes for: standard input/output library functions and information used by them math library functions conversion of numbers to text, text to numbers, memory allocation, random numbers, and other utility functions manipulating the time and date functions that test characters for certain properties and that can convert case functions that manipulate character strings

<time.h> <ctype.h> <string.h>

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Using Header Files

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <math.h> int main ( ) { float side1, side2, hypotenuse ; printf(Enter the lengths of the right triangle sides: ) ; scanf(%f%f, &side1, &side2) ; if ( (side1 <= 0) || (side2 <= 0) { exit (1) ; } hypotenuse = sqrt ( (side1 * side1) + (side2 * side2) ) ; printf(The hypotenuse = %f\n, hypotenuse) ; return 0 ; }
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User Defined Header Files

Save different functions in a file (extension .h). This file can be used as header file. e.g. myheader.h In order to include the this user defined header file we can Either put the file in the include folder. Or keep it in the current folder an include it with #include myheader.h

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The stack and the heap

Local variables, function arguments, return value are stored on a stack Each function call generates a new "stack frame" After function returns, stack frame disappears along with all local variables and function arguments for that invocation

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The stack and the heap

void contrived_example(int i, float f) { int j = 10; double d = 3.14; int arr[10]; /* do some stuff, then return */ return (j + i); }
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The stack and the heap

/* somewhere in code */ int k = contrived_example(42, 3.3); What does this look like on the stack?

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The stack and the heap

(more frames)

return value function arguments local variables

52 i = 42 f = 3.3 j = 10 d = 3.14 arr[10] = <garbage>

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stack frame

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The stack and the heap

Another example:
int factorial(int i) { if (i == 0) { return 1; } else { return i * factorial (i - 1); } }
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The stack and the heap

Pop quiz: what goes on the stack for factorial(3)? For each stack frame, have...
no local variables one argument (i) one return value

Each recursive call generates a new stack frame

which disappears after the call is complete

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The stack and the heap

return value

?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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stack frame
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The stack and the heap

return value

?
i = 2

factorial(2)
return value

stack frame stack frame

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?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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The stack and the heap

return value

factorial(1)
return value

?
i = 1

stack frame stack frame stack frame

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?
i = 2

factorial(2)
return value

?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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The stack and the heap

return value

?
i = 0

factorial(0)
return value

stack frame stack frame stack frame stack frame

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factorial(1)
return value

?
i = 1

?
i = 2

factorial(2)
return value

?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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The stack and the heap

return value

factorial(0)
return value

1
i = 0

stack frame stack frame stack frame stack frame

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factorial(1)
return value

?
i = 1

?
i = 2

factorial(2)
return value

?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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The stack and the heap

return value

factorial(1)
return value

1
i = 1

stack frame stack frame stack frame

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?
i = 2

factorial(2)
return value

?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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The stack and the heap

return value

2
i = 2

factorial(2)
return value

stack frame stack frame

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?
i = 3

factorial(3)
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The stack and the heap

return value

6
i = 3

factorial(3)
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stack frame
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The stack and the heap

factorial(3)

result:

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The stack and the heap

void foo() { int arr[10]; /* local (on stack) */

/* do something with arr */ } /* arr is deallocated */

Local variables sometimes called "automatic" variables; deallocation is automatic

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The stack and the heap

foo

local variables
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arr[10] = <whatever>

stack frame
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The stack and the heap

The "heap" is the general pool of computer memory Memory is allocated on the heap using malloc() or calloc() Heap memory must be explicitly freed using free() Failure to do so
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memory leak!
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The stack and the heap

void foo2() { int *arr; /* allocate memory on the heap: */ arr = (int *)calloc(10, sizeof(int)); /* do something with arr */ } /* arr is NOT deallocated */

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The stack and the heap

void foo3() { int *arr; /* allocate memory on the heap: */ arr = (int *)calloc(10, sizeof(int)); /* do something with arr */ free(arr); }

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The stack and the heap

0x1234 arr[0] arr[1] arr[2] arr[3] foo2 and foo3 arr[4] (etc.) arr = 0x1234 stack
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local variables

stack frame

heap

The stack and the heap

0x1234 arr[0] (after foo2 exits, without freeing memory) arr[1] arr[2] arr[3] arr[4] (etc.) heap stack
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memory leak

The stack and the heap

0x1234 arr[0] (after foo3 exits, with freeing memory) arr[1] arr[2] arr[3] arr[4] (etc.) heap stack
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