INTRODUCTION Theory :

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, penetration, indention and scratching. Therefore, hardness is important from an engineering standpoint because resistance to wear by either friction or erosion by steam, oil and water generally increase with hardness. Hardness tests serve an important need in industry even though they do not measure a unique quality that can be termed hardness. The tests are empirical, based on experiments and observation, rather than fundamental theory. Its chief value is as an inspection device, able to detect certain differences in material when they arise even though these differences may be indefinable. For example, two lots of material that have same hardness may or may not be alike, but if their hardness is different, they materials are not alike. Several methods have been developed for hardness testing. Those most often used are Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Tukon, Sclerscope and the files test. The first four are based on indention tests and the fifth on the rebound height of a diamond-tipped metallic hammer. The file test establishes the characteristics of how well a file takes a bite on the material. The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the scales, the harder the material.

Rockwell Hardness

LITERATURE REVIEW The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration (Fig. 1C). The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.

HR = E - e

F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf F1 = additional major load in kgf F = total load in kgf e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in units of 0.002 mm E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units for steel ball indenter HR = Rockwell hardness number D = diameter of steel ball

Fig. 1.Rockwell Principle

Stanley P. Rockwell invented the Rockwell hardness test. He was a metallurgist for a large ball bearing company and he wanted a fast non-destructive way to determine if the heat treatment process they were doing on the bearing races was successful. The only hardness tests he had available at time were Vickers, Brinell and Scleroscope. The Vickers test was too time consuming, Brinell indents were too big for his parts and the Scleroscope was difficult to use, especially on his small parts. To satisfy his needs he invented the Rockwell test method. This simple sequence of test force application proved to be a major advance in the world of hardness testing. It enabled the user to perform an accurate hardness test on a variety of sized parts in just a few seconds. Rockwell test methods are defined in the following standards:

ASTM E18 Metals ISO 6508 Metals ASTM D785 Plastics

Types of the Rockwell Test There are two types of Rockwell tests: 1. Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf. 2. Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf. In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested. Principal of the Rockwell Test 1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface 2. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established 3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero 4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference position as a result of the application of the major load.

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Rockwell Scales The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by a Viennese professor Paul Ludwik in his book Die Kegelprobe (crudely, "the cone trial").[3] The differentialdepth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. The Brinell hardness test, invented in Sweden, was developed earlierin 1900but it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, and left too large an impression to be considered nondestructive. The Rockwell hardness tester, a differential-depth machine, was co-invented by Connecticut natives Hugh M. Rockwell (18901957) and Stanley P. Rockwell(18861940). A patent was applied for on July 15, 1914.[4] The requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was subsequently approved on February 11, 1919, and holds U.S. Patent 1,294,171. At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell (not direct relations) worked for the New Departure Manufacturing Co. of Bristol, CT. New Departure was a major ball bearing manufacturer that, in 1916, became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General Motors Corp. After leaving the Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an improvement to the original invention on September 11, 1919, which was approved on November 18, 1924. The new tester holds U.S. Patent 1,516,207.[5][6] Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1921.[6] Stanley collaborated with instrument manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920 to commercialize his invention and develop standardized testing machines.[7]Stanley started a heat-treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which still exists in Hartford, CT. The later-named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, and was most recently acquired by Instron Corp. in 1993.
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Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and a scale symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. The hardness number is expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation. There are 30 different scales. The majority of applications are covered by the Rockwell C and B scales for testing steel, brass, and other metals. However, the increasing use of materials other than steel and brass as well as thin materials necessitates a basic knowledge of the factors that must be considered in choosing the correct scale to ensure an accurate Rockwell test. The choice is not only between the regular hardness test and superficial hardness test, with three different major loads for each, but also between the diamond indenter and the 1/16, 1/8, 1/4 and 1/2 in. diameter steel ball indenters. If no specification exists or there is doubt about the suitability of the specified scale, an analysis should be made of the following factors that control scale selection:

Type of material Specimen thickness Test location Scale limitations

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