Electric and magnetic

sensors and actuators

(chapter 5, Part A)
Introduction
Broadest by far of all other classes
In numbers and types of sensors
In variety within each type.
Reasons:
Sensor exploits the electrical properties of materials
Many electrical effects
The requisite output is almost always electrical
Some electrical/electromagnetic sensors not
discussed here:
(Thermocouples, optical, ultrasonic sensors etc.)
Introduction
Most actuators are either electrical or,
more commonly, magnetic.
This is particularly true of actuators that
need to provide considerable power.
We will limit ourselves here to the
following types of sensors and actuators:
Introduction
Sensors and actuators based on electric/electrostatic
principles.
include MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical sensors), which are
most often based on electrostatic forces
capacitive sensors (proximity, distance, level, material
properties, humidity and other quantities such as force,
acceleration and pressure may be sensed) and related field
sensors.
Magnetic sensors and actuators based on static and quasi-
static magnetic fields.
motors and valves for actuation,
magnetic field sensors (hall element sensors, inductive sensors
for position, displacement, proximity and others),
magnetostrictive sensors and actuators and more.
Definitions
Electric field: Force per unit charge
exists in the presence of charges or charged bodies.
electric field may be static when charges do not move
or move at constant velocity
time dependent if charges accelerate and/or
decelerate.
Moving charges in conducting media or in space
cause currents
Currents produce magnetic fields.
Magnetic fields are either static when currents are
constant (dc) or:
Time dependent when currents vary in time.
Definitions (cont.)
If currents vary in time: both an electric and a
related magnetic field are established.
This is called the electromagnetic field.
Electromagnetic field implies that both an electric and
a magnetic field exists.
It is OK to call all electric and magnetic fields by that
name since, for example an electrostatic field may be
viewed as a time independent electromagnetic field
with zero magnetic field.
All fields described by Maxwells equations - will
not be discussed here
Sensing strategies
Anything that influences one of these quantities
may be sensed through the electromagnetic
field.
Electromagnetic actuators are based on one of
the two basic forces;
the electric force (best understood as the attraction
between opposite polarity charges or repulsion
between like polarity charges)
the magnetic force. The latter is the attraction of
current carrying conductors with currents in the same
directions or repulsion of current carrying conductors
with currents in opposite directions.
Electric Field Capacitive
Sensors and Actuators
Electric field sensors and actuators
operate on the physical principles of the electric field
and its effects (capacitance, charge, stored energy)
The primary type: capacitive device.
Some sensors such as charge sensors are better
explained in terms of the electric field
On the whole, discussion of capacitance and its use
in sensing and actuation covers most aspects
necessary for a thorough understanding of these
types of sensors without the need to study the
intricacies of the electric field behavior.
Capacitance
Capacitance: the ratio between
charge and potential of a body
Measured in coulombs/volt. This
unit is called the farad [F].
Capacitance is only defined for
two conducting bodies, across
which the potential difference is
connected.
C =
Q
V

C
V
Capacitance (cont.)
Body B is charged by the
battery to a positive
charge Q and body A to
an equal but negative
charge Q.
Any two conducting
bodies, regardless of size
and distance between
them have a capacitance.
Parallel plate capacitor
Parallel plate capacitor:
Assumes d is small,
c
0
is the permittivity of vacuum,
c
r
the relative permittivity (dielectric
constant) of the medium between plates,
S the area of the plates and
d the distance between the plates.
c
0
is a constant equal to 8.854x10
12

F/m
c
r
is the ratio between the permittivity of
the medium to that of free space.
available as part of the electrical
properties of materials.
C =
c
0
c
r
S
d
F
Parallel plate capacitor (cont.)
Permittivities of dielectrics
Material c
r
Material c
r
Material
c
r
Quartz 3.8-5 Paper 3.0 Silica 3.8
GaAs 13 Bakelite 5.0 Quartz 3.8
Nylon 3.1 Glass 6.0 (4-7) Snow 3.8
Paraffin 3.2 Mica 6.0 Soil (dry) 2.8
Perspex 2.6 Water (distilled) 81 Wood (dry) 1.5-4
Polystyrene foam 1.05 Polyethylene 2.2 Silicon 11.8
Teflon 2.0 Polyvinyl Chloride 6.1 Ethyl alcohol 25
Ba Sr Titanate 10,000.0 Germanium 16 Amber 2.7
Air 1.0006 Glycerin 50 Plexiglas 3.4
Rubber 3.0 Nylon 3.5 Aluminum oxide 8.8
Capacitors - cont.
Any of the quantities in Eq. (2) affect the
capacitance
Changes in these can be sensed.
A wide range of stimuli including
displacement and anything else that can cause
displacement (pressure, force), proximity, permittivity
(for example in moisture sensors)
a myriad of other effects are related to capacitance.
Capacitors - cont.
Eq. (2) describes a very specific device
Was obtained by assuming that the electric field
between the two plates does not leak (fringes)
outside the space between the plates.
In the more general case, when d is not small,
or:
Plates are arranged in a different configuration
we cannot calculate the capacitance directly
but we can still write the following:

C = o c
0
, c
r
, S, 1/d
Capacitors - examples
Capacitive position sensors
Capacitive position, proximity
and displacement sensors
Position and displacement can be sensed in
three fundamental ways:
(1) By allowing a plate to move relative to
the other (figure a).
A number of configurations are shown next:
the sensor is made of a single plate while the second
plate is a conductor to which the distance (proximity)
is sensed.
Requires connection to the sensed object

Position and displacement
sensing
Position sensing relative to a
fixed conductor
A schematic position sensor is shown in below
One plate is fixed while the other is pushed by the moving
device.
The position of the moving device causes a change in position of
the dielectric and this changes the capacitance. C
Capacitance is inversely proportional to the motion and
As long as the distances sensed are small, the output is linear.


Sensing by moving the dielectric
(2) The plates remain fixed but the
dielectric moves in or out as in Figure b.
Practical for some applications.
For example, the dielectric may be connected to a float
which then senses the fluid level or
It may be pushed by a device to sense end of travel or
position.
Advantages: linearity, range of motion is rather large and
can equal the width of the capacitor.

Sensing by moving the whole
capacitor
(3) by keeping the plates fixed as in Figure c
and sensing the distance to a surface.
This is a more practical arrangement since the
sensor is self contained and requires no
mechanical contact to sense distance or
position.
Most capacitive sensors are a variation of this
arrangement
Practical proximity sensors
Typically, a hollow cylindrical conductor forms
one plate of the sensor as in Figure 5.7.
The second plate of the sensor is a disk at the
lower opening of the cylinder.
The whole structure may be enclosed with an
outer conducting shield or may be encased in a
cylindrical plastic enclosure. The capacitance of
the device is C
0
based on dimensions, materials
and structure.

Structure of a practical proximity
sensor
Proximity sensors - cont.
When any material is present, effective
permittivity seen by the sensor and capacitances
increases - indicates distance
Senses distances to conducting or
nonconducting bodies of any shape but output is
not linear.
the smaller the sensed distance d, the larger the
sensitivity of the sensor.
dimensions of the sensor makes a big difference in
span and sensitivity.
large diameter sensors will have a larger span while
small diameter sensor will have a shorter span.
Proximity sensors - cont.
Other methods:
Example: Two fixed plates and one moving
plate.
When the plate is midway, its potential is zero
since C
1
=C
2
.
As the plate moves up, its potential becomes positive.
When it moves down it is negative.
More linear than the previous sensors
Motion must be small or the capacitances will be very
small and difficult to measure.
Position sensor
Other position, displacement,
proximity sensors:
Rotary (angular) position sensors
Linear displacement sensors:
Integrated comb-like sensors
Sideways sliding plates
Plunger type sensors
Others
Rotary position sensor
Other configurations for linear
displacement sensors
Commercial capacitive sensors
Capacitive fluid level sensors

Fluid level:
may be sensed by any of the position or proximity
sensors discussed in the previous paragraph
by sensing the position of the fluid surface directly
or through a float which then can change the
capacitance of a linear capacitor or a rotary capacitor.
There is however another method which is linear
but can have a very large range. The method is
shown next:
Co-axial fluid level sensor
Co-axial fluid level sensor
A coaxial capacitor is made
of two concentric cylinders
establishing a capacitance
C
0
.
Capacitance of a coaxial
capacitor of length L, inner
radius a and outer radius b
is:
If the fluid fills the capacitor
to a height h, capacitance is:
C
0
=
2tc
0
L
ln(b/a)
F
C
0
=
2tc
0
ln(b/a)
hc
r
+ L h F
Co-axial fluid level sensor
Capacitance is linear with respect to h
from h=0 to h=L
Capacitive fuel gages are of this type
but the idea can be used for any fluid
that is nonconductive such as oils.
Capacitive sensors - comments
Simple and rugged sensors
Useful in many other applications
(pressure, acoustic sensors, etc.)
Capacitances are small and changes in
capacitance even smaller.
Require special methods of transduction.
Often part of LC oscillator (measure freq.)
Others use an ac source (measure imped.)
Capacitive actuators
Capacitive actuation is simple:
Potential is connected across the two
plates of a capacitor
Plates acquire opposite charges.
These charges attract each other based
on Coulombs law
Force tends to pull the plates together.
Capacitive actuators
Mechanical motion of the
plates is possible -
constitutes actuation
In a parallel plate capacitor
the force is:
For other configurations: no
exact relation but:
Same general behavior
F =
CV
2
d
=
c
0
c
r
SV
2
d
2
Capacitive actuators
Force developed is
proportional to:
Capacitance:
Distance between plates:
Potential across plates
Forces are typically small (c
is very small)
F =
CV
2
d
=
c
0
c
r
SV
2
d
2
Basic capacitive actuator
An electrostatic actuator (electrostatic speaker)
Upper plate is attracted or repelled by lower, fixed
plate
Motion may be used for positioning or for voice
reproduction
Angular capacitive actuator
Upper plate moves relative to lower plate
Force proportional to position (capacitance
changes)
Useful for small, low force motion.
Electrostatic actuators -
comments
Motion is usually small (except
loudspeakers)
Voltages are high
Force is low
Usually accurate and linear
Very common in MEMs

Magnetic sensors and actuators
Magnetic sensors and actuators are governed
by the magnetic field and its effects.
The magnetic flux density is also called
magnetic induction. Therefore, these sensors
tend to be named inductive sensors.
We will rely on inductance, magnetic circuits and
magnetic forces which can be explained, at least
qualitatively, without resorting to Maxwells
equations.
Magnetics - some theory
Lets start with a permanent magnet.
It exerts a force on another magnet through
space.
We can say that a field exists around the
magnet through which it interacts.
This force field is in fact the magnetic field.
The same can be observed by driving a current
through a coil
Since the two fields are identical, their sources
are identical - currents generate magnetic fields
Equivalence between
permanent magnet and coil
Magnetics - some theory
A magnet attracts or repels another magnet
this gives us the first observable interaction in
the magnetic field it also attracts a piece of
iron.
It will not attract a piece of copper.
Conclusion: there are different types of material
in terms of their magnetic properties.
Magnetic properties are governed by the
permeability of the material, [henry/meter]
Magnetics - some theory
The strength of the magnetic field is usually
given by the magnetic flux density B [tesla]
The magnetic flux density is also called
magnetic induction
The magnetic field intensity H [ampere/meter].
The relation between the two is simple:
B =
0

r
H
Magnetics - some theory

0
=4tx10
7
[H/m] is the permeability of vacuum

r
is the relative permeability of the medium in
which the relation holds,

r
is given as the ratio between the permeability
of the medium and that of vacuum
A dimensionless quantity associated with each
material in nature.
Permeabilities of some useful materials are
given next.
Magnetics - some theory
Magnetic materials:
Diamagnetic,
r
< 1
Paramagnetic
r
> 1
Ferromagnetic
r
>> 1 (iron-like)
The latter are often the most useful materials
when working with magnetic fields.
There are other types of magnetic materials
(ferrites, magnetic powders, magnetic fluids,
magnetic glasses, etc.)

Permeabilities of diamagentic
and paramagnetic materials
Mat erial Relative Permeability Mat erial Relative Permeability
Silver 0.999974 Air 1.00000036
Wat er 0.9999991 Aluminum 1.000021
Copper 0.999991 Palladium 1.0008
Mercury 0.999968 Plat inum 1.00029
Lead 0.999983 Tungsten 1.000068
Gold 0.999998 Magnesium 1.00000693
Graphit e (Carbon) 0.999956 Manganese 1.000125
Hydrogen 0.999999998 Oxygen 1.0000019
Permeabilities of ferromagnetic
materials
Mat erial
r
Mat erial
r
Cobalt 250 Permalloy (78.5% Ni) 100,000
Nickel 600 Fe
3
O
4
(Magnet ite) 100
Iron 6,000 Ferrit es 5,000
Supermalloy (5% Mo, 79% Ni)
10
7
Mumetal (75% Ni, 5% Cu, 2% Cr) 100,000
St eel (0.9%C) 100 Permendur 5, 000
Silicon Iron (4% Si) 7,000
Magnetics - some definitions
Soft magnetic materials are those for which
magnetization is reversible
Hard magnetic materials are materials which
retain magnetization and are therefore used for
production of permanent magnets
Hysteresis - a property of ferromagnetic
materials best explained through the
magnetization curve
Nonlinear magnetization: permeability is field
dependent.
Soft magnetic materials - used
as magnetic cores
Material Relative permeability (Max.)
r
Iron(0.2% impure) 9, 000
Pure iron (0. 05% impure)
210
5
Silicon iron (3%Si) 55, 000
Permalloy
10
6
Superm-alloy (5% Mo, 79% Ni)
10
7
Permendur 5, 000
Nickel* 600
Hard magnetic materials - used
in permanent magnets
Material

r
Alnico (Aluminum-Nickel-Cobalt) 3-5
Ferrite (Barium-Iron) 1. 1
Sm-Co (Sammarium-Cobalt) 1. 05
Ne-Fe-B (Neodymium-Iron-Boron) 1. 05
Magnetization curve and
permeability of ferromagnetic
materials
Currents, fields and flux
Relation between current and magnetic
flux density.
For a long straight wire carrying a
current I and placed in a medium of
permeability =
0

r
. The magnitude of
the magnetic flux density is:
r is the distance from the wire to the location
where the field is calculated
the magnetic field is a vector and has a
direction (next) - field is perpendicular to I
B =
0

r
I
2tr
Relation between current and
magnetic field
General idea:
In more practical configurations, the wire
may not be very long or it may be wound
in a coil but, nevertheless, the basic
relations hold: The larger the current
and/or the permeability, or the shorter the
distance between current and the location
where the magnetic field is needed, the
larger the magnetic field
Magnetic flux
Flux is the integral of flux
density over an area S:
If B is constant over an area
S and at an angle u to the
surface, flux is u=BScosu.
Unit of flux is the weber [Wb]
1 [Wb] = 1 [Tm
2
]
Flux relates to power and
energy in the magnetic field

u = B.ds
S
Wb
Force in the magnetic field
Force in a magnetic field is
based on the fact that a
charge moving at a velocity v
in a magnetic field B
experience a force (called the
Lorentz force) given as:
u
vB
is the angle between the
direction of motion and the
direction of B
F is perpendicular to both v
and B as shown (next).
F = qvBsinu
vb
[N]
Relation between charge,
current and force in a magnetic
field
Forces on currents
Charges (electrons) move in conductors
(current)
Two wires carrying currents in opposite
directions exert forces on each other
The forces the wires exert on each other are in
opposite direction and tend to separate the
wires.
If the currents were in the same direction (or the
magnetic field reversed) the wires would attract.
Forces on currents
For long parallel wires, the force for a length
L of the wire is: F = BIL
For other configuration the relation is much
more complicated but force is proportional
to B, I and L.
A single wire carrying a current will be
attracted or repelled by a permanent
magnet
These principles are the basis for magnetic
actuation
Forces can be very large since B, I and L
can be controlled and can be quite large.

Inductive sensors
Rely on two basic phenomena:
Inductance of a coil and changes of inductance
due to a variety of effects (distance, materials,
dimensions, etc.)
Induced currents in conducting materials.
Inductance is a property of a magnetic device just
as capacitance is the property of an electric device
Usually associated with coils and conductors
Inductance can be made to respond (change) to
almost any physical property either directly or
indirectly
Inductance
Defined as the ratio of flux and the
current that produced is:
Inductance is independent of
current since u is current
dependent
All magnetic devices have an
inductance but inductance is
most often associated with coils
L =
u
I

webber
ampere
or [henry]
Inductance
Two types of inductance:
1. Self inductance: the ratio of the flux produced by a
circuit (a conductor or a coil) in itself and the current that
produces it. Usually denoted as L
ii
.
2. Mutual inductance: the ratio of the flux produced by
circuit i in circuit j and the current in circuit i that
produced it. Denoted as M
ij
.
A mutual inductance exists between any two circuits as
long as there a magnetic field (flux) that couples the
two.
This coupling can be large (tightly coupled circuits) or
small (loosely coupled circuits).
Self and mutual inductance
Inductors and transformers
A coil is also called an inductor (having
inductance)
Transformers are made of two or more
coils, coupled through mutual inductances
Many sensors are in fact transformers of
one type or another
Transformer are ac devices
The transformer
A primary and a secondary circuit
A magnetic path for the flux (closed or open)
Transformer ratio is N
1
/N
2


The transformer
An ac voltage applied to one circuit (or coil)
produces a voltage in any other circuit that
couples to the driving coil as shown in Figure
5.17.
Coils, of N
1
and N
2
turns respectively. All flux
produced by coil 1 couples to coil 2 through the
magnetic circuit made of a ferromagnetic
material (iron for example). The voltages and
currents relate as follows (a = N
1
/N
2
)

V
2
=
N
2
N
1
V
1
=
1
a
V
1
, I
2
=
N
1
N
2
I
1
= aI
1
The transformer
The transformer so defined is a tightly coupled
transformer (all flux links both coils)
Loosely coupled transformers:
Only part of the flux produced by one coil links the
second coil
The magnetic path is said to be open
These are more often used in sensors than tightly
coupled transformers

Inductive sensors - general
Most inductive sensors relay on self inductance, mutual
inductance or transformer concepts
Inductors require currents to sense (passive devices)
A magnetic field is produced - the sensor can be said to
respond to changes in this magnetic field.
The most common type of stimuli sensed by inductive
sensors are position (proximity), displacement and
material composition.
Inductance and induction is often used to sense other
quantities indirectly.

Inductive proximity sensors
Inductive proximity sensor contain:
At the very least a coil (inductor)
Generates a magnetic field
The coils inductance depends on dimensions of the coil, number of
turns and materials around it.
The current and the diameter of the coil define the extent to which the
field projects away from the coil and therefore the span of the sensor.
Operation:
As the sensor gets closer to the sensed surface the inductance of the
coil increases if the sense surface is ferromagnetic
It is then sufficient to use a means of measuring this inductance to infer
proximity and position
Sensing position and proximity
Inductance - additional details
Inductance is measured with an ac current
source and a voltmeter or an ac bridge.
By measuring the voltage across the inductor
the impedance can be evaluated and since
Z=R+jeL (R is the ohmic resistance and e=2tf
the angular frequency) the inductance L is
immediately available as a measure of position
of the coil or proximity to the surface.
We assumed here that R is constant but even if
it is not, the impedance in air (nothing being
sensed) is known and this can be used for
calibration.
Inductance sensor - practical
A ferromagnetic core is added to increase the
inductance of the sensor.
Most often iron or a ferrite (a powdered
magnetic material such as Fe
2
O
3
, CoO
2
in a
binding material and sintered into the shape
needed)
A shield may be placed around the sensor to
prevent sensitivity to objects on the side of the
sensor or at its back
The net effect of the shield is to project the field
in front of the sensor and hence increase both
the field (inductance) and the span of the
sensor.
Practical construction of
inductive sensors
Proximity sensor with reference
coil
In other sensors, there are two coils, one serving
as reference, the other as a sensor (Figure
5.19b).
The reference coils inductance remains
constant and the two are balanced.
When a surface is sensed, the sensing coil has
a larger inductance and the imbalance between
the coils serves as a measure of distance.
Closed magnetic circuit
proximity sensor
Other sensors, like the one is Figure
5.19c may employ a closed magnetic
circuit which tends to concentrate the
magnetic field in the gaps and usually do
not require shielding since within the
sensor, the magnetic field is constrained
within the ferromagnetic material

Eddy current sensors
Inductive proximity sensors are sensitive
to the presence (proximity) of non-
conducting ferromagnetic materials or to
any conducting media.
Nonconductors in general do not affect
proximity sensors.
Many inductive proximity sensors are of
the eddy current type.
Eddy current sensor
Eddy current sensors
The name eddy current comes from the
fundamental property of ac magnetic fields to
induce currents in conducting media
There are two related phenomena at work.
The currents produced in the conductor, called eddy
currents because they flow in closed loops, cause a
field which opposes the original field that produces
them (Lenzs law). This field reduces the net flux
through the sensor coil.
Second, the currents flowing in the conductor being
sensed, dissipate power.
Eddy current sensors
The sensing coil is now forced to supply more
power than it would otherwise supply and
hence, given a constant current, its effective
resistance increases.
This change in impedance from Z=R+jeL to
Z=R+jeL is easily sensed either in absolute
terms or as a change in the phase of the
measured voltage (given a constant current).
A second effect is the skin effect in conducting
media.
Eddy current sensors
A magnetic field penetrating into a conducting
medium is attenuated exponentially from the
surface inwards (and so are the eddy currents
and other quantities):

B = B
0
e
d/o
, or : I = I
0
e
d/o
B
0
and I
0
are the flux density and the current density at the surface,
d is depth in the medium
o is the skin depth. Skin depth is defined as the depth at which the field
(or current) is attenuated to 1/e of its value at the surface.
Skin depth
For planar surfaces, skin depth is given as:

o =
1
tfo
m
f is the frequency of the field.
Penetration depends on frequency, conductivity and
permeability.
The main implication here is that the sensed conductor must be
thick enough compared to skin depth.
Alternatively, operation at higher frequencies may be needed.
Proximity sensors - comments
Proximity sensors (either capacitive or inductive) can be
used to sense distance.
Their transfer function is much too nonlinear and their
span too small to be effective except for short spans
Proximity sensors are usually used as switches to
provide a clear indication when a certain, preset distance
is reached.
Inductive sensors can produce an electric output such as
voltage based on the change in their impedance
Often the inductor is part of an oscillator (LC oscillator is
the most common) and the frequency of the sensor is
then used as the output.

Inductive sensors
Eddy current sensors for NDT
Eddy current sensors for NDT
Position and displacement
sensing
Position and displacement are usually
understood as measuring the exact distance
from a point or the travel of a point relative to
another.
Requires accurate measurements and possibly
linear transfer functions of the sensors involved.
One approach to this task is through the use of
variable inductance sensors, sometimes called
variable reluctance sensors.
Magnetic reluctance
Magnetic reluctance is the equivalent magnetic
term to resistance and is defined as

R =
L
S

1
H
Reluctance is smaller the shorter the magnetic path, the larger its cross
sectional area and the larger its permeability.
Reluctance is then related to inductance through permeability and
reducing reluctance also increases inductance and vice versa.
Typically, the reluctance of a coil can be changed by adding a gap in the
magnetic path and changing the effective length of this gap.
Movable core sensors
Thus, a simple method of changing inductance of a
coil is to provide it with a movable core:
The further the movable core moves in, the smaller
the reluctance of the magnetic path and the larger the
change in inductance.
This type of sensor is called a linear variable
inductance sensor. (Linear here means that the
motion is linear).
Inductance is a measure of the position of the core
The same of course may be used to measure force,
pressure, or anything else that can produce linear
displacement.
Variable reluctance (inductance)
sensor - the LVDT
LVDT
A better displacement sensor is a sensor based
on the idea of the transformer.
Based on one of two related principles;
the distance between two coils of a transformer is
varied (the coupling between the coils changes) or
the coupling coefficient between the two coils is
varied by physically moving the core while the two
coils are fixed.
Both principles are shown next.
Principle of the LVDT
LVDT
LVDT - Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
Based on the 2nd principle
One primary coil, two secondary coils
connected in opposition
Output is zero if coupling is balanced
Motion to either side changes the output
Structure and equivalent circuit
of an LVDT
The output is zero for core centered
Motion to the right or left changes the output in different
directions (polarity)
This is a variable reluctance transformer
Detects both distance and direction of change
LVDT - properties
LVDTs are very sensitive and useful
In a relatively small range of motion, the output
is linear.
The primary coil is driven with a stable
sinusoidal source at a constant frequency and
the core is ferromagnetic.
The whole sensor is enclosed and shielded so
that no field extends outside it and hence cannot
be influenced by outside fields.
LVDT - properties
The core slides in and out and that motion is
often used for accurate measurements of
displacement for applications in industrial control
and machine tools.
LVDT sensors are extremely rugged and come
in various dimensions to suit many needs (some
as small as 10mm long).
In most practical applications, the voltage output
is measured (amplification is usually not
needed) while the phase is detected with a zero-
crossing phase detector (a comparator).
LVDT - properties
Frequency of the source must be high with respect to the
frequency of motion of the core (a figure of 10 times
higher is common) to avoid errors in the output voltage
due to slow response of the LVDT.
The operation of LVDTs can be from ac sources or dc
sources (with internal oscillator providing the sinusoidal
voltage).
Typical voltages are up to about 25V while output is
usually below 5V.
Resolution can be very high while the linear span is
about 10-20% of the length of the coil assembly

RVDT - Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
A variation of the LVDT
Intended for angular displacement and rotary
position sensing.
In all respects it is identical in operation to the
LVDT device but the rotary motion imposes
certain restrictions on its construction.
The span is given in angles and can be up to
30 to 40. Beyond that the output is
nonlinear.
RVDT
Response of an RVDT