DATABASE SYSTEMS

DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT INTERNATIONAL EDITION

ROB CORONEL CROCKETT

CHAPTER 2
DATA MODELS
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In this chapter, you will learn:

Why data models are important About the basic data-modeling building blocks What business rules are and how they influence database design How the major data models evolved

How data models can be classified by level of abstraction

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The Importance of Data Models

Data models
Relatively simple representations, usually graphical, of complex real-world data structures Facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the end user

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The Importance of Data Models (continued)

End-users have different views and needs for data Data model organizes data for various users

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Data Model Basic Building Blocks

Entity - anything about which data are to be collected and stored
Attribute - a characteristic of an entity

Relationship - describes an association among entities

One-to-many (1:*) relationship Many-to-many (*:*) relationship One-to-one (1:1) relationship

Constraint - a restriction placed on the data

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Business Rules
Brief, precise, and unambiguous descriptions of a policies, procedures, or principles within a specific organization
Apply to any organization that stores and uses data to generate information Description of operations that help to create and enforce actions within that organizations environment
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Business Rules (continued)

Must be rendered in writing
Must be kept up to date Sometimes are external to the organization Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated

Describe characteristics of the data as viewed by the company

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Discovering Business Rules

Sources of Business Rules:
Company managers
Policy makers Department managers

Written documentation
Procedures Standards Operations manuals

Direct interviews with end users

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Translating Business Rules into Data Model Components

Standardize companys view of data Constitute a communications tool between users and designers

Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of data

Allow designer to understand business processes Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship participation rules and constraints Promote creation of an accurate data model
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Discovering Business Rules (continued)

Generally, nouns translate into entities Verbs translate into relationships among entities Relationships are bi-directional

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The Evolution of Data Models

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The Evolution of Data Models (continued)

Hierarchical Network

Relational
Entity relationship Object oriented (OO)

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The Hierarchical Model

Developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down tree

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)

The hierarchical structure contains levels, or segments Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:*) relationships between a parent and its children segments
Each parent can have many children each child has only one parent

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The Hierarchical Model (continued)

Advantages
Many of the hierarchical data models features formed the foundation for current data models Its database application advantages are replicated, albeit in a different form, in current database environments Generated a large installed (mainframe) base, created a pool of programmers who developed numerous tried-and-true business applications
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The Hierarchical Model (continued)

Disadvantages
Complex to implement Difficult to manage Lacks structural independence Implementation limitations Lack of standards

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The Network Model

Created to
Represent complex data relationships more effectively Improve database performance Impose a database standard

Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) Database Task Group (DBTG)

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The Network Model (continued)

Schema
Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the database administrator

Subschema
Defines database portion seen by the application programs that actually produce the desired information from data contained within the database

Data Management Language (DML)

Defines the environment in which data can be managed
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The Network Model (continued)

Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)
Enables database administrator to define schema components

Subschema DDL
Allows application programs to define database components that will be used

DML
Works with the data in the database
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The Network Model (continued)

Resembles hierarchical model
Collection of records in 1:* relationships Set
Relationship Composed of at least two record types
Owner Equivalent to the hierarchical models parent Member Equivalent to the hierarchical models child
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The Network Model (continued)

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The Network Model (continued)

Disadvantages
Too cumbersome The lack of ad hoc query capability put heavy pressure on programmers Any structural change in the database could produce havoc in all application programs that drew data from the database Many database old-timers can recall the interminable information delays

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The Relational Model

Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970 Conceptually simple Computers lacked power to implement the relational model

Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational database software

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The Relational Model (continued)

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) Performs same basic functions provided by hierarchical and network DBMS systems, in addition to a host of other functions Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its ability to hide the complexities of the relational model from the user
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The Relational Model (continued)

Table (relations)
Matrix consisting of a series of row/column intersections Related to each other through sharing a common entity characteristic

Relational diagram
Representation of relational databases entities, attributes within those entities, and relationships between those entities
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The Relational Model (continued)

Relational Table
Stores a collection of related entities
Resembles a file

Relational table is purely logical structure

How data are physically stored in the database is of no concern to the user or the designer This property became the source of a real database revolution

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The Relational Model (continued)

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The Relational Model (continued)

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The Relational Model (continued)

Rise to dominance due in part to its powerful and flexible query language
Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user to specify what must be done without specifying how it must be done SQL-based relational database application involves:
User interface A set of tables stored in the database SQL engine

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The Entity Relationship Model

Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data modeling
Introduced by Chen in 1976 Graphical representation of entities and their relationships in a database structure. More recently the class diagram component of the Unified Modeling Language (UML) has been used to produce entity relationship models.

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
Uses graphic representations to model database components Entity is mapped to a relational table

Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table Entity set is collection of like entities Connectivity labels types of relationships

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)

Fig 2.6 The basic Crows foot ERD

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The Object Oriented Model

Modeled both data and their relationships in a single structure known as an object Object-oriented data model (OODM) is the basis for the object-oriented database management system (OODBMS) OODM is said to be a semantic data model

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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

Object described by its factual content
Like relational models entity

Includes information about relationships between facts within object, and relationships with other objects
Unlike relational models entity

Subsequent OODM development allowed an object to also contain all operations

Object becomes basic building block for autonomous structures

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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
Attributes describe the properties of an object Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes Classes are organized in a class hierarchy Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class hierarchy to inherit the attributes and methods of classes above it
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The Object Oriented Model (continued)

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Other Models
Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)
Semantic data model developed in response to increasing complexity of applications DBMS based on the ERDM often described as an object/relational database management system (O/RDBMS) Primarily geared to business applications

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Database Models and the Internet

Internet drastically changed role and scope of database market OODM and ERDM-O/RDM have taken a backseat to development of databases that interface with Internet Dominance of Web has resulted in growing need to manage unstructured information
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Data Models: A Summary

Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of previous models Common characteristics:
Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic completeness of the database Represent the real world as closely as possible Representation of real-world transformations (behavior) must comply with consistency and integrity characteristics of any data model

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Data Models: A Summary (continued)

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Degrees of Data Abstraction

Way of classifying data models Many processes begin at high level of abstraction and proceed to an everincreasing level of detail Designing a usable database follows the same basic process

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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC)
Defined a framework for data modeling based on degrees of data abstraction(1970s):
External Conceptual Internal

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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)

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The External Model

End users view of the data environment Requires that the modeler subdivide set of requirements and constraints into functional modules that can be examined within the framework of their external models

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The External Model (continued)

Advantages:
Easy to identify specific data required to support each business units operations Facilitates designers job by providing feedback about the models adequacy Creation of external models helps to ensure security constraints in the database design Simplifies application program development

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The External Model (continued)

Fig 2.10 External Models for Tiny College

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The External Model (continued)

Fig 2.10 External Models for Tiny College

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The Conceptual Model

Represents global view of the entire database
Representation of data as viewed by the entire organization

Basis for identification and high-level description of main data objects, avoiding details
Most widely used conceptual model is the entity relationship (ER) model
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The Conceptual Model (continued)

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The Conceptual Model (continued)

Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data environment
Independent of both software and hardware
Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of the model Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no effect on the database design at the conceptual level

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The Internal Model

Representation of the database as seen by the DBMS Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an internal model

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The Physical Model

Operates at lowest level of abstraction, describing the way data are saved on storage media such as disks or tapes
Software and hardware dependent Requires that database designers have a detailed knowledge of the hardware and software used to implement database design

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The Physical Model (continued)

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Summary
A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a complex real-world data environment
Basic data modeling components are:
Entities Attributes Relationships Constraints
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Summary (continued)
Hierarchical model
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:*) relationships between a parent and its children segments

Network data model

Uses sets to represent 1:* relationships between record types

Relational model
Current database implementation standard ER model is a popular graphical tool for data modeling that complements the relational model
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Summary (continued)
Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented data model The relational model has adopted many objectoriented extensions to become the extended relational data model (ERDM) Data modeling requirements are a function of different data views (global vs. local) and level of data abstraction
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