Data Flow Modelling

Concepts

Data Flow Diagrams I/O Descriptions External Entities, Data Stores, Processes and Data Flows The Context Diagram Elementary Process Descriptions Levelling Drop Through Document Flow Diagrams

Data Flow Modelling

Modelling a systems processes

Data Flow Modelling is a widely used and mature analysis technique, and is recommended by most structured methods Data Flow Models (DFMs) are easy to understand and, with a little practice, reasonably quick and straightforward to develop They consist of two parts: a set of Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) and a set of associated textual descriptions that provide us with the truly effective tool for understanding the information processes of a system

Data Flow Modelling

The Business Activity Model indicates the human activities that take place in the environment that concern us, but does not contain enough detail yet to build a computerised information system.
The technique of Data Flow Modelling is used to progress the analysis of the systems processes by providing a more detailed model of all the systems data processes.

Data Flow Diagrams

A communication aid
Before we see how to produce a DFD we will show how a DFD can be used to communicate with users (who are not expected to understand how to produce one) Imagine you work in a small stock control environment where goods are bought and sold There are two job descriptions in our imaginary system: stock clerks and cashiers Stock Clerks order and receive goods Cashiers sell goods An analyst has observed you and come up with the following diagram

e Manager

Data Flow Diagrams aid communication

Purchase Order

External Entities P.O.

d Supplier

1 Stock List

Stock Clerk Order Stock Stock List M2 Stock File

Processes
Delivery 2 Stock Clerk Receive Stock

Purchase Order

Data Stores
Purchase Order Cabinet

Orders *

M1

e Manager

Matched Orders

Delivered Goods

Cashier Sell Stock * Sold Goods M2 Stock File

a Customer

Bought Goods

Data Flow Diagrams

The Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is the visible part of the Data Flow Modelling (DFM) technique If used, the DFD is drawn at the very beginning of the analysis where, in various guises, it helps define the context of the system under consideration It then becomes, with the LDS, the main place for recording the analysts understanding of how the current system functions

Data Flow Diagrams

When a good understanding of the data movements of the current system has been achieved, the logic of the system is distilled from the DFD and a new logical DFD may be produced This DFD contains the essence of the systems functionality, free from technical and physical constraints that may exist in the current system With the logical view of the system in hand, the analysts propose alternative options for a new system
The users choose one of these options and a final DFD is drawn for the, by now, required system

Data Flow Diagrams

DFD Notation

The DFD is a diagram that consists principally of four symbols, namely the external entity, the data flow, the process and the data store Additionally, a physical flow can be shown on the DFD of the current system

Data Flow Diagrams

External Entities

d Supplier

Data Flow Diagrams

Data Flows

Data Flow (usual)

Customer Details

Bi-directional Flow (rare)

Flow Between External Entities (for convenience)

Goods

Resource Flow (for convenience)

Cosmetics

Data Flow Diagrams

Process

Cashier Sell Stock

Data Flow Diagrams

Data Stores

Digitised

D3

Suppliers

Manual

M1

Stock File

Transient

T1

Unpaid Invoices

Duplicate

D1

Orders

D1

Orders

e Manager Purchase Order

Data Flow Diagrams Decomposition

1 Stock List P.O.

Stock Clerk Order Stock Stock List M2 Stock File

d Supplier Delivery 2 Stock Clerk Receive Stock e Manager Matched Orders * Orders M1 Purchase Order Cabinet Purchase Order

Delivered Goods

Cashier Sell Stock * Sold Goods M2 Stock File

a Customer

Bought Goods

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

A closer look at process 1 of the Small Stock System also shows that it is logically consistent and does indeed describe the activity of ordering stock
On the other hand, it does not contain enough detail to understand exactly what happens when stock is ordered For example:

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

Is there any time lapse between the production of a stock list and a firm order coming back? When does a check of the product files take place? Who is responsible for choosing which supplier to use? The DFD deals with these issues by allowing more detailed views of the high level processes This is done by breaking up each process into as many sub-processes as deemed necessary

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

Any process on a DFD may be broken up into several sub-processes which, when viewed collectively, make up that process

Thus for example we may break-up process 1 of the Small Stock System into that shown on the next slide:

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

e Manager

Order Stock Stock List Purchase Order

1.1 Produce Stock List

1.2 Record Purchase Order

Stock List

Purchase Order

M2

Stock File

M1

Purchase Order Cabinet

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

The decomposition of a DFD into lower level DFDs is known as levelling The DFD that shows the entire system is known as the top level or level 1 DFD The DFDs that contain more detailed views of the level 1 processes make up level 2 DFDs Any level 2 process that is further decomposed gives rise to a level 3 DFD and so on

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

A process that is decomposed is known as a parent whose children are the diagrams derived from it Any process that does not contain any further decomposition ( i.e. has no children) is known as a bottom level or elementary process These elementary processes constitute the building blocks of the system and as such need to be considered carefully

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

They will contain enough detail for a program specification to be deducible from them at a later stage As such, a clear description of each one has to be produced at some time during the analysis These Elementary Process Descriptions (EPDs) are written in plain English, or in pseudocode, depending on the project team. A sample EPD follows:

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

Elementary Process Description System: Small Stock DFD Type: Current Process Name: Record Purchase Order Process Id: 1.2
Managers give the stock clerk a ready-made purchase order. The stock clerk places this order in the Purchase Order Cabinet. It is the managers responsibility to send the order directly to the supplier they have chosen. Each purchase order contains product information taken from the suppliers price list. The date after which a delivery of goods will be unacceptable is also included.

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

1.2

Record Purchase Order

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

If there is a flow on a level 2 diagram that does not correspond to one on its parent diagram then something is wrong In this case either the top level or the lower level diagram needs updating, depending on further analysis

Data Flow Diagrams

Decomposing Data Flow Diagrams

Data Flow Diagrams

Context Diagrams

A level higher than level 1, showing the whole system as a single process with external entities around it, is also possible:

e Manager Stock List Purchase Order Matched Orders d Small Stock System Delivery Supplier

P.O.

Bought Goods

a
Customer

Data Flow Diagrams

Context Diagrams

All the DFD rules apply here All the incoming and outgoing flows to and from the context diagram should correspond directly with the flows seen flowing between all level 1 processes and the external entities they interact with Further, since each lower level DFD is consistent with its parent diagram, it will be possible to trace each flow seen in the context diagram down to the elementary process that either generates that flow or receives it

Data Flow Diagrams

I/O Descriptions

The flows shown on the Context Diagram are of vital importance since it is for these interactions with the outside world that the system exists and through which it will be judged as a good or a bad system For this reason we ensure we are 100% confident with the content of each input to or output from the system by necessitating the completion of a document that traces each external flow down to an elementary process This document is called an I/O Description:

Data Flow Diagrams

Context Diagrams

Data Flow Stock List Purchase Order

Data Item product name quantity in stock supplier name supplier address suppliers product code product name quantity ordered purchase order date latest acceptable delivery date

Remarks

Purchase order contains one supplier name but many product name

Data Flow Diagrams

Developing the processing view of the system

As with many systems analysis products there is no fixed way of producing a model (if indeed we decide to produce the said model in the first place!) In the next few slides we will illustrate how some of our products can be used as precursors to Data Flow Modelling Earlier in the series we met Business Activity Models and Resource Flow Diagrams Today we are getting a feel for Data Flow Diagrams, including Context Diagrams In what follows we will also introduce Document Flow Diagrams

Data Flow Diagrams

Development Drop Through

Either of these can be used as a starting point for modelling a systems processing We will use the ZigZag case study to show how we can move from one product to the other If at any point of systems analysis you realise that you have produced something that is not used further in the analysis you should pause for thought and question the prudence of developing the product in the first place Each systems analysis product builds on the understanding contained in all its predecessors The link between successive products is called drop through

Data Flow Diagrams

Starting from the Context Diagram

To develop a Context Diagram we carry out the following tasks:

(i) Identify all sources and recipients of data from the system, i.e. external entities (ii) Identify the major data flows to and from the external entities (iii)Convert each source or recipient into an external entity symbol (iv)Add the data flows between each external entity and a single box representing the entire system

Data Flow Diagrams

Starting from the Context Diagram

External Entity
Supplier

S or R
s r s s s r r s r r

Data Flow
Delivery Note Purchase Order Delivery Details Invoice P.O. Quantities Stock Report Dispatch Note Customer Order Matched C.O. #1 Matched Invoices

Purchaser

Customer Sales & Marketing

Accounts

Data Flow Diagrams

Starting from the Context Diagram
a Supplier

Payment Purchase Order Delivery Details Invoice

Delivery Note

e Accounts
Matched Invoice

ZigZag Warehouse System

d
Despatch Note

Customer

Stock Report

Matched C.O. Copy #1 Customer Order

Customer Order

P.O.Quantities

b Purchaser

c Sales and Marketing

Data Flow Diagrams

Starting from the Context Diagram

We can now follow each flow into and identify the elementary process responsible for it A grouping of these elementary processes can then give us a first glimpse of the systems Data Flow Model

Document Flow Diagrams

Document Flow Diagrams illustrate the flow of physical documents associated with the area under investigation In this context, documents may take the form of pieces of paper, conversations (usually over the telephone) or even data passed between computer systems To create a Document Flow Diagram we carry out the following tasks:

Document Flow Diagrams

i. Identify

all recipients and sources of documents, whether inside or outside the system boundary ii. Identify the documents that connect them iii. Convert each source and recipient into an external entity symbol iv. Add data flow arrows to represent each connecting document v. Add the system boundary to exclude the external entities identified in the context diagram

Document Flow Diagrams

Source
Supplier Supplier Stock Clerk Stock Clerk Despatch Clerk Customer Sales & Marketing Despatch Clerk Despatch Super. Despatch Clerk .

Document
Invoice Delivery Times Stock Report Stock Report Despatch Note Customer Order Customer Order Despatch Report Matched Dsp Rep Matched CO #1

Recipient
P.O.Clerk Stock Clerk Purchaser Despatch Supervisor Customer Sales & Marketing Despatch Clerk Despatch Supervisor Despatch Clerk Sales & Marketing

Document Flow Diagrams

Despatch Supervisor

Sales and Marketing

Customer Order

Matched Despatch Rpt

Despatch Report

Matched C.O. Copy #1

Despatch Clerk

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Document Flow Diagrams

To transform the Document Flow Diagram into a DFD we follow each document flow in turn, asking the following questions: What process generates this document flow? What process receives this document flow? Is the document stored by a process? Where is the document stored? Is the document created from stored data? What business activity triggers the process? Is the document a source of new data?

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Document Flow Diagrams

In the case of our example we soon note that two data stores are used, the stock file and the customer orders file. We also quickly realise that Sales and Marketing are clearly an external entity. It takes some time to realise that the Despatch Supervisor constitutes an external entity who decides where to pick the customers stock from. We are then left with the following two processes performed by the Despatch Clerk

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Document Flow Diagrams

Despatch Clk

Sales and Marketing

Customer Order

Allocate Despatch

Despatch Report

Despatch Supervisor

2 x C.O. Copies

Current Stock Levels

M4

Customer Orders

M2 Matched Despatch Rpt

Stock

Matched Despatch Rpt

Customer Order Copy

Stock To Be Used Despatch Clk Complete Customer Order Matched C.O. Copy #1

c
Sales and Marketing

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Resource Flow Diagrams

In an environment where a number of different physical resources move around frequently, it may be a good idea to start by modelling the flow of resources instead of the flow of documents.

With a resource flow in hand we can ask questions similar to those we asked when we were converting a Document Flow Diagram into a Data Flow Diagram, namely:

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Resource Flow Diagrams

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

What process records the receipt of this resource? What process records the placement of the resource in a resource store? What process records the removal of the resource from a resource store? What new or old data accompanies the resource? What previously stored data is used in each movement of this resource?

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Resource Flow Diagrams
Loading Bay
2 b Supplier Delivery Note P.O. Copy M1 Purchase Orders Matched P.O. Check Delivery Goods Receiving

T2

Matched P.O.s Matched P.O.

M2

Stock

New Stock 3 Stock Keeping Store Stock

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Business Activity Models

If a BAM has been produced as part of modelling a systems processing, and if the Project Team has also decided to produce a DFD, then this DFD should be based on the analysis that led to the BAM. Indeed it would be folly to ignore the BAM and to try and produce the DFD from scratch A BAM is transformed into a DFD by asking of it questions such as:
Does the activity use data? Is the activity responsible for the storage of new data? Does the activity require already stored data?

Data Flow Diagrams

Converting Business Activity Models
Check Delivery

2 b Supplier
Place Goods in Delivery Dock

Goods Receiving Check Delivery

Delivery Note

P.O. Copy M1
Allocate Stock Location

Purchase Orders

Matched P.O.

T2

Matched P.O.s
Matched P.O.

Remove Goods from Delivery Dock

M2

Stock

New Stock 3 Stock Keeping Store Stock

Store Goods in Depot

Relationship Between Processing Models

Lectures 2 and 4 have been dedicated to modelling the current processes (as opposed to data) of a system Four processing models have been recommended: Resource Flow Diagrams Document Flow Diagrams Business Activity Models and Data Flow Models. We have demonstrated how to use any of these diagrams as a starting point and we have also shown how to use some of these diagrams to assist the production of others As with most of systems analysis there are no fixed rules as to what to do first or second or even at all.

Relationship Between Processing Models

Business Activity Model

Data Flow Model

Document Flow Diagram

Resource Flow Diagram

Data Flow Diagrams

Tips

The drawing of DFDs is an iterative activity

However clear a completed DFD looks, it should be appreciated that to draw one many passes have to be made (with a lot of paper ending up in the waste-paper basket!).
A DFD starts taking its final shape when it is possible to produce a clear list of data items (or attributes) for each and every one of its data flows.

Data Flow Diagrams

Tips

Direct flows of information between two data stores are evidently not possible

M1

Purchase Orders

M2

P.O. Copy Stock

Data Flow Diagrams

Tips

For a process to be complete, it needs to have both an input and an output (shown by data flows going into and coming out of it)
2 Goods Receiving Check Delivery T2 Matched P.O. Matched P.O.s

2
b Supplier Delivery Note

Goods Receiving
Check Delivery

2 b Supplier Delivery Note

Goods Receiving Check Delivery T2 Matched P.O.

Matched P.O.s

Data Flow Diagrams

Tips

As with processes, data stores should both receive information for storing and provide it for further processing If a data store exists without a flow from a process coming into it or a flow towards a process coming out of it then the analyst should further investigate the system (by asking the user such questions as how does the information get here in the first place? and who uses this information after it gets here?)

Data Flow Diagrams

Tips

f Someone M2 Something A data store

WHY?

2 f Someone Something Do something with it M2 Same something A data store

The Place of Data Flow Modelling

Decision Structure Investigation RD Specification
Conceptual Model

BAM DFM WPM Policies and Procedures

External Design

Internal design

Construction

User Organisation

BSO
LDM