Problem Books in Mathematics Series Editor: PR. Halmos Unsolved Problems in Intuitive Mathemaiics, Volume I: Unsolved Problems in Number Theory by Richard K. Guy 1981. xviii, 161 pages. 17 illus. Theorems and Problems in Functional Analysis by A.A. Kirillov and A.D. Gvishiani (trans. Harold H. McFaden) 1982. ix, 347 pages. 6 illus. Problems in Analysis by Bernard Gelbaum 1982. vii, 228 pages. 9 illus. A Problem Seminar by Donald J. Newman 1982. viii, 113 pages. Problem-Solving Through Problems by Loren C, Larson 1983. xi, 344 pages. 104 illus.Loren C. Larson Problem-Solving Through Problems With 104 Illustrations Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg TokyoLoren C. Larson. Department of Mathematics St. Olaf College Northfield, MN 55057 U.S.A. Editor Paul R. Halmos Department of Mathematics Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405 USA. AMS Classification (1981): 00A07 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Larson, Loren C., 1937- Problem-solving through problems. {Problem books in mathematics) 1. Mathematics—Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Problem solving. I. Title. IL. Series. QA43.L37 1983 510 82-19493 © 1983 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, U.S.A. Typeset by Computype, St. Paul, Minnesota. Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley & Sons, Harrisonburg, Virginia. Printed in the United States of America. 987654321 ISBN 0-387-90803-X Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg Tokyo ISBN 3-540-90803-X Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York TokyoTo ElizabethPreface The purpose of this book is to isolate and draw attention to the most important problem-solving techniques typically encountered in undergradu- ate mathematics and to illustrate their use by interesting examples and problems not easily found in other sources. Each section features a single idea, the power and versatility of which is demonstrated in the examples and reinforced in the problems. The book serves as an introduction and guide to the problems literature (e.g., as found in the problems sections of ufdergraduate mathematics journals) and as an easily accessed reference of essential knowledge for students and teachers of mathematics. The book is both an anthology of problems and a manual of instruction, It contains over 700 problems, over one-third of which are worked in detail. Each problem is chosen for its natural appeal and beauty, but primarily for its unique challenge. Each is included to provide the context for illustrating a given problem-solving method. The aim throughout is to show how a basic set of simple techniques can be applied in diverse ways to solve an enormous variety of problems. Whenever possible, problems within sections are chosen to cut across expected course boundaries and te thereby strengthen the evidence that a single intuition is capable of broad applica- tion. Each section concludes with “Additional Examples” that point to other contexts where the technique is appropriate. The book is written at the upper undergraduate level. It assumes a rudimentary knowledge of combinatorics, number theory, algebra, analysis, and geometry. Much of the content is accessible to students with only a year of calculus, and a sizable proportion does not even require this. However, most of the problems are at a level slightly beyond the usual contents of textbooks. Thus, the material is especially appropriate for students preparing for mathematical competitions.vi Preface The methods and problems featured in this book are drawn from my experience of solving problems at this level. Each new issue of The American Mathematical Monthly (and other undergraduate journals) con- tains material that would be just right for inclusion. Because these ideas continue to find new expression, the reader should regard this collection as a starter set and should be encouraged to create a personal file of problems and solutions to extend this beginning in both breadth and depth. Obvi- ously, we can never hope to develop a “system” for problem-solving; however, the acquiring of ideas is a valuable experience at all stages of development. Many of the problems in this book are old and proper referencing is very difficult. I have given sources for those problems that have appeared more recently in the literature, citing contests whenever possible. I would appreci- ate receiving exact references for those I have not mentioned. I wish to take this opportunity to express my thanks to colleagues and students who have shared many hours of enjoyment working on these problems. In this regard I] am particularly grateful to O. E. Stanaitis, Professor Emeritus of St. Olaf College. Thanks to St. Olaf College and the Mellon Foundation for providing two summer grants to help support the writing of this manuscript. Finally, thanks to all individuals who contrib- uted by posing problems and sharing solutions. Special acknowledgement goes to Murray §, Klamkin who for over a quarter of a century has stood as a giant in the area of problem-solving and from whose problems and solutions I have Jearned a great deal. March 21, 1983 Loren C. LARSONContents Chapter 1. Heuristics 1. Search for a Pattern Draw a Figure Formulate an Equivalent Problem Modify the Problem Choose Effective Notation Exploit Symmetry Divide into Cases Work Backward Argue by Contradiction 1. 10. Pursue Parity 1.11. Consider Extreme Cases 1.12. Generalize Chapter 2. Two Important Principles: Induction and Pigeonhole 2.1. 2.2. 23. 2.4. 25. 2.6. Induction: Build on P(k) Induction: Set Up P(k + 1) Strong Induction Induction and Generalization Recursion Pigeonhole Principle Chapter 3. Arithmetic 3.1. 3.2. Greatest Common Divisor Modular Arithmetic3.3. Unique Factorization 3.4. Positional Notation 3.5. Arithmetic of Complex Numbers Chapter 4. Algebra 4.1. Algebraic Identities 4.2. Unique Factorization of Polynomials 4.3. The Identity Theorem 44. Abstract Algebra Chapter 5. Summation of Series 5.1. Binominal Coefficients 5.2. Geometric Series 5.3. Telescoping Series 5.4. Power Series Chapter 6. Intermediate Real Analysis 6.1. Continuous Functions 6.2. The Intermediate-Value Theorem 6.3. The Derivative 6.4. The Extreme-Value Theorem 6.5. Rolle’s Theorem 6.6. The Mean Value Theorem 6.7. L’Hépital’s Rule 6.8. The Integral 6.9, The Fundamental Theorem Chapter 7. Inequalities 7.1. Basic Inequality Properties 7.2. Arithmetic-Mean—Geometric-Mean Inequality 7.3. Cauchy—Schwarz Inequality 7.4. Functional Considerations 7.5. Inequalities by Series 7.6. The Squeeze Principle Chapter 8. Geometry 8.1. Classical Plane Geometry 8.2. Analytic Geometry 8.3. Vector Geometry 8.4. Complex Numbers in Geometry ‘Contents 100 106 114 20 121 125 132 144 154 154 164 170 176 192 192 198 203 210 216 225 227 234 241 241 248 254 259 268 271 280 291 299 312Contents xi Glossary of Symbols and Definitions 317 Sources 319 Index 331Chapter 1. Heuristics Strategy or tactics in problem-solving is called heuristics. In this chapter we will be concerned with the heuristics of solving mathematical problems. Those who have thought about heuristics have described a number of basic ideas that are typically useful. Among these, we shall focus on the follow- ing: (1) Search for a pattern. (2) Draw a figure. (3) Formulate an equivalent problem. (4) Modify the problem. (5) Choose effective notation. (6) Exploit symmetry. (7) Divide into cases. (8) Work backward. (9) Argue by contradiction. (10) Pursue parity. (11) Consider extreme cases. (12) Generalize. Our interest in this list of problem-solving ideas is not in their descrip- tion but in their implementation. By looking at examples of how others have used these simple but powerful ideas, we can expect to improve our problem-solving skills. Before beginning, a word of advice about the problems at the end of the sections: Do not be-overly concerned about using the heuristic treated in that section. Although the problems are chosen to give practice in the use of the heuristic, a narrow focus may be psychologically debilitating.- A single problem usually admits several solutions, often employing quite 1