4-5 Basic Relationship Between Pixels

Basic Relationship between Pixels
Objectives
Different Neighbours Connectivity Region Connectivity pathways Distance Measures Arithmetic/Logical Operations Logical Operations
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Basic Relationship between Pixels

Terminology:
f(x,y)
S p,q,etc
= image
= subset of pixels f(x,y) = particular
p
f(x,y)
pixels in image
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4-Neighbours
A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has 4 horizontal and vertical neighbours, each being a unit distance from (x,y)
y
(x-1,y)
(x,y)
(x, y-1) (x, y+1) (x+1, y)
x
Note: one or more of these points might lie outside image
Example
0 0 1 2 P1 P4 P7 1 P2 P5 P8 2 P3 P6 P9
N4(P5) = p4,p6 ---- Horizontal Neighbors p2,p8 ---- Vertical Neighbors
N4 (1,1) = (1,0) (1,2) (0,1) (2,1)

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Diagonal Neighbours ND(p)

A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has 4 diagonal neighbours, each being a unit distance from (x,y)
Y
(x-1, y-1) (x-1, y+1)
p(x,y)
(x+1, y-1)
(x+1, y-1)
0 0 1 2 P1 P4 P7
1 P2 P5 P8
2 P3 P6 P9
ND(P5) = p1,p3,p9,p7
ND (1,1) = (0,0) (0,2) (2,2) (2,0)

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8 Neighbours N8(p)
8-neighbours of p= 4 diagonal neighbours of p and 4neighbours of p
N8(p) = ND(p) + N4(p)
p(x,y)
Problems
0 0 P1 P4 P7 1 P2 P5 P8 2 P3 P6 P9
X Y co-ordinate of pixel P2 = (0,1)
1
2
P5 =
P9 =
Problems
N4 (P5)=(L,T,R,B)
P1 P4 P7 P2 P5 P8 P3 P6 P9
= (P4,P2,P6,P8)
ND(P5)=(LT,RT,RB,LB) = (P1,P3,P9,P7) N8(P5) = (L,-----LB) = (P4,P1,P2,P3, P6,P9,P8,P7) = (0,0,P2,P4)
N4 (P1)= (L,T,R,B)
ND(P1)=(LT,RT,RB,LB) = (0,0,P5,0)
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Connectivity
Connectivity is an important concept for establishing:- boundaries of objects - components of regions in an image Region = set of pixels in which there is a path between any pair of its pixels, all of whose pixels also belong to the set. i.e. adjacent pixels
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Connectivity
Two pixels are connected if:- they are adjacent (neighbours) - and colour or grey levels are similar
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 Region 4 Region 5
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Connectivity - types
V = set of grey-levels used to define intensity = in a grey-scale image, the sub-set of grey values whose intensity value is 31, 32. V(31,32)
3 types of connectivity:- 4-connectivity/ 4-adjacency

8-connectivity
m-connectivity
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4-Connectivity
Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4connected if q is in the set N4(p)
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V = (1) p A) q
Problem
p
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 1
B)
q
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 1
p D) 1 0 0 1 1 0 q 0 1 1 C) 1 0 0
p 1 1 0 0
1 1
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Problems
1 0 1 2 1 3 3 3 4 4 0 4 V1 = (1,2)
(1,2)
1 0 1 2 1 3 3 3 4 4 0 4 (3)
(4)
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8-Connectivity
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Problems
1
0
2
1
3
3
4
0
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m-Connectivity
Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-
connected if:1) q is in the set N4(p), or 2) q is in the set ND(P)
and the set N4(p) N4(q) is empty
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V = (1) p A) 1 q
Problem
p
1 1 0
0 1 1
B)
q
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0
p D) 1 0 0 1 1 0 q 0 1 1
p C) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1
q is in the set N4(p), or q is in the set ND(P) and the set N4(p) N4(q) is empty
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Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Path A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), , (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 i n. Here n is the length of the path. If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path. We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of
adjacency used.
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Connectivity - pathways
A pixel p is adjacent to a pixel q if they are connected.
A path from pixel to pixel q will be a sequence of distinct pixels with their own coordinates.
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
4 neighbours
8 neighbours
m neighbours
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Examples: Adjacency and Path

V = {1, 2}
0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
1,1 1,2 2,1 2,2 3,1 3,2
1,3
2,3
3,3
0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
8-adjacent
0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
m-adjacent
The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
(1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3):

(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)
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Boundary (or border)

The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
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Boundary (or border)

If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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Problem
In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two regions (of 1s) adjacent? (if 8-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
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In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two parts (of 1s) adjacent? (if 4-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Part 2
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In the following arrangement of pixels, the two regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
Region 1
Region 2
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In the following arrangement of pixels, the two regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used) 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
foreground
background
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In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels if 8-adjacency is used, true or false? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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Distance function D
Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), (u, v) respectively, the distance function D has following properties: D(p, q) 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]
a. b. c.
D(p, q) = D(q, p) D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)
p (i,j) q (h,k)
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Distance Measures
p (i,j)
q (h,k) Euclidean: City Block: Chessboard: DE(p,q) = [(i-h)2 + (j-k)2]1/2 D4(p,q) = |i-h| + |j-k| D8(p,q) = max{|i-h| , |j-k|}
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Problems
p (i,j)
q (h,k)
Euclidean: DE(p,q) = [(i-h)2 + (j-k)2]1/2
City Block:
Chessboard:
D4(p,q) = |i-h| + |j-k|

D8(p,q) = max{|i-h| , |j-k|}
If p(I,j) = (2,2) and q(h,k) = (4,4) find Euclidean, City Block, Chessboard distances
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The following are the different Distance measures:
a. Euclidean Distance : De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance: D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t| c. Chess Board Distance: D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)
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distance function D
In the following arrangement of pixels, whats the value of the chessboard distance between the circled two points? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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Arithmetic/Logical Operations
Arithmetic and logical operations between pixels are used in most branches of image processing. Arithmetic pixels.
operations
apply
to
multivalued
Logic operations apply only to binary images
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Arithmetic Operations
For entire images, Arithmetic operations are carried out pixel by pixel.
Addition:
Subtraction: Multiplication:
p + q used for image averaging to reduce noise

p q remove background information p * q used to correct grey level pq shading pxq pq
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Division:
Logical Operations
Basic tools of binary image processing where they are used for such tasks as masking, feature detection, and shape analysis And: p AND q pq
Or:
Complement:
p OR q p+q
NOT q q
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Logical Operations - Examples
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Arithmetic/Logical Operations Footnote

In addition to pixel-by-pixel operations on entire images, arithmetic and logical operations are used in neighbourhood-oriented operations. i.e. mask/filter operations
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Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image
For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is called a connected component of S.
If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected Set.
We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

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Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a connected set. Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.
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Foreground and background An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, , K. Let Ru denote the union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement. All the points in Ru is called foreground; All the points in (Ru)c is called background.
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4-5 Basic Relationship Between Pixels

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What are the different types of connectivity?

What are the different types of connectivity?

What are the different distance measures discussed?

What are the different distance measures discussed?

Basic Relationship between Pixels

Basic Relationship between Pixels

(x, y-1) (x, y+1) (x+1, y)

N4(P5) = p4,p6 ---- Horizontal Neighbors p2,p8 ---- Vertical Neighbors

N4 (1,1) = (1,0) (1,2) (0,1) (2,1)

Diagonal Neighbours ND(p)

ND (1,1) = (0,0) (0,2) (2,2) (2,0)

N8(p) = ND(p) + N4(p)

X Y co-ordinate of pixel P2 = (0,1)

ND(P5)=(LT,RT,RB,LB) = (P1,P3,P9,P7) N8(P5) = (L,-----LB) = (P4,P1,P2,P3, P6,P9,P8,P7) = (0,0,P2,P4)

3 types of connectivity:- 4-connectivity/ 4-adjacency

connected if:1) q is in the set N4(p), or 2) q is in the set ND(P)

and the set N4(p) N4(q) is empty

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), , (xn, yn)

Examples: Adjacency and Path

The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3):

Boundary (or border)

Boundary (or border)

D(p, q) = D(q, p) D(p, z) D(p, q) + D(q, z)

D4(p,q) = |i-h| + |j-k|

The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance : De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

Logic operations apply only to binary images

p + q used for image averaging to reduce noise

Logical Operations - Examples

Arithmetic/Logical Operations Footnote

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected Set.

We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

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