Using the GNU Compiler Collection

Richard M. Stallman

Last updated 30 December 2002 for GCC 3.3.2

For GCC Version 3.3.2

Published by the Free Software Foundation 59 Temple PlaceSuite 330 Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA Last printed April, 1998. Printed copies are available for $50 each.

Copyright c 1988, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being GNU General Public License and Funding Free Software, the Front-Cover texts being (a) (see below), and with the Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below). A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License. (a) The FSFs Front-Cover Text is: A GNU Manual (b) The FSFs Back-Cover Text is: You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.

Short Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 Compile C, C++, Objective-C, Ada, Fortran, Java, or treelang . 3 2 Language Standards Supported by GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 GCC Command Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4 C Implementation-dened behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 5 Extensions to the C Language Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6 Extensions to the C++ Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 7 GNU Objective-C runtime features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 8 Binary Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 9 gcova Test Coverage Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 10 Known Causes of Trouble with GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 11 Reporting Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 12 How To Get Help with GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 13 Contributing to GCC Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Funding Free Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 The GNU Project and GNU/Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Contributors to GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Option Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Keyword Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

ii

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

iii

Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 3 Compile C, C++, Objective-C, Ada, Fortran, Java, or treelang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Language Standards Supported by GCC . . . . 5 GCC Command Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Option Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Options Controlling the Kind of Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Compiling C++ Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Options Controlling C Dialect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Options Controlling C++ Dialect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Options Controlling Objective-C Dialect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Options to Control Diagnostic Messages Formatting . . . . . . 33 Options to Request or Suppress Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Options for Debugging Your Program or GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Options That Control Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Options Controlling the Preprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Passing Options to the Assembler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Options for Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Options for Directory Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Specifying subprocesses and the switches to pass to them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.16 Specifying Target Machine and Compiler Version . . . . . . . . 89 3.17 Hardware Models and Congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.17.1 M680x0 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.17.2 M68hc1x Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.17.3 VAX Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 3.17.4 SPARC Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 3.17.5 ARM Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 3.17.6 MN10200 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.17.7 MN10300 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.17.8 M32R/D Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 3.17.9 M88K Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 3.17.10 IBM RS/6000 and PowerPC Options. . . . . . . . . 106 3.17.11 Darwin Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 3.17.12 IBM RT Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 3.17.13 MIPS Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 3.17.14 Intel 386 and AMD x86-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.17.15 HPPA Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 3.17.16 Intel 960 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15

iv

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) 3.17.17 DEC Alpha Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.18 DEC Alpha/VMS Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.19 H8/300 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.20 SH Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.21 Options for System V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.22 TMS320C3x/C4x Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.23 V850 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.24 ARC Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.25 NS32K Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.26 AVR Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.27 MCore Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.28 IA-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.29 D30V Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.30 S/390 and zSeries Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.31 CRIS Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.32 MMIX Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.33 PDP-11 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.34 Xstormy16 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.35 FRV Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17.36 Xtensa Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Options for Code Generation Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environment Variables Aecting GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Running Protoize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 135 135 136 137 137 140 141 141 143 144 144 146 146 147 149 150 151 151 154 156 162 165

3.18 3.19 3.20

C Implementation-dened behavior . . . . . . . 169

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Floating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arrays and pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structures, unions, enumerations, and bit-elds . . . . . . . . . . Qualiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preprocessing directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Library functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Locale-specic behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 169 169 169 170 170 171 171 172 172 172 172 173 173

Extensions to the C Language Family . . . . . 175

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 Statements and Declarations in Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . Locally Declared Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Labels as Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constructing Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Referring to a Type with typeof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generalized Lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conditionals with Omitted Operands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Double-Word Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hex Floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arrays of Length Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structures With No Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arrays of Variable Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Macros with a Variable Number of Arguments. . . . . . . . . . Slightly Looser Rules for Escaped Newlines . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Lvalue Arrays May Have Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arithmetic on void- and Function-Pointers. . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Constant Initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compound Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designated Initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cast to a Union Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Declarations and Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Declaring Attributes of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attribute Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prototypes and Old-Style Function Denitions . . . . . . . . . C++ Style Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dollar Signs in Identier Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Character ESC in Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inquiring on Alignment of Types or Variables . . . . . . . . . . Specifying Attributes of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specifying Attributes of Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Inline Function is As Fast As a Macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assembler Instructions with C Expression Operands . . . . 5.35.1 i386 oating point asm operands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constraints for asm Operands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36.2 Simple Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36.3 Multiple Alternative Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36.4 Constraint Modier Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.36.5 Constraints for Particular Machines . . . . . . . . . . . Controlling Names Used in Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . Variables in Specied Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.38.1 Dening Global Register Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.38.2 Specifying Registers for Local Variables . . . . . . . Alternate Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Incomplete enum Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 176 177 177 179 180 181 182 183 183 184 184 186 186 187 188 188 188 188 189 190 191 191 192 192 202 205 206 206 206 206 207 211 215 216 220 222 222 224 225 225 236 237 237 239 239 240

5.37 5.38

5.39 5.40

vi

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) 5.41 Function Names as Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 5.42 Getting the Return or Frame Address of a Function . . . . 241 5.43 Using vector instructions through built-in functions . . . . . 242 5.44 Other built-in functions provided by GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 5.45 Built-in Functions Specic to Particular Target Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 5.45.1 Alpha Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 5.45.2 X86 Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 5.45.3 PowerPC AltiVec Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . 254 5.46 Pragmas Accepted by GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 5.46.1 ARM Pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 5.46.2 RS/6000 and PowerPC Pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 5.46.3 Darwin Pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 5.46.4 Solaris Pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 5.46.5 Tru64 Pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 5.47 Unnamed struct/union elds within structs/unions. . . . . . 274 5.48 Thread-Local Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 5.48.1 ISO/IEC 9899:1999 Edits for Thread-Local Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 5.48.2 ISO/IEC 14882:1998 Edits for Thread-Local Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Extensions to the C++ Language . . . . . . . . . . 279

6.1 Minimum and Maximum Operators in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 When is a Volatile Object Accessed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Restricting Pointer Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Vague Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Declarations and Denitions in One Header . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Wheres the Template? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Extracting the function pointer from a bound pointer to member function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 C++-Specic Variable, Function, and Type Attributes . . . . 6.9 Java Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 Deprecated Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11 Backwards Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 279 280 281 282 284 286 286 287 287 288

GNU Objective-C runtime features . . . . . . . 289

7.1 +load: Executing code before main . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 What you can and what you cannot do in +load ............................................... 7.2 Type encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Garbage Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Constant string objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 compatibility alias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 290 291 292 293 294

Binary Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

vii

gcova Test Coverage Program . . . . . . . . . . 301

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Introduction to gcov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Invoking gcov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using gcov with GCC Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brief description of gcov data les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 301 305 305

10

Known Causes of Trouble with GCC . . . . . 309

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Actual Bugs We Havent Fixed Yet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross-Compiler Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interoperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems Compiling Certain Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Incompatibilities of GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fixed Header Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standard Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disappointments and Misunderstandings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Misunderstandings with GNU C++ . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9.1 Declare and Dene Static Members . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9.2 Temporaries May Vanish Before You Expect . . . 10.9.3 Implicit Copy-Assignment for Virtual Bases . . . 10.10 Caveats of using protoize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11 Certain Changes We Dont Want to Make. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12 Warning Messages and Error Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 309 309 313 313 316 317 317 318 319 319 320 321 322 325

11

Reporting Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

11.1 11.2 Have You Found a Bug? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 How and where to Report Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

12 13

How To Get Help with GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Contributing to GCC Development . . . . . . 331

Funding Free Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 The GNU Project and GNU/Linux . . . . . . . . . . 335 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . 337
Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs . . . . . . . . . . . 342

GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . 343

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents . . . . 349

viii

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Contributors to GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Option Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Keyword Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Introduction

Introduction
This manual documents how to use the GNU compilers, as well as their features and incompatibilities, and how to report bugs. It corresponds to GCC version 3.3.2. The internals of the GNU compilers, including how to port them to new targets and some information about how to write front ends for new languages, are documented in a separate manual. See section Introduction in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals.

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 1: Compile C, C++, Objective-C, Ada, Fortran, Java, or treelang

1 Compile C, C++, Objective-C, Ada, Fortran, Java, or treelang

Several versions of the compiler (C, C++, Objective-C, Ada, Fortran, Java and treelang) are integrated; this is why we use the name GNU Compiler Collection. GCC can compile programs written in any of these languages. The Ada, Fortran, Java and treelang compilers are described in separate manuals. GCC is a common shorthand term for the GNU Compiler Collection. This is both the most general name for the compiler, and the name used when the emphasis is on compiling C programs (as the abbreviation formerly stood for GNU C Compiler). When referring to C++ compilation, it is usual to call the compiler G++. Since there is only one compiler, it is also accurate to call it GCC no matter what the language context; however, the term G++ is more useful when the emphasis is on compiling C++ programs. Similarly, when we talk about Ada compilation, we usually call the compiler GNAT, for the same reasons. We use the name GCC to refer to the compilation system as a whole, and more specically to the language-independent part of the compiler. For example, we refer to the optimization options as aecting the behavior of GCC or sometimes just the compiler. Front ends for other languages, such as Mercury and Pascal exist but have not yet been integrated into GCC. These front ends, like that for C++, are built in subdirectories of GCC and link to it. The result is an integrated compiler that can compile programs written in C, C++, Objective-C, or any of the languages for which you have installed front ends. In this manual, we only discuss the options for the C, Objective-C, and C++ compilers and those of the GCC core. Consult the documentation of the other front ends for the options to use when compiling programs written in other languages. G++ is a compiler, not merely a preprocessor. G++ builds object code directly from your C++ program source. There is no intermediate C version of the program. (By contrast, for example, some other implementations use a program that generates a C program from your C++ source.) Avoiding an intermediate C representation of the program means that you get better object code, and better debugging information. The GNU debugger, GDB, works with this information in the object code to give you comprehensive C++ source-level editing capabilities (see section C and C++ in Debugging with GDB).

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 2: Language Standards Supported by GCC

2 Language Standards Supported by GCC

For each language compiled by GCC for which there is a standard, GCC attempts to follow one or more versions of that standard, possibly with some exceptions, and possibly with some extensions. GCC supports three versions of the C standard, although support for the most recent version is not yet complete. The original ANSI C standard (X3.159-1989) was ratied in 1989 and published in 1990. This standard was ratied as an ISO standard (ISO/IEC 9899:1990) later in 1990. There were no technical dierences between these publications, although the sections of the ANSI standard were renumbered and became clauses in the ISO standard. This standard, in both its forms, is commonly known as C89, or occasionally as C90, from the dates of ratication. The ANSI standard, but not the ISO standard, also came with a Rationale document. To select this standard in GCC, use one of the options -ansi, -std=c89 or -std=iso9899:1990; to obtain all the diagnostics required by the standard, you should also specify -pedantic (or -pedantic-errors if you want them to be errors rather than warnings). See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21. Errors in the 1990 ISO C standard were corrected in two Technical Corrigenda published in 1994 and 1996. GCC does not support the uncorrected version. An amendment to the 1990 standard was published in 1995. This amendment added digraphs and __STDC_VERSION__ to the language, but otherwise concerned the library. This amendment is commonly known as AMD1; the amended standard is sometimes known as C94 or C95. To select this standard in GCC, use the option -std=iso9899:199409 (with, as for other standard versions, -pedantic to receive all required diagnostics). A new edition of the ISO C standard was published in 1999 as ISO/IEC 9899:1999, and is commonly known as C99. GCC has incomplete support for this standard version; see http://gcc.gnu.org/gcc-3.3/c99status.html for details. To select this standard, use -std=c99 or -std=iso9899:1999. (While in development, drafts of this standard version were referred to as C9X.) Errors in the 1999 ISO C standard were corrected in a Technical Corrigendum published in 2001. GCC does not support the uncorrected version. By default, GCC provides some extensions to the C language that on rare occasions conict with the C standard. See Chapter 5 [Extensions to the C Language Family], page 175. Use of the -std options listed above will disable these extensions where they conict with the C standard version selected. You may also select an extended version of the C language explicitly with -std=gnu89 (for C89 with GNU extensions) or -std=gnu99 (for C99 with GNU extensions). The default, if no C language dialect options are given, is -std=gnu89; this will change to -std=gnu99 in some future release when the C99 support is complete. Some features that are part of the C99 standard are accepted as extensions in C89 mode. The ISO C standard denes (in clause 4) two classes of conforming implementation. A conforming hosted implementation supports the whole standard including all the library facilities; a conforming freestanding implementation is only required to provide certain library facilities: those in <float.h>, <limits.h>, <stdarg.h>, and <stddef.h>; since AMD1, also those in <iso646.h>; and in C99, also those in <stdbool.h> and <stdint.h>. In addition, complex types, added in C99, are not required for freestanding implementations. The

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

standard also denes two environments for programs, a freestanding environment, required of all implementations and which may not have library facilities beyond those required of freestanding implementations, where the handling of program startup and termination are implementation-dened, and a hosted environment, which is not required, in which all the library facilities are provided and startup is through a function int main (void) or int main (int, char *[]). An OS kernel would be a freestanding environment; a program using the facilities of an operating system would normally be in a hosted implementation. GCC aims towards being usable as a conforming freestanding implementation, or as the compiler for a conforming hosted implementation. By default, it will act as the compiler for a hosted implementation, dening __STDC_HOSTED__ as 1 and presuming that when the names of ISO C functions are used, they have the semantics dened in the standard. To make it act as a conforming freestanding implementation for a freestanding environment, use the option -ffreestanding; it will then dene __STDC_HOSTED__ to 0 and not make assumptions about the meanings of function names from the standard library, with exceptions noted below. To build an OS kernel, you may well still need to make your own arrangements for linking and startup. See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21. GCC does not provide the library facilities required only of hosted implementations, nor yet all the facilities required by C99 of freestanding implementations; to use the facilities of a hosted environment, you will need to nd them elsewhere (for example, in the GNU C library). See Section 10.7 [Standard Libraries], page 317. Most of the compiler support routines used by GCC are present in libgcc, but there are a few exceptions. GCC requires the freestanding environment provide memcpy, memmove, memset and memcmp. Some older ports of GCC are congured to use the BSD bcopy, bzero and bcmp functions instead, but this is deprecated for new ports. Finally, if __builtin_ trap is used, and the target does not implement the trap pattern, then GCC will emit a call to abort. For references to Technical Corrigenda, Rationale documents and information concerning the history of C that is available online, see http://gcc.gnu.org/readings.html There is no formal written standard for Objective-C. The most authoritative manual is Object-Oriented Programming and the Objective-C Language, available at a number of web sites http://developer.apple.com/techpubs/macosx/Cocoa/ObjectiveC/ is a recent version http://www.toodarkpark.org/computers/objc/ is an older example http://www.gnustep.org has additional useful information There is no standard for treelang, which is a sample language front end for GCC. Its only purpose is as a sample for people wishing to write a new language for GCC. The language is documented in gcc/treelang/treelang.texi which can be turned into info or HTML format. See section About This Guide in GNAT Reference Manual, for information on standard conformance and compatibility of the Ada compiler. See section The GNU Fortran Language in Using and Porting GNU Fortran, for details of the Fortran language supported by GCC.

Chapter 2: Language Standards Supported by GCC

See section Compatibility with the Java Platform in GNU gcj, for details of compatibility between gcj and the Java Platform.

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

3 GCC Command Options

When you invoke GCC, it normally does preprocessing, compilation, assembly and linking. The overall options allow you to stop this process at an intermediate stage. For example, the -c option says not to run the linker. Then the output consists of object les output by the assembler. Other options are passed on to one stage of processing. Some options control the preprocessor and others the compiler itself. Yet other options control the assembler and linker; most of these are not documented here, since you rarely need to use any of them. Most of the command line options that you can use with GCC are useful for C programs; when an option is only useful with another language (usually C++), the explanation says so explicitly. If the description for a particular option does not mention a source language, you can use that option with all supported languages. See Section 3.3 [Compiling C++ Programs], page 20, for a summary of special options for compiling C++ programs. The gcc program accepts options and le names as operands. Many options have multiletter names; therefore multiple single-letter options may not be grouped: -dr is very dierent from -d -r. You can mix options and other arguments. For the most part, the order you use doesnt matter. Order does matter when you use several options of the same kind; for example, if you specify -L more than once, the directories are searched in the order specied. Many options have long names starting with -f or with -Wfor example, -fforce-mem, -fstrength-reduce, -Wformat and so on. Most of these have both positive and negative forms; the negative form of -ffoo would be -fno-foo. This manual documents only one of these two forms, whichever one is not the default. See [Option Index], page 363, for an index to GCCs options.

3.1 Option Summary

Here is a summary of all the options, grouped by type. Explanations are in the following sections. Overall Options See Section 3.2 [Options Controlling the Kind of Output], page 18.
-c -S -E -o file -pipe -pass-exit-codes -x language -v -### --help --target-help --version

C Language Options See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21.
-ansi -std=standard -aux-info filename -fno-asm -fno-builtin -fno-builtin-function -fhosted -ffreestanding -fms-extensions -trigraphs -no-integrated-cpp -traditional -traditional-cpp -fallow-single-precision -fcond-mismatch -fsigned-bitfields -fsigned-char -funsigned-bitfields -funsigned-char -fwritable-strings

10

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

C++ Language Options See Section 3.5 [Options Controlling C++ Dialect], page 25.
-fabi-version=n -fno-access-control -fcheck-new -fconserve-space -fno-const-strings -fdollars-in-identifiers -fno-elide-constructors -fno-enforce-eh-specs -fexternal-templates -falt-external-templates -ffor-scope -fno-for-scope -fno-gnu-keywords -fno-implicit-templates -fno-implicit-inline-templates -fno-implement-inlines -fms-extensions -fno-nonansi-builtins -fno-operator-names -fno-optional-diags -fpermissive -frepo -fno-rtti -fstats -ftemplate-depth-n -fuse-cxa-atexit -fvtable-gc -fno-weak -nostdinc++ -fno-default-inline -Wabi -Wctor-dtor-privacy -Wnon-virtual-dtor -Wreorder -Weffc++ -Wno-deprecated -Wno-non-template-friend -Wold-style-cast -Woverloaded-virtual -Wno-pmf-conversions -Wsign-promo -Wsynth

Objective-C Language Options See Section 3.6 [Options Controlling Objective-C Dialect], page 32.
-fconstant-string-class=class-name -fgnu-runtime -fnext-runtime -gen-decls -Wno-protocol -Wselector -Wundeclared-selector

Language Independent Options See Section 3.7 [Options to Control Diagnostic Messages Formatting], page 33.
-fmessage-length=n -fdiagnostics-show-location=[once|every-line]

Warning Options See Section 3.8 [Options to Request or Suppress Warnings], page 33.
-fsyntax-only -pedantic -pedantic-errors -w -W -Wall -Waggregate-return -Wcast-align -Wcast-qual -Wchar-subscripts -Wcomment -Wconversion -Wno-deprecated-declarations -Wdisabled-optimization -Wno-div-by-zero -Werror -Wfloat-equal -Wformat -Wformat=2 -Wformat-nonliteral -Wformat-security -Wimplicit -Wimplicit-int -Wimplicit-function-declaration -Werror-implicit-function-declaration -Wimport -Winline -Wno-endif-labels -Wlarger-than-len -Wlong-long -Wmain -Wmissing-braces -Wmissing-format-attribute -Wmissing-noreturn -Wno-multichar -Wno-format-extra-args -Wno-format-y2k -Wno-import -Wnonnull -Wpacked -Wpadded -Wparentheses -Wpointer-arith -Wredundant-decls -Wreturn-type -Wsequence-point -Wshadow -Wsign-compare -Wstrict-aliasing -Wswitch -Wswitch-default -Wswitch-enum -Wsystem-headers -Wtrigraphs -Wundef -Wuninitialized -Wunknown-pragmas -Wunreachable-code -Wunused -Wunused-function -Wunused-label -Wunused-parameter -Wunused-value -Wunused-variable -Wwrite-strings

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

11

C-only Warning Options

-Wbad-function-cast -Wmissing-declarations -Wmissing-prototypes -Wnested-externs -Wstrict-prototypes -Wtraditional

Debugging Options See Section 3.9 [Options for Debugging Your Program or GCC], page 46.
-dletters -dumpspecs -dumpmachine -dumpversion -fdump-unnumbered -fdump-translation-unit[-n ] -fdump-class-hierarchy[-n ] -fdump-tree-original[-n ] -fdump-tree-optimized[-n ] -fdump-tree-inlined[-n ] -feliminate-dwarf2-dups -fmem-report -fprofile-arcs -frandom-seed=n -fsched-verbose=n -ftest-coverage -ftime-report -g -glevel -gcoff -gdwarf -gdwarf-1 -gdwarf-1+ -gdwarf-2 -ggdb -gstabs -gstabs+ -gvms -gxcoff -gxcoff+ -p -pg -print-file-name=library -print-libgcc-file-name -print-multi-directory -print-multi-lib -print-prog-name=program -print-search-dirs -Q -save-temps -time

Optimization Options See Section 3.10 [Options that Control Optimization], page 53.
-falign-functions=n -falign-jumps=n -falign-labels=n -falign-loops=n -fbranch-probabilities -fcaller-saves -fcprop-registers -fcse-follow-jumps -fcse-skip-blocks -fdata-sections -fdelayed-branch -fdelete-null-pointer-checks -fexpensive-optimizations -ffast-math -ffloat-store -fforce-addr -fforce-mem -ffunction-sections -fgcse -fgcse-lm -fgcse-sm -floop-optimize -fcrossjumping -fif-conversion -fif-conversion2 -finline-functions -finline-limit=n -fkeep-inline-functions -fkeep-static-consts -fmerge-constants -fmerge-all-constants -fmove-all-movables -fnew-ra -fno-branch-count-reg -fno-default-inline -fno-defer-pop -fno-function-cse -fno-guess-branch-probability -fno-inline -fno-math-errno -fno-peephole -fno-peephole2 -funsafe-math-optimizations -ffinite-math-only -fno-trapping-math -fno-zero-initialized-in-bss -fomit-frame-pointer -foptimize-register-move -foptimize-sibling-calls -fprefetch-loop-arrays -freduce-all-givs -fregmove -frename-registers -freorder-blocks -freorder-functions -frerun-cse-after-loop -frerun-loop-opt -fschedule-insns -fschedule-insns2 -fno-sched-interblock -fno-sched-spec -fsched-spec-load -fsched-spec-load-dangerous -fsignaling-nans -fsingle-precision-constant -fssa -fssa-ccp -fssa-dce -fstrength-reduce -fstrict-aliasing -ftracer -fthread-jumps -funroll-all-loops -funroll-loops --param name =value -O -O0 -O1 -O2 -O3 -Os

Preprocessor Options See Section 3.11 [Options Controlling the Preprocessor], page 70.

12

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-$ -Aquestion =answer -A-question [=answer ] -C -dD -dI -dM -dN -Dmacro [=defn ] -E -H -idirafter dir -include file -imacros file -iprefix file -iwithprefix dir -iwithprefixbefore dir -isystem dir -M -MM -MF -MG -MP -MQ -MT -nostdinc -P -remap -trigraphs -undef -Umacro -Wp,option

Assembler Option See Section 3.12 [Passing Options to the Assembler], page 78.
-Wa,option

Linker Options See Section 3.13 [Options for Linking], page 78.
object-file-name -llibrary -nostartfiles -nodefaultlibs -nostdlib -s -static -static-libgcc -shared -shared-libgcc -symbolic -Wl,option -Xlinker option -u symbol

Directory Options See Section 3.14 [Options for Directory Search], page 81.
-Bprefix -Idir -I- -Ldir -specs=file

Target Options See Section 3.16 [Target Options], page 89.

-V version -b machine

Machine Dependent Options See Section 3.17 [Hardware Models and Congurations], page 89. M680x0 Options
-m68000 -m68020 -m68020-40 -m68020-60 -m68030 -m68040 -m68060 -mcpu32 -m5200 -m68881 -mbitfield -mc68000 -mc68020 -mfpa -mnobitfield -mrtd -mshort -msoft-float -mpcrel -malign-int -mstrict-align

M68hc1x Options
-m6811 -m6812 -m68hc11 -m68hc12 -m68hcs12 -mauto-incdec -minmax -mlong-calls -mshort -msoft-reg-count=count

VAX Options
-mg -mgnu -munix

SPARC Options
-mcpu=cpu-type -mtune=cpu-type -mcmodel=code-model -m32 -m64 -mapp-regs -mbroken-saverestore -mcypress -mfaster-structs -mflat -mfpu -mhard-float -mhard-quad-float -mimpure-text -mlittle-endian -mlive-g0 -mno-app-regs -mno-faster-structs -mno-flat -mno-fpu -mno-impure-text -mno-stack-bias -mno-unaligned-doubles -msoft-float -msoft-quad-float -msparclite -mstack-bias -msupersparc -munaligned-doubles -mv8

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

13

ARM Options
-mapcs-frame -mno-apcs-frame -mapcs-26 -mapcs-32 -mapcs-stack-check -mno-apcs-stack-check -mapcs-float -mno-apcs-float -mapcs-reentrant -mno-apcs-reentrant -msched-prolog -mno-sched-prolog -mlittle-endian -mbig-endian -mwords-little-endian -malignment-traps -mno-alignment-traps -msoft-float -mhard-float -mfpe -mthumb-interwork -mno-thumb-interwork -mcpu=name -march=name -mfpe=name -mstructure-size-boundary=n -mabort-on-noreturn -mlong-calls -mno-long-calls -msingle-pic-base -mno-single-pic-base -mpic-register=reg -mnop-fun-dllimport -mpoke-function-name -mthumb -marm -mtpcs-frame -mtpcs-leaf-frame -mcaller-super-interworking -mcallee-super-interworking

MN10200 Options
-mrelax

MN10300 Options
-mmult-bug -mno-mult-bug -mam33 -mno-am33 -mno-crt0 -mrelax

M32R/D Options
-m32rx -m32r -mcode-model=model-type -msdata=sdata-type -G num

M88K Options
-m88000 -m88100 -m88110 -mbig-pic -mcheck-zero-division -mhandle-large-shift -midentify-revision -mno-check-zero-division -mno-ocs-debug-info -mno-ocs-frame-position -mno-optimize-arg-area -mno-serialize-volatile -mno-underscores -mocs-debug-info -mocs-frame-position -moptimize-arg-area -mserialize-volatile -mshort-data-num -msvr3 -msvr4 -mtrap-large-shift -muse-div-instruction -mversion-03.00 -mwarn-passed-structs

RS/6000 and PowerPC Options

-mcpu=cpu-type -mtune=cpu-type -mpower -mno-power -mpower2 -mno-power2 -mpowerpc -mpowerpc64 -mno-powerpc -maltivec -mno-altivec -mpowerpc-gpopt -mno-powerpc-gpopt -mpowerpc-gfxopt -mno-powerpc-gfxopt -mnew-mnemonics -mold-mnemonics -mfull-toc -mminimal-toc -mno-fp-in-toc -mno-sum-in-toc -m64 -m32 -mxl-call -mno-xl-call -mpe -msoft-float -mhard-float -mmultiple -mno-multiple -mstring -mno-string -mupdate -mno-update -mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd -mbit-align -mno-bit-align

14

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mstrict-align -mno-strict-align -mrelocatable -mno-relocatable -mrelocatable-lib -mno-relocatable-lib -mtoc -mno-toc -mlittle -mlittle-endian -mbig -mbig-endian -mcall-aix -mcall-sysv -mcall-netbsd -maix-struct-return -msvr4-struct-return -mabi=altivec -mabi=no-altivec -mabi=spe -mabi=no-spe -misel=yes -misel=no -mprototype -mno-prototype -msim -mmvme -mads -myellowknife -memb -msdata -msdata=opt -mvxworks -mwindiss -G num -pthread

Darwin Options
-all_load -allowable_client -arch -arch_errors_fatal -arch_only -bind_at_load -bundle -bundle_loader -client_name -compatibility_version -current_version -dependency-file -dylib_file -dylinker_install_name -dynamic -dynamiclib -exported_symbols_list -filelist -flat_namespace -force_cpusubtype_ALL -force_flat_namespace -headerpad_max_install_names -image_base -init -install_name -keep_private_externs -multi_module -multiply_defined -multiply_defined_unused -noall_load -nomultidefs -noprebind -noseglinkedit -pagezero_size -prebind -prebind_all_twolevel_modules -private_bundle -read_only_relocs -sectalign -sectobjectsymbols -whyload -seg1addr -sectcreate -sectobjectsymbols -sectorder -seg_addr_table -seg_addr_table_filename -seglinkedit -segprot -segs_read_only_addr -segs_read_write_addr -single_module -static -sub_library -sub_umbrella -twolevel_namespace -umbrella -undefined -unexported_symbols_list -weak_reference_mismatches -whatsloaded

RT Options
-mcall-lib-mul -mfp-arg-in-fpregs -mfp-arg-in-gregs -mfull-fp-blocks -mhc-struct-return -min-line-mul -mminimum-fp-blocks -mnohc-struct-return

MIPS Options
-mabicalls -march=cpu-type -mtune=cpu=type -mcpu=cpu-type -membedded-data -muninit-const-in-rodata -membedded-pic -mfp32 -mfp64 -mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd -mgas -mgp32 -mgp64 -mgpopt -mhalf-pic -mhard-float -mint64 -mips1 -mips2 -mips3 -mips4 -mlong64 -mlong32 -mlong-calls -mmemcpy -mmips-as -mmips-tfile -mno-abicalls -mno-embedded-data -mno-uninit-const-in-rodata -mno-embedded-pic -mno-gpopt -mno-long-calls -mno-memcpy -mno-mips-tfile -mno-rnames -mno-stats -mrnames -msoft-float -m4650 -msingle-float -mmad -mstats -EL -EB -G num -nocpp -mabi=32 -mabi=n32 -mabi=64 -mabi=eabi -mfix7000 -mno-crt0 -mflush-func=func -mno-flush-func -mbranch-likely -mno-branch-likely

i386 and x86-64 Options

-mcpu=cpu-type -march=cpu-type -mfpmath=unit -masm=dialect -mno-fancy-math-387 -mno-fp-ret-in-387 -msoft-float -msvr3-shlib -mno-wide-multiply -mrtd -malign-double

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

15

-mpreferred-stack-boundary=num -mmmx -msse -msse2 -m3dnow -mthreads -mno-align-stringops -minline-all-stringops -mpush-args -maccumulate-outgoing-args -m128bit-long-double -m96bit-long-double -mregparm=num -momit-leaf-frame-pointer -mno-red-zone -mcmodel=code-model -m32 -m64

HPPA Options
-march=architecture-type -mbig-switch -mdisable-fpregs -mdisable-indexing -mfast-indirect-calls -mgas -mgnu-ld -mhp-ld -mjump-in-delay -mlinker-opt -mlong-calls -mlong-load-store -mno-big-switch -mno-disable-fpregs -mno-disable-indexing -mno-fast-indirect-calls -mno-gas -mno-jump-in-delay -mno-long-load-store -mno-portable-runtime -mno-soft-float -mno-space-regs -msoft-float -mpa-risc-1-0 -mpa-risc-1-1 -mpa-risc-2-0 -mportable-runtime -mschedule=cpu-type -mspace-regs -msio -mwsio -nolibdld -static -threads

Intel 960 Options

-mcpu-type -masm-compat -mclean-linkage -mcode-align -mcomplex-addr -mleaf-procedures -mic-compat -mic2.0-compat -mic3.0-compat -mintel-asm -mno-clean-linkage -mno-code-align -mno-complex-addr -mno-leaf-procedures -mno-old-align -mno-strict-align -mno-tail-call -mnumerics -mold-align -msoft-float -mstrict-align -mtail-call

DEC Alpha Options

-mno-fp-regs -msoft-float -malpha-as -mgas -mieee -mieee-with-inexact -mieee-conformant -mfp-trap-mode=mode -mfp-rounding-mode=mode -mtrap-precision=mode -mbuild-constants -mcpu=cpu-type -mtune=cpu-type -mbwx -mmax -mfix -mcix -mfloat-vax -mfloat-ieee -mexplicit-relocs -msmall-data -mlarge-data -mmemory-latency=time

DEC Alpha/VMS Options

-mvms-return-codes

H8/300 Options
-mrelax -mh -ms -mn -mint32 -malign-300

SH Options
-m1 -m2 -m3 -m3e -m4-nofpu -m4-single-only -m4-single -m4 -m5-64media -m5-64media-nofpu -m5-32media -m5-32media-nofpu -m5-compact -m5-compact-nofpu -mb -ml -mdalign -mrelax -mbigtable -mfmovd -mhitachi -mnomacsave -mieee -misize -mpadstruct -mspace -mprefergot -musermode

System V Options

16

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-Qy -Qn -YP,paths -Ym,dir

ARC Options
-EB -EL -mmangle-cpu -mcpu=cpu -mtext=text-section -mdata=data-section -mrodata=readonly-data-section

TMS320C3x/C4x Options
-mcpu=cpu -mbig -msmall -mregparm -mmemparm -mfast-fix -mmpyi -mbk -mti -mdp-isr-reload -mrpts=count -mrptb -mdb -mloop-unsigned -mparallel-insns -mparallel-mpy -mpreserve-float

V850 Options
-mlong-calls -mno-long-calls -mep -mno-ep -mprolog-function -mno-prolog-function -mspace -mtda=n -msda=n -mzda=n -mapp-regs -mno-app-regs -mdisable-callt -mno-disable-callt -mv850e -mv850 -mbig-switch

NS32K Options
-m32032 -m32332 -m32532 -mmult-add -mnomult-add -mregparam -mnoregparam -mbitfield -mnobitfield -m32081 -m32381 -msoft-float -mrtd -mnortd -msb -mnosb -mhimem -mnohimem

AVR Options
-mmcu=mcu -msize -minit-stack=n -mno-interrupts -mcall-prologues -mno-tablejump -mtiny-stack

MCore Options
-mhardlit -mno-hardlit -mdiv -mno-div -mrelax-immediates -mno-relax-immediates -mwide-bitfields -mno-wide-bitfields -m4byte-functions -mno-4byte-functions -mcallgraph-data -mno-callgraph-data -mslow-bytes -mno-slow-bytes -mno-lsim -mlittle-endian -mbig-endian -m210 -m340 -mstack-increment

MMIX Options
-mlibfuncs -mno-libfuncs -mepsilon -mno-epsilon -mabi=gnu -mabi=mmixware -mzero-extend -mknuthdiv -mtoplevel-symbols -melf -mbranch-predict -mno-branch-predict -mbase-addresses -mno-base-addresses -msingle-exit -mno-single-exit

IA-64 Options
-mbig-endian -mlittle-endian -mgnu-as -mgnu-ld -mno-pic -mvolatile-asm-stop -mb-step -mregister-names -mno-sdata -mconstant-gp -mauto-pic -minline-float-divide-min-latency -minline-float-divide-max-throughput -minline-int-divide-min-latency -minline-int-divide-max-throughput -mno-dwarf2-asm -mfixed-range=register-range

D30V Options
-mextmem -mextmemory -monchip -mno-asm-optimize -masm-optimize -mbranch-cost=n -mcond-exec=n

S/390 and zSeries Options

-mhard-float -msoft-float -mbackchain -mno-backchain -msmall-exec -mno-small-exec -mmvcle -mno-mvcle -m64 -m31 -mdebug -mno-debug

CRIS Options

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

17

-mcpu=cpu -march=cpu -mtune=cpu -mmax-stack-frame=n -melinux-stacksize=n -metrax4 -metrax100 -mpdebug -mcc-init -mno-side-effects -mstack-align -mdata-align -mconst-align -m32-bit -m16-bit -m8-bit -mno-prologue-epilogue -mno-gotplt -melf -maout -melinux -mlinux -sim -sim2

PDP-11 Options
-mfpu -msoft-float -mac0 -mno-ac0 -m40 -m45 -m10 -mbcopy -mbcopy-builtin -mint32 -mno-int16 -mint16 -mno-int32 -mfloat32 -mno-float64 -mfloat64 -mno-float32 -mabshi -mno-abshi -mbranch-expensive -mbranch-cheap -msplit -mno-split -munix-asm -mdec-asm

Xstormy16 Options
-msim

Xtensa Options
-mbig-endian -mlittle-endian -mdensity -mno-density -mmac16 -mno-mac16 -mmul16 -mno-mul16 -mmul32 -mno-mul32 -mnsa -mno-nsa -mminmax -mno-minmax -msext -mno-sext -mbooleans -mno-booleans -mhard-float -msoft-float -mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd -mserialize-volatile -mno-serialize-volatile -mtext-section-literals -mno-text-section-literals -mtarget-align -mno-target-align -mlongcalls -mno-longcalls

FRV Options
-mgpr-32 -mgpr-64 -mfpr-32 -mfpr-64 -mhard-float -msoft-float -malloc-cc -mfixed-cc -mdword -mno-dword -mdouble -mno-double -mmedia -mno-media -mmuladd -mno-muladd -mlibrary-pic -macc-4 -macc-8 -mpack -mno-pack -mno-eflags -mcond-move -mno-cond-move -mscc -mno-scc -mcond-exec -mno-cond-exec -mvliw-branch -mno-vliw-branch -mmulti-cond-exec -mno-multi-cond-exec -mnested-cond-exec -mno-nested-cond-exec -mtomcat-stats -mcpu=cpu

Code Generation Options See Section 3.18 [Options for Code Generation Conventions], page 156.
-fcall-saved-reg -fcall-used-reg -ffixed-reg -fexceptions -fnon-call-exceptions -funwind-tables -fasynchronous-unwind-tables -finhibit-size-directive -finstrument-functions -fno-common -fno-ident -fno-gnu-linker -fpcc-struct-return -fpic -fPIC -freg-struct-return -fshared-data -fshort-enums -fshort-double -fshort-wchar -fvolatile -fvolatile-global -fvolatile-static -fverbose-asm -fpack-struct -fstack-check

18

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-fstack-limit-register=reg -fstack-limit-symbol=sym -fargument-alias -fargument-noalias -fargument-noalias-global -fleading-underscore -ftls-model=model -ftrapv -fbounds-check

3.2 Options Controlling the Kind of Output

Compilation can involve up to four stages: preprocessing, compilation proper, assembly and linking, always in that order. The rst three stages apply to an individual source le, and end by producing an object le; linking combines all the object les (those newly compiled, and those specied as input) into an executable le. For any given input le, the le name sux determines what kind of compilation is done: file.c file.i file.ii file.m file.mi file.h file.cc file.cp file.cxx file.cpp file.c++ file.C file.f file.for file.FOR file.F file.fpp file.FPP file.r C source code which must be preprocessed. C source code which should not be preprocessed. C++ source code which should not be preprocessed. Objective-C source code. Note that you must link with the library libobjc.a to make an Objective-C program work. Objective-C source code which should not be preprocessed. C header le (not to be compiled or linked).

C++ source code which must be preprocessed. Note that in .cxx, the last two letters must both be literally x. Likewise, .C refers to a literal capital C.

Fortran source code which should not be preprocessed.

Fortran source code which must be preprocessed (with the traditional preprocessor). Fortran source code which must be preprocessed with a RATFOR preprocessor (not included with GCC). See section Options Controlling the Kind of Output in Using and Porting GNU Fortran, for more details of the handling of Fortran input les.

file.ads

Ada source code le which contains a library unit declaration (a declaration of a package, subprogram, or generic, or a generic instantiation), or a library unit

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

19

file.adb file.s file.S other

renaming declaration (a package, generic, or subprogram renaming declaration). Such les are also called specs. Ada source code le containing a library unit body (a subprogram or package body). Such les are also called bodies. Assembler code. Assembler code which must be preprocessed. An object le to be fed straight into linking. Any le name with no recognized sux is treated this way.

You can specify the input language explicitly with the -x option: -x language Specify explicitly the language for the following input les (rather than letting the compiler choose a default based on the le name sux). This option applies to all following input les until the next -x option. Possible values for language are: c c-header cpp-output c++ c++-cpp-output objective-c objc-cpp-output assembler assembler-with-cpp ada f77 f77-cpp-input ratfor java treelang -x none Turn o any specication of a language, so that subsequent les are handled according to their le name suxes (as they are if -x has not been used at all).

-pass-exit-codes Normally the gcc program will exit with the code of 1 if any phase of the compiler returns a non-success return code. If you specify -pass-exit-codes, the gcc program will instead return with numerically highest error produced by any phase that returned an error indication. If you only want some of the stages of compilation, you can use -x (or lename suxes) to tell gcc where to start, and one of the options -c, -S, or -E to say where gcc is to stop. Note that some combinations (for example, -x cpp-output -E) instruct gcc to do nothing at all. -c Compile or assemble the source les, but do not link. The linking stage simply is not done. The ultimate output is in the form of an object le for each source le. By default, the object le name for a source le is made by replacing the sux .c, .i, .s, etc., with .o. Unrecognized input les, not requiring compilation or assembly, are ignored. Stop after the stage of compilation proper; do not assemble. The output is in the form of an assembler code le for each non-assembler input le specied.

-S

20

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

By default, the assembler le name for a source le is made by replacing the sux .c, .i, etc., with .s. Input les that dont require compilation are ignored. -E Stop after the preprocessing stage; do not run the compiler proper. The output is in the form of preprocessed source code, which is sent to the standard output. Input les which dont require preprocessing are ignored. Place output in le le. This applies regardless to whatever sort of output is being produced, whether it be an executable le, an object le, an assembler le or preprocessed C code. Since only one output le can be specied, it does not make sense to use -o when compiling more than one input le, unless you are producing an executable le as output. If -o is not specied, the default is to put an executable le in a.out, the object le for source.suffix in source.o, its assembler le in source.s, and all preprocessed C source on standard output. Print (on standard error output) the commands executed to run the stages of compilation. Also print the version number of the compiler driver program and of the preprocessor and the compiler proper. Like -v except the commands are not executed and all command arguments are quoted. This is useful for shell scripts to capture the driver-generated command lines. Use pipes rather than temporary les for communication between the various stages of compilation. This fails to work on some systems where the assembler is unable to read from a pipe; but the GNU assembler has no trouble. Print (on the standard output) a description of the command line options understood by gcc. If the -v option is also specied then --help will also be passed on to the various processes invoked by gcc, so that they can display the command line options they accept. If the -W option is also specied then command line options which have no documentation associated with them will also be displayed.

-o file

-v

-###

-pipe

--help

--target-help Print (on the standard output) a description of target specic command line options for each tool. --version Display the version number and copyrights of the invoked GCC.

3.3 Compiling C++ Programs

C++ source les conventionally use one of the suxes .C, .cc, .cpp, .c++, .cp, or .cxx; preprocessed C++ les use the sux .ii. GCC recognizes les with these names and compiles them as C++ programs even if you call the compiler the same way as for compiling C programs (usually with the name gcc).

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

21

However, C++ programs often require class libraries as well as a compiler that understands the C++ languageand under some circumstances, you might want to compile programs from standard input, or otherwise without a sux that ags them as C++ programs. g++ is a program that calls GCC with the default language set to C++, and automatically species linking against the C++ library. On many systems, g++ is also installed with the name c++. When you compile C++ programs, you may specify many of the same command-line options that you use for compiling programs in any language; or command-line options meaningful for C and related languages; or options that are meaningful only for C++ programs. See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21, for explanations of options for languages related to C. See Section 3.5 [Options Controlling C++ Dialect], page 25, for explanations of options that are meaningful only for C++ programs.

3.4 Options Controlling C Dialect

The following options control the dialect of C (or languages derived from C, such as C++ and Objective-C) that the compiler accepts: -ansi In C mode, support all ISO C90 programs. In C++ mode, remove GNU extensions that conict with ISO C++. This turns o certain features of GCC that are incompatible with ISO C90 (when compiling C code), or of standard C++ (when compiling C++ code), such as the asm and typeof keywords, and predened macros such as unix and vax that identify the type of system you are using. It also enables the undesirable and rarely used ISO trigraph feature. For the C compiler, it disables recognition of C++ style // comments as well as the inline keyword. The alternate keywords __asm__, __extension__, __inline__ and __typeof_ _ continue to work despite -ansi. You would not want to use them in an ISO C program, of course, but it is useful to put them in header les that might be included in compilations done with -ansi. Alternate predened macros such as __unix__ and __vax__ are also available, with or without -ansi. The -ansi option does not cause non-ISO programs to be rejected gratuitously. For that, -pedantic is required in addition to -ansi. See Section 3.8 [Warning Options], page 33. The macro __STRICT_ANSI__ is predened when the -ansi option is used. Some header les may notice this macro and refrain from declaring certain functions or dening certain macros that the ISO standard doesnt call for; this is to avoid interfering with any programs that might use these names for other things. Functions which would normally be built in but do not have semantics dened by ISO C (such as alloca and ffs) are not built-in functions with -ansi is used. See Section 5.44 [Other built-in functions provided by GCC], page 243, for details of the functions aected. Determine the language standard. This option is currently only supported when compiling C or C++. A value for this option must be provided; possible values are

-std=

22

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

c89 iso9899:1990 ISO C90 (same as -ansi). iso9899:199409 ISO C90 as modied in amendment 1. c99 c9x iso9899:1999 iso9899:199x ISO C99. Note that this standard is not yet fully supported; see http://gcc.gnu.org/gcc-3.3/c99status.html for more information. The names c9x and iso9899:199x are deprecated. gnu89 gnu99 gnu9x ISO C99 plus GNU extensions. When ISO C99 is fully implemented in GCC, this will become the default. The name gnu9x is deprecated. The 1998 ISO C++ standard plus amendments. The same as -std=c++98 plus GNU extensions. This is the default for C++ code. Default, ISO C90 plus GNU extensions (including some C99 features).

c++98 gnu++98

Even when this option is not specied, you can still use some of the features of newer standards in so far as they do not conict with previous C standards. For example, you may use __restrict__ even when -std=c99 is not specied. The -std options specifying some version of ISO C have the same eects as -ansi, except that features that were not in ISO C90 but are in the specied version (for example, // comments and the inline keyword in ISO C99) are not disabled. See Chapter 2 [Language Standards Supported by GCC], page 5, for details of these standard versions. -aux-info filename Output to the given lename prototyped declarations for all functions declared and/or dened in a translation unit, including those in header les. This option is silently ignored in any language other than C. Besides declarations, the le indicates, in comments, the origin of each declaration (source le and line), whether the declaration was implicit, prototyped or unprototyped (I, N for new or O for old, respectively, in the rst character after the line number and the colon), and whether it came from a declaration or a denition (C or F, respectively, in the following character). In the case of function denitions, a K&R-style list of arguments followed by their declarations is also provided, inside comments, after the declaration.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

23

-fno-asm

Do not recognize asm, inline or typeof as a keyword, so that code can use these words as identiers. You can use the keywords __asm__, __inline__ and __typeof__ instead. -ansi implies -fno-asm. In C++, this switch only aects the typeof keyword, since asm and inline are standard keywords. You may want to use the -fno-gnu-keywords ag instead, which has the same eect. In C99 mode (-std=c99 or -std=gnu99), this switch only aects the asm and typeof keywords, since inline is a standard keyword in ISO C99.

-fno-builtin -fno-builtin-function Dont recognize built-in functions that do not begin with __builtin_ as prex. See Section 5.44 [Other built-in functions provided by GCC], page 243, for details of the functions aected, including those which are not built-in functions when -ansi or -std options for strict ISO C conformance are used because they do not have an ISO standard meaning. GCC normally generates special code to handle certain built-in functions more eciently; for instance, calls to alloca may become single instructions that adjust the stack directly, and calls to memcpy may become inline copy loops. The resulting code is often both smaller and faster, but since the function calls no longer appear as such, you cannot set a breakpoint on those calls, nor can you change the behavior of the functions by linking with a dierent library. With the -fno-builtin-function option only the built-in function function is disabled. function must not begin with __builtin_. If a function is named this is not built-in in this version of GCC, this option is ignored. There is no corresponding -fbuiltin-function option; if you wish to enable built-in functions selectively when using -fno-builtin or -ffreestanding, you may dene macros such as:
#define abs(n) #define strcpy(d, s) __builtin_abs ((n)) __builtin_strcpy ((d), (s))

-fhosted Assert that compilation takes place in a hosted environment. This implies -fbuiltin. A hosted environment is one in which the entire standard library is available, and in which main has a return type of int. Examples are nearly everything except a kernel. This is equivalent to -fno-freestanding. -ffreestanding Assert that compilation takes place in a freestanding environment. This implies -fno-builtin. A freestanding environment is one in which the standard library may not exist, and program startup may not necessarily be at main. The most obvious example is an OS kernel. This is equivalent to -fno-hosted. See Chapter 2 [Language Standards Supported by GCC], page 5, for details of freestanding and hosted environments. -fms-extensions Accept some non-standard constructs used in Microsoft header les.

24

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-trigraphs Support ISO C trigraphs. The -ansi option (and -std options for strict ISO C conformance) implies -trigraphs. -no-integrated-cpp Performs a compilation in two passes: preprocessing and compiling. This option allows a user supplied "cc1", "cc1plus", or "cc1obj" via the -B option. The user supplied compilation step can then add in an additional preprocessing step after normal preprocessing but before compiling. The default is to use the integrated cpp (internal cpp) The semantics of this option will change if "cc1", "cc1plus", and "cc1obj" are merged. -traditional -traditional-cpp Formerly, these options caused GCC to attempt to emulate a pre-standard C compiler. They are now only supported with the -E switch. The preprocessor continues to support a pre-standard mode. See the GNU CPP manual for details. -fcond-mismatch Allow conditional expressions with mismatched types in the second and third arguments. The value of such an expression is void. This option is not supported for C++. -funsigned-char Let the type char be unsigned, like unsigned char. Each kind of machine has a default for what char should be. It is either like unsigned char by default or like signed char by default. Ideally, a portable program should always use signed char or unsigned char when it depends on the signedness of an object. But many programs have been written to use plain char and expect it to be signed, or expect it to be unsigned, depending on the machines they were written for. This option, and its inverse, let you make such a program work with the opposite default. The type char is always a distinct type from each of signed char or unsigned char, even though its behavior is always just like one of those two. -fsigned-char Let the type char be signed, like signed char. Note that this is equivalent to -fno-unsigned-char, which is the negative form of -funsigned-char. Likewise, the option -fno-signed-char is equivalent to -funsigned-char. -fsigned-bitfields -funsigned-bitfields -fno-signed-bitfields -fno-unsigned-bitfields These options control whether a bit-eld is signed or unsigned, when the declaration does not use either signed or unsigned. By default, such a bit-eld is

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

25

signed, because this is consistent: the basic integer types such as int are signed types. -fwritable-strings Store string constants in the writable data segment and dont uniquize them. This is for compatibility with old programs which assume they can write into string constants. Writing into string constants is a very bad idea; constants should be constant.

3.5 Options Controlling C++ Dialect

This section describes the command-line options that are only meaningful for C++ programs; but you can also use most of the GNU compiler options regardless of what language your program is in. For example, you might compile a le firstClass.C like this: g++ -g -frepo -O -c firstClass.C In this example, only -frepo is an option meant only for C++ programs; you can use the other options with any language supported by GCC. Here is a list of options that are only for compiling C++ programs: -fabi-version=n Use version n of the C++ ABI. Version 1 is the version of the C++ ABI that rst appeared in G++ 3.2. Version 0 will always be the version that conforms most closely to the C++ ABI specication. Therefore, the ABI obtained using version 0 will change as ABI bugs are xed. The default is version 1. -fno-access-control Turn o all access checking. This switch is mainly useful for working around bugs in the access control code. -fcheck-new Check that the pointer returned by operator new is non-null before attempting to modify the storage allocated. This check is normally unnecessary because the C++ standard species that operator new will only return 0 if it is declared throw(), in which case the compiler will always check the return value even without this option. In all other cases, when operator new has a non-empty exception specication, memory exhaustion is signalled by throwing std::bad_ alloc. See also new (nothrow). -fconserve-space Put uninitialized or runtime-initialized global variables into the common segment, as C does. This saves space in the executable at the cost of not diagnosing duplicate denitions. If you compile with this ag and your program mysteriously crashes after main() has completed, you may have an object that is being destroyed twice because two denitions were merged. This option is no longer useful on most targets, now that support has been added for putting variables into BSS without making them common.

26

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-fno-const-strings Give string constants type char * instead of type const char *. By default, G++ uses type const char * as required by the standard. Even if you use -fno-const-strings, you cannot actually modify the value of a string constant, unless you also use -fwritable-strings. This option might be removed in a future release of G++. For maximum portability, you should structure your code so that it works with string constants that have type const char *. -fdollars-in-identifiers Accept $ in identiers. You can also explicitly prohibit use of $ with the option -fno-dollars-in-identifiers. (GNU C allows $ by default on most target systems, but there are a few exceptions.) Traditional C allowed the character $ to form part of identiers. However, ISO C and C++ forbid $ in identiers. -fno-elide-constructors The C++ standard allows an implementation to omit creating a temporary which is only used to initialize another object of the same type. Specifying this option disables that optimization, and forces G++ to call the copy constructor in all cases. -fno-enforce-eh-specs Dont check for violation of exception specications at runtime. This option violates the C++ standard, but may be useful for reducing code size in production builds, much like dening NDEBUG. The compiler will still optimize based on the exception specications. -fexternal-templates Cause #pragma interface and implementation to apply to template instantiation; template instances are emitted or not according to the location of the template denition. See Section 6.6 [Template Instantiation], page 284, for more information. This option is deprecated. -falt-external-templates Similar to -fexternal-templates, but template instances are emitted or not according to the place where they are rst instantiated. See Section 6.6 [Template Instantiation], page 284, for more information. This option is deprecated. -ffor-scope -fno-for-scope If -ffor-scope is specied, the scope of variables declared in a for-initstatement is limited to the for loop itself, as specied by the C++ standard. If -fno-for-scope is specied, the scope of variables declared in a for-initstatement extends to the end of the enclosing scope, as was the case in old versions of G++, and other (traditional) implementations of C++.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

27

The default if neither ag is given to follow the standard, but to allow and give a warning for old-style code that would otherwise be invalid, or have dierent behavior. -fno-gnu-keywords Do not recognize typeof as a keyword, so that code can use this word as an identier. You can use the keyword __typeof__ instead. -ansi implies -fno-gnu-keywords. -fno-implicit-templates Never emit code for non-inline templates which are instantiated implicitly (i.e. by use); only emit code for explicit instantiations. See Section 6.6 [Template Instantiation], page 284, for more information. -fno-implicit-inline-templates Dont emit code for implicit instantiations of inline templates, either. The default is to handle inlines dierently so that compiles with and without optimization will need the same set of explicit instantiations. -fno-implement-inlines To save space, do not emit out-of-line copies of inline functions controlled by #pragma implementation. This will cause linker errors if these functions are not inlined everywhere they are called. -fms-extensions Disable pedantic warnings about constructs used in MFC, such as implicit int and getting a pointer to member function via non-standard syntax. -fno-nonansi-builtins Disable built-in declarations of functions that are not mandated by ANSI/ISO C. These include ffs, alloca, _exit, index, bzero, conjf, and other related functions. -fno-operator-names Do not treat the operator name keywords and, bitand, bitor, compl, not, or and xor as synonyms as keywords. -fno-optional-diags Disable diagnostics that the standard says a compiler does not need to issue. Currently, the only such diagnostic issued by G++ is the one for a name having multiple meanings within a class. -fpermissive Downgrade some diagnostics about nonconformant code from errors to warnings. Thus, using -fpermissive will allow some nonconforming code to compile. -frepo Enable automatic template instantiation at link time. This option also implies -fno-implicit-templates. See Section 6.6 [Template Instantiation], page 284, for more information. Disable generation of information about every class with virtual functions for use by the C++ runtime type identication features (dynamic_cast

-fno-rtti

28

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

and typeid). If you dont use those parts of the language, you can save some space by using this ag. Note that exception handling uses the same information, but it will generate it as needed. -fstats Emit statistics about front-end processing at the end of the compilation. This information is generally only useful to the G++ development team.

-ftemplate-depth-n Set the maximum instantiation depth for template classes to n. A limit on the template instantiation depth is needed to detect endless recursions during template class instantiation. ANSI/ISO C++ conforming programs must not rely on a maximum depth greater than 17. -fuse-cxa-atexit Register destructors for objects with static storage duration with the __cxa_ atexit function rather than the atexit function. This option is required for fully standards-compliant handling of static destructors, but will only work if your C library supports __cxa_atexit. -fvtable-gc Emit special relocations for vtables and virtual function references so that the linker can identify unused virtual functions and zero out vtable slots that refer to them. This is most useful with -ffunction-sections and -Wl,--gc-sections, in order to also discard the functions themselves. This optimization requires GNU as and GNU ld. Not all systems support this option. -Wl,--gc-sections is ignored without -static. -fno-weak Do not use weak symbol support, even if it is provided by the linker. By default, G++ will use weak symbols if they are available. This option exists only for testing, and should not be used by end-users; it will result in inferior code and has no benets. This option may be removed in a future release of G++. -nostdinc++ Do not search for header les in the standard directories specic to C++, but do still search the other standard directories. (This option is used when building the C++ library.) In addition, these optimization, warning, and code generation options have meanings only for C++ programs: -fno-default-inline Do not assume inline for functions dened inside a class scope. See Section 3.10 [Options That Control Optimization], page 53. Note that these functions will have linkage like inline functions; they just wont be inlined by default. -Wabi (C++ only) Warn when G++ generates code that is probably not compatible with the vendor-neutral C++ ABI. Although an eort has been made to warn about all such cases, there are probably some cases that are not warned about, even

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

29

though G++ is generating incompatible code. There may also be cases where warnings are emitted even though the code that is generated will be compatible. You should rewrite your code to avoid these warnings if you are concerned about the fact that code generated by G++ may not be binary compatible with code generated by other compilers. The known incompatibilities at this point include: Incorrect handling of tail-padding for bit-elds. G++ may attempt to pack data into the same byte as a base class. For example:
struct A { virtual void f(); int f1 : 1; }; struct B : public A { int f2 : 1; };

In this case, G++ will place B::f2 into the same byte asA::f1; other compilers will not. You can avoid this problem by explicitly padding A so that its size is a multiple of the byte size on your platform; that will cause G++ and other compilers to layout B identically. Incorrect handling of tail-padding for virtual bases. G++ does not use tail padding when laying out virtual bases. For example:
struct A { virtual void f(); char c1; }; struct B { B(); char c2; }; struct C : public A, public virtual B {};

In this case, G++ will not place B into the tail-padding for A; other compilers will. You can avoid this problem by explicitly padding A so that its size is a multiple of its alignment (ignoring virtual base classes); that will cause G++ and other compilers to layout C identically. Incorrect handling of bit-elds with declared widths greater than that of their underlying types, when the bit-elds appear in a union. For example:
union U { int i : 4096; };

Assuming that an int does not have 4096 bits, G++ will make the union too small by the number of bits in an int. Empty classes can be placed at incorrect osets. For example:
struct A {}; struct B { A a; virtual void f (); }; struct C : public B, public A {};

G++ will place the A base class of C at a nonzero oset; it should be placed at oset zero. G++ mistakenly believes that the A data member of B is already at oset zero. Names of template functions whose types involve typename or template template parameters can be mangled incorrectly.
template <typename Q> void f(typename Q::X) {} template <template <typename> class Q> void f(typename Q<int>::X) {}

Instantiations of these templates may be mangled incorrectly.

30

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-Wctor-dtor-privacy (C++ only) Warn when a class seems unusable because all the constructors or destructors in that class are private, and it has neither friends nor public static member functions. This warning is enabled by default. -Wnon-virtual-dtor (C++ only) Warn when a class appears to be polymorphic, thereby requiring a virtual destructor, yet it declares a non-virtual one. This warning is enabled by -Wall. -Wreorder (C++ only) Warn when the order of member initializers given in the code does not match the order in which they must be executed. For instance:
struct A { int i; int j; A(): j (0), i (1) { } };

The compiler will rearrange the member initializers for i and j to match the declaration order of the members, emitting a warning to that eect. This warning is enabled by -Wall. The following -W... options are not aected by -Wall. -Weffc++ (C++ only) Warn about violations of the following style guidelines from Scott Meyers Effective C++ book: Item 11: Dene a copy constructor and an assignment operator for classes with dynamically allocated memory. Item 12: Prefer initialization to assignment in constructors. Item 14: Make destructors virtual in base classes. Item 15: Have operator= return a reference to *this. Item 23: Dont try to return a reference when you must return an object. Also warn about violations of the following style guidelines from Scott Meyers More Eective C++ book: Item 6: Distinguish between prex and postx forms of increment and decrement operators. Item 7: Never overload &&, ||, or ,. When selecting this option, be aware that the standard library headers do not obey all of these guidelines; use grep -v to lter out those warnings. -Wno-deprecated (C++ only) Do not warn about usage of deprecated features. See Section 6.10 [Deprecated Features], page 287. -Wno-non-template-friend (C++ only) Disable warnings when non-templatized friend functions are declared within a template. Since the advent of explicit template specication support in G++, if the name of the friend is an unqualied-id (i.e., friend foo(int)), the

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

31

C++ language specication demands that the friend declare or dene an ordinary, nontemplate function. (Section 14.5.3). Before G++ implemented explicit specication, unqualied-ids could be interpreted as a particular specialization of a templatized function. Because this non-conforming behavior is no longer the default behavior for G++, -Wnon-template-friend allows the compiler to check existing code for potential trouble spots and is on by default. This new compiler behavior can be turned o with -Wno-non-template-friend which keeps the conformant compiler code but disables the helpful warning. -Wold-style-cast (C++ only) Warn if an old-style (C-style) cast to a non-void type is used within a C++ program. The new-style casts (static_cast, reinterpret_cast, and const_cast) are less vulnerable to unintended eects and much easier to search for. -Woverloaded-virtual (C++ only) Warn when a function declaration hides virtual functions from a base class. For example, in:
struct A { virtual void f(); }; struct B: public A { void f(int); };

the A class version of f is hidden in B, and code like:

B* b; b->f();

will fail to compile. -Wno-pmf-conversions (C++ only) Disable the diagnostic for converting a bound pointer to member function to a plain pointer. -Wsign-promo (C++ only) Warn when overload resolution chooses a promotion from unsigned or enumeral type to a signed type, over a conversion to an unsigned type of the same size. Previous versions of G++ would try to preserve unsignedness, but the standard mandates the current behavior. -Wsynth (C++ only) Warn when G++s synthesis behavior does not match that of cfront. For instance:
struct A { operator int (); A& operator = (int); }; main () { A a,b; a = b;

32

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

In this example, G++ will synthesize a default A& operator = (const A&);, while cfront will use the user-dened operator =.

3.6 Options Controlling Objective-C Dialect

This section describes the command-line options that are only meaningful for ObjectiveC programs, but you can also use most of the GNU compiler options regardless of what language your program is in. For example, you might compile a le some_class.m like this: gcc -g -fgnu-runtime -O -c some_class.m In this example, -fgnu-runtime is an option meant only for Objective-C programs; you can use the other options with any language supported by GCC. Here is a list of options that are only for compiling Objective-C programs: -fconstant-string-class=class-name Use class-name as the name of the class to instantiate for each literal string specied with the syntax @"...". The default class name is NXConstantString. -fgnu-runtime Generate object code compatible with the standard GNU Objective-C runtime. This is the default for most types of systems. -fnext-runtime Generate output compatible with the NeXT runtime. This is the default for NeXT-based systems, including Darwin and Mac OS X. The macro __NEXT_ RUNTIME__ is predened if (and only if) this option is used. -gen-decls Dump interface declarations for all classes seen in the source le to a le named sourcename.decl. -Wno-protocol If a class is declared to implement a protocol, a warning is issued for every method in the protocol that is not implemented by the class. The default behavior is to issue a warning for every method not explicitly implemented in the class, even if a method implementation is inherited from the superclass. If you use the -Wno-protocol option, then methods inherited from the superclass are considered to be implemented, and no warning is issued for them. -Wselector Warn if multiple methods of dierent types for the same selector are found during compilation. The check is performed on the list of methods in the nal stage of compilation. Additionally, a check is performed for each selector appearing in a @selector(...) expression, and a corresponding method for that selector has been found during compilation. Because these checks scan the method table only at the end of compilation, these warnings are not produced if the nal stage of compilation is not reached, for example because an error is found during compilation, or because the -fsyntax-only option is being used.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

33

-Wundeclared-selector Warn if a @selector(...) expression referring to an undeclared selector is found. A selector is considered undeclared if no method with that name has been declared before the @selector(...) expression, either explicitly in an @interface or @protocol declaration, or implicitly in an @implementation section. This option always performs its checks as soon as a @selector(...) expression is found, while -Wselector only performs its checks in the nal stage of compilation. This also enforces the coding style convention that methods and selectors must be declared before being used.

3.7 Options to Control Diagnostic Messages Formatting

Traditionally, diagnostic messages have been formatted irrespective of the output devices aspect (e.g. its width, . . . ). The options described below can be used to control the diagnostic messages formatting algorithm, e.g. how many characters per line, how often source location information should be reported. Right now, only the C++ front end can honor these options. However it is expected, in the near future, that the remaining front ends would be able to digest them correctly. -fmessage-length=n Try to format error messages so that they t on lines of about n characters. The default is 72 characters for g++ and 0 for the rest of the front ends supported by GCC. If n is zero, then no line-wrapping will be done; each error message will appear on a single line. -fdiagnostics-show-location=once Only meaningful in line-wrapping mode. Instructs the diagnostic messages reporter to emit once source location information; that is, in case the message is too long to t on a single physical line and has to be wrapped, the source location wont be emitted (as prex) again, over and over, in subsequent continuation lines. This is the default behavior. -fdiagnostics-show-location=every-line Only meaningful in line-wrapping mode. Instructs the diagnostic messages reporter to emit the same source location information (as prex) for physical lines that result from the process of breaking a message which is too long to t on a single line.

3.8 Options to Request or Suppress Warnings

Warnings are diagnostic messages that report constructions which are not inherently erroneous but which are risky or suggest there may have been an error. You can request many specic warnings with options beginning -W, for example -Wimplicit to request warnings on implicit declarations. Each of these specic warning options also has a negative form beginning -Wno- to turn o warnings; for example, -Wno-implicit. This manual lists only one of the two forms, whichever is not the default.

34

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The following options control the amount and kinds of warnings produced by GCC; for further, language-specic options also refer to Section 3.5 [C++ Dialect Options], page 25 and Section 3.6 [Objective-C Dialect Options], page 32. -fsyntax-only Check the code for syntax errors, but dont do anything beyond that. -pedantic Issue all the warnings demanded by strict ISO C and ISO C++; reject all programs that use forbidden extensions, and some other programs that do not follow ISO C and ISO C++. For ISO C, follows the version of the ISO C standard specied by any -std option used. Valid ISO C and ISO C++ programs should compile properly with or without this option (though a rare few will require -ansi or a -std option specifying the required version of ISO C). However, without this option, certain GNU extensions and traditional C and C++ features are supported as well. With this option, they are rejected. -pedantic does not cause warning messages for use of the alternate keywords whose names begin and end with __. Pedantic warnings are also disabled in the expression that follows __extension__. However, only system header les should use these escape routes; application programs should avoid them. See Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 239. Some users try to use -pedantic to check programs for strict ISO C conformance. They soon nd that it does not do quite what they want: it nds some non-ISO practices, but not allonly those for which ISO C requires a diagnostic, and some others for which diagnostics have been added. A feature to report any failure to conform to ISO C might be useful in some instances, but would require considerable additional work and would be quite dierent from -pedantic. We dont have plans to support such a feature in the near future. Where the standard specied with -std represents a GNU extended dialect of C, such as gnu89 or gnu99, there is a corresponding base standard, the version of ISO C on which the GNU extended dialect is based. Warnings from -pedantic are given where they are required by the base standard. (It would not make sense for such warnings to be given only for features not in the specied GNU C dialect, since by denition the GNU dialects of C include all features the compiler supports with the given option, and there would be nothing to warn about.) -pedantic-errors Like -pedantic, except that errors are produced rather than warnings. -w Inhibit all warning messages. -Wno-import Inhibit warning messages about the use of #import. -Wchar-subscripts Warn if an array subscript has type char. This is a common cause of error, as programmers often forget that this type is signed on some machines.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

35

-Wcomment Warn whenever a comment-start sequence /* appears in a /* comment, or whenever a Backslash-Newline appears in a // comment. -Wformat Check calls to printf and scanf, etc., to make sure that the arguments supplied have types appropriate to the format string specied, and that the conversions specied in the format string make sense. This includes standard functions, and others specied by format attributes (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192), in the printf, scanf, strftime and strfmon (an X/Open extension, not in the C standard) families. The formats are checked against the format features supported by GNU libc version 2.2. These include all ISO C90 and C99 features, as well as features from the Single Unix Specication and some BSD and GNU extensions. Other library implementations may not support all these features; GCC does not support warning about features that go beyond a particular librarys limitations. However, if -pedantic is used with -Wformat, warnings will be given about format features not in the selected standard version (but not for strfmon formats, since those are not in any version of the C standard). See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21. Since -Wformat also checks for null format arguments for several functions, -Wformat also implies -Wnonnull. -Wformat is included in -Wall. For more control over some aspects of format checking, the options -Wno-format-y2k, -Wno-format-extra-args, -Wno-format-zero-length, -Wformat-nonliteral, -Wformat-security, and -Wformat=2 are available, but are not included in -Wall.

-Wno-format-y2k If -Wformat is specied, do not warn about strftime formats which may yield only a two-digit year. -Wno-format-extra-args If -Wformat is specied, do not warn about excess arguments to a printf or scanf format function. The C standard species that such arguments are ignored. Where the unused arguments lie between used arguments that are specied with $ operand number specications, normally warnings are still given, since the implementation could not know what type to pass to va_arg to skip the unused arguments. However, in the case of scanf formats, this option will suppress the warning if the unused arguments are all pointers, since the Single Unix Specication says that such unused arguments are allowed. -Wno-format-zero-length If -Wformat is specied, do not warn about zero-length formats. The C standard species that zero-length formats are allowed. -Wformat-nonliteral If -Wformat is specied, also warn if the format string is not a string literal and so cannot be checked, unless the format function takes its format arguments as a va_list.

36

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-Wformat-security If -Wformat is specied, also warn about uses of format functions that represent possible security problems. At present, this warns about calls to printf and scanf functions where the format string is not a string literal and there are no format arguments, as in printf (foo);. This may be a security hole if the format string came from untrusted input and contains %n. (This is currently a subset of what -Wformat-nonliteral warns about, but in future warnings may be added to -Wformat-security that are not included in -Wformat-nonliteral.) -Wformat=2 Enable -Wformat plus format checks not included in -Wformat. Currently equivalent to -Wformat -Wformat-nonliteral -Wformat-security. -Wnonnull Enable warning about passing a null pointer for arguments marked as requiring a non-null value by the nonnull function attribute. -Wnonnull is included in -Wall and -Wformat. It can be disabled with the -Wno-nonnull option. -Wimplicit-int Warn when a declaration does not specify a type. -Wimplicit-function-declaration -Werror-implicit-function-declaration Give a warning (or error) whenever a function is used before being declared. -Wimplicit Same as -Wimplicit-int and -Wimplicit-function-declaration. -Wmain Warn if the type of main is suspicious. main should be a function with external linkage, returning int, taking either zero arguments, two, or three arguments of appropriate types.

-Wmissing-braces Warn if an aggregate or union initializer is not fully bracketed. In the following example, the initializer for a is not fully bracketed, but that for b is fully bracketed.
int a[2][2] = { 0, 1, 2, 3 }; int b[2][2] = { { 0, 1 }, { 2, 3 } };

-Wparentheses Warn if parentheses are omitted in certain contexts, such as when there is an assignment in a context where a truth value is expected, or when operators are nested whose precedence people often get confused about. Also warn about constructions where there may be confusion to which if statement an else branch belongs. Here is an example of such a case:

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

37

{ if (a) if (b) foo (); else bar (); }

In C, every else branch belongs to the innermost possible if statement, which in this example is if (b). This is often not what the programmer expected, as illustrated in the above example by indentation the programmer chose. When there is the potential for this confusion, GCC will issue a warning when this ag is specied. To eliminate the warning, add explicit braces around the innermost if statement so there is no way the else could belong to the enclosing if. The resulting code would look like this:
{ if (a) { if (b) foo (); else bar (); } }

-Wsequence-point Warn about code that may have undened semantics because of violations of sequence point rules in the C standard. The C standard denes the order in which expressions in a C program are evaluated in terms of sequence points, which represent a partial ordering between the execution of parts of the program: those executed before the sequence point, and those executed after it. These occur after the evaluation of a full expression (one which is not part of a larger expression), after the evaluation of the rst operand of a &&, ||, ? : or , (comma) operator, before a function is called (but after the evaluation of its arguments and the expression denoting the called function), and in certain other places. Other than as expressed by the sequence point rules, the order of evaluation of subexpressions of an expression is not specied. All these rules describe only a partial order rather than a total order, since, for example, if two functions are called within one expression with no sequence point between them, the order in which the functions are called is not specied. However, the standards committee have ruled that function calls do not overlap. It is not specied when between sequence points modications to the values of objects take eect. Programs whose behavior depends on this have undened behavior; the C standard species that Between the previous and next sequence point an object shall have its stored value modied at most once by the evaluation of an expression. Furthermore, the prior value shall be read only to determine the value to be stored.. If a program breaks these rules, the results on any particular implementation are entirely unpredictable. Examples of code with undened behavior are a = a++;, a[n] = b[n++] and a[i++] = i;. Some more complicated cases are not diagnosed by this option,

38

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

and it may give an occasional false positive result, but in general it has been found fairly eective at detecting this sort of problem in programs. The present implementation of this option only works for C programs. A future implementation may also work for C++ programs. The C standard is worded confusingly, therefore there is some debate over the precise meaning of the sequence point rules in subtle cases. Links to discussions of the problem, including proposed formal denitions, may be found on our readings page, at http://gcc.gnu.org/readings.html. -Wreturn-type Warn whenever a function is dened with a return-type that defaults to int. Also warn about any return statement with no return-value in a function whose return-type is not void. For C++, a function without return type always produces a diagnostic message, even when -Wno-return-type is specied. The only exceptions are main and functions dened in system headers. -Wswitch Warn whenever a switch statement has an index of enumeral type and lacks a case for one or more of the named codes of that enumeration. (The presence of a default label prevents this warning.) case labels outside the enumeration range also provoke warnings when this option is used.

-Wswitch-default Warn whenever a switch statement does not have a default case. -Wswitch-enum Warn whenever a switch statement has an index of enumeral type and lacks a case for one or more of the named codes of that enumeration. case labels outside the enumeration range also provoke warnings when this option is used. -Wtrigraphs Warn if any trigraphs are encountered that might change the meaning of the program (trigraphs within comments are not warned about). -Wunused-function Warn whenever a static function is declared but not dened or a non\-inline static function is unused. -Wunused-label Warn whenever a label is declared but not used. To suppress this warning use the unused attribute (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207). -Wunused-parameter Warn whenever a function parameter is unused aside from its declaration. To suppress this warning use the unused attribute (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207). -Wunused-variable Warn whenever a local variable or non-constant static variable is unused aside from its declaration

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

39

To suppress this warning use the unused attribute (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207). -Wunused-value Warn whenever a statement computes a result that is explicitly not used. To suppress this warning cast the expression to void. -Wunused All the above -Wunused options combined. In order to get a warning about an unused function parameter, you must either specify -W -Wunused or separately specify -Wunused-parameter.

-Wuninitialized Warn if an automatic variable is used without rst being initialized or if a variable may be clobbered by a setjmp call. These warnings are possible only in optimizing compilation, because they require data ow information that is computed only when optimizing. If you dont specify -O, you simply wont get these warnings. These warnings occur only for variables that are candidates for register allocation. Therefore, they do not occur for a variable that is declared volatile, or whose address is taken, or whose size is other than 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes. Also, they do not occur for structures, unions or arrays, even when they are in registers. Note that there may be no warning about a variable that is used only to compute a value that itself is never used, because such computations may be deleted by data ow analysis before the warnings are printed. These warnings are made optional because GCC is not smart enough to see all the reasons why the code might be correct despite appearing to have an error. Here is one example of how this can happen:
{ int x; switch (y) { case 1: x = 1; break; case 2: x = 4; break; case 3: x = 5; } foo (x); }

If the value of y is always 1, 2 or 3, then x is always initialized, but GCC doesnt know this. Here is another common case:
{ int save_y; if (change_y) save_y = y, y = new_y; ... if (change_y) y = save_y; }

This has no bug because save_y is used only if it is set. This option also warns when a non-volatile automatic variable might be changed by a call to longjmp. These warnings as well are possible only in optimizing compilation.

40

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The compiler sees only the calls to setjmp. It cannot know where longjmp will be called; in fact, a signal handler could call it at any point in the code. As a result, you may get a warning even when there is in fact no problem because longjmp cannot in fact be called at the place which would cause a problem. Some spurious warnings can be avoided if you declare all the functions you use that never return as noreturn. See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192. -Wunknown-pragmas Warn when a #pragma directive is encountered which is not understood by GCC. If this command line option is used, warnings will even be issued for unknown pragmas in system header les. This is not the case if the warnings were only enabled by the -Wall command line option. -Wstrict-aliasing This option is only active when -fstrict-aliasing is active. It warns about code which might break the strict aliasing rules that the compiler is using for optimization. The warning does not catch all cases, but does attempt to catch the more common pitfalls. It is included in -Wall. -Wall All of the above -W options combined. This enables all the warnings about constructions that some users consider questionable, and that are easy to avoid (or modify to prevent the warning), even in conjunction with macros. This also enables some language-specic warnings described in Section 3.5 [C++ Dialect Options], page 25 and Section 3.6 [Objective-C Dialect Options], page 32.

The following -W... options are not implied by -Wall. Some of them warn about constructions that users generally do not consider questionable, but which occasionally you might wish to check for; others warn about constructions that are necessary or hard to avoid in some cases, and there is no simple way to modify the code to suppress the warning. -W Print extra warning messages for these events: A function can return either with or without a value. (Falling o the end of the function body is considered returning without a value.) For example, this function would evoke such a warning:
foo (a) { if (a > 0) return a; }

An expression-statement or the left-hand side of a comma expression contains no side eects. To suppress the warning, cast the unused expression to void. For example, an expression such as x[i,j] will cause a warning, but x[(void)i,j] will not. An unsigned value is compared against zero with < or >=. A comparison like x<=y<=z appears; this is equivalent to (x<=y ? 1 : 0) <= z, which is a dierent interpretation from that of ordinary mathematical notation. Storage-class speciers like static are not the rst things in a declaration. According to the C Standard, this usage is obsolescent.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

41

The return type of a function has a type qualier such as const. Such a type qualier has no eect, since the value returned by a function is not an lvalue. (But dont warn about the GNU extension of volatile void return types. That extension will be warned about if -pedantic is specied.) If -Wall or -Wunused is also specied, warn about unused arguments. A comparison between signed and unsigned values could produce an incorrect result when the signed value is converted to unsigned. (But dont warn if -Wno-sign-compare is also specied.) An aggregate has a partly bracketed initializer. For example, the following code would evoke such a warning, because braces are missing around the initializer for x.h:
struct s { int f, g; }; struct t { struct s h; int i; }; struct t x = { 1, 2, 3 };

An aggregate has an initializer which does not initialize all members. For example, the following code would cause such a warning, because x.h would be implicitly initialized to zero:
struct s { int f, g, h; }; struct s x = { 3, 4 };

-Wno-div-by-zero Do not warn about compile-time integer division by zero. Floating point division by zero is not warned about, as it can be a legitimate way of obtaining innities and NaNs. -Wsystem-headers Print warning messages for constructs found in system header les. Warnings from system headers are normally suppressed, on the assumption that they usually do not indicate real problems and would only make the compiler output harder to read. Using this command line option tells GCC to emit warnings from system headers as if they occurred in user code. However, note that using -Wall in conjunction with this option will not warn about unknown pragmas in system headersfor that, -Wunknown-pragmas must also be used. -Wfloat-equal Warn if oating point values are used in equality comparisons. The idea behind this is that sometimes it is convenient (for the programmer) to consider oating-point values as approximations to innitely precise real numbers. If you are doing this, then you need to compute (by analyzing the code, or in some other way) the maximum or likely maximum error that the computation introduces, and allow for it when performing comparisons (and when producing output, but thats a dierent problem). In particular, instead of testing for equality, you would check to see whether the two values have ranges that overlap; and this is done with the relational operators, so equality comparisons are probably mistaken.

42

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-Wtraditional (C only) Warn about certain constructs that behave dierently in traditional and ISO C. Also warn about ISO C constructs that have no traditional C equivalent, and/or problematic constructs which should be avoided. Macro parameters that appear within string literals in the macro body. In traditional C macro replacement takes place within string literals, but does not in ISO C. In traditional C, some preprocessor directives did not exist. Traditional preprocessors would only consider a line to be a directive if the # appeared in column 1 on the line. Therefore -Wtraditional warns about directives that traditional C understands but would ignore because the # does not appear as the rst character on the line. It also suggests you hide directives like #pragma not understood by traditional C by indenting them. Some traditional implementations would not recognize #elif, so it suggests avoiding it altogether. A function-like macro that appears without arguments. The unary plus operator. The U integer constant sux, or the F or L oating point constant suxes. (Traditional C does support the L sux on integer constants.) Note, these suxes appear in macros dened in the system headers of most modern systems, e.g. the _MIN/_MAX macros in <limits.h>. Use of these macros in user code might normally lead to spurious warnings, however gccs integrated preprocessor has enough context to avoid warning in these cases. A function declared external in one block and then used after the end of the block. A switch statement has an operand of type long. A non-static function declaration follows a static one. This construct is not accepted by some traditional C compilers. The ISO type of an integer constant has a dierent width or signedness from its traditional type. This warning is only issued if the base of the constant is ten. I.e. hexadecimal or octal values, which typically represent bit patterns, are not warned about. Usage of ISO string concatenation is detected. Initialization of automatic aggregates. Identier conicts with labels. Traditional C lacks a separate namespace for labels. Initialization of unions. If the initializer is zero, the warning is omitted. This is done under the assumption that the zero initializer in user code appears conditioned on e.g. __STDC__ to avoid missing initializer warnings and relies on default initialization to zero in the traditional C case. Conversions by prototypes between xed/oating point values and vice versa. The absence of these prototypes when compiling with traditional C

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

43

would cause serious problems. This is a subset of the possible conversion warnings, for the full set use -Wconversion. Use of ISO C style function denitions. This warning intentionally is not issued for prototype declarations or variadic functions because these ISO C features will appear in your code when using libibertys traditional C compatibility macros, PARAMS and VPARAMS. This warning is also bypassed for nested functions because that feature is already a gcc extension and thus not relevant to traditional C compatibility. -Wundef Warn if an undened identier is evaluated in an #if directive. -Wendif-labels Warn whenever an #else or an #endif are followed by text. -Wshadow Warn whenever a local variable shadows another local variable, parameter or global variable or whenever a built-in function is shadowed.

-Wlarger-than-len Warn whenever an object of larger than len bytes is dened. -Wpointer-arith Warn about anything that depends on the size of a function type or of void. GNU C assigns these types a size of 1, for convenience in calculations with void * pointers and pointers to functions. -Wbad-function-cast (C only) Warn whenever a function call is cast to a non-matching type. For example, warn if int malloc() is cast to anything *. -Wcast-qual Warn whenever a pointer is cast so as to remove a type qualier from the target type. For example, warn if a const char * is cast to an ordinary char *. -Wcast-align Warn whenever a pointer is cast such that the required alignment of the target is increased. For example, warn if a char * is cast to an int * on machines where integers can only be accessed at two- or four-byte boundaries. -Wwrite-strings When compiling C, give string constants the type const char[length ] so that copying the address of one into a non-const char * pointer will get a warning; when compiling C++, warn about the deprecated conversion from string constants to char *. These warnings will help you nd at compile time code that can try to write into a string constant, but only if you have been very careful about using const in declarations and prototypes. Otherwise, it will just be a nuisance; this is why we did not make -Wall request these warnings. -Wconversion Warn if a prototype causes a type conversion that is dierent from what would happen to the same argument in the absence of a prototype. This includes conversions of xed point to oating and vice versa, and conversions changing the width or signedness of a xed point argument except when the same as the default promotion.

44

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Also, warn if a negative integer constant expression is implicitly converted to an unsigned type. For example, warn about the assignment x = -1 if x is unsigned. But do not warn about explicit casts like (unsigned) -1. -Wsign-compare Warn when a comparison between signed and unsigned values could produce an incorrect result when the signed value is converted to unsigned. This warning is enabled by -W, and by -Wall in C++ only. -Waggregate-return Warn if any functions that return structures or unions are dened or called. (In languages where you can return an array, this also elicits a warning.) -Wstrict-prototypes (C only) Warn if a function is declared or dened without specifying the argument types. (An old-style function denition is permitted without a warning if preceded by a declaration which species the argument types.) -Wmissing-prototypes (C only) Warn if a global function is dened without a previous prototype declaration. This warning is issued even if the denition itself provides a prototype. The aim is to detect global functions that fail to be declared in header les. -Wmissing-declarations (C only) Warn if a global function is dened without a previous declaration. Do so even if the denition itself provides a prototype. Use this option to detect global functions that are not declared in header les. -Wmissing-noreturn Warn about functions which might be candidates for attribute noreturn. Note these are only possible candidates, not absolute ones. Care should be taken to manually verify functions actually do not ever return before adding the noreturn attribute, otherwise subtle code generation bugs could be introduced. You will not get a warning for main in hosted C environments. -Wmissing-format-attribute If -Wformat is enabled, also warn about functions which might be candidates for format attributes. Note these are only possible candidates, not absolute ones. GCC will guess that format attributes might be appropriate for any function that calls a function like vprintf or vscanf, but this might not always be the case, and some functions for which format attributes are appropriate may not be detected. This option has no eect unless -Wformat is enabled (possibly by -Wall). -Wno-multichar Do not warn if a multicharacter constant (FOOF) is used. Usually they indicate a typo in the users code, as they have implementation-dened values, and should not be used in portable code. -Wno-deprecated-declarations Do not warn about uses of functions, variables, and types marked as deprecated by using the deprecated attribute. (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes],

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

45

page 192, see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207, see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211.) -Wpacked Warn if a structure is given the packed attribute, but the packed attribute has no eect on the layout or size of the structure. Such structures may be misaligned for little benet. For instance, in this code, the variable f.x in struct bar will be misaligned even though struct bar does not itself have the packed attribute:
struct foo { int x; char a, b, c, d; } __attribute__((packed)); struct bar { char z; struct foo f; };

-Wpadded

Warn if padding is included in a structure, either to align an element of the structure or to align the whole structure. Sometimes when this happens it is possible to rearrange the elds of the structure to reduce the padding and so make the structure smaller.

-Wredundant-decls Warn if anything is declared more than once in the same scope, even in cases where multiple declaration is valid and changes nothing. -Wnested-externs (C only) Warn if an extern declaration is encountered within a function. -Wunreachable-code Warn if the compiler detects that code will never be executed. This option is intended to warn when the compiler detects that at least a whole line of source code will never be executed, because some condition is never satised or because it is after a procedure that never returns. It is possible for this option to produce a warning even though there are circumstances under which part of the aected line can be executed, so care should be taken when removing apparently-unreachable code. For instance, when a function is inlined, a warning may mean that the line is unreachable in only one inlined copy of the function. This option is not made part of -Wall because in a debugging version of a program there is often substantial code which checks correct functioning of the program and is, hopefully, unreachable because the program does work. Another common use of unreachable code is to provide behavior which is selectable at compile-time. -Winline Warn if a function can not be inlined and it was declared as inline. Even with this option, the compiler will not warn about failures to inline functions declared in system headers. The compiler uses a variety of heuristics to determine whether or not to inline a function. For example, the compiler takes into account the size of the function being inlined and the the amount of inlining that has already been done in

46

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

the current function. Therefore, seemingly insignicant changes in the source program can cause the warnings produced by -Winline to appear or disappear. -Wlong-long Warn if long long type is used. This is default. To inhibit the warning messages, use -Wno-long-long. Flags -Wlong-long and -Wno-long-long are taken into account only when -pedantic ag is used. -Wdisabled-optimization Warn if a requested optimization pass is disabled. This warning does not generally indicate that there is anything wrong with your code; it merely indicates that GCCs optimizers were unable to handle the code eectively. Often, the problem is that your code is too big or too complex; GCC will refuse to optimize programs when the optimization itself is likely to take inordinate amounts of time. -Werror Make all warnings into errors.

3.9 Options for Debugging Your Program or GCC

GCC has various special options that are used for debugging either your program or GCC: -g Produce debugging information in the operating systems native format (stabs, COFF, XCOFF, or DWARF). GDB can work with this debugging information. On most systems that use stabs format, -g enables use of extra debugging information that only GDB can use; this extra information makes debugging work better in GDB but will probably make other debuggers crash or refuse to read the program. If you want to control for certain whether to generate the extra information, use -gstabs+, -gstabs, -gxcoff+, -gxcoff, -gdwarf-1+, -gdwarf-1, or -gvms (see below). Unlike most other C compilers, GCC allows you to use -g with -O. The shortcuts taken by optimized code may occasionally produce surprising results: some variables you declared may not exist at all; ow of control may briey move where you did not expect it; some statements may not be executed because they compute constant results or their values were already at hand; some statements may execute in dierent places because they were moved out of loops. Nevertheless it proves possible to debug optimized output. This makes it reasonable to use the optimizer for programs that might have bugs. The following options are useful when GCC is generated with the capability for more than one debugging format. Produce debugging information for use by GDB. This means to use the most expressive format available (DWARF 2, stabs, or the native format if neither of those are supported), including GDB extensions if at all possible. Produce debugging information in stabs format (if that is supported), without GDB extensions. This is the format used by DBX on most BSD systems. On MIPS, Alpha and System V Release 4 systems this option produces stabs debugging output which is not understood by DBX or SDB. On System V Release 4 systems this option requires the GNU assembler.

-ggdb

-gstabs

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

47

-gstabs+

Produce debugging information in stabs format (if that is supported), using GNU extensions understood only by the GNU debugger (GDB). The use of these extensions is likely to make other debuggers crash or refuse to read the program. Produce debugging information in COFF format (if that is supported). This is the format used by SDB on most System V systems prior to System V Release 4. Produce debugging information in XCOFF format (if that is supported). This is the format used by the DBX debugger on IBM RS/6000 systems. Produce debugging information in XCOFF format (if that is supported), using GNU extensions understood only by the GNU debugger (GDB). The use of these extensions is likely to make other debuggers crash or refuse to read the program, and may cause assemblers other than the GNU assembler (GAS) to fail with an error. Produce debugging information in DWARF version 1 format (if that is supported). This is the format used by SDB on most System V Release 4 systems. This option is deprecated. Produce debugging information in DWARF version 1 format (if that is supported), using GNU extensions understood only by the GNU debugger (GDB). The use of these extensions is likely to make other debuggers crash or refuse to read the program. This option is deprecated. Produce debugging information in DWARF version 2 format (if that is supported). This is the format used by DBX on IRIX 6.

-gcoff

-gxcoff -gxcoff+

-gdwarf

-gdwarf+

-gdwarf-2

-gvms

Produce debugging information in VMS debug format (if that is supported). This is the format used by DEBUG on VMS systems.

-glevel -ggdblevel -gstabslevel -gcofflevel -gxcofflevel -gvmslevel Request debugging information and also use level to specify how much information. The default level is 2. Level 1 produces minimal information, enough for making backtraces in parts of the program that you dont plan to debug. This includes descriptions of functions and external variables, but no information about local variables and no line numbers. Level 3 includes extra information, such as all the macro denitions present in the program. Some debuggers support macro expansion when you use -g3. Note that in order to avoid confusion between DWARF1 debug level 2, and DWARF2, neither -gdwarf nor -gdwarf-2 accept a concatenated debug

48

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

level. Instead use an additional -glevel option to change the debug level for DWARF1 or DWARF2. -feliminate-dwarf2-dups Compress DWARF2 debugging information by eliminating duplicated information about each symbol. This option only makes sense when generating DWARF2 debugging information with -gdwarf-2. -p Generate extra code to write prole information suitable for the analysis program prof. You must use this option when compiling the source les you want data about, and you must also use it when linking. Generate extra code to write prole information suitable for the analysis program gprof. You must use this option when compiling the source les you want data about, and you must also use it when linking. Makes the compiler print out each function name as it is compiled, and print some statistics about each pass when it nishes.

-pg

-Q

-ftime-report Makes the compiler print some statistics about the time consumed by each pass when it nishes. -fmem-report Makes the compiler print some statistics about permanent memory allocation when it nishes. -fprofile-arcs Instrument arcs during compilation to generate coverage data or for proledirected block ordering. During execution the program records how many times each branch is executed and how many times it is taken. When the compiled program exits it saves this data to a le called auxname.da for each source le. auxname is generated from the name of the output le, if explicitly specied and it is not the nal executable, otherwise it is the basename of the source le. In both cases any sux is removed (e.g. foo.da for input le dir/foo.c, or dir/foo.da for output le specied as -o dir/foo.o). For prole-directed block ordering, compile the program with -fprofile-arcs plus optimization and code generation options, generate the arc prole information by running the program on a selected workload, and then compile the program again with the same optimization and code generation options plus -fbranch-probabilities (see Section 3.10 [Options that Control Optimization], page 53). The other use of -fprofile-arcs is for use with gcov, when it is used with the -ftest-coverage option. With -fprofile-arcs, for each function of your program GCC creates a program ow graph, then nds a spanning tree for the graph. Only arcs that are not on the spanning tree have to be instrumented: the compiler adds code to count the number of times that these arcs are executed. When an arc is the only exit or only entrance to a block, the instrumentation code can be added to the block; otherwise, a new basic block must be created to hold the instrumentation code.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

49

-ftest-coverage Create data les for the gcov code-coverage utility (see Chapter 9 [gcova Test Coverage Program], page 301). See -fprofile-arcs option above for a description of auxname. auxname.bb A mapping from basic blocks to line numbers, which gcov uses to associate basic block execution counts with line numbers. auxname.bbg A list of all arcs in the program ow graph. This allows gcov to reconstruct the program ow graph, so that it can compute all basic block and arc execution counts from the information in the auxname.da le. Use -ftest-coverage with -fprofile-arcs; the latter option adds instrumentation to the program, which then writes execution counts to another data le: auxname.da Runtime arc execution counts, used in conjunction with the arc information in the le auxname.bbg. Coverage data will map better to the source les if -ftest-coverage is used without optimization. -dletters Says to make debugging dumps during compilation at times specied by letters. This is used for debugging the compiler. The le names for most of the dumps are made by appending a pass number and a word to the dumpname. dumpname is generated from the name of the output le, if explicitly specied and it is not an executable, otherwise it is the basename of the source le. In both cases any sux is removed (e.g. foo.00.rtl or foo.01.sibling). Here are the possible letters for use in letters, and their meanings: A b B c C d D e E Annotate the assembler output with miscellaneous debugging information. Dump after computing branch probabilities, to file.14.bp. Dump after block reordering, to file.32.bbro. Dump after instruction combination, to the le file.19.combine. Dump after the rst if conversion, to the le file.15.ce1. Dump after delayed branch scheduling, to file.34.dbr. Dump all macro denitions, at the end of preprocessing, in addition to normal output. Dump after SSA file.07.ussa. optimizations, to file.04.ssa and

Dump after the second if conversion, to file.29.ce3.

50

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

f F g G h i j k l L M n N o r R s S t T u w W X z a m p

Dump after control and data ow analysis, to file.14.cfg. Also dump after life analysis, to file.18.life. Dump after purging ADDRESSOF codes, to file.10.addressof. Dump after global register allocation, to file.24.greg. Dump after GCSE, to file.11.gcse. Dump after nalization of EH handling code, to file.02.eh. Dump after sibling call optimizations, to file.01.sibling. Dump after the rst jump optimization, to file.03.jump. Dump after conversion from registers to stack, to file.31.stack. Dump after local register allocation, to file.23.lreg. Dump after loop optimization, to file.12.loop. Dump after performing the machine dependent reorganization pass, to file.33.mach. Dump after register renumbering, to file.28.rnreg. Dump after the register move pass, to file.21.regmove. Dump after post-reload optimizations, to file.25.postreload. Dump after RTL generation, to file.00.rtl. Dump after the second scheduling pass, to file.30.sched2. Dump after CSE (including the jump optimization that sometimes follows CSE), to file.09.cse. Dump after the rst scheduling pass, to file.22.sched. Dump after the second CSE pass (including the jump optimization that sometimes follows CSE), to file.17.cse2. Dump after running tracer, to file.16.tracer. Dump after null pointer elimination pass to file.08.null. Dump after the second ow pass, to file.26.flow2. Dump after SSA file.05.ssaccp. conditional constant propagation, to

Dump after SSA dead code elimination, to file.06.ssadce. Dump after the peephole pass, to file.27.peephole2. Produce all the dumps listed above. Print statistics on memory usage, at the end of the run, to standard error. Annotate the assembler output with a comment indicating which pattern and alternative was used. The length of each instruction is also printed.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

51

P v

Dump the RTL in the assembler output as a comment before each instruction. Also turns on -dp annotation. For each of the other indicated dump les (except for file.00.rtl), dump a representation of the control ow graph suitable for viewing with VCG to file.pass.vcg. Just generate RTL for a function instead of compiling it. Usually used with r. Dump debugging information during parsing, to standard error.

x y

-fdump-unnumbered When doing debugging dumps (see -d option above), suppress instruction numbers and line number note output. This makes it more feasible to use di on debugging dumps for compiler invocations with dierent options, in particular with and without -g. -fdump-translation-unit (C and C++ only) -fdump-translation-unit-options (C and C++ only) Dump a representation of the tree structure for the entire translation unit to a le. The le name is made by appending .tu to the source le name. If the -options form is used, options controls the details of the dump as described for the -fdump-tree options. -fdump-class-hierarchy (C++ only) -fdump-class-hierarchy-options (C++ only) Dump a representation of each classs hierarchy and virtual function table layout to a le. The le name is made by appending .class to the source le name. If the -options form is used, options controls the details of the dump as described for the -fdump-tree options. -fdump-tree-switch (C++ only) -fdump-tree-switch -options (C++ only) Control the dumping at various stages of processing the intermediate language tree to a le. The le name is generated by appending a switch specic sux to the source le name. If the -options form is used, options is a list of - separated options that control the details of the dump. Not all options are applicable to all dumps, those which are not meaningful will be ignored. The following options are available address Print the address of each node. Usually this is not meaningful as it changes according to the environment and source le. Its primary use is for tying up a dump le with a debug environment. Inhibit dumping of members of a scope or body of a function merely because that scope has been reached. Only dump such items when they are directly reachable by some other path. Turn on all options.

slim

all

The following tree dumps are possible:

52

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

original Dump before any tree based optimization, to file.original. optimized Dump after all tree based optimization, to file.optimized. inlined Dump after function inlining, to file.inlined. -frandom-seed=string This option provides a seed that GCC uses when it would otherwise use random numbers. At present, this is used to generate certain symbol names that have to be dierent in every compiled le. The string should be dierent for every le you compile. -fsched-verbose=n On targets that use instruction scheduling, this option controls the amount of debugging output the scheduler prints. This information is written to standard error, unless -dS or -dR is specied, in which case it is output to the usual dump listing le, .sched or .sched2 respectively. However for n greater than nine, the output is always printed to standard error. For n greater than zero, -fsched-verbose outputs the same information as -dRS. For n greater than one, it also output basic block probabilities, detailed ready list information and unit/insn info. For n greater than two, it includes RTL at abort point, control-ow and regions info. And for n over four, -fsched-verbose also includes dependence info. -save-temps Store the usual temporary intermediate les permanently; place them in the current directory and name them based on the source le. Thus, compiling foo.c with -c -save-temps would produce les foo.i and foo.s, as well as foo.o. This creates a preprocessed foo.i output le even though the compiler now normally uses an integrated preprocessor. -time Report the CPU time taken by each subprocess in the compilation sequence. For C source les, this is the compiler proper and assembler (plus the linker if linking is done). The output looks like this:
# cc1 0.12 0.01 # as 0.00 0.01

The rst number on each line is the user time, that is time spent executing the program itself. The second number is system time, time spent executing operating system routines on behalf of the program. Both numbers are in seconds. -print-file-name=library Print the full absolute name of the library le library that would be used when linkingand dont do anything else. With this option, GCC does not compile or link anything; it just prints the le name. -print-multi-directory Print the directory name corresponding to the multilib selected by any other switches present in the command line. This directory is supposed to exist in GCC_EXEC_PREFIX.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

53

-print-multi-lib Print the mapping from multilib directory names to compiler switches that enable them. The directory name is separated from the switches by ;, and each switch starts with an @ instead of the -, without spaces between multiple switches. This is supposed to ease shell-processing. -print-prog-name=program Like -print-file-name, but searches for a program such as cpp. -print-libgcc-file-name Same as -print-file-name=libgcc.a. This is useful when you use -nostdlib or -nodefaultlibs but you do want to link with libgcc.a. You can do gcc -nostdlib files ... gcc -print-libgcc-file-name -print-search-dirs Print the name of the congured installation directory and a list of program and library directories gcc will searchand dont do anything else. This is useful when gcc prints the error message installation problem, cannot exec cpp0: No such file or directory. To resolve this you either need to put cpp0 and the other compiler components where gcc expects to nd them, or you can set the environment variable GCC_EXEC_PREFIX to the directory where you installed them. Dont forget the trailing /. See Section 3.19 [Environment Variables], page 162. -dumpmachine Print the compilers target machine (for example, i686-pc-linux-gnu)and dont do anything else. -dumpversion Print the compiler version (for example, 3.0)and dont do anything else. -dumpspecs Print the compilers built-in specsand dont do anything else. (This is used when GCC itself is being built.) See Section 3.15 [Spec Files], page 83.

3.10 Options That Control Optimization

These options control various sorts of optimizations. Without any optimization option, the compilers goal is to reduce the cost of compilation and to make debugging produce the expected results. Statements are independent: if you stop the program with a breakpoint between statements, you can then assign a new value to any variable or change the program counter to any other statement in the function and get exactly the results you would expect from the source code. Turning on optimization ags makes the compiler attempt to improve the performance and/or code size at the expense of compilation time and possibly the ability to debug the program. Not all optimizations are controlled directly by a ag. Only optimizations that have a ag are listed.

54

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-O -O1

Optimize. Optimizing compilation takes somewhat more time, and a lot more memory for a large function. With -O, the compiler tries to reduce code size and execution time, without performing any optimizations that take a great deal of compilation time. -O turns on the following optimization ags:
-fdefer-pop -fmerge-constants -fthread-jumps -floop-optimize -fcrossjumping -fif-conversion -fif-conversion2 -fdelayed-branch -fguess-branch-probability -fcprop-registers

-O also turns on -fomit-frame-pointer on machines where doing so does not interfere with debugging. -O2 Optimize even more. GCC performs nearly all supported optimizations that do not involve a space-speed tradeo. The compiler does not perform loop unrolling or function inlining when you specify -O2. As compared to -O, this option increases both compilation time and the performance of the generated code. -O2 turns on all optimization ags specied by -O. It also turns on the following optimization ags:
-fforce-mem -foptimize-sibling-calls -fstrength-reduce -fcse-follow-jumps -fcse-skip-blocks -frerun-cse-after-loop -frerun-loop-opt -fgcse -fgcse-lm -fgcse-sm -fdelete-null-pointer-checks -fexpensive-optimizations -fregmove -fschedule-insns -fschedule-insns2 -fsched-interblock -fsched-spec -fcaller-saves -fpeephole2 -freorder-blocks -freorder-functions -fstrict-aliasing -falign-functions -falign-jumps -falign-loops -falign-labels

Please note the warning under -fgcse about invoking -O2 on programs that use computed gotos. -O3 -O0 -Os Optimize yet more. -O3 turns on all optimizations specied by -O2 and also turns on the -finline-functions and -frename-registers options. Do not optimize. This is the default. Optimize for size. -Os enables all -O2 optimizations that do not typically increase code size. It also performs further optimizations designed to reduce code size.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

55

-Os disables the following optimization ags:

-falign-functions -falign-jumps -falign-loops -falign-labels -freorder-blocks -fprefetch-loop-arrays

If you use multiple -O options, with or without level numbers, the last such option is the one that is eective. Options of the form -fflag specify machine-independent ags. Most ags have both positive and negative forms; the negative form of -ffoo would be -fno-foo. In the table below, only one of the forms is listedthe one you typically will use. You can gure out the other form by either removing no- or adding it. The following options control specic optimizations. They are either activated by -O options or are related to ones that are. You can use the following ags in the rare cases when ne-tuning of optimizations to be performed is desired. -fno-default-inline Do not make member functions inline by default merely because they are dened inside the class scope (C++ only). Otherwise, when you specify -O, member functions dened inside class scope are compiled inline by default; i.e., you dont need to add inline in front of the member function name. -fno-defer-pop Always pop the arguments to each function call as soon as that function returns. For machines which must pop arguments after a function call, the compiler normally lets arguments accumulate on the stack for several function calls and pops them all at once. Disabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fforce-mem Force memory operands to be copied into registers before doing arithmetic on them. This produces better code by making all memory references potential common subexpressions. When they are not common subexpressions, instruction combination should eliminate the separate register-load. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fforce-addr Force memory address constants to be copied into registers before doing arithmetic on them. This may produce better code just as -fforce-mem may. -fomit-frame-pointer Dont keep the frame pointer in a register for functions that dont need one. This avoids the instructions to save, set up and restore frame pointers; it also makes an extra register available in many functions. It also makes debugging impossible on some machines. On some machines, such as the VAX, this ag has no eect, because the standard calling sequence automatically handles the frame pointer and nothing is saved by pretending it doesnt exist. The machine-description macro FRAME_ POINTER_REQUIRED controls whether a target machine supports this ag. See section Register Usage in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os.

56

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-foptimize-sibling-calls Optimize sibling and tail recursive calls. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fno-inline Dont pay attention to the inline keyword. Normally this option is used to keep the compiler from expanding any functions inline. Note that if you are not optimizing, no functions can be expanded inline. -finline-functions Integrate all simple functions into their callers. The compiler heuristically decides which functions are simple enough to be worth integrating in this way. If all calls to a given function are integrated, and the function is declared static, then the function is normally not output as assembler code in its own right. Enabled at level -O3. -finline-limit=n By default, gcc limits the size of functions that can be inlined. This ag allows the control of this limit for functions that are explicitly marked as inline (i.e., marked with the inline keyword or dened within the class denition in c++). n is the size of functions that can be inlined in number of pseudo instructions (not counting parameter handling). The default value of n is 600. Increasing this value can result in more inlined code at the cost of compilation time and memory consumption. Decreasing usually makes the compilation faster and less code will be inlined (which presumably means slower programs). This option is particularly useful for programs that use inlining heavily such as those based on recursive templates with C++. Inlining is actually controlled by a number of parameters, which may be specied individually by using --param name =value . The -finline-limit=n option sets some of these parameters as follows: max-inline-insns is set to n. max-inline-insns-single is set to n/2. max-inline-insns-auto is set to n/2. min-inline-insns is set to 130 or n/4, whichever is smaller. max-inline-insns-rtl is set to n. Using -finline-limit=600 thus results in the default settings for these parameters. See below for a documentation of the individual parameters controlling inlining.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

57

Note: pseudo instruction represents, in this particular context, an abstract measurement of functions size. In no way, it represents a count of assembly instructions and as such its exact meaning might change from one release to an another. -fkeep-inline-functions Even if all calls to a given function are integrated, and the function is declared static, nevertheless output a separate run-time callable version of the function. This switch does not aect extern inline functions. -fkeep-static-consts Emit variables declared static const when optimization isnt turned on, even if the variables arent referenced. GCC enables this option by default. If you want to force the compiler to check if the variable was referenced, regardless of whether or not optimization is turned on, use the -fno-keep-static-consts option. -fmerge-constants Attempt to merge identical constants (string constants and oating point constants) across compilation units. This option is the default for optimized compilation if the assembler and linker support it. Use -fno-merge-constants to inhibit this behavior. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fmerge-all-constants Attempt to merge identical constants and identical variables. This option implies -fmerge-constants. In addition to -fmerge-constants this considers e.g. even constant initialized arrays or initialized constant variables with integral or oating point types. Languages like C or C++ require each non-automatic variable to have distinct location, so using this option will result in non-conforming behavior. -fno-branch-count-reg Do not use decrement and branch instructions on a count register, but instead generate a sequence of instructions that decrement a register, compare it against zero, then branch based upon the result. This option is only meaningful on architectures that support such instructions, which include x86, PowerPC, IA64 and S/390. The default is -fbranch-count-reg, enabled when -fstrength-reduce is enabled. -fno-function-cse Do not put function addresses in registers; make each instruction that calls a constant function contain the functions address explicitly. This option results in less ecient code, but some strange hacks that alter the assembler output may be confused by the optimizations performed when this option is not used. The default is -ffunction-cse

58

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-fno-zero-initialized-in-bss If the target supports a BSS section, GCC by default puts variables that are initialized to zero into BSS. This can save space in the resulting code. This option turns o this behavior because some programs explicitly rely on variables going to the data section. E.g., so that the resulting executable can nd the beginning of that section and/or make assumptions based on that. The default is -fzero-initialized-in-bss. -fstrength-reduce Perform the optimizations of loop strength reduction and elimination of iteration variables. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fthread-jumps Perform optimizations where we check to see if a jump branches to a location where another comparison subsumed by the rst is found. If so, the rst branch is redirected to either the destination of the second branch or a point immediately following it, depending on whether the condition is known to be true or false. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fcse-follow-jumps In common subexpression elimination, scan through jump instructions when the target of the jump is not reached by any other path. For example, when CSE encounters an if statement with an else clause, CSE will follow the jump when the condition tested is false. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fcse-skip-blocks This is similar to -fcse-follow-jumps, but causes CSE to follow jumps which conditionally skip over blocks. When CSE encounters a simple if statement with no else clause, -fcse-skip-blocks causes CSE to follow the jump around the body of the if. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -frerun-cse-after-loop Re-run common subexpression elimination after loop optimizations has been performed. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -frerun-loop-opt Run the loop optimizer twice. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fgcse Perform a global common subexpression elimination pass. This pass also performs global constant and copy propagation. Note: When compiling a program using computed gotos, a GCC extension, you may get better runtime performance if you disable the global common subexpression elimination pass by adding -fno-gcse to the command line.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

59

Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fgcse-lm When -fgcse-lm is enabled, global common subexpression elimination will attempt to move loads which are only killed by stores into themselves. This allows a loop containing a load/store sequence to be changed to a load outside the loop, and a copy/store within the loop. Enabled by default when gcse is enabled. -fgcse-sm When -fgcse-sm is enabled, A store motion pass is run after global common subexpression elimination. This pass will attempt to move stores out of loops. When used in conjunction with -fgcse-lm, loops containing a load/store sequence can be changed to a load before the loop and a store after the loop. Enabled by default when gcse is enabled. -floop-optimize Perform loop optimizations: move constant expressions out of loops, simplify exit test conditions and optionally do strength-reduction and loop unrolling as well. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fcrossjumping Perform cross-jumping transformation. This transformation unies equivalent code and save code size. The resulting code may or may not perform better than without cross-jumping. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fif-conversion Attempt to transform conditional jumps into branch-less equivalents. This include use of conditional moves, min, max, set ags and abs instructions, and some tricks doable by standard arithmetics. The use of conditional execution on chips where it is available is controlled by if-conversion2. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fif-conversion2 Use conditional execution (where available) to transform conditional jumps into branch-less equivalents. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fdelete-null-pointer-checks Use global dataow analysis to identify and eliminate useless checks for null pointers. The compiler assumes that dereferencing a null pointer would have halted the program. If a pointer is checked after it has already been dereferenced, it cannot be null. In some environments, this assumption is not true, and programs can safely dereference null pointers. Use -fno-delete-null-pointer-checks to disable this optimization for programs which depend on that behavior. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os.

60

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-fexpensive-optimizations Perform a number of minor optimizations that are relatively expensive. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -foptimize-register-move -fregmove Attempt to reassign register numbers in move instructions and as operands of other simple instructions in order to maximize the amount of register tying. This is especially helpful on machines with two-operand instructions. Note -fregmove and -foptimize-register-move are the same optimization. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fdelayed-branch If supported for the target machine, attempt to reorder instructions to exploit instruction slots available after delayed branch instructions. Enabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -fschedule-insns If supported for the target machine, attempt to reorder instructions to eliminate execution stalls due to required data being unavailable. This helps machines that have slow oating point or memory load instructions by allowing other instructions to be issued until the result of the load or oating point instruction is required. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fschedule-insns2 Similar to -fschedule-insns, but requests an additional pass of instruction scheduling after register allocation has been done. This is especially useful on machines with a relatively small number of registers and where memory load instructions take more than one cycle. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fno-sched-interblock Dont schedule instructions across basic blocks. This is normally enabled by default when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with -fschedule-insns or at -O2 or higher. -fno-sched-spec Dont allow speculative motion of non-load instructions. This is normally enabled by default when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with -fschedule-insns or at -O2 or higher. -fsched-spec-load Allow speculative motion of some load instructions. This only makes sense when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with -fschedule-insns or at -O2 or higher.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

61

-fsched-spec-load-dangerous Allow speculative motion of more load instructions. This only makes sense when scheduling before register allocation, i.e. with -fschedule-insns or at -O2 or higher. -fcaller-saves Enable values to be allocated in registers that will be clobbered by function calls, by emitting extra instructions to save and restore the registers around such calls. Such allocation is done only when it seems to result in better code than would otherwise be produced. This option is always enabled by default on certain machines, usually those which have no call-preserved registers to use instead. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fmove-all-movables Forces all invariant computations in loops to be moved outside the loop. -freduce-all-givs Forces all general-induction variables in loops to be strength-reduced. Note: When compiling programs written in Fortran, -fmove-all-movables and -freduce-all-givs are enabled by default when you use the optimizer. These options may generate better or worse code; results are highly dependent on the structure of loops within the source code. These two options are intended to be removed someday, once they have helped determine the ecacy of various approaches to improving loop optimizations. Please let us ([email protected] and [email protected]) know how use of these options aects the performance of your production code. Were very interested in code that runs slower when these options are enabled. -fno-peephole -fno-peephole2 Disable any machine-specic peephole optimizations. The dierence between -fno-peephole and -fno-peephole2 is in how they are implemented in the compiler; some targets use one, some use the other, a few use both. -fpeephole is enabled by default. -fpeephole2 enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fbranch-probabilities -fno-guess-branch-probability Do not guess branch probabilities using a randomized model. Sometimes gcc will opt to use a randomized model to guess branch probabilities, when none are available from either proling feedback (-fprofile-arcs) or __builtin_expect. This means that dierent runs of the compiler on the same program may produce dierent object code. In a hard real-time system, people dont want dierent runs of the compiler to produce code that has dierent behavior; minimizing non-determinism is of paramount import. This switch allows users to reduce non-determinism, possibly at the expense of inferior optimization.

62

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The default is -fguess-branch-probability at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. -freorder-blocks Reorder basic blocks in the compiled function in order to reduce number of taken branches and improve code locality. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3. -freorder-functions Reorder basic blocks in the compiled function in order to reduce number of taken branches and improve code locality. This is implemented by using special subsections text.hot for most frequently executed functions and text.unlikely for unlikely executed functions. Reordering is done by the linker so object le format must support named sections and linker must place them in a reasonable way. Also prole feedback must be available in to make this option eective. See -fprofile-arcs for details. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -fstrict-aliasing Allows the compiler to assume the strictest aliasing rules applicable to the language being compiled. For C (and C++), this activates optimizations based on the type of expressions. In particular, an object of one type is assumed never to reside at the same address as an object of a dierent type, unless the types are almost the same. For example, an unsigned int can alias an int, but not a void* or a double. A character type may alias any other type. Pay special attention to code like this: union a_union { int i; double d; }; int f() { a_union t; t.d = 3.0; return t.i; } The practice of reading from a dierent union member than the one most recently written to (called type-punning) is common. Even with -fstrict-aliasing, type-punning is allowed, provided the memory is accessed through the union type. So, the code above will work as expected. However, this code might not: int f() { a_union t; int* ip; t.d = 3.0; ip = &t.i; return *ip;

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

63

} Every language that wishes to perform language-specic alias analysis should dene a function that computes, given an tree node, an alias set for the node. Nodes in dierent alias sets are not allowed to alias. For an example, see the C front-end function c_get_alias_set. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3, -Os. -falign-functions -falign-functions=n Align the start of functions to the next power-of-two greater than n, skipping up to n bytes. For instance, -falign-functions=32 aligns functions to the next 32-byte boundary, but -falign-functions=24 would align to the next 32-byte boundary only if this can be done by skipping 23 bytes or less. -fno-align-functions and -falign-functions=1 are equivalent and mean that functions will not be aligned. Some assemblers only support this ag when n is a power of two; in that case, it is rounded up. If n is not specied or is zero, use a machine-dependent default. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3. -falign-labels -falign-labels=n Align all branch targets to a power-of-two boundary, skipping up to n bytes like -falign-functions. This option can easily make code slower, because it must insert dummy operations for when the branch target is reached in the usual ow of the code. -fno-align-labels and -falign-labels=1 are equivalent and mean that labels will not be aligned. If -falign-loops or -falign-jumps are applicable and are greater than this value, then their values are used instead. If n is not specied or is zero, use a machine-dependent default which is very likely to be 1, meaning no alignment. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3. -falign-loops -falign-loops=n Align loops to a power-of-two boundary, skipping up to n bytes like -falign-functions. The hope is that the loop will be executed many times, which will make up for any execution of the dummy operations. -fno-align-loops and -falign-loops=1 are equivalent and mean that loops will not be aligned. If n is not specied or is zero, use a machine-dependent default. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3.

64

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-falign-jumps -falign-jumps=n Align branch targets to a power-of-two boundary, for branch targets where the targets can only be reached by jumping, skipping up to n bytes like -falign-functions. In this case, no dummy operations need be executed. -fno-align-jumps and -falign-jumps=1 are equivalent and mean that loops will not be aligned. If n is not specied or is zero, use a machine-dependent default. Enabled at levels -O2, -O3. -frename-registers Attempt to avoid false dependencies in scheduled code by making use of registers left over after register allocation. This optimization will most benet processors with lots of registers. It can, however, make debugging impossible, since variables will no longer stay in a home register. Enabled at levels -O3. -fno-cprop-registers After register allocation and post-register allocation instruction splitting, we perform a copy-propagation pass to try to reduce scheduling dependencies and occasionally eliminate the copy. Disabled at levels -O, -O2, -O3, -Os. The following options control compiler behavior regarding oating point arithmetic. These options trade o between speed and correctness. All must be specically enabled. -ffloat-store Do not store oating point variables in registers, and inhibit other options that might change whether a oating point value is taken from a register or memory. This option prevents undesirable excess precision on machines such as the 68000 where the oating registers (of the 68881) keep more precision than a double is supposed to have. Similarly for the x86 architecture. For most programs, the excess precision does only good, but a few programs rely on the precise denition of IEEE oating point. Use -ffloat-store for such programs, after modifying them to store all pertinent intermediate computations into variables. -ffast-math Sets -fno-math-errno, -funsafe-math-optimizations, -fno-trapping-math, -ffinite-math-only and -fno-signaling-nans. This option causes the preprocessor macro __FAST_MATH__ to be dened. This option should never be turned on by any -O option since it can result in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of IEEE or ISO rules/specications for math functions. -fno-math-errno Do not set ERRNO after calling math functions that are executed with a single instruction, e.g., sqrt. A program that relies on IEEE exceptions for math error

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

65

handling may want to use this ag for speed while maintaining IEEE arithmetic compatibility. This option should never be turned on by any -O option since it can result in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of IEEE or ISO rules/specications for math functions. The default is -fmath-errno. -funsafe-math-optimizations Allow optimizations for oating-point arithmetic that (a) assume that arguments and results are valid and (b) may violate IEEE or ANSI standards. When used at link-time, it may include libraries or startup les that change the default FPU control word or other similar optimizations. This option should never be turned on by any -O option since it can result in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of IEEE or ISO rules/specications for math functions. The default is -fno-unsafe-math-optimizations. -ffinite-math-only Allow optimizations for oating-point arithmetic that assume that arguments and results are not NaNs or +-Infs. This option should never be turned on by any -O option since it can result in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of IEEE or ISO rules/specications. The default is -fno-finite-math-only. -fno-trapping-math Compile code assuming that oating-point operations cannot generate uservisible traps. These traps include division by zero, overow, underow, inexact result and invalid operation. This option implies -fno-signaling-nans. Setting this option may allow faster code if one relies on non-stop IEEE arithmetic, for example. This option should never be turned on by any -O option since it can result in incorrect output for programs which depend on an exact implementation of IEEE or ISO rules/specications for math functions. The default is -ftrapping-math. -fsignaling-nans Compile code assuming that IEEE signaling NaNs may generate user-visible traps during oating-point operations. Setting this option disables optimizations that may change the number of exceptions visible with signaling NaNs. This option implies -ftrapping-math. This option causes the preprocessor macro __SUPPORT_SNAN__ to be dened. The default is -fno-signaling-nans. This option is experimental and does not currently guarantee to disable all GCC optimizations that aect signaling NaN behavior.

66

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-fsingle-precision-constant Treat oating point constant as single precision constant instead of implicitly converting it to double precision constant. The following options control optimizations that may improve performance, but are not enabled by any -O options. This section includes experimental options that may produce broken code. -fbranch-probabilities After running a program compiled with -fprofile-arcs (see Section 3.9 [Options for Debugging Your Program or gcc], page 46), you can compile it a second time using -fbranch-probabilities, to improve optimizations based on the number of times each branch was taken. When the program compiled with -fprofile-arcs exits it saves arc execution counts to a le called sourcename.da for each source le The information in this data le is very dependent on the structure of the generated code, so you must use the same source code and the same optimization options for both compilations. With -fbranch-probabilities, GCC puts a REG_BR_PROB note on each JUMP_INSN and CALL_INSN. These can be used to improve optimization. Currently, they are only used in one place: in reorg.c, instead of guessing which path a branch is mostly to take, the REG_BR_PROB values are used to exactly determine which path is taken more often. -fnew-ra -ftracer Use a graph coloring register allocator. Currently this option is meant for testing, so we are interested to hear about miscompilations with -fnew-ra. Perform tail duplication to enlarge superblock size. This transformation simplies the control ow of the function allowing other optimizations to do better job.

-funroll-loops Unroll loops whose number of iterations can be determined at compile time or upon entry to the loop. -funroll-loops implies both -fstrength-reduce and -frerun-cse-after-loop. This option makes code larger, and may or may not make it run faster. -funroll-all-loops Unroll all loops, even if their number of iterations is uncertain when the loop is entered. This usually makes programs run more slowly. -funroll-all-loops implies the same options as -funroll-loops, -fprefetch-loop-arrays If supported by the target machine, generate instructions to prefetch memory to improve the performance of loops that access large arrays. Disabled at level -Os. -ffunction-sections -fdata-sections Place each function or data item into its own section in the output le if the target supports arbitrary sections. The name of the function or the name of the data item determines the sections name in the output le.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

67

Use these options on systems where the linker can perform optimizations to improve locality of reference in the instruction space. Most systems using the ELF object format and SPARC processors running Solaris 2 have linkers with such optimizations. AIX may have these optimizations in the future. Only use these options when there are signicant benets from doing so. When you specify these options, the assembler and linker will create larger object and executable les and will also be slower. You will not be able to use gprof on all systems if you specify this option and you may have problems with debugging if you specify both this option and -g. -fssa Perform optimizations in static single assignment form. Each functions ow graph is translated into SSA form, optimizations are performed, and the ow graph is translated back from SSA form. Users should not specify this option, since it is not yet ready for production use. Perform Sparse Conditional Constant Propagation in SSA form. -fssa. Like -fssa, this is an experimental feature. -fssa-dce Perform aggressive dead-code elimination in SSA form. Requires -fssa. Like -fssa, this is an experimental feature. --param name =value In some places, GCC uses various constants to control the amount of optimization that is done. For example, GCC will not inline functions that contain more that a certain number of instructions. You can control some of these constants on the command-line using the --param option. In each case, the value is an integer. The allowable choices for name are given in the following table: max-crossjump-edges The maximum number of incoming edges to consider for crossjumping. The algorithm used by -fcrossjumping is O(N 2 ) in the number of edges incoming to each block. Increasing values mean more aggressive optimization, making the compile time increase with probably small improvement in executable size. max-delay-slot-insn-search The maximum number of instructions to consider when looking for an instruction to ll a delay slot. If more than this arbitrary number of instructions is searched, the time savings from lling the delay slot will be minimal so stop searching. Increasing values mean more aggressive optimization, making the compile time increase with probably small improvement in executable run time. max-delay-slot-live-search When trying to ll delay slots, the maximum number of instructions to consider when searching for a block with valid live register information. Increasing this arbitrarily chosen value means more Requires

-fssa-ccp

68

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

aggressive optimization, increasing the compile time. This parameter should be removed when the delay slot code is rewritten to maintain the control-ow graph. max-gcse-memory The approximate maximum amount of memory that will be allocated in order to perform the global common subexpression elimination optimization. If more memory than specied is required, the optimization will not be done. max-gcse-passes The maximum number of passes of GCSE to run. max-pending-list-length The maximum number of pending dependencies scheduling will allow before ushing the current state and starting over. Large functions with few branches or calls can create excessively large lists which needlessly consume memory and resources. max-inline-insns-single Several parameters control the tree inliner used in gcc. This number sets the maximum number of instructions (counted in gccs internal representation) in a single function that the tree inliner will consider for inlining. This only aects functions declared inline and methods implemented in a class declaration (C++). The default value is 300. max-inline-insns-auto When you use -finline-functions (included in -O3), a lot of functions that would otherwise not be considered for inlining by the compiler will be investigated. To those functions, a dierent (more restrictive) limit compared to functions declared inline can be applied. The default value is 300. max-inline-insns The tree inliner does decrease the allowable size for single functions to be inlined after we already inlined the number of instructions given here by repeated inlining. This number should be a factor of two or more larger than the single function limit. Higher numbers result in better runtime performance, but incur higher compile-time resource (CPU time, memory) requirements and result in larger binaries. Very high values are not advisable, as too large binaries may adversely aect runtime performance. The default value is 600. max-inline-slope After exceeding the maximum number of inlined instructions by repeated inlining, a linear function is used to decrease the allowable size for single functions. The slope of that function is the negative reciprocal of the number specied here. The default value is 32.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

69

min-inline-insns The repeated inlining is throttled more and more by the linear function after exceeding the limit. To avoid too much throttling, a minimum for this function is specied here to allow repeated inlining for very small functions even when a lot of repeated inlining already has been done. The default value is 130. max-inline-insns-rtl For languages that use the RTL inliner (this happens at a later stage than tree inlining), you can set the maximum allowable size (counted in RTL instructions) for the RTL inliner with this parameter. The default value is 600. max-unrolled-insns The maximum number of instructions that a loop should have if that loop is unrolled, and if the loop is unrolled, it determines how many times the loop code is unrolled. hot-bb-count-fraction Select fraction of the maximal count of repetitions of basic block in program given basic block needs to have to be considered hot. hot-bb-frequency-fraction Select fraction of the maximal frequency of executions of basic block in function given basic block needs to have to be considered hot tracer-dynamic-coverage tracer-dynamic-coverage-feedback This value is used to limit superblock formation once the given percentage of executed instructions is covered. This limits unnecessary code size expansion. The tracer-dynamic-coverage-feedback is used only when prole feedback is available. The real proles (as opposed to statically estimated ones) are much less balanced allowing the threshold to be larger value. tracer-max-code-growth Stop tail duplication once code growth has reached given percentage. This is rather hokey argument, as most of the duplicates will be eliminated later in cross jumping, so it may be set to much higher values than is the desired code growth. tracer-min-branch-ratio Stop reverse growth when the reverse probability of best edge is less than this threshold (in percent). tracer-min-branch-ratio tracer-min-branch-ratio-feedback Stop forward growth if the best edge do have probability lower than this threshold. Similarly to tracer-dynamic-coverage two values are present, one for compilation for prole feedback and one for compilation

70

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

without. The value for compilation with prole feedback needs to be more conservative (higher) in order to make tracer eective. ggc-min-expand GCC uses a garbage collector to manage its own memory allocation. This parameter species the minimum percentage by which the garbage collectors heap should be allowed to expand between collections. Tuning this may improve compilation speed; it has no eect on code generation. The default is 30% + 70% * (RAM/1GB) with an upper bound of 100% when RAM >= 1GB. If getrlimit is available, the notion of "RAM" is the smallest of actual RAM, RLIMIT RSS, RLIMIT DATA and RLIMIT AS. If GCC is not able to calculate RAM on a particular platform, the lower bound of 30% is used. Setting this parameter and ggc-min-heapsize to zero causes a full collection to occur at every opportunity. This is extremely slow, but can be useful for debugging. ggc-min-heapsize Minimum size of the garbage collectors heap before it begins bothering to collect garbage. The rst collection occurs after the heap expands by ggc-min-expand% beyond ggc-min-heapsize. Again, tuning this may improve compilation speed, and has no eect on code generation. The default is RAM/8, with a lower bound of 4096 (four megabytes) and an upper bound of 131072 (128 megabytes). If getrlimit is available, the notion of "RAM" is the smallest of actual RAM, RLIMIT RSS, RLIMIT DATA and RLIMIT AS. If GCC is not able to calculate RAM on a particular platform, the lower bound is used. Setting this parameter very large eectively disables garbage collection. Setting this parameter and ggc-min-expand to zero causes a full collection to occur at every opportunity.

3.11 Options Controlling the Preprocessor

These options control the C preprocessor, which is run on each C source le before actual compilation. If you use the -E option, nothing is done except preprocessing. Some of these options make sense only together with -E because they cause the preprocessor output to be unsuitable for actual compilation. You can use -Wp,option to bypass the compiler driver and pass option directly through to the preprocessor. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas. However, many options are modied, translated or interpreted by the compiler driver before being passed to the preprocessor, and -Wp forcibly bypasses this phase. The preprocessors direct interface is undocumented and subject to change, so whenever possible you should avoid using -Wp and let the driver handle the options instead.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

71

-D name

Predene name as a macro, with denition 1.

-D name =definition Predene name as a macro, with denition denition. There are no restrictions on the contents of denition, but if you are invoking the preprocessor from a shell or shell-like program you may need to use the shells quoting syntax to protect characters such as spaces that have a meaning in the shell syntax. If you wish to dene a function-like macro on the command line, write its argument list with surrounding parentheses before the equals sign (if any). Parentheses are meaningful to most shells, so you will need to quote the option. With sh and csh, -Dname (args...)=definition works. -D and -U options are processed in the order they are given on the command line. All -imacros file and -include file options are processed after all -D and -U options. -U name -undef -I dir Cancel any previous denition of name, either built in or provided with a -D option. Do not predene any system-specic or GCC-specic macros. The standard predened macros remain dened. Add the directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for header les. Directories named by -I are searched before the standard system include directories. If the directory dir is a standard system include directory, the option is ignored to ensure that the default search order for system directories and the special treatment of system headers are not defeated . Write output to le. This is the same as specifying le as the second non-option argument to cpp. gcc has a dierent interpretation of a second non-option argument, so you must use -o to specify the output le. Turns on all optional warnings which are desirable for normal code. At present this is -Wcomment and -Wtrigraphs. Note that many of the preprocessors warnings are on by default and have no options to control them.

-o file

-Wall

-Wcomment -Wcomments Warn whenever a comment-start sequence /* appears in a /* comment, or whenever a backslash-newline appears in a // comment. (Both forms have the same eect.) -Wtrigraphs Warn if any trigraphs are encountered. This option used to take eect only if -trigraphs was also specied, but now works independently. Warnings are not given for trigraphs within comments, as they do not aect the meaning of the program. -Wtraditional Warn about certain constructs that behave dierently in traditional and ISO C. Also warn about ISO C constructs that have no traditional C equivalent, and problematic constructs which should be avoided.

72

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-Wimport -Wundef

Warn the rst time #import is used. Warn whenever an identier which is not a macro is encountered in an #if directive, outside of defined. Such identiers are replaced with zero.

-Wunused-macros Warn about macros dened in the main le that are unused. A macro is used if it is expanded or tested for existence at least once. The preprocessor will also warn if the macro has not been used at the time it is redened or undened. Built-in macros, macros dened on the command line, and macros dened in include les are not warned about. Note: If a macro is actually used, but only used in skipped conditional blocks, then CPP will report it as unused. To avoid the warning in such a case, you might improve the scope of the macros denition by, for example, moving it into the rst skipped block. Alternatively, you could provide a dummy use with something like:
#if defined the_macro_causing_the_warning #endif

-Wendif-labels Warn whenever an #else or an #endif are followed by text. This usually happens in code of the form
#if FOO ... #else FOO ... #endif FOO

The second and third FOO should be in comments, but often are not in older programs. This warning is on by default. -Werror Make all warnings into hard errors. Source code which triggers warnings will be rejected.

-Wsystem-headers Issue warnings for code in system headers. These are normally unhelpful in nding bugs in your own code, therefore suppressed. If you are responsible for the system library, you may want to see them. -w -pedantic Issue all the mandatory diagnostics listed in the C standard. Some of them are left out by default, since they trigger frequently on harmless code. -pedantic-errors Issue all the mandatory diagnostics, and make all mandatory diagnostics into errors. This includes mandatory diagnostics that GCC issues without -pedantic but treats as warnings. -M Instead of outputting the result of preprocessing, output a rule suitable for make describing the dependencies of the main source le. The preprocessor outputs one make rule containing the object le name for that source le, a colon, and Suppress all warnings, including those which GNU CPP issues by default.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

73

the names of all the included les, including those coming from -include or -imacros command line options. Unless specied explicitly (with -MT or -MQ), the object le name consists of the basename of the source le with any sux replaced with object le sux. If there are many included les then the rule is split into several lines using \-newline. The rule has no commands. This option does not suppress the preprocessors debug output, such as -dM. To avoid mixing such debug output with the dependency rules you should explicitly specify the dependency output le with -MF, or use an environment variable like DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT (see Section 3.19 [Environment Variables], page 162). Debug output will still be sent to the regular output stream as normal. Passing -M to the driver implies -E, and suppresses warnings with an implicit -w. -MM Like -M but do not mention header les that are found in system header directories, nor header les that are included, directly or indirectly, from such a header. This implies that the choice of angle brackets or double quotes in an #include directive does not in itself determine whether that header will appear in -MM dependency output. This is a slight change in semantics from GCC versions 3.0 and earlier. When used with -M or -MM, species a le to write the dependencies to. If no -MF switch is given the preprocessor sends the rules to the same place it would have sent preprocessed output. When used with the driver options -MD or -MMD, -MF overrides the default dependency output le. In conjunction with an option such as -M requesting dependency generation, -MG assumes missing header les are generated les and adds them to the dependency list without raising an error. The dependency lename is taken directly from the #include directive without prepending any path. -MG also suppresses preprocessed output, as a missing header le renders this useless. This feature is used in automatic updating of makeles. This option instructs CPP to add a phony target for each dependency other than the main le, causing each to depend on nothing. These dummy rules work around errors make gives if you remove header les without updating the Makefile to match. This is typical output: test.o: test.c test.h test.h: -MT target Change the target of the rule emitted by dependency generation. By default CPP takes the name of the main input le, including any path, deletes any le

-MF file

-MG

-MP

74

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

sux such as .c, and appends the platforms usual object sux. The result is the target. An -MT option will set the target to be exactly the string you specify. If you want multiple targets, you can specify them as a single argument to -MT, or use multiple -MT options. For example, -MT $(objpfx)foo.o might give $(objpfx)foo.o: foo.c -MQ target Same as -MT, but it quotes any characters which are special to Make. -MQ $(objpfx)foo.o gives $$(objpfx)foo.o: foo.c The default target is automatically quoted, as if it were given with -MQ. -MD -MD is equivalent to -M -MF file , except that -E is not implied. The driver determines le based on whether an -o option is given. If it is, the driver uses its argument but with a sux of .d, otherwise it take the basename of the input le and applies a .d sux. If -MD is used in conjunction with -E, any -o switch is understood to specify the dependency output le (but see [-MF], page 73), but if used without -E, each -o is understood to specify a target object le. Since -E is not implied, -MD can be used to generate a dependency output le as a side-eect of the compilation process. Like -MD except mention only user header les, not system -header les.

-MMD -x -x -x -x

c c++ objective-c assembler-with-cpp Specify the source language: C, C++, Objective-C, or assembly. This has nothing to do with standards conformance or extensions; it merely selects which base syntax to expect. If you give none of these options, cpp will deduce the language from the extension of the source le: .c, .cc, .m, or .S. Some other common extensions for C++ and assembly are also recognized. If cpp does not recognize the extension, it will treat the le as C; this is the most generic mode. Note: Previous versions of cpp accepted a -lang option which selected both the language and the standards conformance level. This option has been removed, because it conicts with the -l option.

-std=standard -ansi Specify the standard to which the code should conform. Currently CPP knows about C and C++ standards; others may be added in the future. standard may be one of: iso9899:1990 c89 The ISO C standard from 1990. c89 is the customary shorthand for this version of the standard.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

75

The -ansi option is equivalent to -std=c89. iso9899:199409 The 1990 C standard, as amended in 1994. iso9899:1999 c99 iso9899:199x c9x The revised ISO C standard, published in December 1999. Before publication, this was known as C9X. gnu89 gnu99 gnu9x c++98 gnu++98 -IThe 1990 C standard plus GNU extensions. This is the default. The 1999 C standard plus GNU extensions. The 1998 ISO C++ standard plus amendments. The same as -std=c++98 plus GNU extensions. This is the default for C++ code.

Split the include path. Any directories specied with -I options before -I- are searched only for headers requested with #include "file "; they are not searched for #include <file >. If additional directories are specied with -I options after the -I-, those directories are searched for all #include directives. In addition, -I- inhibits the use of the directory of the current le directory as the rst search directory for #include "file ".

-nostdinc Do not search the standard system directories for header les. Only the directories you have specied with -I options (and the directory of the current le, if appropriate) are searched. -nostdinc++ Do not search for header les in the C++-specic standard directories, but do still search the other standard directories. (This option is used when building the C++ library.) -include file Process le as if #include "file" appeared as the rst line of the primary source le. However, the rst directory searched for le is the preprocessors working directory instead of the directory containing the main source le. If not found there, it is searched for in the remainder of the #include "..." search chain as normal. If multiple -include options are given, the les are included in the order they appear on the command line. -imacros file Exactly like -include, except that any output produced by scanning le is thrown away. Macros it denes remain dened. This allows you to acquire all the macros from a header without also processing its declarations.

76

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

All les specied by -imacros are processed before all les specied by -include. -idirafter dir Search dir for header les, but do it after all directories specied with -I and the standard system directories have been exhausted. dir is treated as a system include directory. -iprefix prefix Specify prex as the prex for subsequent -iwithprefix options. If the prex represents a directory, you should include the nal /. -iwithprefix dir -iwithprefixbefore dir Append dir to the prex specied previously with -iprefix, and add the resulting directory to the include search path. -iwithprefixbefore puts it in the same place -I would; -iwithprefix puts it where -idirafter would. Use of these options is discouraged. -isystem dir Search dir for header les, after all directories specied by -I but before the standard system directories. Mark it as a system directory, so that it gets the same special treatment as is applied to the standard system directories. -fpreprocessed Indicate to the preprocessor that the input le has already been preprocessed. This suppresses things like macro expansion, trigraph conversion, escaped newline splicing, and processing of most directives. The preprocessor still recognizes and removes comments, so that you can pass a le preprocessed with -C to the compiler without problems. In this mode the integrated preprocessor is little more than a tokenizer for the front ends. -fpreprocessed is implicit if the input le has one of the extensions .i, .ii or .mi. These are the extensions that GCC uses for preprocessed les created by -save-temps. -ftabstop=width Set the distance between tab stops. This helps the preprocessor report correct column numbers in warnings or errors, even if tabs appear on the line. If the value is less than 1 or greater than 100, the option is ignored. The default is 8. -fno-show-column Do not print column numbers in diagnostics. This may be necessary if diagnostics are being scanned by a program that does not understand the column numbers, such as dejagnu. -A predicate =answer Make an assertion with the predicate predicate and answer answer. This form is preferred to the older form -A predicate (answer ), which is still supported, because it does not use shell special characters. -A -predicate =answer Cancel an assertion with the predicate predicate and answer answer.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

77

-dCHARS

CHARS is a sequence of one or more of the following characters, and must not be preceded by a space. Other characters are interpreted by the compiler proper, or reserved for future versions of GCC, and so are silently ignored. If you specify characters whose behavior conicts, the result is undened. M Instead of the normal output, generate a list of #define directives for all the macros dened during the execution of the preprocessor, including predened macros. This gives you a way of nding out what is predened in your version of the preprocessor. Assuming you have no le foo.h, the command touch foo.h; cpp -dM foo.h will show all the predened macros. Like M except in two respects: it does not include the predened macros, and it outputs both the #define directives and the result of preprocessing. Both kinds of output go to the standard output le. Like D, but emit only the macro names, not their expansions. Output #include directives in addition to the result of preprocessing.

N I -P

Inhibit generation of linemarkers in the output from the preprocessor. This might be useful when running the preprocessor on something that is not C code, and will be sent to a program which might be confused by the linemarkers. Do not discard comments. All comments are passed through to the output le, except for comments in processed directives, which are deleted along with the directive. You should be prepared for side eects when using -C; it causes the preprocessor to treat comments as tokens in their own right. For example, comments appearing at the start of what would be a directive line have the eect of turning that line into an ordinary source line, since the rst token on the line is no longer a #. Do not discard comments, including during macro expansion. This is like -C, except that comments contained within macros are also passed through to the output le where the macro is expanded. In addition to the side-eects of the -C option, the -CC option causes all C++-style comments inside a macro to be converted to C-style comments. This is to prevent later use of that macro from inadvertently commenting out the remainder of the source line. The -CC option is generally used to support lint comments.

-C

-CC

-traditional-cpp Try to imitate the behavior of old-fashioned C preprocessors, as opposed to ISO C preprocessors. -trigraphs Process trigraph sequences. These are three-character sequences, all starting with ??, that are dened by ISO C to stand for single characters. For example,

78

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

??/ stands for \, so ??/n is a character constant for a newline. By default, GCC ignores trigraphs, but in standard-conforming modes it converts them. See the -std and -ansi options. The nine trigraphs and their replacements are
Trigraph: Replacement: ??( [ ??) ] ??< { ??> } ??= # ??/ \ ?? ^ ??! | ??~

-remap

Enable special code to work around le systems which only permit very short le names, such as MS-DOS.

--help --target-help Print text describing all the command line options instead of preprocessing anything. -v -H -version --version Print out GNU CPPs version number. With one dash, proceed to preprocess as normal. With two dashes, exit immediately. Verbose mode. Print out GNU CPPs version number at the beginning of execution, and report the nal form of the include path. Print the name of each header le used, in addition to other normal activities. Each name is indented to show how deep in the #include stack it is.

3.12 Passing Options to the Assembler

You can pass options to the assembler. -Wa,option Pass option as an option to the assembler. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas.

3.13 Options for Linking

These options come into play when the compiler links object les into an executable output le. They are meaningless if the compiler is not doing a link step. object-file-name A le name that does not end in a special recognized sux is considered to name an object le or library. (Object les are distinguished from libraries by the linker according to the le contents.) If linking is done, these object les are used as input to the linker. -c -S -E

If any of these options is used, then the linker is not run, and object le names should not be used as arguments. See Section 3.2 [Overall Options], page 18.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

79

-llibrary -l library Search the library named library when linking. (The second alternative with the library as a separate argument is only for POSIX compliance and is not recommended.) It makes a dierence where in the command you write this option; the linker searches and processes libraries and object les in the order they are specied. Thus, foo.o -lz bar.o searches library z after le foo.o but before bar.o. If bar.o refers to functions in z, those functions may not be loaded. The linker searches a standard list of directories for the library, which is actually a le named liblibrary.a. The linker then uses this le as if it had been specied precisely by name. The directories searched include several standard system directories plus any that you specify with -L. Normally the les found this way are library lesarchive les whose members are object les. The linker handles an archive le by scanning through it for members which dene symbols that have so far been referenced but not dened. But if the le that is found is an ordinary object le, it is linked in the usual fashion. The only dierence between using an -l option and specifying a le name is that -l surrounds library with lib and .a and searches several directories. -lobjc You need this special case of the -l option in order to link an Objective-C program.

-nostartfiles Do not use the standard system startup les when linking. The standard system libraries are used normally, unless -nostdlib or -nodefaultlibs is used. -nodefaultlibs Do not use the standard system libraries when linking. Only the libraries you specify will be passed to the linker. The standard startup les are used normally, unless -nostartfiles is used. The compiler may generate calls to memcmp, memset, and memcpy for System V (and ISO C) environments or to bcopy and bzero for BSD environments. These entries are usually resolved by entries in libc. These entry points should be supplied through some other mechanism when this option is specied. -nostdlib Do not use the standard system startup les or libraries when linking. No startup les and only the libraries you specify will be passed to the linker. The compiler may generate calls to memcmp, memset, and memcpy for System V (and ISO C) environments or to bcopy and bzero for BSD environments. These entries are usually resolved by entries in libc. These entry points should be supplied through some other mechanism when this option is specied. One of the standard libraries bypassed by -nostdlib and -nodefaultlibs is libgcc.a, a library of internal subroutines that GCC uses to overcome shortcomings of particular machines, or special needs for some languages. (See

80

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

section Interfacing to GCC Output in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals, for more discussion of libgcc.a.) In most cases, you need libgcc.a even when you want to avoid other standard libraries. In other words, when you specify -nostdlib or -nodefaultlibs you should usually specify -lgcc as well. This ensures that you have no unresolved references to internal GCC library subroutines. (For example, __main, used to ensure C++ constructors will be called; see section collect2 in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals.) -s -static -shared Remove all symbol table and relocation information from the executable. On systems that support dynamic linking, this prevents linking with the shared libraries. On other systems, this option has no eect. Produce a shared object which can then be linked with other objects to form an executable. Not all systems support this option. For predictable results, you must also specify the same set of options that were used to generate code (-fpic, -fPIC, or model suboptions) when you specify this option.1

-shared-libgcc -static-libgcc On systems that provide libgcc as a shared library, these options force the use of either the shared or static version respectively. If no shared version of libgcc was built when the compiler was congured, these options have no eect. There are several situations in which an application should use the shared libgcc instead of the static version. The most common of these is when the application wishes to throw and catch exceptions across dierent shared libraries. In that case, each of the libraries as well as the application itself should use the shared libgcc. Therefore, the G++ and GCJ drivers automatically add -shared-libgcc whenever you build a shared library or a main executable, because C++ and Java programs typically use exceptions, so this is the right thing to do. If, instead, you use the GCC driver to create shared libraries, you may nd that they will not always be linked with the shared libgcc. If GCC nds, at its conguration time, that you have a GNU linker that does not support option --eh-frame-hdr, it will link the shared version of libgcc into shared libraries by default. Otherwise, it will take advantage of the linker and optimize away the linking with the shared version of libgcc, linking with the static version of libgcc by default. This allows exceptions to propagate through such shared libraries, without incurring relocation costs at library load time. However, if a library or main executable is supposed to throw or catch exceptions, you must link it using the G++ or GCJ driver, as appropriate for the languages used in the program, or using the option -shared-libgcc, such that it is linked with the shared libgcc.
1

On some systems, gcc -shared needs to build supplementary stub code for constructors to work. On multi-libbed systems, gcc -shared must select the correct support libraries to link against. Failing to supply the correct ags may lead to subtle defects. Supplying them in cases where they are not necessary is innocuous.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

81

-symbolic Bind references to global symbols when building a shared object. Warn about any unresolved references (unless overridden by the link editor option -Xlinker -z -Xlinker defs). Only a few systems support this option. -Xlinker option Pass option as an option to the linker. You can use this to supply system-specic linker options which GCC does not know how to recognize. If you want to pass an option that takes an argument, you must use -Xlinker twice, once for the option and once for the argument. For example, to pass -assert definitions, you must write -Xlinker -assert -Xlinker definitions. It does not work to write -Xlinker "-assert definitions", because this passes the entire string as a single argument, which is not what the linker expects. -Wl,option Pass option as an option to the linker. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas. -u symbol Pretend the symbol symbol is undened, to force linking of library modules to dene it. You can use -u multiple times with dierent symbols to force loading of additional library modules.

3.14 Options for Directory Search

These options specify directories to search for header les, for libraries and for parts of the compiler: -Idir Add the directory dir to the head of the list of directories to be searched for header les. This can be used to override a system header le, substituting your own version, since these directories are searched before the system header le directories. However, you should not use this option to add directories that contain vendor-supplied system header les (use -isystem for that). If you use more than one -I option, the directories are scanned in left-to-right order; the standard system directories come after. If a standard system include directory, or a directory specied with -isystem, is also specied with -I, the -I option will be ignored. The directory will still be searched but as a system directory at its normal position in the system include chain. This is to ensure that GCCs procedure to x buggy system headers and the ordering for the include next directive are not inadvertently changed. If you really need to change the search order for system directories, use the -nostdinc and/or -isystem options. -IAny directories you specify with -I options before the -I- option are searched only for the case of #include "file "; they are not searched for #include <file >.

82

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

If additional directories are specied with -I options after the -I-, these directories are searched for all #include directives. (Ordinarily all -I directories are used this way.) In addition, the -I- option inhibits the use of the current directory (where the current input le came from) as the rst search directory for #include "file ". There is no way to override this eect of -I-. With -I. you can specify searching the directory which was current when the compiler was invoked. That is not exactly the same as what the preprocessor does by default, but it is often satisfactory. -I- does not inhibit the use of the standard system directories for header les. Thus, -I- and -nostdinc are independent. -Ldir -Bprefix Add directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for -l. This option species where to nd the executables, libraries, include les, and data les of the compiler itself. The compiler driver program runs one or more of the subprograms cpp, cc1, as and ld. It tries prex as a prex for each program it tries to run, both with and without machine /version / (see Section 3.16 [Target Options], page 89). For each subprogram to be run, the compiler driver rst tries the -B prex, if any. If that name is not found, or if -B was not specied, the driver tries two standard prexes, which are /usr/lib/gcc/ and /usr/local/lib/gcc-lib/. If neither of those results in a le name that is found, the unmodied program name is searched for using the directories specied in your PATH environment variable. The compiler will check to see if the path provided by the -B refers to a directory, and if necessary it will add a directory separator character at the end of the path. -B prexes that eectively specify directory names also apply to libraries in the linker, because the compiler translates these options into -L options for the linker. They also apply to includes les in the preprocessor, because the compiler translates these options into -isystem options for the preprocessor. In this case, the compiler appends include to the prex. The run-time support le libgcc.a can also be searched for using the -B prex, if needed. If it is not found there, the two standard prexes above are tried, and that is all. The le is left out of the link if it is not found by those means. Another way to specify a prex much like the -B prex is to use the environment variable GCC_EXEC_PREFIX. See Section 3.19 [Environment Variables], page 162. As a special kludge, if the path provided by -B is [dir/]stageN /, where N is a number in the range 0 to 9, then it will be replaced by [dir/]include. This is to help with boot-strapping the compiler.

-specs=file Process le after the compiler reads in the standard specs le, in order to override the defaults that the gcc driver program uses when determin-

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

83

ing what switches to pass to cc1, cc1plus, as, ld, etc. More than one -specs=file can be specied on the command line, and they are processed in order, from left to right.

3.15 Specifying subprocesses and the switches to pass to them

gcc is a driver program. It performs its job by invoking a sequence of other programs to do the work of compiling, assembling and linking. GCC interprets its command-line parameters and uses these to deduce which programs it should invoke, and which command-line options it ought to place on their command lines. This behavior is controlled by spec strings. In most cases there is one spec string for each program that GCC can invoke, but a few programs have multiple spec strings to control their behavior. The spec strings built into GCC can be overridden by using the -specs= command-line switch to specify a spec le. Spec les are plaintext les that are used to construct spec strings. They consist of a sequence of directives separated by blank lines. The type of directive is determined by the rst non-whitespace character on the line and it can be one of the following: %command Issues a command to the spec le processor. The commands that can appear here are: %include <file > Search for le and insert its text at the current point in the specs le. %include_noerr <file > Just like %include, but do not generate an error message if the include le cannot be found. %rename old_name new_name Rename the spec string old name to new name. *[spec_name ]: This tells the compiler to create, override or delete the named spec string. All lines after this directive up to the next directive or blank line are considered to be the text for the spec string. If this results in an empty string then the spec will be deleted. (Or, if the spec did not exist, then nothing will happened.) Otherwise, if the spec does not currently exist a new spec will be created. If the spec does exist then its contents will be overridden by the text of this directive, unless the rst character of that text is the + character, in which case the text will be appended to the spec. [suffix ]: Creates a new [suffix ] spec pair. All lines after this directive and up to the next directive or blank line are considered to make up the spec string for the indicated sux. When the compiler encounters an input le with the named sux, it will processes the spec string in order to work out how to compile that le. For example:
.ZZ:

84

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

z-compile -input %i

This says that any input le whose name ends in .ZZ should be passed to the program z-compile, which should be invoked with the command-line switch -input and with the result of performing the %i substitution. (See below.) As an alternative to providing a spec string, the text that follows a sux directive can be one of the following: @language This says that the sux is an alias for a known language. This is similar to using the -x command-line switch to GCC to specify a language explicitly. For example:
.ZZ: @c++

Says that .ZZ les are, in fact, C++ source les. #name This causes an error messages saying:
name compiler not installed on this system.

GCC already has an extensive list of suxes built into it. This directive will add an entry to the end of the list of suxes, but since the list is searched from the end backwards, it is eectively possible to override earlier entries using this technique. GCC has the following spec strings built into it. Spec les can override these strings or create their own. Note that individual targets can also add their own spec strings to this list.
asm asm_final cpp cc1 cc1plus endfile link lib libgcc linker predefines signed_char startfile %rename lib Options to pass to the assembler Options to pass to the assembler post-processor Options to pass to the C preprocessor Options to pass to the C compiler Options to pass to the C++ compiler Object files to include at the end of the link Options to pass to the linker Libraries to include on the command line to the linker Decides which GCC support library to pass to the linker Sets the name of the linker Defines to be passed to the C preprocessor Defines to pass to CPP to say whether char is signed by default Object files to include at the start of the link old_lib

Here is a small example of a spec le:

*lib: --start-group -lgcc -lc -leval1 --end-group %(old_lib)

This example renames the spec called lib to old_lib and then overrides the previous denition of lib with a new one. The new denition adds in some extra command-line options before including the text of the old denition. Spec strings are a list of command-line options to be passed to their corresponding program. In addition, the spec strings can contain %-prexed sequences to substitute variable text or to conditionally insert text into the command line. Using these constructs it is possible to generate quite complex command lines.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

85

Here is a table of all dened %-sequences for spec strings. Note that spaces are not generated automatically around the results of expanding these sequences. Therefore you can concatenate them together or combine them with constant text in a single argument. %% %i %b %B %d Substitute one % into the program name or argument. Substitute the name of the input le being processed. Substitute the basename of the input le being processed. This is the substring up to (and not including) the last period and not including the directory. This is the same as %b, but include the le sux (text after the last period). Marks the argument containing or following the %d as a temporary le name, so that that le will be deleted if GCC exits successfully. Unlike %g, this contributes no text to the argument. Substitute a le name that has sux sux and is chosen once per compilation, and mark the argument in the same way as %d. To reduce exposure to denialof-service attacks, the le name is now chosen in a way that is hard to predict even when previously chosen le names are known. For example, %g.s ... %g.o ... %g.s might turn into ccUVUUAU.s ccXYAXZ12.o ccUVUUAU.s. sux matches the regexp [.A-Za-z]* or the special string %O, which is treated exactly as if %O had been preprocessed. Previously, %g was simply substituted with a le name chosen once per compilation, without regard to any appended sux (which was therefore treated just like ordinary text), making such attacks more likely to succeed. Like %g, but generates a new temporary le name even if %usuffix was already seen. Substitutes the last le name generated with %usuffix , generating a new one if there is no such last le name. In the absence of any %usuffix , this is just like %gsuffix , except they dont share the same sux space, so %g.s ... %U.s ... %g.s ... %U.s would involve the generation of two distinct le names, one for each %g.s and another for each %U.s. Previously, %U was simply substituted with a le name chosen for the previous %u, without regard to any appended sux. Substitutes the name of the HOST_BIT_BUCKET, if any, and if it is writable, and if save-temps is o; otherwise, substitute the name of a temporary le, just like %u. This temporary le is not meant for communication between processes, but rather as a junk disposal mechanism. Substitutes .SUFFIX for the suxes of a matched switchs args when it is subsequently output with %*. SUFFIX is terminated by the next space or %. Marks the argument containing or following the %w as the designated output le of this compilation. This puts the argument into the sequence of arguments that %o will substitute later. Substitutes the names of all the output les, with spaces automatically placed around them. You should write spaces around the %o as well or the results are undened. %o is for use in the specs for running the linker. Input les whose

%gsuffix

%usuffix %Usuffix

%jsuffix

%.SUFFIX %w

%o

86

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

names have no recognized sux are not compiled at all, but they are included among the output les, so they will be linked. %O Substitutes the sux for object les. Note that this is handled specially when it immediately follows %g, %u, or %U, because of the need for those to form complete le names. The handling is such that %O is treated exactly as if it had already been substituted, except that %g, %u, and %U do not currently support additional sux characters following %O as they would following, for example, .o. Substitutes the standard macro predenitions for the current target machine. Use this when running cpp. Like %p, but puts __ before and after the name of each predened macro, except for macros that start with __ or with _L , where L is an uppercase letter. This is for ISO C. Substitute a -iprefix option made from GCC_EXEC_PREFIX. Current argument is the name of a library or startup le of some sort. Search for that le in a standard list of directories and substitute the full name found. Print str as an error message. str is terminated by a newline. Use this when inconsistent options are detected. Output - if the input for the current command is coming from a pipe. Substitute the contents of spec string name at this point. Like %(...) but put __ around -D arguments.

%p %P

%I %s %estr %| %(name ) %[name ]

%x{option } Accumulate an option for %X. %X %Y %Z %v1 %v2 %v3 %a %A %l %D Output the accumulated linker options specied by -Wl or a %x spec string. Output the accumulated assembler options specied by -Wa. Output the accumulated preprocessor options specied by -Wp. Substitute the major version number of GCC. (For version 2.9.5, this is 2.) Substitute the minor version number of GCC. (For version 2.9.5, this is 9.) Substitute the patch level number of GCC. (For version 2.9.5, this is 5.) Process the asm spec. This is used to compute the switches to be passed to the assembler. Process the asm_final spec. This is a spec string for passing switches to an assembler post-processor, if such a program is needed. Process the link spec. This is the spec for computing the command line passed to the linker. Typically it will make use of the %L %G %S %D and %E sequences. Dump out a -L option for each directory that GCC believes might contain startup les. If the target supports multilibs then the current multilib directory will be prepended to each of these paths.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

87

%M

Output the multilib directory with directory separators replaced with _. If multilib directories are not set, or the multilib directory is . then this option emits nothing. Process the lib spec. This is a spec string for deciding which libraries should be included on the command line to the linker. Process the libgcc spec. This is a spec string for deciding which GCC support library should be included on the command line to the linker. Process the startfile spec. This is a spec for deciding which object les should be the rst ones passed to the linker. Typically this might be a le named crt0.o. Process the endfile spec. This is a spec string that species the last object les that will be passed to the linker. Process the cpp spec. This is used to construct the arguments to be passed to the C preprocessor. Process the signed_char spec. This is intended to be used to tell cpp whether a char is signed. It typically has the denition:
%{funsigned-char:-D__CHAR_UNSIGNED__}

%L %G %S

%E %C %c

%1 %2 %*

Process the cc1 spec. This is used to construct the options to be passed to the actual C compiler (cc1). Process the cc1plus spec. This is used to construct the options to be passed to the actual C++ compiler (cc1plus). Substitute the variable part of a matched option. See below. Note that each comma in the substituted string is replaced by a single space.

%:function (args ) Call the named function function, passing it args. args is rst processed as a nested spec string, then split into an argument vector in the usual fashion. The function returns a string which is processed as if it had appeared literally as part of the current spec. The following built-in spec functions are provided: if-exists The if-exists spec function takes one argument, an absolute pathname to a le. If the le exists, if-exists returns the pathname. Here is a small example of its usage:
*startfile: crt0%O%s %:if-exists(crti%O%s) crtbegin%O%s

if-exists-else The if-exists-else spec function is similar to the if-exists spec function, except that it takes two arguments. The rst argument is an absolute pathname to a le. If the le exists, if-exists-else returns the pathname. If it does not exist, it returns the second argument. This way, if-exists-else can be used to select one le or another, based on the existence of the rst. Here is a small example of its usage:

88

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

*startfile: crt0%O%s %:if-exists(crti%O%s) \ %:if-exists-else(crtbeginT%O%s crtbegin%O%s)

%{S}

Substitutes the -S switch, if that switch was given to GCC. If that switch was not specied, this substitutes nothing. Note that the leading dash is omitted when specifying this option, and it is automatically inserted if the substitution is performed. Thus the spec string %{foo} would match the command-line option -foo and would output the command line option -foo. Like %{S} but mark last argument supplied within as a le to be deleted on failure. Substitutes all the switches specied to GCC whose names start with -S, but which also take an argument. This is used for switches like -o, -D, -I, etc. GCC considers -o foo as being one switch whose names starts with o. %{o*} would substitute this text, including the space. Thus two arguments would be generated. Like %{S*}, but dont put a blank between a switch and its argument. Thus %{^o*} would only generate one argument, not two. Like %{S*}, but preserve order of S and T options (the order of S and T in the spec is not signicant). There can be any number of ampersand-separated variables; for each the wild card is optional. Useful for CPP as %{D*&U*&A*}. Remove all occurrences of -S from the command line. Notethis command is position dependent. % commands in the spec string before this option will see -S, % commands in the spec string after this option will not. Substitutes X if one or more switches whose names start with -S are specied to GCC. Note that the tail part of the -S option (i.e. the part matched by the *) will be substituted for each occurrence of %* within X. Substitutes X, but only if the -S switch was given to GCC. Substitutes X, but only if the -S switch was not given to GCC. Like %{S:X}, but if no S switch, substitute -. Like %{!S:X}, but if there is an S switch, substitute -. Substitutes X, but only if processing a le with sux S. Substitutes X, but only if not processing a le with sux S. Substitutes X if either -S or -P was given to GCC. This may be combined with ! and . sequences as well, although they have a stronger binding than the |. For example a spec string like this:
%{.c:-foo} %{!.c:-bar} %{.c|d:-baz} %{!.c|d:-boggle}

%W{S} %{S*}

%{^S*} %{S*&T*}

%{<S}

%{S*:X}

%{S:X} %{!S:X} %{|S:X} %{|!S:X} %{.S:X} %{!.S:X} %{S|P:X}

will output the following command-line options from the following input command-line options:
fred.c jim.d -d fred.c -d jim.d -foo -bar -foo -bar -baz -boggle -baz -boggle -baz -boggle

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

89

The conditional text X in a %{S:X} or %{!S:X} construct may contain other nested % constructs or spaces, or even newlines. They are processed as usual, as described above. The -O, -f, -m, and -W switches are handled specically in these constructs. If another value of -O or the negated form of a -f, -m, or -W switch is found later in the command line, the earlier switch value is ignored, except with {S*} where S is just one letter, which passes all matching options. The character | at the beginning of the predicate text is used to indicate that a command should be piped to the following command, but only if -pipe is specied. It is built into GCC which switches take arguments and which do not. (You might think it would be useful to generalize this to allow each compilers spec to say which switches take arguments. But this cannot be done in a consistent fashion. GCC cannot even decide which input les have been specied without knowing which switches take arguments, and it must know which input les to compile in order to tell which compilers to run). GCC also knows implicitly that arguments starting in -l are to be treated as compiler output les, and passed to the linker in their proper position among the other output les.

3.16 Specifying Target Machine and Compiler Version

The usual way to run GCC is to run the executable called gcc, or <machine>-gcc when cross-compiling, or <machine>-gcc-<version> to run a version other than the one that was installed last. Sometimes this is inconvenient, so GCC provides options that will switch to another cross-compiler or version. -b machine The argument machine species the target machine for compilation. The value to use for machine is the same as was specied as the machine type when conguring GCC as a cross-compiler. For example, if a cross-compiler was congured with configure i386v, meaning to compile for an 80386 running System V, then you would specify -b i386v to run that cross compiler. -V version The argument version species which version of GCC to run. This is useful when multiple versions are installed. For example, version might be 2.0, meaning to run GCC version 2.0. The -V and -b options work by running the <machine>-gcc-<version> executable, so theres no real reason to use them if you can just run that directly.

3.17 Hardware Models and Congurations

Earlier we discussed the standard option -b which chooses among dierent installed compilers for completely dierent target machines, such as VAX vs. 68000 vs. 80386. In addition, each of these target machine types can have its own special options, starting with -m, to choose among various hardware models or congurationsfor example, 68010 vs 68020, oating coprocessor or none. A single installed version of the compiler can compile for any model or conguration, according to the options specied.

90

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Some congurations of the compiler also support additional special options, usually for compatibility with other compilers on the same platform. These options are dened by the macro TARGET_SWITCHES in the machine description. The default for the options is also dened by that macro, which enables you to change the defaults.

3.17.1 M680x0 Options

These are the -m options dened for the 68000 series. The default values for these options depends on which style of 68000 was selected when the compiler was congured; the defaults for the most common choices are given below. -m68000 -mc68000 Generate output for a 68000. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68000-based systems. Use this option for microcontrollers with a 68000 or EC000 core, including the 68008, 68302, 68306, 68307, 68322, 68328 and 68356. Generate output for a 68020. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68020-based systems. Generate output containing 68881 instructions for oating point. This is the default for most 68020 systems unless --nfp was specied when the compiler was congured. Generate output for a 68030. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68030-based systems. Generate output for a 68040. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68040-based systems. This option inhibits the use of 68881/68882 instructions that have to be emulated by software on the 68040. Use this option if your 68040 does not have code to emulate those instructions. Generate output for a 68060. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68060-based systems. This option inhibits the use of 68020 and 68881/68882 instructions that have to be emulated by software on the 68060. Use this option if your 68060 does not have code to emulate those instructions. Generate output for a CPU32. This is the default when the compiler is congured for CPU32-based systems. Use this option for microcontrollers with a CPU32 or CPU32+ core, including the 68330, 68331, 68332, 68333, 68334, 68336, 68340, 68341, 68349 and 68360. Generate output for a 520X coldre family cpu. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 520X-based systems. Use this option for microcontroller with a 5200 core, including the MCF5202, MCF5203, MCF5204 and MCF5202.

-m68020 -mc68020 -m68881

-m68030 -m68040

-m68060

-mcpu32

-m5200

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

91

-m68020-40 Generate output for a 68040, without using any of the new instructions. This results in code which can run relatively eciently on either a 68020/68881 or a 68030 or a 68040. The generated code does use the 68881 instructions that are emulated on the 68040. -m68020-60 Generate output for a 68060, without using any of the new instructions. This results in code which can run relatively eciently on either a 68020/68881 or a 68030 or a 68040. The generated code does use the 68881 instructions that are emulated on the 68060. -mfpa Generate output containing Sun FPA instructions for oating point.

-msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries are not available for all m68k targets. Normally the facilities of the machines usual C compiler are used, but this cant be done directly in cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions for cross-compilation. The embedded targets m68k-*-aout and m68k-*-coff do provide software oating point support. -mshort Consider type int to be 16 bits wide, like short int.

-mnobitfield Do not use the bit-eld instructions. The -m68000, -mcpu32 and -m5200 options imply -mnobitfield. -mbitfield Do use the bit-eld instructions. The -m68020 option implies -mbitfield. This is the default if you use a conguration designed for a 68020. -mrtd Use a dierent function-calling convention, in which functions that take a xed number of arguments return with the rtd instruction, which pops their arguments while returning. This saves one instruction in the caller since there is no need to pop the arguments there. This calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler. Also, you must provide function prototypes for all functions that take variable numbers of arguments (including printf); otherwise incorrect code will be generated for calls to those functions. In addition, seriously incorrect code will result if you call a function with too many arguments. (Normally, extra arguments are harmlessly ignored.) The rtd instruction is supported by the 68010, 68020, 68030, 68040, 68060 and CPU32 processors, but not by the 68000 or 5200. -malign-int -mno-align-int Control whether GCC aligns int, long, long long, float, double, and long double variables on a 32-bit boundary (-malign-int) or a 16-bit boundary

92

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

(-mno-align-int). Aligning variables on 32-bit boundaries produces code that runs somewhat faster on processors with 32-bit busses at the expense of more memory. Warning: if you use the -malign-int switch, GCC will align structures containing the above types dierently than most published application binary interface specications for the m68k. -mpcrel Use the pc-relative addressing mode of the 68000 directly, instead of using a global oset table. At present, this option implies -fpic, allowing at most a 16-bit oset for pc-relative addressing. -fPIC is not presently supported with -mpcrel, though this could be supported for 68020 and higher processors.

-mno-strict-align -mstrict-align Do not (do) assume that unaligned memory references will be handled by the system.

3.17.2 M68hc1x Options

These are the -m options dened for the 68hc11 and 68hc12 microcontrollers. The default values for these options depends on which style of microcontroller was selected when the compiler was congured; the defaults for the most common choices are given below. -m6811 -m68hc11 -m6812 -m68hc12 -m68S12 -m68hcs12 Generate output for a 68HCS12. -mauto-incdec Enable the use of 68HC12 pre and post auto-increment and auto-decrement addressing modes. -minmax -nominmax Enable the use of 68HC12 min and max instructions. -mlong-calls -mno-long-calls Treat all calls as being far away (near). If calls are assumed to be far away, the compiler will use the call instruction to call a function and the rtc instruction for returning. -mshort Consider type int to be 16 bits wide, like short int. Generate output for a 68HC11. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68HC11-based systems. Generate output for a 68HC12. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 68HC12-based systems.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

93

-msoft-reg-count=count Specify the number of pseudo-soft registers which are used for the code generation. The maximum number is 32. Using more pseudo-soft register may or may not result in better code depending on the program. The default is 4 for 68HC11 and 2 for 68HC12.

3.17.3 VAX Options

These -m options are dened for the VAX: -munix -mgnu -mg Do not output certain jump instructions (aobleq and so on) that the Unix assembler for the VAX cannot handle across long ranges. Do output those jump instructions, on the assumption that you will assemble with the GNU assembler. Output code for g-format oating point numbers instead of d-format.

3.17.4 SPARC Options

These -m switches are supported on the SPARC: -mno-app-regs -mapp-regs Specify -mapp-regs to generate output using the global registers 2 through 4, which the SPARC SVR4 ABI reserves for applications. This is the default. To be fully SVR4 ABI compliant at the cost of some performance loss, specify -mno-app-regs. You should compile libraries and system software with this option. -mfpu -mhard-float Generate output containing oating point instructions. This is the default. -mno-fpu -msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries are not available for all SPARC targets. Normally the facilities of the machines usual C compiler are used, but this cannot be done directly in cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions for cross-compilation. The embedded targets sparc-*-aout and sparclite-*-* do provide software oating point support. -msoft-float changes the calling convention in the output le; therefore, it is only useful if you compile all of a program with this option. In particular, you need to compile libgcc.a, the library that comes with GCC, with -msoft-float in order for this to work. -mhard-quad-float Generate output containing quad-word (long double) oating point instructions.

94

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-msoft-quad-float Generate output containing library calls for quad-word (long double) oating point instructions. The functions called are those specied in the SPARC ABI. This is the default. As of this writing, there are no sparc implementations that have hardware support for the quad-word oating point instructions. They all invoke a trap handler for one of these instructions, and then the trap handler emulates the eect of the instruction. Because of the trap handler overhead, this is much slower than calling the ABI library routines. Thus the -msoft-quad-float option is the default. -mno-flat -mflat With -mflat, the compiler does not generate save/restore instructions and will use a at or single register window calling convention. This model uses %i7 as the frame pointer and is compatible with the normal register window model. Code from either may be intermixed. The local registers and the input registers (05) are still treated as call saved registers and will be saved on the stack as necessary. With -mno-flat (the default), the compiler emits save/restore instructions (except for leaf functions) and is the normal mode of operation. -mno-unaligned-doubles -munaligned-doubles Assume that doubles have 8 byte alignment. This is the default. With -munaligned-doubles, GCC assumes that doubles have 8 byte alignment only if they are contained in another type, or if they have an absolute address. Otherwise, it assumes they have 4 byte alignment. Specifying this option avoids some rare compatibility problems with code generated by other compilers. It is not the default because it results in a performance loss, especially for oating point code. -mno-faster-structs -mfaster-structs With -mfaster-structs, the compiler assumes that structures should have 8 byte alignment. This enables the use of pairs of ldd and std instructions for copies in structure assignment, in place of twice as many ld and st pairs. However, the use of this changed alignment directly violates the SPARC ABI. Thus, its intended only for use on targets where the developer acknowledges that their resulting code will not be directly in line with the rules of the ABI. -mimpure-text -mimpure-text, used in addition to -shared, tells the compiler to not pass -z text to the linker when linking a shared object. Using this option, you can link position-dependent code into a shared object. -mimpure-text suppresses the relocations remain against allocatable but non-writable sections linker error message. However, the necessary relocations will trigger copy-on-write, and the shared object is not actually shared across processes. Instead of using -mimpure-text, you should compile all source code with -fpic or -fPIC.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

95

This option is only available on SunOS and Solaris. -mv8 -msparclite These two options select variations on the SPARC architecture. By default (unless specically congured for the Fujitsu SPARClite), GCC generates code for the v7 variant of the SPARC architecture. -mv8 will give you SPARC v8 code. The only dierence from v7 code is that the compiler emits the integer multiply and integer divide instructions which exist in SPARC v8 but not in SPARC v7. -msparclite will give you SPARClite code. This adds the integer multiply, integer divide step and scan (ffs) instructions which exist in SPARClite but not in SPARC v7. These options are deprecated and will be deleted in a future GCC release. They have been replaced with -mcpu=xxx. -mcypress -msupersparc These two options select the processor for which the code is optimized. With -mcypress (the default), the compiler optimizes code for the Cypress CY7C602 chip, as used in the SPARCStation/SPARCServer 3xx series. This is also appropriate for the older SPARCStation 1, 2, IPX etc. With -msupersparc the compiler optimizes code for the SuperSPARC cpu, as used in the SPARCStation 10, 1000 and 2000 series. This ag also enables use of the full SPARC v8 instruction set. These options are deprecated and will be deleted in a future GCC release. They have been replaced with -mcpu=xxx. -mcpu=cpu_type Set the instruction set, register set, and instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. Supported values for cpu type are v7, cypress, v8, supersparc, sparclite, hypersparc, sparclite86x, f930, f934, sparclet, tsc701, v9, ultrasparc, and ultrasparc3. Default instruction scheduling parameters are used for values that select an architecture and not an implementation. These are v7, v8, sparclite, sparclet, v9. Here is a list of each supported architecture and their supported implementations.
v7: v8: sparclite: sparclet: v9: cypress supersparc, hypersparc f930, f934, sparclite86x tsc701 ultrasparc, ultrasparc3

-mtune=cpu_type Set the instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type, but do not set the instruction set or register set that the option -mcpu=cpu_type would.

96

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The same values for -mcpu=cpu_type can be used for -mtune=cpu_type , but the only useful values are those that select a particular cpu implementation. Those are cypress, supersparc, hypersparc, f930, f934, sparclite86x, tsc701, ultrasparc, and ultrasparc3. These -m switches are supported in addition to the above on the SPARCLET processor. -mlittle-endian Generate code for a processor running in little-endian mode. -mlive-g0 Treat register %g0 as a normal register. GCC will continue to clobber it as necessary but will not assume it always reads as 0. -mbroken-saverestore Generate code that does not use non-trivial forms of the save and restore instructions. Early versions of the SPARCLET processor do not correctly handle save and restore instructions used with arguments. They correctly handle them used without arguments. A save instruction used without arguments increments the current window pointer but does not allocate a new stack frame. It is assumed that the window overow trap handler will properly handle this case as will interrupt handlers. These -m switches are supported in addition to the above on SPARC V9 processors in 64-bit environments. -mlittle-endian Generate code for a processor running in little-endian mode. It is only available for a few congurations and most notably not on Solaris. -m32 -m64 Generate code for a 32-bit or 64-bit environment. The 32-bit environment sets int, long and pointer to 32 bits. The 64-bit environment sets int to 32 bits and long and pointer to 64 bits.

-mcmodel=medlow Generate code for the Medium/Low code model: the program must be linked in the low 32 bits of the address space. Pointers are 64 bits. Programs can be statically or dynamically linked. -mcmodel=medmid Generate code for the Medium/Middle code model: the program must be linked in the low 44 bits of the address space, the text segment must be less than 2G bytes, and data segment must be within 2G of the text segment. Pointers are 64 bits. -mcmodel=medany Generate code for the Medium/Anywhere code model: the program may be linked anywhere in the address space, the text segment must be less than 2G bytes, and data segment must be within 2G of the text segment. Pointers are 64 bits.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

97

-mcmodel=embmedany Generate code for the Medium/Anywhere code model for embedded systems: assume a 32-bit text and a 32-bit data segment, both starting anywhere (determined at link time). Register %g4 points to the base of the data segment. Pointers are still 64 bits. Programs are statically linked, PIC is not supported. -mstack-bias -mno-stack-bias With -mstack-bias, GCC assumes that the stack pointer, and frame pointer if present, are oset by 2047 which must be added back when making stack frame references. Otherwise, assume no such oset is present.

3.17.5 ARM Options

These -m options are dened for Advanced RISC Machines (ARM) architectures: -mapcs-frame Generate a stack frame that is compliant with the ARM Procedure Call Standard for all functions, even if this is not strictly necessary for correct execution of the code. Specifying -fomit-frame-pointer with this option will cause the stack frames not to be generated for leaf functions. The default is -mno-apcs-frame. -mapcs -mapcs-26 Generate code for a processor running with a 26-bit program counter, and conforming to the function calling standards for the APCS 26-bit option. This option replaces the -m2 and -m3 options of previous releases of the compiler. -mapcs-32 Generate code for a processor running with a 32-bit program counter, and conforming to the function calling standards for the APCS 32-bit option. This option replaces the -m6 option of previous releases of the compiler. -mthumb-interwork Generate code which supports calling between the ARM and Thumb instruction sets. Without this option the two instruction sets cannot be reliably used inside one program. The default is -mno-thumb-interwork, since slightly larger code is generated when -mthumb-interwork is specied. -mno-sched-prolog Prevent the reordering of instructions in the function prolog, or the merging of those instruction with the instructions in the functions body. This means that all functions will start with a recognizable set of instructions (or in fact one of a choice from a small set of dierent function prologues), and this information can be used to locate the start if functions inside an executable piece of code. The default is -msched-prolog. -mhard-float Generate output containing oating point instructions. This is the default. This is a synonym for -mapcs-frame.

98

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries are not available for all ARM targets. Normally the facilities of the machines usual C compiler are used, but this cannot be done directly in cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions for cross-compilation. -msoft-float changes the calling convention in the output le; therefore, it is only useful if you compile all of a program with this option. In particular, you need to compile libgcc.a, the library that comes with GCC, with -msoft-float in order for this to work. -mlittle-endian Generate code for a processor running in little-endian mode. This is the default for all standard congurations. -mbig-endian Generate code for a processor running in big-endian mode; the default is to compile code for a little-endian processor. -mwords-little-endian This option only applies when generating code for big-endian processors. Generate code for a little-endian word order but a big-endian byte order. That is, a byte order of the form 32107654. Note: this option should only be used if you require compatibility with code for big-endian ARM processors generated by versions of the compiler prior to 2.8. -malignment-traps Generate code that will not trap if the MMU has alignment traps enabled. On ARM architectures prior to ARMv4, there were no instructions to access halfword objects stored in memory. However, when reading from memory a feature of the ARM architecture allows a word load to be used, even if the address is unaligned, and the processor core will rotate the data as it is being loaded. This option tells the compiler that such misaligned accesses will cause a MMU trap and that it should instead synthesize the access as a series of byte accesses. The compiler can still use word accesses to load half-word data if it knows that the address is aligned to a word boundary. This option is ignored when compiling for ARM architecture 4 or later, since these processors have instructions to directly access half-word objects in memory. -mno-alignment-traps Generate code that assumes that the MMU will not trap unaligned accesses. This produces better code when the target instruction set does not have halfword memory operations (i.e. implementations prior to ARMv4). Note that you cannot use this option to access unaligned word objects, since the processor will only fetch one 32-bit aligned object from memory. The default setting for most targets is -mno-alignment-traps, since this produces better code when there are no half-word memory instructions available.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

99

-mshort-load-bytes -mno-short-load-words These are deprecated aliases for -malignment-traps. -mno-short-load-bytes -mshort-load-words This are deprecated aliases for -mno-alignment-traps. -mcpu=name This species the name of the target ARM processor. GCC uses this name to determine what kind of instructions it can emit when generating assembly code. Permissible names are: arm2, arm250, arm3, arm6, arm60, arm600, arm610, arm620, arm7, arm7m, arm7d, arm7dm, arm7di, arm7dmi, arm70, arm700, arm700i, arm710, arm710c, arm7100, arm7500, arm7500fe, arm7tdmi, arm8, strongarm, strongarm110, strongarm1100, arm8, arm810, arm9, arm9e, arm920, arm920t, arm940t, arm9tdmi, arm10tdmi, arm1020t, xscale. -mtune=name This option is very similar to the -mcpu= option, except that instead of specifying the actual target processor type, and hence restricting which instructions can be used, it species that GCC should tune the performance of the code as if the target were of the type specied in this option, but still choosing the instructions that it will generate based on the cpu specied by a -mcpu= option. For some ARM implementations better performance can be obtained by using this option. -march=name This species the name of the target ARM architecture. GCC uses this name to determine what kind of instructions it can emit when generating assembly code. This option can be used in conjunction with or instead of the -mcpu= option. Permissible names are: armv2, armv2a, armv3, armv3m, armv4, armv4t, armv5, armv5t, armv5te. -mfpe=number -mfp=number This species the version of the oating point emulation available on the target. Permissible values are 2 and 3. -mfp= is a synonym for -mfpe=, for compatibility with older versions of GCC. -mstructure-size-boundary=n The size of all structures and unions will be rounded up to a multiple of the number of bits set by this option. Permissible values are 8 and 32. The default value varies for dierent toolchains. For the COFF targeted toolchain the default value is 8. Specifying the larger number can produce faster, more ecient code, but can also increase the size of the program. The two values are potentially incompatible. Code compiled with one value cannot necessarily expect to work with code or libraries compiled with the other value, if they exchange information using structures or unions.

100

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mabort-on-noreturn Generate a call to the function abort at the end of a noreturn function. It will be executed if the function tries to return. -mlong-calls -mno-long-calls Tells the compiler to perform function calls by rst loading the address of the function into a register and then performing a subroutine call on this register. This switch is needed if the target function will lie outside of the 64 megabyte addressing range of the oset based version of subroutine call instruction. Even if this switch is enabled, not all function calls will be turned into long calls. The heuristic is that static functions, functions which have the short-call attribute, functions that are inside the scope of a #pragma no_long_calls directive and functions whose denitions have already been compiled within the current compilation unit, will not be turned into long calls. The exception to this rule is that weak function denitions, functions with the long-call attribute or the section attribute, and functions that are within the scope of a #pragma long_calls directive, will always be turned into long calls. This feature is not enabled by default. Specifying -mno-long-calls will restore the default behavior, as will placing the function calls within the scope of a #pragma long_calls_off directive. Note these switches have no eect on how the compiler generates code to handle function calls via function pointers. -mnop-fun-dllimport Disable support for the dllimport attribute. -msingle-pic-base Treat the register used for PIC addressing as read-only, rather than loading it in the prologue for each function. The run-time system is responsible for initializing this register with an appropriate value before execution begins. -mpic-register=reg Specify the register to be used for PIC addressing. The default is R10 unless stack-checking is enabled, when R9 is used. -mpoke-function-name Write the name of each function into the text section, directly preceding the function prologue. The generated code is similar to this:
t0 .ascii "arm_poke_function_name", 0 .align t1 .word 0xff000000 + (t1 - t0) arm_poke_function_name mov ip, sp stmfd sp!, {fp, ip, lr, pc} sub fp, ip, #4

When performing a stack backtrace, code can inspect the value of pc stored at fp + 0. If the trace function then looks at location pc - 12 and the top 8 bits are set, then we know that there is a function name embedded immediately preceding this location and has length ((pc[-3]) & 0xff000000).

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

101

-mthumb

Generate code for the 16-bit Thumb instruction set. The default is to use the 32-bit ARM instruction set.

-mtpcs-frame Generate a stack frame that is compliant with the Thumb Procedure Call Standard for all non-leaf functions. (A leaf function is one that does not call any other functions.) The default is -mno-tpcs-frame. -mtpcs-leaf-frame Generate a stack frame that is compliant with the Thumb Procedure Call Standard for all leaf functions. (A leaf function is one that does not call any other functions.) The default is -mno-apcs-leaf-frame. -mcallee-super-interworking Gives all externally visible functions in the le being compiled an ARM instruction set header which switches to Thumb mode before executing the rest of the function. This allows these functions to be called from non-interworking code. -mcaller-super-interworking Allows calls via function pointers (including virtual functions) to execute correctly regardless of whether the target code has been compiled for interworking or not. There is a small overhead in the cost of executing a function pointer if this option is enabled.

3.17.6 MN10200 Options

These -m options are dened for Matsushita MN10200 architectures: -mrelax Indicate to the linker that it should perform a relaxation optimization pass to shorten branches, calls and absolute memory addresses. This option only has an eect when used on the command line for the nal link step. This option makes symbolic debugging impossible.

3.17.7 MN10300 Options

These -m options are dened for Matsushita MN10300 architectures: -mmult-bug Generate code to avoid bugs in the multiply instructions for the MN10300 processors. This is the default. -mno-mult-bug Do not generate code to avoid bugs in the multiply instructions for the MN10300 processors. -mam33 -mno-am33 Do not generate code which uses features specic to the AM33 processor. This is the default. Generate code which uses features specic to the AM33 processor.

102

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mno-crt0 Do not link in the C run-time initialization object le. -mrelax Indicate to the linker that it should perform a relaxation optimization pass to shorten branches, calls and absolute memory addresses. This option only has an eect when used on the command line for the nal link step. This option makes symbolic debugging impossible.

3.17.8 M32R/D Options

These -m options are dened for Mitsubishi M32R/D architectures: -m32rx -m32r Generate code for the M32R/X. Generate code for the M32R. This is the default.

-mcode-model=small Assume all objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their addresses can be loaded with the ld24 instruction), and assume all subroutines are reachable with the bl instruction. This is the default. The addressability of a particular object can be set with the model attribute. -mcode-model=medium Assume objects may be anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the compiler will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses), and assume all subroutines are reachable with the bl instruction. -mcode-model=large Assume objects may be anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the compiler will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses), and assume subroutines may not be reachable with the bl instruction (the compiler will generate the much slower seth/add3/jl instruction sequence). -msdata=none Disable use of the small data area. Variables will be put into one of .data, bss, or .rodata (unless the section attribute has been specied). This is the default. The small data area consists of sections .sdata and .sbss. Objects may be explicitly put in the small data area with the section attribute using one of these sections. -msdata=sdata Put small global and static data in the small data area, but do not generate special code to reference them. -msdata=use Put small global and static data in the small data area, and generate special instructions to reference them. -G num Put global and static objects less than or equal to num bytes into the small data or bss sections instead of the normal data or bss sections. The default

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

103

value of num is 8. The -msdata option must be set to one of sdata or use for this option to have any eect. All modules should be compiled with the same -G num value. Compiling with dierent values of num may or may not work; if it doesnt the linker will give an error messageincorrect code will not be generated.

3.17.9 M88K Options

These -m options are dened for Motorola 88k architectures: -m88000 -m88100 -m88110 -mbig-pic Obsolete option to be removed from the next revision. Use -fPIC. -midentify-revision Include an ident directive in the assembler output recording the source le name, compiler name and version, timestamp, and compilation ags used. -mno-underscores In assembler output, emit symbol names without adding an underscore character at the beginning of each name. The default is to use an underscore as prex on each name. -mocs-debug-info -mno-ocs-debug-info Include (or omit) additional debugging information (about registers used in each stack frame) as specied in the 88open Object Compatibility Standard, OCS. This extra information allows debugging of code that has had the frame pointer eliminated. The default for SVr4 and Delta 88 SVr3.2 is to include this information; other 88k congurations omit this information by default. -mocs-frame-position When emitting COFF debugging information for automatic variables and parameters stored on the stack, use the oset from the canonical frame address, which is the stack pointer (register 31) on entry to the function. The SVr4 and Delta88 SVr3.2, and BCS congurations use -mocs-frame-position; other 88k congurations have the default -mno-ocs-frame-position. -mno-ocs-frame-position When emitting COFF debugging information for automatic variables and parameters stored on the stack, use the oset from the frame pointer register (register 30). When this option is in eect, the frame pointer is not eliminated when debugging information is selected by the -g switch. Generate code that works well on both the m88100 and the m88110. Generate code that works best for the m88100, but that also runs on the m88110. Generate code that works best for the m88110, and may not run on the m88100.

104

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-moptimize-arg-area Save space by reorganizing the stack frame. This option generates code that does not agree with the 88open specications, but uses less memory. -mno-optimize-arg-area Do not reorganize the stack frame to save space. This is the default. The generated conforms to the specication, but uses more memory. -mshort-data-num Generate smaller data references by making them relative to r0, which allows loading a value using a single instruction (rather than the usual two). You control which data references are aected by specifying num with this option. For example, if you specify -mshort-data-512, then the data references aected are those involving displacements of less than 512 bytes. -mshort-data-num is not eective for num greater than 64k. -mserialize-volatile -mno-serialize-volatile Do, or dont, generate code to guarantee sequential consistency of volatile memory references. By default, consistency is guaranteed. The order of memory references made by the MC88110 processor does not always match the order of the instructions requesting those references. In particular, a load instruction may execute before a preceding store instruction. Such reordering violates sequential consistency of volatile memory references, when there are multiple processors. When consistency must be guaranteed, GCC generates special instructions, as needed, to force execution in the proper order. The MC88100 processor does not reorder memory references and so always provides sequential consistency. However, by default, GCC generates the special instructions to guarantee consistency even when you use -m88100, so that the code may be run on an MC88110 processor. If you intend to run your code only on the MC88100 processor, you may use -mno-serialize-volatile. The extra code generated to guarantee consistency may aect the performance of your application. If you know that you can safely forgo this guarantee, you may use -mno-serialize-volatile. -msvr4 -msvr3 Turn on (-msvr4) or o (-msvr3) compiler extensions related to System V release 4 (SVr4). This controls the following: 1. Which variant of the assembler syntax to emit. 2. -msvr4 makes the C preprocessor recognize #pragma weak that is used on System V release 4. 3. -msvr4 makes GCC issue additional declaration directives used in SVr4. -msvr4 is the default for the m88k-motorola-sysv4 conguration. -msvr3 is the default for all other m88k congurations. -mversion-03.00 This option is obsolete, and is ignored.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

105

-mno-check-zero-division -mcheck-zero-division Do, or dont, generate code to guarantee that integer division by zero will be detected. By default, detection is guaranteed. Some models of the MC88100 processor fail to trap upon integer division by zero under certain conditions. By default, when compiling code that might be run on such a processor, GCC generates code that explicitly checks for zerovalued divisors and traps with exception number 503 when one is detected. Use of -mno-check-zero-division suppresses such checking for code generated to run on an MC88100 processor. GCC assumes that the MC88110 processor correctly detects all instances of integer division by zero. When -m88110 is specied, no explicit checks for zero-valued divisors are generated, and both -mcheck-zero-division and -mno-check-zero-division are ignored. -muse-div-instruction Use the div instruction for signed integer division on the MC88100 processor. By default, the div instruction is not used. On the MC88100 processor the signed integer division instruction div) traps to the operating system on a negative operand. The operating system transparently completes the operation, but at a large cost in execution time. By default, when compiling code that might be run on an MC88100 processor, GCC emulates signed integer division using the unsigned integer division instruction divu), thereby avoiding the large penalty of a trap to the operating system. Such emulation has its own, smaller, execution cost in both time and space. To the extent that your codes important signed integer division operations are performed on two nonnegative operands, it may be desirable to use the div instruction directly. On the MC88110 processor the div instruction (also known as the divs instruction) processes negative operands without trapping to the operating system. When -m88110 is specied, -muse-div-instruction is ignored, and the div instruction is used for signed integer division. Note that the result of dividing INT_MIN by 1 is undened. In particular, the behavior of such a division with and without -muse-div-instruction may dier. -mtrap-large-shift -mhandle-large-shift Include code to detect bit-shifts of more than 31 bits; respectively, trap such shifts or emit code to handle them properly. By default GCC makes no special provision for large bit shifts. -mwarn-passed-structs Warn when a function passes a struct as an argument or result. Structurepassing conventions have changed during the evolution of the C language, and are often the source of portability problems. By default, GCC issues no such warning.

106

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

3.17.10 IBM RS/6000 and PowerPC Options

These -m options are dened for the IBM RS/6000 and PowerPC: -mpower -mno-power -mpower2 -mno-power2 -mpowerpc -mno-powerpc -mpowerpc-gpopt -mno-powerpc-gpopt -mpowerpc-gfxopt -mno-powerpc-gfxopt -mpowerpc64 -mno-powerpc64 GCC supports two related instruction set architectures for the RS/6000 and PowerPC. The POWER instruction set are those instructions supported by the rios chip set used in the original RS/6000 systems and the PowerPC instruction set is the architecture of the Motorola MPC5xx, MPC6xx, MPC8xx microprocessors, and the IBM 4xx microprocessors. Neither architecture is a subset of the other. However there is a large common subset of instructions supported by both. An MQ register is included in processors supporting the POWER architecture. You use these options to specify which instructions are available on the processor you are using. The default value of these options is determined when conguring GCC. Specifying the -mcpu=cpu_type overrides the specication of these options. We recommend you use the -mcpu=cpu_type option rather than the options listed above. The -mpower option allows GCC to generate instructions that are found only in the POWER architecture and to use the MQ register. Specifying -mpower2 implies -power and also allows GCC to generate instructions that are present in the POWER2 architecture but not the original POWER architecture. The -mpowerpc option allows GCC to generate instructions that are found only in the 32-bit subset of the PowerPC architecture. Specifying -mpowerpc-gpopt implies -mpowerpc and also allows GCC to use the optional PowerPC architecture instructions in the General Purpose group, including oating-point square root. Specifying -mpowerpc-gfxopt implies -mpowerpc and also allows GCC to use the optional PowerPC architecture instructions in the Graphics group, including oating-point select. The -mpowerpc64 option allows GCC to generate the additional 64-bit instructions that are found in the full PowerPC64 architecture and to treat GPRs as 64-bit, doubleword quantities. GCC defaults to -mno-powerpc64. If you specify both -mno-power and -mno-powerpc, GCC will use only the instructions in the common subset of both architectures plus some special AIX common-mode calls, and will not use the MQ register. Specifying both

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

107

-mpower and -mpowerpc permits GCC to use any instruction from either architecture and to allow use of the MQ register; specify this for the Motorola MPC601. -mnew-mnemonics -mold-mnemonics Select which mnemonics to use in the generated assembler code. With -mnew-mnemonics, GCC uses the assembler mnemonics dened for the PowerPC architecture. With -mold-mnemonics it uses the assembler mnemonics dened for the POWER architecture. Instructions dened in only one architecture have only one mnemonic; GCC uses that mnemonic irrespective of which of these options is specied. GCC defaults to the mnemonics appropriate for the architecture in use. Specifying -mcpu=cpu_type sometimes overrides the value of these option. Unless you are building a cross-compiler, you should normally not specify either -mnew-mnemonics or -mold-mnemonics, but should instead accept the default. -mcpu=cpu_type Set architecture type, register usage, choice of mnemonics, and instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. Supported values for cpu type are rios, rios1, rsc, rios2, rs64a, 601, 602, 603, 603e, 604, 604e, 620, 630, 740, 7400, 7450, 750, power, power2, powerpc, 403, 505, 801, 821, 823, and 860 and common. -mcpu=common selects a completely generic processor. Code generated under this option will run on any POWER or PowerPC processor. GCC will use only the instructions in the common subset of both architectures, and will not use the MQ register. GCC assumes a generic processor model for scheduling purposes. -mcpu=power, -mcpu=power2, -mcpu=powerpc, and -mcpu=powerpc64 specify generic POWER, POWER2, pure 32-bit PowerPC (i.e., not MPC601), and 64-bit PowerPC architecture machine types, with an appropriate, generic processor model assumed for scheduling purposes. The other options specify a specic processor. Code generated under those options will run best on that processor, and may not run at all on others. The -mcpu options automatically enable or disable other -m options as follows: common power power2 rios1 rios2 rsc -mno-power, -mno-powerpc

-mpower, -mno-powerpc, -mno-new-mnemonics

108

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

powerpc rs64a 602 603 603e 604 620 630 740 7400 7450 750 505 601 403 821 860

-mno-power, -mpowerpc, -mnew-mnemonics -mpower, -mpowerpc, -mnew-mnemonics

-mno-power, -mpowerpc, -mnew-mnemonics, -msoft-float

-mtune=cpu_type Set the instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type, but do not set the architecture type, register usage, or choice of mnemonics, as -mcpu=cpu_type would. The same values for cpu type are used for -mtune as for -mcpu. If both are specied, the code generated will use the architecture, registers, and mnemonics set by -mcpu, but the scheduling parameters set by -mtune. -maltivec -mno-altivec These switches enable or disable the use of built-in functions that allow access to the AltiVec instruction set. You may also need to set -mabi=altivec to adjust the current ABI with AltiVec ABI enhancements. -mabi=spe Extend the current ABI with SPE ABI extensions. This does not change the default ABI, instead it adds the SPE ABI extensions to the current ABI. -mabi=no-spe Disable Booke SPE ABI extensions for the current ABI. -misel=yes/no -misel This switch enables or disables the generation of ISEL instructions. -mfull-toc -mno-fp-in-toc -mno-sum-in-toc -mminimal-toc Modify generation of the TOC (Table Of Contents), which is created for every executable le. The -mfull-toc option is selected by default. In that case, GCC will allocate at least one TOC entry for each unique non-automatic vari-

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

109

able reference in your program. GCC will also place oating-point constants in the TOC. However, only 16,384 entries are available in the TOC. If you receive a linker error message that saying you have overowed the available TOC space, you can reduce the amount of TOC space used with the -mno-fp-in-toc and -mno-sum-in-toc options. -mno-fp-in-toc prevents GCC from putting oating-point constants in the TOC and -mno-sum-in-toc forces GCC to generate code to calculate the sum of an address and a constant at run-time instead of putting that sum into the TOC. You may specify one or both of these options. Each causes GCC to produce very slightly slower and larger code at the expense of conserving TOC space. If you still run out of space in the TOC even when you specify both of these options, specify -mminimal-toc instead. This option causes GCC to make only one TOC entry for every le. When you specify this option, GCC will produce code that is slower and larger but which uses extremely little TOC space. You may wish to use this option only on les that contain less frequently executed code. -maix64 -maix32 Enable 64-bit AIX ABI and calling convention: 64-bit pointers, 64-bit long type, and the infrastructure needed to support them. Specifying -maix64 implies -mpowerpc64 and -mpowerpc, while -maix32 disables the 64-bit ABI and implies -mno-powerpc64. GCC defaults to -maix32.

-mxl-call -mno-xl-call On AIX, pass oating-point arguments to prototyped functions beyond the register save area (RSA) on the stack in addition to argument FPRs. The AIX calling convention was extended but not initially documented to handle an obscure K&R C case of calling a function that takes the address of its arguments with fewer arguments than declared. AIX XL compilers access oating point arguments which do not t in the RSA from the stack when a subroutine is compiled without optimization. Because always storing oating-point arguments on the stack is inecient and rarely needed, this option is not enabled by default and only is necessary when calling subroutines compiled by AIX XL compilers without optimization. -mpe Support IBM RS/6000 SP Parallel Environment (PE). Link an application written to use message passing with special startup code to enable the application to run. The system must have PE installed in the standard location (/usr/lpp/ppe.poe/), or the specs le must be overridden with the -specs= option to specify the appropriate directory location. The Parallel Environment does not support threads, so the -mpe option and the -pthread option are incompatible.

-msoft-float -mhard-float Generate code that does not use (uses) the oating-point register set. Software oating point emulation is provided if you use the -msoft-float option, and pass the option to GCC when linking.

110

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mmultiple -mno-multiple Generate code that uses (does not use) the load multiple word instructions and the store multiple word instructions. These instructions are generated by default on POWER systems, and not generated on PowerPC systems. Do not use -mmultiple on little endian PowerPC systems, since those instructions do not work when the processor is in little endian mode. The exceptions are PPC740 and PPC750 which permit the instructions usage in little endian mode. -mstring -mno-string Generate code that uses (does not use) the load string instructions and the store string word instructions to save multiple registers and do small block moves. These instructions are generated by default on POWER systems, and not generated on PowerPC systems. Do not use -mstring on little endian PowerPC systems, since those instructions do not work when the processor is in little endian mode. The exceptions are PPC740 and PPC750 which permit the instructions usage in little endian mode. -mupdate -mno-update Generate code that uses (does not use) the load or store instructions that update the base register to the address of the calculated memory location. These instructions are generated by default. If you use -mno-update, there is a small window between the time that the stack pointer is updated and the address of the previous frame is stored, which means code that walks the stack frame across interrupts or signals may get corrupted data. -mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd Generate code that uses (does not use) the oating point multiply and accumulate instructions. These instructions are generated by default if hardware oating is used. -mno-bit-align -mbit-align On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do not (do) force structures and unions that contain bit-elds to be aligned to the base type of the bit-eld. For example, by default a structure containing nothing but 8 unsigned bitelds of length 1 would be aligned to a 4 byte boundary and have a size of 4 bytes. By using -mno-bit-align, the structure would be aligned to a 1 byte boundary and be one byte in size. -mno-strict-align -mstrict-align On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do not (do) assume that unaligned memory references will be handled by the system.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

111

-mrelocatable -mno-relocatable On embedded PowerPC systems generate code that allows (does not allow) the program to be relocated to a dierent address at runtime. If you use -mrelocatable on any module, all objects linked together must be compiled with -mrelocatable or -mrelocatable-lib. -mrelocatable-lib -mno-relocatable-lib On embedded PowerPC systems generate code that allows (does not allow) the program to be relocated to a dierent address at runtime. Modules compiled with -mrelocatable-lib can be linked with either modules compiled without -mrelocatable and -mrelocatable-lib or with modules compiled with the -mrelocatable options. -mno-toc -mtoc On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do not (do) assume that register 2 contains a pointer to a global area pointing to the addresses used in the program.

-mlittle -mlittle-endian On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the processor in little endian mode. The -mlittle-endian option is the same as -mlittle. -mbig -mbig-endian On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the processor in big endian mode. The -mbig-endian option is the same as -mbig. -mcall-sysv On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code using calling conventions that adheres to the March 1995 draft of the System V Application Binary Interface, PowerPC processor supplement. This is the default unless you congured GCC using powerpc-*-eabiaix. -mcall-sysv-eabi Specify both -mcall-sysv and -meabi options. -mcall-sysv-noeabi Specify both -mcall-sysv and -mno-eabi options. -mcall-aix On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code using calling conventions that are similar to those used on AIX. This is the default if you congured GCC using powerpc-*-eabiaix. -mcall-solaris On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the Solaris operating system.

112

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mcall-linux On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the Linuxbased GNU system. -mcall-gnu On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the Hurdbased GNU system. -mcall-netbsd On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems compile code for the NetBSD operating system. -maix-struct-return Return all structures in memory (as specied by the AIX ABI). -msvr4-struct-return Return structures smaller than 8 bytes in registers (as specied by the SVR4 ABI). -mabi=altivec Extend the current ABI with AltiVec ABI extensions. This does not change the default ABI, instead it adds the AltiVec ABI extensions to the current ABI. -mabi=no-altivec Disable AltiVec ABI extensions for the current ABI. -mprototype -mno-prototype On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems assume that all calls to variable argument functions are properly prototyped. Otherwise, the compiler must insert an instruction before every non prototyped call to set or clear bit 6 of the condition code register (CR) to indicate whether oating point values were passed in the oating point registers in case the function takes a variable arguments. With -mprototype, only calls to prototyped variable argument functions will set or clear the bit. -msim On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called sim-crt0.o and that the standard C libraries are libsim.a and libc.a. This is the default for powerpc-*-eabisim. congurations. On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called crt0.o and the standard C libraries are libmvme.a and libc.a. On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called crt0.o and the standard C libraries are libads.a and libc.a.

-mmvme -mads

-myellowknife On embedded PowerPC systems, assume that the startup module is called crt0.o and the standard C libraries are libyk.a and libc.a. -mvxworks On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, specify that you are compiling for a VxWorks system.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

113

-mwindiss Specify that you are compiling for the WindISS simulation environment. -memb -meabi -mno-eabi On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do (do not) adhere to the Embedded Applications Binary Interface (eabi) which is a set of modications to the System V.4 specications. Selecting -meabi means that the stack is aligned to an 8 byte boundary, a function __eabi is called to from main to set up the eabi environment, and the -msdata option can use both r2 and r13 to point to two separate small data areas. Selecting -mno-eabi means that the stack is aligned to a 16 byte boundary, do not call an initialization function from main, and the -msdata option will only use r13 to point to a single small data area. The -meabi option is on by default if you congured GCC using one of the powerpc*-*-eabi* options. -msdata=eabi On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, put small initialized const global and static data in the .sdata2 section, which is pointed to by register r2. Put small initialized non-const global and static data in the .sdata section, which is pointed to by register r13. Put small uninitialized global and static data in the .sbss section, which is adjacent to the .sdata section. The -msdata=eabi option is incompatible with the -mrelocatable option. The -msdata=eabi option also sets the -memb option. -msdata=sysv On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, put small global and static data in the .sdata section, which is pointed to by register r13. Put small uninitialized global and static data in the .sbss section, which is adjacent to the .sdata section. The -msdata=sysv option is incompatible with the -mrelocatable option. -msdata=default -msdata On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, if -meabi is used, compile code the same as -msdata=eabi, otherwise compile code the same as -msdata=sysv. -msdata-data On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems, put small global and static data in the .sdata section. Put small uninitialized global and static data in the .sbss section. Do not use register r13 to address small data however. This is the default behavior unless other -msdata options are used. -msdata=none -mno-sdata On embedded PowerPC systems, put all initialized global and static data in the .data section, and all uninitialized data in the .bss section. On embedded PowerPC systems, set the PPC EMB bit in the ELF ags header to indicate that eabi extended relocations are used.

114

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-G num

On embedded PowerPC systems, put global and static items less than or equal to num bytes into the small data or bss sections instead of the normal data or bss section. By default, num is 8. The -G num switch is also passed to the linker. All modules should be compiled with the same -G num value.

-mregnames -mno-regnames On System V.4 and embedded PowerPC systems do (do not) emit register names in the assembly language output using symbolic forms. -mlongcall -mno-longcall Default to making all function calls via pointers, so that functions which reside further than 64 megabytes (67,108,864 bytes) from the current location can be called. This setting can be overridden by the shortcall function attribute, or by #pragma longcall(0). Some linkers are capable of detecting out-of-range calls and generating glue code on the y. On these systems, long calls are unnecessary and generate slower code. As of this writing, the AIX linker can do this, as can the GNU linker for PowerPC/64. It is planned to add this feature to the GNU linker for 32-bit PowerPC systems as well. In the future, we may cause GCC to ignore all longcall specications when the linker is known to generate glue. -pthread Adds support for multithreading with the pthreads library. This option sets ags for both the preprocessor and linker.

3.17.11 Darwin Options

These options are dened for all architectures running the Darwin operating system. They are useful for compatibility with other Mac OS compilers. -all_load Loads all members of static archive libraries. See man ld(1) for more information. -arch_errors_fatal Cause the errors having to do with les that have the wrong architecture to be fatal. -bind_at_load Causes the output le to be marked such that the dynamic linker will bind all undened references when the le is loaded or launched. -bundle Produce a Mach-o bundle format le. See man ld(1) for more information.

-bundle_loader executable This species the executable that will be loading the build output le being linked. See man ld(1) for more information.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

115

-allowable_client client_name -arch_only -client_name -compatibility_version -current_version -dependency-file -dylib_file -dylinker_install_name -dynamic -dynamiclib -exported_symbols_list -filelist -flat_namespace -force_cpusubtype_ALL -force_flat_namespace -headerpad_max_install_names -image_base -init -install_name -keep_private_externs -multi_module -multiply_defined -multiply_defined_unused -noall_load -nomultidefs -noprebind -noseglinkedit -pagezero_size -prebind -prebind_all_twolevel_modules -private_bundle -read_only_relocs -sectalign -sectobjectsymbols -whyload -seg1addr -sectcreate -sectobjectsymbols -sectorder -seg_addr_table -seg_addr_table_filename -seglinkedit -segprot

116

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-segs_read_only_addr -segs_read_write_addr -single_module -static -sub_library -sub_umbrella -twolevel_namespace -umbrella -undefined -unexported_symbols_list -weak_reference_mismatches -whatsloaded This options are available for Darwin linker. Darwin linker man page describes them in detail.

3.17.12 IBM RT Options

These -m options are dened for the IBM RT PC: -min-line-mul Use an in-line code sequence for integer multiplies. This is the default. -mcall-lib-mul Call lmul$$ for integer multiples. -mfull-fp-blocks Generate full-size oating point data blocks, including the minimum amount of scratch space recommended by IBM. This is the default. -mminimum-fp-blocks Do not include extra scratch space in oating point data blocks. This results in smaller code, but slower execution, since scratch space must be allocated dynamically. -mfp-arg-in-fpregs Use a calling sequence incompatible with the IBM calling convention in which oating point arguments are passed in oating point registers. Note that stdarg.h will not work with oating point operands if this option is specied. -mfp-arg-in-gregs Use the normal calling convention for oating point arguments. This is the default. -mhc-struct-return Return structures of more than one word in memory, rather than in a register. This provides compatibility with the MetaWare HighC (hc) compiler. Use the option -fpcc-struct-return for compatibility with the Portable C Compiler (pcc).

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

117

-mnohc-struct-return Return some structures of more than one word in registers, when convenient. This is the default. For compatibility with the IBM-supplied compilers, use the option -fpcc-struct-return or the option -mhc-struct-return.

3.17.13 MIPS Options

These -m options are dened for the MIPS family of computers: -march=arch Generate code that will run on arch, which can be the name of a generic MIPS ISA, or the name of a particular processor. The ISA names are: mips1, mips2, mips3, mips4, mips32 and mips64. The processor names are: r2000, r3000, r3900, r4000, vr4100, vr4300, r4400, r4600, r4650, vr5000, r6000, r8000, 4kc, 4kp, 5kc, 20kc, orion, and sb1. The special value from-abi selects the most compatible architecture for the selected ABI (that is, mips1 for 32-bit ABIs and mips3 for 64-bit ABIs). In processor names, a nal 000 can be abbreviated as k (for example, -march=r2k). Prexes are optional, and vr may be written r. GCC denes two macros based on the value of this option. The rst is _MIPS_ARCH, which gives the name of target architecture, as a string. The second has the form _MIPS_ARCH_foo , where foo is the capitalized value of _MIPS_ARCH. For example, -march=r2000 will set _MIPS_ARCH to "r2000" and dene the macro _MIPS_ARCH_R2000. Note that the _MIPS_ARCH macro uses the processor names given above. In other words, it will have the full prex and will not abbreviate 000 as k. In the case of from-abi, the macro names the resolved architecture (either "mips1" or "mips3"). It names the default architecture when no -march option is given. -mtune=arch Optimize for arch. Among other things, this option controls the way instructions are scheduled, and the perceived cost of arithmetic operations. The list of arch values is the same as for -march. When this option is not used, GCC will optimize for the processor specied by -march. By using -march and -mtune together, it is possible to generate code that will run on a family of processors, but optimize the code for one particular member of that family. -mtune denes the macros _MIPS_TUNE and _MIPS_TUNE_foo , which work in the same way as the -march ones described above. -mips1 -mips2 -mips3 -mips4 -mips32 Equivalent to -march=mips1. Equivalent to -march=mips2. Equivalent to -march=mips3. Equivalent to -march=mips4. Equivalent to -march=mips32.

118

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mips64

Equivalent to -march=mips64.

-mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd Generate code that uses (does not use) the oating point multiply and accumulate instructions, when they are available. These instructions are generated by default if they are available, but this may be undesirable if the extra precision causes problems or on certain chips in the mode where denormals are rounded to zero where denormals generated by multiply and accumulate instructions cause exceptions anyway. -mfp32 -mfp64 -mgp32 -mgp64 -mint64 -mlong64 -mlong32 Assume that oating point registers are 32 bits wide. Assume that oating point registers are 64 bits wide. Assume that general purpose registers are 32 bits wide. Assume that general purpose registers are 64 bits wide. Force int and long types to be 64 bits wide. See -mlong32 for an explanation of the default, and the width of pointers. Force long types to be 64 bits wide. See -mlong32 for an explanation of the default, and the width of pointers. Force long, int, and pointer types to be 32 bits wide. The default size of ints, longs and pointers depends on the ABI. All the supported ABIs use 32-bit ints. The n64 ABI uses 64-bit longs, as does the 64-bit Cygnus EABI; the others use 32-bit longs. Pointers are the same size as longs, or the same size as integer registers, whichever is smaller.

-mabi=32 -mabi=o64 -mabi=n32 -mabi=64 -mabi=eabi -mabi=meabi Generate code for the given ABI. Note that there are two embedded ABIs: -mabi=eabi selects the one dened by Cygnus while -meabi=meabi selects the one dened by MIPS. Both these ABIs have 32-bit and 64-bit variants. Normally, GCC will generate 64-bit code when you select a 64-bit architecture, but you can use -mgp32 to get 32-bit code instead. -mmips-as Generate code for the MIPS assembler, and invoke mips-tfile to add normal debug information. This is the default for all platforms except for the OSF/1 reference platform, using the OSF/rose object format. If the either of the -gstabs or -gstabs+ switches are used, the mips-tfile program will encapsulate the stabs within MIPS ECOFF. -mgas Generate code for the GNU assembler. This is the default on the OSF/1 reference platform, using the OSF/rose object format. Also, this is the default if the congure option --with-gnu-as is used.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

119

-msplit-addresses -mno-split-addresses Generate code to load the high and low parts of address constants separately. This allows GCC to optimize away redundant loads of the high order bits of addresses. This optimization requires GNU as and GNU ld. This optimization is enabled by default for some embedded targets where GNU as and GNU ld are standard. -mrnames -mno-rnames The -mrnames switch says to output code using the MIPS software names for the registers, instead of the hardware names (ie, a0 instead of $4). The only known assembler that supports this option is the Algorithmics assembler. -mgpopt -mno-gpopt The -mgpopt switch says to write all of the data declarations before the instructions in the text section, this allows the MIPS assembler to generate one word memory references instead of using two words for short global or static data items. This is on by default if optimization is selected. -mstats -mno-stats For each non-inline function processed, the -mstats switch causes the compiler to emit one line to the standard error le to print statistics about the program (number of registers saved, stack size, etc.). -mmemcpy -mno-memcpy The -mmemcpy switch makes all block moves call the appropriate string function (memcpy or bcopy) instead of possibly generating inline code. -mmips-tfile -mno-mips-tfile The -mno-mips-tfile switch causes the compiler not postprocess the object le with the mips-tfile program, after the MIPS assembler has generated it to add debug support. If mips-tfile is not run, then no local variables will be available to the debugger. In addition, stage2 and stage3 objects will have the temporary le names passed to the assembler embedded in the object le, which means the objects will not compare the same. The -mno-mips-tfile switch should only be used when there are bugs in the mips-tfile program that prevents compilation. -msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries are not part of GCC. Normally the facilities of the machines usual C compiler are used, but this cant be done directly in cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions for cross-compilation.

120

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mhard-float Generate output containing oating point instructions. This is the default if you use the unmodied sources. -mabicalls -mno-abicalls Emit (or do not emit) the pseudo operations .abicalls, .cpload, and .cprestore that some System V.4 ports use for position independent code. -mlong-calls -mno-long-calls Do all calls with the JALR instruction, which requires loading up a functions address into a register before the call. You need to use this switch, if you call outside of the current 512 megabyte segment to functions that are not through pointers. -mhalf-pic -mno-half-pic Put pointers to extern references into the data section and load them up, rather than put the references in the text section. -membedded-pic -mno-embedded-pic Generate PIC code suitable for some embedded systems. All calls are made using PC relative address, and all data is addressed using the $gp register. No more than 65536 bytes of global data may be used. This requires GNU as and GNU ld which do most of the work. This currently only works on targets which use ECOFF; it does not work with ELF. -membedded-data -mno-embedded-data Allocate variables to the read-only data section rst if possible, then next in the small data section if possible, otherwise in data. This gives slightly slower code than the default, but reduces the amount of RAM required when executing, and thus may be preferred for some embedded systems. -muninit-const-in-rodata -mno-uninit-const-in-rodata When used together with -membedded-data, it will always store uninitialized const variables in the read-only data section. -msingle-float -mdouble-float The -msingle-float switch tells gcc to assume that the oating point coprocessor only supports single precision operations, as on the r4650 chip. The -mdouble-float switch permits gcc to use double precision operations. This is the default. -mmad -mno-mad -m4650 Permit use of the mad, madu and mul instructions, as on the r4650 chip. Turns on -msingle-float, -mmad, and, at least for now, -mcpu=r4650.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

121

-mips16 -mno-mips16 Enable 16-bit instructions. -mentry -EL -EB -G num Use the entry and exit pseudo ops. This option can only be used with -mips16. Compile code for the processor in little endian mode. The requisite libraries are assumed to exist. Compile code for the processor in big endian mode. The requisite libraries are assumed to exist. Put global and static items less than or equal to num bytes into the small data or bss sections instead of the normal data or bss section. This allows the assembler to emit one word memory reference instructions based on the global pointer (gp or $28), instead of the normal two words used. By default, num is 8 when the MIPS assembler is used, and 0 when the GNU assembler is used. The -G num switch is also passed to the assembler and linker. All modules should be compiled with the same -G num value. Tell the MIPS assembler to not run its preprocessor over user assembler les (with a .s sux) when assembling them. Pass an option to gas which will cause nops to be inserted if the read of the destination register of an mfhi or mo instruction occurs in the following two instructions. -no-crt0 Do not include the default crt0. -mflush-func=func -mno-flush-func Species the function to call to ush the I and D caches, or to not call any such function. If called, the function must take the same arguments as the common _flush_func(), that is, the address of the memory range for which the cache is being ushed, the size of the memory range, and the number 3 (to ush both caches). The default depends on the target gcc was congured for, but commonly is either _flush_func or __cpu_flush. -mbranch-likely -mno-branch-likely Enable or disable use of Branch Likely instructions, regardless of the default for the selected architecture. By default, Branch Likely instructions may be generated if they are supported by the selected architecture. An exception is for the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures and processors which implement those architectures; for those, Branch Likely instructions will not be generated by default because the MIPS32 and MIPS64 architectures specically deprecate their use.

-nocpp -mfix7000

3.17.14 Intel 386 and AMD x86-64 Options

These -m options are dened for the i386 and x86-64 family of computers:

122

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mcpu=cpu-type Tune to cpu-type everything applicable about the generated code, except for the ABI and the set of available instructions. The choices for cpu-type are i386, i486, i586, i686, pentium, pentium-mmx, pentiumpro, pentium2, pentium3, pentium4, k6, k6-2, k6-3, athlon, athlon-tbird, athlon-4, athlon-xp, athlon-mp, winchip-c6, winchip2 and c3. While picking a specic cpu-type will schedule things appropriately for that particular chip, the compiler will not generate any code that does not run on the i386 without the -march=cpu-type option being used. i586 is equivalent to pentium and i686 is equivalent to pentiumpro. k6 and athlon are the AMD chips as opposed to the Intel ones. -march=cpu-type Generate instructions for the machine type cpu-type. The choices for cpu-type are the same as for -mcpu. Moreover, specifying -march=cpu-type implies -mcpu=cpu-type . -m386 -m486 -mpentium -mpentiumpro These options are synonyms for -mcpu=i386, -mcpu=i486, -mcpu=pentium, and -mcpu=pentiumpro respectively. These synonyms are deprecated. -mfpmath=unit generate oating point arithmetics for selected unit unit. the choices for unit are: 387 Use the standard 387 oating point coprocessor present majority of chips and emulated otherwise. Code compiled with this option will run almost everywhere. The temporary results are computed in 80bit precision instead of precision specied by the type resulting in slightly dierent results compared to most of other chips. See -ffloat-store for more detailed description. This is the default choice for i386 compiler. sse Use scalar oating point instructions present in the SSE instruction set. This instruction set is supported by Pentium3 and newer chips, in the AMD line by Athlon-4, Athlon-xp and Athlon-mp chips. The earlier version of SSE instruction set supports only single precision arithmetics, thus the double and extended precision arithmetics is still done using 387. Later version, present only in Pentium4 and the future AMD x86-64 chips supports double precision arithmetics too. For i387 you need to use -march=cpu-type , -msse or -msse2 switches to enable SSE extensions and make this option eective. For x86-64 compiler, these extensions are enabled by default.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

123

The resulting code should be considerably faster in majority of cases and avoid the numerical instability problems of 387 code, but may break some existing code that expects temporaries to be 80bit. This is the default choice for x86-64 compiler. sse,387 Attempt to utilize both instruction sets at once. This eectively double the amount of available registers and on chips with separate execution units for 387 and SSE the execution resources too. Use this option with care, as it is still experimental, because gcc register allocator does not model separate functional units well resulting in instable performance.

-masm=dialect Output asm instructions using selected dialect. Supported choices are intel or att (the default one). -mieee-fp -mno-ieee-fp Control whether or not the compiler uses IEEE oating point comparisons. These handle correctly the case where the result of a comparison is unordered. -msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries are not part of GCC. Normally the facilities of the machines usual C compiler are used, but this cant be done directly in cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions for cross-compilation. On machines where a function returns oating point results in the 80387 register stack, some oating point opcodes may be emitted even if -msoft-float is used. -mno-fp-ret-in-387 Do not use the FPU registers for return values of functions. The usual calling convention has functions return values of types float and double in an FPU register, even if there is no FPU. The idea is that the operating system should emulate an FPU. The option -mno-fp-ret-in-387 causes such values to be returned in ordinary CPU registers instead. -mno-fancy-math-387 Some 387 emulators do not support the sin, cos and sqrt instructions for the 387. Specify this option to avoid generating those instructions. This option is the default on FreeBSD, OpenBSD and NetBSD. This option is overridden when -march indicates that the target cpu will always have an FPU and so the instruction will not need emulation. As of revision 2.6.1, these instructions are not generated unless you also use the -funsafe-math-optimizations switch. -malign-double -mno-align-double Control whether GCC aligns double, long double, and long long variables on a two word boundary or a one word boundary. Aligning double variables on a

124

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

two word boundary will produce code that runs somewhat faster on a Pentium at the expense of more memory. Warning: if you use the -malign-double switch, structures containing the above types will be aligned dierently than the published application binary interface specications for the 386 and will not be binary compatible with structures in code compiled without that switch. -m96bit-long-double -m128bit-long-double These switches control the size of long double type. The i386 application binary interface species the size to be 96 bits, so -m96bit-long-double is the default in 32 bit mode. Modern architectures (Pentium and newer) would prefer long double to be aligned to an 8 or 16 byte boundary. In arrays or structures conforming to the ABI, this would not be possible. So specifying a -m128bit-long-double will align long double to a 16 byte boundary by padding the long double with an additional 32 bit zero. In the x86-64 compiler, -m128bit-long-double is the default choice as its ABI species that long double is to be aligned on 16 byte boundary. Notice that neither of these options enable any extra precision over the x87 standard of 80 bits for a long double. Warning: if you override the default value for your target ABI, the structures and arrays containing long double will change their size as well as function calling convention for function taking long double will be modied. Hence they will not be binary compatible with arrays or structures in code compiled without that switch. -msvr3-shlib -mno-svr3-shlib Control whether GCC places uninitialized local variables into the bss or data segments. -msvr3-shlib places them into bss. These options are meaningful only on System V Release 3. -mrtd Use a dierent function-calling convention, in which functions that take a xed number of arguments return with the ret num instruction, which pops their arguments while returning. This saves one instruction in the caller since there is no need to pop the arguments there. You can specify that an individual function is called with this calling sequence with the function attribute stdcall. You can also override the -mrtd option by using the function attribute cdecl. See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192. Warning: this calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler. Also, you must provide function prototypes for all functions that take variable numbers of arguments (including printf); otherwise incorrect code will be generated for calls to those functions.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

125

In addition, seriously incorrect code will result if you call a function with too many arguments. (Normally, extra arguments are harmlessly ignored.) -mregparm=num Control how many registers are used to pass integer arguments. By default, no registers are used to pass arguments, and at most 3 registers can be used. You can control this behavior for a specic function by using the function attribute regparm. See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192. Warning: if you use this switch, and num is nonzero, then you must build all modules with the same value, including any libraries. This includes the system libraries and startup modules. -mpreferred-stack-boundary=num Attempt to keep the stack boundary aligned to a 2 raised to num byte boundary. If -mpreferred-stack-boundary is not specied, the default is 4 (16 bytes or 128 bits), except when optimizing for code size (-Os), in which case the default is the minimum correct alignment (4 bytes for x86, and 8 bytes for x86-64). On Pentium and PentiumPro, double and long double values should be aligned to an 8 byte boundary (see -malign-double) or suer signicant run time performance penalties. On Pentium III, the Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) data type __m128 suers similar penalties if it is not 16 byte aligned. To ensure proper alignment of this values on the stack, the stack boundary must be as aligned as that required by any value stored on the stack. Further, every function must be generated such that it keeps the stack aligned. Thus calling a function compiled with a higher preferred stack boundary from a function compiled with a lower preferred stack boundary will most likely misalign the stack. It is recommended that libraries that use callbacks always use the default setting. This extra alignment does consume extra stack space, and generally increases code size. Code that is sensitive to stack space usage, such as embedded systems and operating system kernels, may want to reduce the preferred alignment to -mpreferred-stack-boundary=2. -mmmx -mno-mmx -msse -mno-sse -msse2 -mno-sse2 -m3dnow -mno-3dnow These switches enable or disable the use of built-in functions that allow direct access to the MMX, SSE and 3Dnow extensions of the instruction set. See Section 5.45.2 [X86 Built-in Functions], page 250, for details of the functions enabled and disabled by these switches. To have SSE/SSE2 instructions generated automatically from oating-point code, see -mfpmath=sse.

126

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mpush-args -mno-push-args Use PUSH operations to store outgoing parameters. This method is shorter and usually equally fast as method using SUB/MOV operations and is enabled by default. In some cases disabling it may improve performance because of improved scheduling and reduced dependencies. -maccumulate-outgoing-args If enabled, the maximum amount of space required for outgoing arguments will be computed in the function prologue. This is faster on most modern CPUs because of reduced dependencies, improved scheduling and reduced stack usage when preferred stack boundary is not equal to 2. The drawback is a notable increase in code size. This switch implies -mno-push-args. -mthreads Support thread-safe exception handling on Mingw32. Code that relies on thread-safe exception handling must compile and link all code with the -mthreads option. When compiling, -mthreads denes -D_MT; when linking, it links in a special thread helper library -lmingwthrd which cleans up per thread exception handling data. -mno-align-stringops Do not align destination of inlined string operations. This switch reduces code size and improves performance in case the destination is already aligned, but gcc dont know about it. -minline-all-stringops By default GCC inlines string operations only when destination is known to be aligned at least to 4 byte boundary. This enables more inlining, increase code size, but may improve performance of code that depends on fast memcpy, strlen and memset for short lengths. -momit-leaf-frame-pointer Dont keep the frame pointer in a register for leaf functions. This avoids the instructions to save, set up and restore frame pointers and makes an extra register available in leaf functions. The option -fomit-frame-pointer removes the frame pointer for all functions which might make debugging harder. These -m switches are supported in addition to the above on AMD x86-64 processors in 64-bit environments. -m32 -m64 Generate code for a 32-bit or 64-bit environment. The 32-bit environment sets int, long and pointer to 32 bits and generates code that runs on any i386 system. The 64-bit environment sets int to 32 bits and long and pointer to 64 bits and generates code for AMDs x86-64 architecture.

-mno-red-zone Do not use a so called red zone for x86-64 code. The red zone is mandated by the x86-64 ABI, it is a 128-byte area beyond the location of the stack pointer that will not be modied by signal or interrupt handlers and therefore can be used for

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

127

temporary data without adjusting the stack pointer. The ag -mno-red-zone disables this red zone. -mcmodel=small Generate code for the small code model: the program and its symbols must be linked in the lower 2 GB of the address space. Pointers are 64 bits. Programs can be statically or dynamically linked. This is the default code model. -mcmodel=kernel Generate code for the kernel code model. The kernel runs in the negative 2 GB of the address space. This model has to be used for Linux kernel code. -mcmodel=medium Generate code for the medium model: The program is linked in the lower 2 GB of the address space but symbols can be located anywhere in the address space. Programs can be statically or dynamically linked, but building of shared libraries are not supported with the medium model. -mcmodel=large Generate code for the large model: This model makes no assumptions about addresses and sizes of sections. Currently GCC does not implement this model.

3.17.15 HPPA Options

These -m options are dened for the HPPA family of computers: -march=architecture-type Generate code for the specied architecture. The choices for architecture-type are 1.0 for PA 1.0, 1.1 for PA 1.1, and 2.0 for PA 2.0 processors. Refer to /usr/lib/sched.models on an HP-UX system to determine the proper architecture option for your machine. Code compiled for lower numbered architectures will run on higher numbered architectures, but not the other way around. PA 2.0 support currently requires gas snapshot 19990413 or later. The next release of binutils (current is 2.9.1) will probably contain PA 2.0 support. -mpa-risc-1-0 -mpa-risc-1-1 -mpa-risc-2-0 Synonyms for -march=1.0, -march=1.1, and -march=2.0 respectively. -mbig-switch Generate code suitable for big switch tables. Use this option only if the assembler/linker complain about out of range branches within a switch table. -mjump-in-delay Fill delay slots of function calls with unconditional jump instructions by modifying the return pointer for the function call to be the target of the conditional jump.

128

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mdisable-fpregs Prevent oating point registers from being used in any manner. This is necessary for compiling kernels which perform lazy context switching of oating point registers. If you use this option and attempt to perform oating point operations, the compiler will abort. -mdisable-indexing Prevent the compiler from using indexing address modes. This avoids some rather obscure problems when compiling MIG generated code under MACH. -mno-space-regs Generate code that assumes the target has no space registers. This allows GCC to generate faster indirect calls and use unscaled index address modes. Such code is suitable for level 0 PA systems and kernels. -mfast-indirect-calls Generate code that assumes calls never cross space boundaries. This allows GCC to emit code which performs faster indirect calls. This option will not work in the presence of shared libraries or nested functions. -mlong-load-store Generate 3-instruction load and store sequences as sometimes required by the HP-UX 10 linker. This is equivalent to the +k option to the HP compilers. -mportable-runtime Use the portable calling conventions proposed by HP for ELF systems. -mgas Enable the use of assembler directives only GAS understands.

-mschedule=cpu-type Schedule code according to the constraints for the machine type cpu-type. The choices for cpu-type are 700 7100, 7100LC, 7200, 7300 and 8000. Refer to /usr/lib/sched.models on an HP-UX system to determine the proper scheduling option for your machine. The default scheduling is 8000. -mlinker-opt Enable the optimization pass in the HP-UX linker. Note this makes symbolic debugging impossible. It also triggers a bug in the HP-UX 8 and HP-UX 9 linkers in which they give bogus error messages when linking some programs. -msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries are not available for all HPPA targets. Normally the facilities of the machines usual C compiler are used, but this cannot be done directly in cross-compilation. You must make your own arrangements to provide suitable library functions for cross-compilation. The embedded target hppa1.1-*-pro does provide software oating point support. -msoft-float changes the calling convention in the output le; therefore, it is only useful if you compile all of a program with this option. In particular, you need to compile libgcc.a, the library that comes with GCC, with -msoft-float in order for this to work.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

129

-msio

Generate the predene, _SIO, for server IO. The default is -mwsio. This generates the predenes, __hp9000s700, __hp9000s700__ and _WSIO, for workstation IO. These options are available under HP-UX and HI-UX. Use GNU ld specic options. This passes -shared to ld when building a shared library. It is the default when GCC is congured, explicitly or implicitly, with the GNU linker. This option does not have any aect on which ld is called, it only changes what parameters are passed to that ld. The ld that is called is determined by the --with-ld congure option, gccs program search path, and nally by the users PATH. The linker used by GCC can be printed using which gcc -print-prog-name=ld. Use HP ld specic options. This passes -b to ld when building a shared library and passes +Accept TypeMismatch to ld on all links. It is the default when GCC is congured, explicitly or implicitly, with the HP linker. This option does not have any aect on which ld is called, it only changes what parameters are passed to that ld. The ld that is called is determined by the --with-ld congure option, gccs program search path, and nally by the users PATH. The linker used by GCC can be printed using which gcc -print-prog-name=ld.

-mgnu-ld

-mhp-ld

-mlong-calls Generate code that uses long call sequences. This ensures that a call is always able to reach linker generated stubs. The default is to generate long calls only when the distance from the call site to the beginning of the function or translation unit, as the case may be, exceeds a predened limit set by the branch type being used. The limits for normal calls are 7,600,000 and 240,000 bytes, respectively for the PA 2.0 and PA 1.X architectures. Sibcalls are always limited at 240,000 bytes. Distances are measured from the beginning of functions when using the -ffunction-sections option, or when using the -mgas and -mno-portable-runtime options together under HP-UX with the SOM linker. It is normally not desirable to use this option as it will degrade performance. However, it may be useful in large applications, particularly when partial linking is used to build the application. The types of long calls used depends on the capabilities of the assembler and linker, and the type of code being generated. The impact on systems that support long absolute calls, and long pic symbol-dierence or pc-relative calls should be relatively small. However, an indirect call is used on 32-bit ELF systems in pic code and it is quite long. -nolibdld Suppress the generation of link options to search libdld.sl when the -static option is specied on HP-UX 10 and later. -static The HP-UX implementation of setlocale in libc has a dependency on libdld.sl. There isnt an archive version of libdld.sl. Thus, when the -static option is specied, special link options are needed to resolve this dependency.

130

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

On HP-UX 10 and later, the GCC driver adds the necessary options to link with libdld.sl when the -static option is specied. This causes the resulting binary to be dynamic. On the 64-bit port, the linkers generate dynamic binaries by default in any case. The -nolibdld option can be used to prevent the GCC driver from adding these link options. -threads Add support for multithreading with the dce thread library under HP-UX. This option sets ags for both the preprocessor and linker.

3.17.16 Intel 960 Options

These -m options are dened for the Intel 960 implementations: -mcpu-type Assume the defaults for the machine type cpu-type for some of the other options, including instruction scheduling, oating point support, and addressing modes. The choices for cpu-type are ka, kb, mc, ca, cf, sa, and sb. The default is kb. -mnumerics -msoft-float The -mnumerics option indicates that the processor does support oatingpoint instructions. The -msoft-float option indicates that oating-point support should not be assumed. -mleaf-procedures -mno-leaf-procedures Do (or do not) attempt to alter leaf procedures to be callable with the bal instruction as well as call. This will result in more ecient code for explicit calls when the bal instruction can be substituted by the assembler or linker, but less ecient code in other cases, such as calls via function pointers, or using a linker that doesnt support this optimization. -mtail-call -mno-tail-call Do (or do not) make additional attempts (beyond those of the machineindependent portions of the compiler) to optimize tail-recursive calls into branches. You may not want to do this because the detection of cases where this is not valid is not totally complete. The default is -mno-tail-call. -mcomplex-addr -mno-complex-addr Assume (or do not assume) that the use of a complex addressing mode is a win on this implementation of the i960. Complex addressing modes may not be worthwhile on the K-series, but they denitely are on the C-series. The default is currently -mcomplex-addr for all processors except the CB and CC. -mcode-align -mno-code-align Align code to 8-byte boundaries for faster fetching (or dont bother). Currently turned on by default for C-series implementations only.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

131

-mic-compat -mic2.0-compat -mic3.0-compat Enable compatibility with iC960 v2.0 or v3.0. -masm-compat -mintel-asm Enable compatibility with the iC960 assembler. -mstrict-align -mno-strict-align Do not permit (do permit) unaligned accesses. -mold-align Enable structure-alignment compatibility with Intels gcc release version 1.3 (based on gcc 1.37). This option implies -mstrict-align. -mlong-double-64 Implement type long double as 64-bit oating point numbers. Without the option long double is implemented by 80-bit oating point numbers. The only reason we have it because there is no 128-bit long double support in fp-bit.c yet. So it is only useful for people using soft-oat targets. Otherwise, we should recommend against use of it.

3.17.17 DEC Alpha Options

These -m options are dened for the DEC Alpha implementations: -mno-soft-float -msoft-float Use (do not use) the hardware oating-point instructions for oating-point operations. When -msoft-float is specied, functions in libgcc.a will be used to perform oating-point operations. Unless they are replaced by routines that emulate the oating-point operations, or compiled in such a way as to call such emulations routines, these routines will issue oating-point operations. If you are compiling for an Alpha without oating-point operations, you must ensure that the library is built so as not to call them. Note that Alpha implementations without oating-point operations are required to have oating-point registers. -mfp-reg -mno-fp-regs Generate code that uses (does not use) the oating-point register set. -mno-fp-regs implies -msoft-float. If the oating-point register set is not used, oating point operands are passed in integer registers as if they were integers and oating-point results are passed in $0 instead of $f0. This is a non-standard calling sequence, so any function with a oating-point argument or return value called by code compiled with -mno-fp-regs must also be compiled with that option.

132

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

A typical use of this option is building a kernel that does not use, and hence need not save and restore, any oating-point registers. -mieee The Alpha architecture implements oating-point hardware optimized for maximum performance. It is mostly compliant with the IEEE oating point standard. However, for full compliance, software assistance is required. This option generates code fully IEEE compliant code except that the inexact-ag is not maintained (see below). If this option is turned on, the preprocessor macro _IEEE_FP is dened during compilation. The resulting code is less ecient but is able to correctly support denormalized numbers and exceptional IEEE values such as not-a-number and plus/minus innity. Other Alpha compilers call this option -ieee_with_no_inexact.

-mieee-with-inexact This is like -mieee except the generated code also maintains the IEEE inexactag. Turning on this option causes the generated code to implement fullycompliant IEEE math. In addition to _IEEE_FP, _IEEE_FP_EXACT is dened as a preprocessor macro. On some Alpha implementations the resulting code may execute signicantly slower than the code generated by default. Since there is very little code that depends on the inexact-ag, you should normally not specify this option. Other Alpha compilers call this option -ieee_with_inexact. -mfp-trap-mode=trap-mode This option controls what oating-point related traps are enabled. Other Alpha compilers call this option -fptm trap-mode . The trap mode can be set to one of four values: n This is the default (normal) setting. The only traps that are enabled are the ones that cannot be disabled in software (e.g., division by zero trap). In addition to the traps enabled by n, underow traps are enabled as well. Like su, but the instructions are marked to be safe for software completion (see Alpha architecture manual for details). Like su, but inexact traps are enabled as well.

u su sui

-mfp-rounding-mode=rounding-mode Selects the IEEE rounding mode. Other Alpha compilers call this option -fprm rounding-mode . The rounding-mode can be one of: n Normal IEEE rounding mode. Floating point numbers are rounded towards the nearest machine number or towards the even machine number in case of a tie. Round towards minus innity. Chopped rounding mode. Floating point numbers are rounded towards zero. Dynamic rounding mode. A eld in the oating point control register (fpcr, see Alpha architecture reference manual) controls the

m c d

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

133

rounding mode in eect. The C library initializes this register for rounding towards plus innity. Thus, unless your program modies the fpcr, d corresponds to round towards plus innity. -mtrap-precision=trap-precision In the Alpha architecture, oating point traps are imprecise. This means without software assistance it is impossible to recover from a oating trap and program execution normally needs to be terminated. GCC can generate code that can assist operating system trap handlers in determining the exact location that caused a oating point trap. Depending on the requirements of an application, dierent levels of precisions can be selected: p Program precision. This option is the default and means a trap handler can only identify which program caused a oating point exception. Function precision. The trap handler can determine the function that caused a oating point exception. Instruction precision. The trap handler can determine the exact instruction that caused a oating point exception.

f i

Other Alpha compilers provide the equivalent options called -scope_safe and -resumption_safe. -mieee-conformant This option marks the generated code as IEEE conformant. You must not use this option unless you also specify -mtrap-precision=i and either -mfp-trap-mode=su or -mfp-trap-mode=sui. Its only eect is to emit the line .eflag 48 in the function prologue of the generated assembly le. Under DEC Unix, this has the eect that IEEE-conformant math library routines will be linked in. -mbuild-constants Normally GCC examines a 32- or 64-bit integer constant to see if it can construct it from smaller constants in two or three instructions. If it cannot, it will output the constant as a literal and generate code to load it from the data segment at runtime. Use this option to require GCC to construct all integer constants using code, even if it takes more instructions (the maximum is six). You would typically use this option to build a shared library dynamic loader. Itself a shared library, it must relocate itself in memory before it can nd the variables and constants in its own data segment. -malpha-as -mgas Select whether to generate code to be assembled by the vendor-supplied assembler (-malpha-as) or by the GNU assembler -mgas.

134

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mbwx -mno-bwx -mcix -mno-cix -mfix -mno-fix -mmax -mno-max

Indicate whether GCC should generate code to use the optional BWX, CIX, FIX and MAX instruction sets. The default is to use the instruction sets supported by the CPU type specied via -mcpu= option or that of the CPU on which GCC was built if none was specied.

-mfloat-vax -mfloat-ieee Generate code that uses (does not use) VAX F and G oating point arithmetic instead of IEEE single and double precision. -mexplicit-relocs -mno-explicit-relocs Older Alpha assemblers provided no way to generate symbol relocations except via assembler macros. Use of these macros does not allow optimal instruction scheduling. GNU binutils as of version 2.12 supports a new syntax that allows the compiler to explicitly mark which relocations should apply to which instructions. This option is mostly useful for debugging, as GCC detects the capabilities of the assembler when it is built and sets the default accordingly. -msmall-data -mlarge-data When -mexplicit-relocs is in eect, static data is accessed via gp-relative relocations. When -msmall-data is used, objects 8 bytes long or smaller are placed in a small data area (the .sdata and .sbss sections) and are accessed via 16-bit relocations o of the $gp register. This limits the size of the small data area to 64KB, but allows the variables to be directly accessed via a single instruction. The default is -mlarge-data. With this option the data area is limited to just below 2GB. Programs that require more than 2GB of data must use malloc or mmap to allocate the data in the heap instead of in the programs data segment. When generating code for shared libraries, -fpic implies -msmall-data and -fPIC implies -mlarge-data. -mcpu=cpu_type Set the instruction set and instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. You can specify either the EV style name or the corresponding chip number. GCC supports scheduling parameters for the EV4, EV5 and EV6 family of processors and will choose the default values for the instruction set from the processor you specify. If you do not specify a processor type, GCC will default to the processor on which the compiler was built. Supported values for cpu type are

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

135

ev4 ev45 21064 ev5 21164 ev56 21164a pca56 21164pc 21164PC ev6 21264 ev67 21264a Schedules as an EV6 and supports the BWX, CIX, FIX, and MAX extensions. Schedules as an EV4 and has no instruction set extensions. Schedules as an EV5 and has no instruction set extensions. Schedules as an EV5 and supports the BWX extension.

Schedules as an EV5 and supports the BWX and MAX extensions. Schedules as an EV6 and supports the BWX, FIX, and MAX extensions.

-mtune=cpu_type Set only the instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. The instruction set is not changed. -mmemory-latency=time Sets the latency the scheduler should assume for typical memory references as seen by the application. This number is highly dependent on the memory access patterns used by the application and the size of the external cache on the machine. Valid options for time are number L1 L2 L3 main A decimal number representing clock cycles.

The compiler contains estimates of the number of clock cycles for typical EV4 & EV5 hardware for the Level 1, 2 & 3 caches (also called Dcache, Scache, and Bcache), as well as to main memory. Note that L3 is only valid for EV5.

3.17.18 DEC Alpha/VMS Options

These -m options are dened for the DEC Alpha/VMS implementations: -mvms-return-codes Return VMS condition codes from main. The default is to return POSIX style condition (e.g. error) codes.

136

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

3.17.19 H8/300 Options

These -m options are dened for the H8/300 implementations: -mrelax Shorten some address references at link time, when possible; uses the linker option -relax. See section ld and the H8/300 in Using ld, for a fuller description. Generate code for the H8/300H. Generate code for the H8S. Generate code for the H8S and H8/300H in the normal mode. This switch must be used either with -mh or -ms. Generate code for the H8S/2600. This switch must be used with -ms. Make int data 32 bits by default.

-mh -ms -mn -ms2600 -mint32

-malign-300 On the H8/300H and H8S, use the same alignment rules as for the H8/300. The default for the H8/300H and H8S is to align longs and oats on 4 byte boundaries. -malign-300 causes them to be aligned on 2 byte boundaries. This option has no eect on the H8/300.

3.17.20 SH Options
These -m options are dened for the SH implementations: -m1 -m2 -m3 -m3e -m4-nofpu Generate code for the SH4 without a oating-point unit. -m4-single-only Generate code for the SH4 with a oating-point unit that only supports singleprecision arithmetic. -m4-single Generate code for the SH4 assuming the oating-point unit is in single-precision mode by default. -m4 -mb -ml -mdalign Generate code for the SH4. Compile code for the processor in big endian mode. Compile code for the processor in little endian mode. Align doubles at 64-bit boundaries. Note that this changes the calling conventions, and thus some functions from the standard C library will not work unless you recompile it rst with -mdalign. Generate code for the SH1. Generate code for the SH2. Generate code for the SH3. Generate code for the SH3e.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

137

-mrelax -mbigtable

Shorten some address references at link time, when possible; uses the linker option -relax. Use 32-bit osets in switch tables. The default is to use 16-bit osets.

-mfmovd -mhitachi

Enable the use of the instruction fmovd. Comply with the calling conventions dened by Renesas.

-mnomacsave Mark the MAC register as call-clobbered, even if -mhitachi is given. -mieee -misize Increase IEEE-compliance of oating-point code. Dump instruction size and location in the assembly code.

-mpadstruct This option is deprecated. It pads structures to multiple of 4 bytes, which is incompatible with the SH ABI. -mspace Optimize for space instead of speed. Implied by -Os.

-mprefergot When generating position-independent code, emit function calls using the Global Oset Table instead of the Procedure Linkage Table. -musermode Generate a library function call to invalidate instruction cache entries, after xing up a trampoline. This library function call doesnt assume it can write to the whole memory address space. This is the default when the target is sh-*-linux*.

3.17.21 Options for System V

These additional options are available on System V Release 4 for compatibility with other compilers on those systems: -G -Qy -Qn -YP,dirs -Ym,dir Create a shared object. It is recommended that -symbolic or -shared be used instead. Identify the versions of each tool used by the compiler, in a .ident assembler directive in the output. Refrain from adding .ident directives to the output le (this is the default). Search the directories dirs, and no others, for libraries specied with -l. Look in the directory dir to nd the M4 preprocessor. The assembler uses this option.

138

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

3.17.22 TMS320C3x/C4x Options

These -m options are dened for TMS320C3x/C4x implementations: -mcpu=cpu_type Set the instruction set, register set, and instruction scheduling parameters for machine type cpu type. Supported values for cpu type are c30, c31, c32, c40, and c44. The default is c40 to generate code for the TMS320C40. -mbig-memory -mbig -msmall-memory -msmall Generates code for the big or small memory model. The small memory model assumed that all data ts into one 64K word page. At run-time the data page (DP) register must be set to point to the 64K page containing the .bss and .data program sections. The big memory model is the default and requires reloading of the DP register for every direct memory access. -mbk -mno-bk -mdb -mno-db Allow (disallow) allocation of general integer operands into the block count register BK. Enable (disable) generation of code using decrement and branch, DBcond(D), instructions. This is enabled by default for the C4x. To be on the safe side, this is disabled for the C3x, since the maximum iteration count on the C3x is 223 + 1 (but who iterates loops more than 223 times on the C3x?). Note that GCC will try to reverse a loop so that it can utilize the decrement and branch instruction, but will give up if there is more than one memory reference in the loop. Thus a loop where the loop counter is decremented can generate slightly more ecient code, in cases where the RPTB instruction cannot be utilized.

-mdp-isr-reload -mparanoid Force the DP register to be saved on entry to an interrupt service routine (ISR), reloaded to point to the data section, and restored on exit from the ISR. This should not be required unless someone has violated the small memory model by modifying the DP register, say within an object library. -mmpyi -mno-mpyi For the C3x use the 24-bit MPYI instruction for integer multiplies instead of a library call to guarantee 32-bit results. Note that if one of the operands is a constant, then the multiplication will be performed using shifts and adds. If the -mmpyi option is not specied for the C3x, then squaring operations are performed inline instead of a library call. -mfast-fix -mno-fast-fix The C3x/C4x FIX instruction to convert a oating point value to an integer value chooses the nearest integer less than or equal to the oating point value

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

139

rather than to the nearest integer. Thus if the oating point number is negative, the result will be incorrectly truncated an additional code is necessary to detect and correct this case. This option can be used to disable generation of the additional code required to correct the result. -mrptb -mno-rptb Enable (disable) generation of repeat block sequences using the RPTB instruction for zero overhead looping. The RPTB construct is only used for innermost loops that do not call functions or jump across the loop boundaries. There is no advantage having nested RPTB loops due to the overhead required to save and restore the RC, RS, and RE registers. This is enabled by default with -O2. -mrpts=count -mno-rpts Enable (disable) the use of the single instruction repeat instruction RPTS. If a repeat block contains a single instruction, and the loop count can be guaranteed to be less than the value count, GCC will emit a RPTS instruction instead of a RPTB. If no value is specied, then a RPTS will be emitted even if the loop count cannot be determined at compile time. Note that the repeated instruction following RPTS does not have to be reloaded from memory each iteration, thus freeing up the CPU buses for operands. However, since interrupts are blocked by this instruction, it is disabled by default. -mloop-unsigned -mno-loop-unsigned The maximum iteration count when using RPTS and RPTB (and DB on the C40) is 231 + 1 since these instructions test if the iteration count is negative to terminate the loop. If the iteration count is unsigned there is a possibility than the 231 + 1 maximum iteration count may be exceeded. This switch allows an unsigned iteration count. -mti Try to emit an assembler syntax that the TI assembler (asm30) is happy with. This also enforces compatibility with the API employed by the TI C3x C compiler. For example, long doubles are passed as structures rather than in oating point registers.

-mregparm -mmemparm Generate code that uses registers (stack) for passing arguments to functions. By default, arguments are passed in registers where possible rather than by pushing arguments on to the stack. -mparallel-insns -mno-parallel-insns Allow the generation of parallel instructions. This is enabled by default with -O2.

140

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mparallel-mpy -mno-parallel-mpy Allow the generation of MPY||ADD and MPY||SUB parallel instructions, provided -mparallel-insns is also specied. These instructions have tight register constraints which can pessimize the code generation of large functions.

3.17.23 V850 Options

These -m options are dened for V850 implementations: -mlong-calls -mno-long-calls Treat all calls as being far away (near). If calls are assumed to be far away, the compiler will always load the functions address up into a register, and call indirect through the pointer. -mno-ep -mep Do not optimize (do optimize) basic blocks that use the same index pointer 4 or more times to copy pointer into the ep register, and use the shorter sld and sst instructions. The -mep option is on by default if you optimize.

-mno-prolog-function -mprolog-function Do not use (do use) external functions to save and restore registers at the prologue and epilogue of a function. The external functions are slower, but use less code space if more than one function saves the same number of registers. The -mprolog-function option is on by default if you optimize. -mspace -mtda=n Try to make the code as small as possible. At present, this just turns on the -mep and -mprolog-function options. Put static or global variables whose size is n bytes or less into the tiny data area that register ep points to. The tiny data area can hold up to 256 bytes in total (128 bytes for byte references). Put static or global variables whose size is n bytes or less into the small data area that register gp points to. The small data area can hold up to 64 kilobytes. Put static or global variables whose size is n bytes or less into the rst 32 kilobytes of memory. Specify that the target processor is the V850.

-msda=n -mzda=n -mv850

-mbig-switch Generate code suitable for big switch tables. Use this option only if the assembler/linker complain about out of range branches within a switch table. -mapp-regs This option will cause r2 and r5 to be used in the code generated by the compiler. This setting is the default. -mno-app-regs This option will cause r2 and r5 to be treated as xed registers.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

141

-mv850e

Specify that the target processor is the V850E. The preprocessor constant __v850e__ will be dened if this option is used. If neither -mv850 nor -mv850e are dened then a default target processor will be chosen and the relevant __v850*__ preprocessor constant will be dened. The preprocessor constants __v850 and __v851__ are always dened, regardless of which processor variant is the target.

-mdisable-callt This option will suppress generation of the CALLT instruction for the v850e avors of the v850 architecture. The default is -mno-disable-callt which allows the CALLT instruction to be used.

3.17.24 ARC Options

These options are dened for ARC implementations: -EL -EB Compile code for little endian mode. This is the default. Compile code for big endian mode.

-mmangle-cpu Prepend the name of the cpu to all public symbol names. In multiple-processor systems, there are many ARC variants with dierent instruction and register set characteristics. This ag prevents code compiled for one cpu to be linked with code compiled for another. No facility exists for handling variants that are almost identical. This is an all or nothing option. -mcpu=cpu Compile code for ARC variant cpu. Which variants are supported depend on the conguration. All variants support -mcpu=base, this is the default. -mtext=text-section -mdata=data-section -mrodata=readonly-data-section Put functions, data, and readonly data in text-section, data-section, and readonly-data-section respectively by default. This can be overridden with the section attribute. See Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207.

3.17.25 NS32K Options

These are the -m options dened for the 32000 series. The default values for these options depends on which style of 32000 was selected when the compiler was congured; the defaults for the most common choices are given below. -m32032 -m32032 -m32332 -m32332 Generate output for a 32032. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 32032 and 32016 based systems. Generate output for a 32332. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 32332-based systems.

142

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-m32532 -m32532 -m32081 -m32381

Generate output for a 32532. This is the default when the compiler is congured for 32532-based systems. Generate output containing 32081 instructions for oating point. This is the default for all systems. Generate output containing 32381 instructions for oating point. This also implies -m32081. The 32381 is only compatible with the 32332 and 32532 cpus. This is the default for the pc532-netbsd conguration.

-mmulti-add Try and generate multiply-add oating point instructions polyF and dotF. This option is only available if the -m32381 option is in eect. Using these instructions requires changes to register allocation which generally has a negative impact on performance. This option should only be enabled when compiling code particularly likely to make heavy use of multiply-add instructions. -mnomulti-add Do not try and generate multiply-add oating point instructions polyF and dotF. This is the default on all platforms. -msoft-float Generate output containing library calls for oating point. Warning: the requisite libraries may not be available. -mieee-compare -mno-ieee-compare Control whether or not the compiler uses IEEE oating point comparisons. These handle correctly the case where the result of a comparison is unordered. Warning: the requisite kernel support may not be available. -mnobitfield Do not use the bit-eld instructions. On some machines it is faster to use shifting and masking operations. This is the default for the pc532. -mbitfield Do use the bit-eld instructions. This is the default for all platforms except the pc532. -mrtd Use a dierent function-calling convention, in which functions that take a xed number of arguments return pop their arguments on return with the ret instruction. This calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler. Also, you must provide function prototypes for all functions that take variable numbers of arguments (including printf); otherwise incorrect code will be generated for calls to those functions. In addition, seriously incorrect code will result if you call a function with too many arguments. (Normally, extra arguments are harmlessly ignored.) This option takes its name from the 680x0 rtd instruction.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

143

-mregparam Use a dierent function-calling convention where the rst two arguments are passed in registers. This calling convention is incompatible with the one normally used on Unix, so you cannot use it if you need to call libraries compiled with the Unix compiler. -mnoregparam Do not pass any arguments in registers. This is the default for all targets. -msb -mnosb It is OK to use the sb as an index register which is always loaded with zero. This is the default for the pc532-netbsd target. The sb register is not available for use or has not been initialized to zero by the run time system. This is the default for all targets except the pc532-netbsd. It is also implied whenever -mhimem or -fpic is set. Many ns32000 series addressing modes use displacements of up to 512MB. If an address is above 512MB then displacements from zero can not be used. This option causes code to be generated which can be loaded above 512MB. This may be useful for operating systems or ROM code. Assume code will be loaded in the rst 512MB of virtual address space. This is the default for all platforms.

-mhimem

-mnohimem

3.17.26 AVR Options

These options are dened for AVR implementations: -mmcu=mcu Specify ATMEL AVR instruction set or MCU type. Instruction set avr1 is for the minimal AVR core, not supported by the C compiler, only for assembler programs (MCU types: at90s1200, attiny10, attiny11, attiny12, attiny15, attiny28). Instruction set avr2 (default) is for the classic AVR core with up to 8K program memory space (MCU types: at90s2313, at90s2323, attiny22, at90s2333, at90s2343, at90s4414, at90s4433, at90s4434, at90s8515, at90c8534, at90s8535). Instruction set avr3 is for the classic AVR core with up to 128K program memory space (MCU types: atmega103, atmega603, at43usb320, at76c711). Instruction set avr4 is for the enhanced AVR core with up to 8K program memory space (MCU types: atmega8, atmega83, atmega85). Instruction set avr5 is for the enhanced AVR core with up to 128K program memory space (MCU types: atmega16, atmega161, atmega163, atmega32, atmega323, atmega64, atmega128, at43usb355, at94k). -msize Output instruction sizes to the asm le. -minit-stack=N Specify the initial stack address, which may be a symbol or numeric value, __stack is the default.

144

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mno-interrupts Generated code is not compatible with hardware interrupts. Code size will be smaller. -mcall-prologues Functions prologues/epilogues expanded as call to appropriate subroutines. Code size will be smaller. -mno-tablejump Do not generate tablejump insns which sometimes increase code size. -mtiny-stack Change only the low 8 bits of the stack pointer.

3.17.27 MCore Options

These are the -m options dened for the Motorola M*Core processors. -mhardlit -mno-hardlit Inline constants into the code stream if it can be done in two instructions or less. -mdiv -mno-div Use the divide instruction. (Enabled by default).

-mrelax-immediate -mno-relax-immediate Allow arbitrary sized immediates in bit operations. -mwide-bitfields -mno-wide-bitfields Always treat bit-elds as int-sized. -m4byte-functions -mno-4byte-functions Force all functions to be aligned to a four byte boundary. -mcallgraph-data -mno-callgraph-data Emit callgraph information. -mslow-bytes -mno-slow-bytes Prefer word access when reading byte quantities. -mlittle-endian -mbig-endian Generate code for a little endian target. -m210 -m340 Generate code for the 210 processor.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

145

3.17.28 IA-64 Options

These are the -m options dened for the Intel IA-64 architecture. -mbig-endian Generate code for a big endian target. This is the default for HP-UX. -mlittle-endian Generate code for a little endian target. This is the default for AIX5 and Linux. -mgnu-as -mno-gnu-as Generate (or dont) code for the GNU assembler. This is the default. -mgnu-ld -mno-gnu-ld Generate (or dont) code for the GNU linker. This is the default. -mno-pic Generate code that does not use a global pointer register. The result is not position independent code, and violates the IA-64 ABI.

-mvolatile-asm-stop -mno-volatile-asm-stop Generate (or dont) a stop bit immediately before and after volatile asm statements. -mb-step Generate code that works around Itanium B step errata. -mregister-names -mno-register-names Generate (or dont) in, loc, and out register names for the stacked registers. This may make assembler output more readable. -mno-sdata -msdata Disable (or enable) optimizations that use the small data section. This may be useful for working around optimizer bugs. -mconstant-gp Generate code that uses a single constant global pointer value. This is useful when compiling kernel code. -mauto-pic Generate code that is self-relocatable. This implies -mconstant-gp. This is useful when compiling rmware code. -minline-float-divide-min-latency Generate code for inline divides of oating point values using the minimum latency algorithm. -minline-float-divide-max-throughput Generate code for inline divides of oating point values using the maximum throughput algorithm. -minline-int-divide-min-latency Generate code for inline divides of integer values using the minimum latency algorithm.

146

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-minline-int-divide-max-throughput Generate code for inline divides of integer values using the maximum throughput algorithm. -mno-dwarf2-asm -mdwarf2-asm Dont (or do) generate assembler code for the DWARF2 line number debugging info. This may be useful when not using the GNU assembler. -mfixed-range=register-range Generate code treating the given register range as xed registers. A xed register is one that the register allocator can not use. This is useful when compiling kernel code. A register range is specied as two registers separated by a dash. Multiple register ranges can be specied separated by a comma.

3.17.29 D30V Options

These -m options are dened for D30V implementations: -mextmem Link the .text, .data, .bss, .strings, .rodata, .rodata1, .data1 sections into external memory, which starts at location 0x80000000.

-mextmemory Same as the -mextmem switch. -monchip Link the .text section into onchip text memory, which starts at location 0x0. Also link .data, .bss, .strings, .rodata, .rodata1, .data1 sections into onchip data memory, which starts at location 0x20000000.

-mno-asm-optimize -masm-optimize Disable (enable) passing -O to the assembler when optimizing. The assembler uses the -O option to automatically parallelize adjacent short instructions where possible. -mbranch-cost=n Increase the internal costs of branches to n. Higher costs means that the compiler will issue more instructions to avoid doing a branch. The default is 2. -mcond-exec=n Specify the maximum number of conditionally executed instructions that replace a branch. The default is 4.

3.17.30 S/390 and zSeries Options

These are the -m options dened for the S/390 and zSeries architecture. -mhard-float -msoft-float Use (do not use) the hardware oating-point instructions and registers for oating-point operations. When -msoft-float is specied, functions

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

147

in libgcc.a will be used to perform oating-point operations. When -mhard-float is specied, the compiler generates IEEE oating-point instructions. This is the default. -mbackchain -mno-backchain Generate (or do not generate) code which maintains an explicit backchain within the stack frame that points to the callers frame. This is currently needed to allow debugging. The default is to generate the backchain. -msmall-exec -mno-small-exec Generate (or do not generate) code using the bras instruction to do subroutine calls. This only works reliably if the total executable size does not exceed 64k. The default is to use the basr instruction instead, which does not have this limitation. -m64 -m31 When -m31 is specied, generate code compliant to the Linux for S/390 ABI. When -m64 is specied, generate code compliant to the Linux for zSeries ABI. This allows GCC in particular to generate 64-bit instructions. For the s390 targets, the default is -m31, while the s390x targets default to -m64.

-mmvcle -mno-mvcle Generate (or do not generate) code using the mvcle instruction to perform block moves. When -mno-mvcle is specied, use a mvc loop instead. This is the default. -mdebug -mno-debug Print (or do not print) additional debug information when compiling. The default is to not print debug information.

3.17.31 CRIS Options

These options are dened specically for the CRIS ports. -march=architecture-type -mcpu=architecture-type Generate code for the specied architecture. The choices for architecturetype are v3, v8 and v10 for respectively ETRAX 4, ETRAX 100, and ETRAX 100 LX. Default is v0 except for cris-axis-linux-gnu, where the default is v10. -mtune=architecture-type Tune to architecture-type everything applicable about the generated code, except for the ABI and the set of available instructions. The choices for architecture-type are the same as for -march=architecture-type . -mmax-stack-frame=n Warn when the stack frame of a function exceeds n bytes.

148

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-melinux-stacksize=n Only available with the cris-axis-aout target. Arranges for indications in the program to the kernel loader that the stack of the program should be set to n bytes. -metrax4 -metrax100 The options -metrax4 and -metrax100 are synonyms for -march=v3 and -march=v8 respectively. -mpdebug Enable CRIS-specic verbose debug-related information in the assembly code. This option also has the eect to turn o the #NO_APP formatted-code indicator to the assembler at the beginning of the assembly le. Do not use condition-code results from previous instruction; always emit compare and test instructions before use of condition codes. -mno-side-effects Do not emit instructions with side-eects in addressing modes other than postincrement. -mstack-align -mno-stack-align -mdata-align -mno-data-align -mconst-align -mno-const-align These options (no-options) arranges (eliminate arrangements) for the stackframe, individual data and constants to be aligned for the maximum single data access size for the chosen CPU model. The default is to arrange for 32bit alignment. ABI details such as structure layout are not aected by these options. -m32-bit -m16-bit -m8-bit

-mcc-init

Similar to the stack- data- and const-align options above, these options arrange for stack-frame, writable data and constants to all be 32-bit, 16-bit or 8-bit aligned. The default is 32-bit alignment.

-mno-prologue-epilogue -mprologue-epilogue With -mno-prologue-epilogue, the normal function prologue and epilogue that sets up the stack-frame are omitted and no return instructions or return sequences are generated in the code. Use this option only together with visual inspection of the compiled code: no warnings or errors are generated when call-saved registers must be saved, or storage for local variable needs to be allocated.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

149

-mno-gotplt -mgotplt With -fpic and -fPIC, dont generate (do generate) instruction sequences that load addresses for functions from the PLT part of the GOT rather than (traditional on other architectures) calls to the PLT. The default is -mgotplt. -maout -melf -melinux -mlinux -sim Legacy no-op option only recognized with the cris-axis-aout target. Legacy no-op option only recognized with the cris-axis-elf and cris-axis-linuxgnu targets. Only recognized with the cris-axis-aout target, where it selects a GNU/linuxlike multilib, include les and instruction set for -march=v8. Legacy no-op option only recognized with the cris-axis-linux-gnu target. This option, recognized for the cris-axis-aout and cris-axis-elf arranges to link with input-output functions from a simulator library. Code, initialized data and zero-initialized data are allocated consecutively. Like -sim, but pass linker options to locate initialized data at 0x40000000 and zero-initialized data at 0x80000000.

-sim2

3.17.32 MMIX Options

These options are dened for the MMIX: -mlibfuncs -mno-libfuncs Specify that intrinsic library functions are being compiled, passing all values in registers, no matter the size. -mepsilon -mno-epsilon Generate oating-point comparison instructions that compare with respect to the rE epsilon register. -mabi=mmixware -mabi=gnu Generate code that passes function parameters and return values that (in the called function) are seen as registers $0 and up, as opposed to the GNU ABI which uses global registers $231 and up. -mzero-extend -mno-zero-extend When reading data from memory in sizes shorter than 64 bits, use (do not use) zero-extending load instructions by default, rather than sign-extending ones. -mknuthdiv -mno-knuthdiv Make the result of a division yielding a remainder have the same sign as the divisor. With the default, -mno-knuthdiv, the sign of the remainder follows the sign of the dividend. Both methods are arithmetically valid, the latter being almost exclusively used.

150

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mtoplevel-symbols -mno-toplevel-symbols Prepend (do not prepend) a : to all global symbols, so the assembly code can be used with the PREFIX assembly directive. -melf Generate an executable in the ELF format, rather than the default mmo format used by the mmix simulator.

-mbranch-predict -mno-branch-predict Use (do not use) the probable-branch instructions, when static branch prediction indicates a probable branch. -mbase-addresses -mno-base-addresses Generate (do not generate) code that uses base addresses. Using a base address automatically generates a request (handled by the assembler and the linker) for a constant to be set up in a global register. The register is used for one or more base address requests within the range 0 to 255 from the value held in the register. The generally leads to short and fast code, but the number of dierent data items that can be addressed is limited. This means that a program that uses lots of static data may require -mno-base-addresses. -msingle-exit -mno-single-exit Force (do not force) generated code to have a single exit point in each function.

3.17.33 PDP-11 Options

These options are dened for the PDP-11: -mfpu Use hardware FPP oating point. This is the default. (FIS oating point on the PDP-11/40 is not supported.)

-msoft-float Do not use hardware oating point. -mac0 -mno-ac0 -m40 -m45 -m10 Return oating-point results in ac0 (fr0 in Unix assembler syntax). Return oating-point results in memory. This is the default. Generate code for a PDP-11/40. Generate code for a PDP-11/45. This is the default. Generate code for a PDP-11/10.

-mbcopy-builtin Use inline movstrhi patterns for copying memory. This is the default. -mbcopy -mint16 -mno-int32 Use 16-bit int. This is the default. Do not use inline movstrhi patterns for copying memory.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

151

-mint32 -mno-int16 Use 32-bit int. -mfloat64 -mno-float32 Use 64-bit float. This is the default. -mfloat32 -mno-float64 Use 32-bit float. -mabshi -mno-abshi Do not use abshi2 pattern. -mbranch-expensive Pretend that branches are expensive. This is for experimenting with code generation only. -mbranch-cheap Do not pretend that branches are expensive. This is the default. -msplit -mno-split Generate code for a system without split I&D. This is the default. -munix-asm Use Unix assembler syntax. pdp11-*-bsd. -mdec-asm Use DEC assembler syntax. This is the default when congured for any PDP-11 target other than pdp11-*-bsd. This is the default when congured for Generate code for a system with split I&D. Use abshi2 pattern. This is the default.

3.17.34 Xstormy16 Options

These options are dened for Xstormy16: -msim Choose startup les and linker script suitable for the simulator.

3.17.35 FRV Options

-mgpr-32 Only use the rst 32 general purpose registers. -mgpr-64 Use all 64 general purpose registers. -mfpr-32 Use only the rst 32 oating point registers.

152

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mfpr-64 Use all 64 oating point registers -mhard-float Use hardware instructions for oating point operations. -msoft-float Use library routines for oating point operations. -malloc-cc Dynamically allocate condition code registers. -mfixed-cc Do not try to dynamically allocate condition code registers, only use icc0 and fcc0. -mdword Change ABI to use double word insns. -mno-dword Do not use double word instructions. -mdouble Use oating point double instructions. -mno-double Do not use oating point double instructions. -mmedia Use media instructions. -mno-media Do not use media instructions. -mmuladd Use multiply and add/subtract instructions. -mno-muladd Do not use multiply and add/subtract instructions. -mlibrary-pic Enable PIC support for building libraries -macc-4 Use only the rst four media accumulator registers. -macc-8 Use all eight media accumulator registers. -mpack Pack VLIW instructions. -mno-pack Do not pack VLIW instructions.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

153

-mno-eflags Do not mark ABI switches in e ags. -mcond-move Enable the use of conditional-move instructions (default). This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mno-cond-move Disable the use of conditional-move instructions. This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mscc Enable the use of conditional set instructions (default). This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mno-scc Disable the use of conditional set instructions. This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mcond-exec Enable the use of conditional execution (default). This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mno-cond-exec Disable the use of conditional execution. This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mvliw-branch Run a pass to pack branches into VLIW instructions (default). This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mno-vliw-branch Do not run a pass to pack branches into VLIW instructions. This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mmulti-cond-exec Enable optimization of && and || in conditional execution (default). This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mno-multi-cond-exec Disable optimization of && and || in conditional execution.

154

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mnested-cond-exec Enable nested conditional execution optimizations (default). This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mno-nested-cond-exec Disable nested conditional execution optimizations. This switch is mainly for debugging the compiler and will likely be removed in a future version. -mtomcat-stats Cause gas to print out tomcat statistics. -mcpu=cpu Select the processor type for which to generate code. simple, tomcat, fr500, fr400, fr300, frv. Possible values are

3.17.36 Xtensa Options

The Xtensa architecture is designed to support many dierent congurations. The compilers default options can be set to match a particular Xtensa conguration by copying a conguration le into the GCC sources when building GCC. The options below may be used to override the default options. -mbig-endian -mlittle-endian Specify big-endian or little-endian byte ordering for the target Xtensa processor. -mdensity -mno-density Enable or disable use of the optional Xtensa code density instructions. -mmac16 -mno-mac16 Enable or disable use of the Xtensa MAC16 option. When enabled, GCC will generate MAC16 instructions from standard C code, with the limitation that it will use neither the MR register le nor any instruction that operates on the MR registers. When this option is disabled, GCC will translate 16bit multiply/accumulate operations to a combination of core instructions and library calls, depending on whether any other multiplier options are enabled. -mmul16 -mno-mul16 Enable or disable use of the 16-bit integer multiplier option. When enabled, the compiler will generate 16-bit multiply instructions for multiplications of 16 bits or smaller in standard C code. When this option is disabled, the compiler will either use 32-bit multiply or MAC16 instructions if they are available or generate library calls to perform the multiply operations using shifts and adds.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

155

-mmul32 -mno-mul32 Enable or disable use of the 32-bit integer multiplier option. When enabled, the compiler will generate 32-bit multiply instructions for multiplications of 32 bits or smaller in standard C code. When this option is disabled, the compiler will generate library calls to perform the multiply operations using either shifts and adds or 16-bit multiply instructions if they are available. -mnsa -mno-nsa

Enable or disable use of the optional normalization shift amount (NSA) instructions to implement the built-in ffs function.

-mminmax -mno-minmax Enable or disable use of the optional minimum and maximum value instructions. -msext -mno-sext Enable or disable use of the optional sign extend (SEXT) instruction. -mbooleans -mno-booleans Enable or disable support for the boolean register le used by Xtensa coprocessors. This is not typically useful by itself but may be required for other options that make use of the boolean registers (e.g., the oating-point option). -mhard-float -msoft-float Enable or disable use of the oating-point option. When enabled, GCC generates oating-point instructions for 32-bit float operations. When this option is disabled, GCC generates library calls to emulate 32-bit oating-point operations using integer instructions. Regardless of this option, 64-bit double operations are always emulated with calls to library functions. -mfused-madd -mno-fused-madd Enable or disable use of fused multiply/add and multiply/subtract instructions in the oating-point option. This has no eect if the oating-point option is not also enabled. Disabling fused multiply/add and multiply/subtract instructions forces the compiler to use separate instructions for the multiply and add/subtract operations. This may be desirable in some cases where strict IEEE 754-compliant results are required: the fused multiply add/subtract instructions do not round the intermediate result, thereby producing results with more bits of precision than specied by the IEEE standard. Disabling fused multiply add/subtract instructions also ensures that the program output is not sensitive to the compilers ability to combine multiply and add/subtract operations.

156

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-mserialize-volatile -mno-serialize-volatile When this option is enabled, GCC inserts MEMW instructions before volatile memory references to guarantee sequential consistency. The default is -mserialize-volatile. Use -mno-serialize-volatile to omit the MEMW instructions. -mtext-section-literals -mno-text-section-literals Control the treatment of literal pools. The default is -mno-text-section-literals, which places literals in a separate section in the output le. This allows the literal pool to be placed in a data RAM/ROM, and it also allows the linker to combine literal pools from separate object les to remove redundant literals and improve code size. With -mtext-section-literals, the literals are interspersed in the text section in order to keep them as close as possible to their references. This may be necessary for large assembly les. -mtarget-align -mno-target-align When this option is enabled, GCC instructs the assembler to automatically align instructions to reduce branch penalties at the expense of some code density. The assembler attempts to widen density instructions to align branch targets and the instructions following call instructions. If there are not enough preceding safe density instructions to align a target, no widening will be performed. The default is -mtarget-align. These options do not aect the treatment of autoaligned instructions like LOOP, which the assembler will always align, either by widening density instructions or by inserting no-op instructions. -mlongcalls -mno-longcalls When this option is enabled, GCC instructs the assembler to translate direct calls to indirect calls unless it can determine that the target of a direct call is in the range allowed by the call instruction. This translation typically occurs for calls to functions in other source les. Specically, the assembler translates a direct CALL instruction into an L32R followed by a CALLX instruction. The default is -mno-longcalls. This option should be used in programs where the call target can potentially be out of range. This option is implemented in the assembler, not the compiler, so the assembly code generated by GCC will still show direct call instructionslook at the disassembled object code to see the actual instructions. Note that the assembler will use an indirect call for every cross-le call, not just those that really will be out of range.

3.18 Options for Code Generation Conventions

These machine-independent options control the interface conventions used in code generation.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

157

Most of them have both positive and negative forms; the negative form of -ffoo would be -fno-foo. In the table below, only one of the forms is listedthe one which is not the default. You can gure out the other form by either removing no- or adding it. -fbounds-check For front-ends that support it, generate additional code to check that indices used to access arrays are within the declared range. This is currently only supported by the Java and Fortran 77 front-ends, where this option defaults to true and false respectively. -ftrapv This option generates traps for signed overow on addition, subtraction, multiplication operations.

-fexceptions Enable exception handling. Generates extra code needed to propagate exceptions. For some targets, this implies GCC will generate frame unwind information for all functions, which can produce signicant data size overhead, although it does not aect execution. If you do not specify this option, GCC will enable it by default for languages like C++ which normally require exception handling, and disable it for languages like C that do not normally require it. However, you may need to enable this option when compiling C code that needs to interoperate properly with exception handlers written in C++. You may also wish to disable this option if you are compiling older C++ programs that dont use exception handling. -fnon-call-exceptions Generate code that allows trapping instructions to throw exceptions. Note that this requires platform-specic runtime support that does not exist everywhere. Moreover, it only allows trapping instructions to throw exceptions, i.e. memory references or oating point instructions. It does not allow exceptions to be thrown from arbitrary signal handlers such as SIGALRM. -funwind-tables Similar to -fexceptions, except that it will just generate any needed static data, but will not aect the generated code in any other way. You will normally not enable this option; instead, a language processor that needs this handling would enable it on your behalf. -fasynchronous-unwind-tables Generate unwind table in dwarf2 format, if supported by target machine. The table is exact at each instruction boundary, so it can be used for stack unwinding from asynchronous events (such as debugger or garbage collector). -fpcc-struct-return Return short struct and union values in memory like longer ones, rather than in registers. This convention is less ecient, but it has the advantage of allowing intercallability between GCC-compiled les and les compiled with other compilers, particularly the Portable C Compiler (pcc). The precise convention for returning structures in memory depends on the target conguration macros.

158

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Short structures and unions are those whose size and alignment match that of some integer type. Warning: code compiled with the -fpcc-struct-return switch is not binary compatible with code compiled with the -freg-struct-return switch. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface. -freg-struct-return Return struct and union values in registers when possible. This is more ecient for small structures than -fpcc-struct-return. If you specify neither -fpcc-struct-return nor -freg-struct-return, GCC defaults to whichever convention is standard for the target. If there is no standard convention, GCC defaults to -fpcc-struct-return, except on targets where GCC is the principal compiler. In those cases, we can choose the standard, and we chose the more ecient register return alternative. Warning: code compiled with the -freg-struct-return switch is not binary compatible with code compiled with the -fpcc-struct-return switch. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface. -fshort-enums Allocate to an enum type only as many bytes as it needs for the declared range of possible values. Specically, the enum type will be equivalent to the smallest integer type which has enough room. Warning: the -fshort-enums switch causes GCC to generate code that is not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface. -fshort-double Use the same size for double as for float. Warning: the -fshort-double switch causes GCC to generate code that is not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface. -fshort-wchar Override the underlying type for wchar_t to be short unsigned int instead of the default for the target. This option is useful for building programs to run under WINE. Warning: the -fshort-wchar switch causes GCC to generate code that is not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface. -fshared-data Requests that the data and non-const variables of this compilation be shared data rather than private data. The distinction makes sense only on certain operating systems, where shared data is shared between processes running the same program, while private data exists in one copy per process. -fno-common In C, allocate even uninitialized global variables in the data section of the object le, rather than generating them as common blocks. This has the eect that

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

159

if the same variable is declared (without extern) in two dierent compilations, you will get an error when you link them. The only reason this might be useful is if you wish to verify that the program will work on other systems which always work this way. -fno-ident Ignore the #ident directive. -fno-gnu-linker Do not output global initializations (such as C++ constructors and destructors) in the form used by the GNU linker (on systems where the GNU linker is the standard method of handling them). Use this option when you want to use a non-GNU linker, which also requires using the collect2 program to make sure the system linker includes constructors and destructors. (collect2 is included in the GCC distribution.) For systems which must use collect2, the compiler driver gcc is congured to do this automatically. -finhibit-size-directive Dont output a .size assembler directive, or anything else that would cause trouble if the function is split in the middle, and the two halves are placed at locations far apart in memory. This option is used when compiling crtstuff.c; you should not need to use it for anything else. -fverbose-asm Put extra commentary information in the generated assembly code to make it more readable. This option is generally only of use to those who actually need to read the generated assembly code (perhaps while debugging the compiler itself). -fno-verbose-asm, the default, causes the extra information to be omitted and is useful when comparing two assembler les. -fvolatile Consider all memory references through pointers to be volatile. -fvolatile-global Consider all memory references to extern and global data items to be volatile. GCC does not consider static data items to be volatile because of this switch. -fvolatile-static Consider all memory references to static data to be volatile. -fpic Generate position-independent code (PIC) suitable for use in a shared library, if supported for the target machine. Such code accesses all constant addresses through a global oset table (GOT). The dynamic loader resolves the GOT entries when the program starts (the dynamic loader is not part of GCC; it is part of the operating system). If the GOT size for the linked executable exceeds a machine-specic maximum size, you get an error message from the linker indicating that -fpic does not work; in that case, recompile with -fPIC instead. (These maximums are 16k on the m88k, 8k on the SPARC, and 32k on the m68k and RS/6000. The 386 has no such limit.)

160

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Position-independent code requires special support, and therefore works only on certain machines. For the 386, GCC supports PIC for System V but not for the Sun 386i. Code generated for the IBM RS/6000 is always position-independent. -fPIC If supported for the target machine, emit position-independent code, suitable for dynamic linking and avoiding any limit on the size of the global oset table. This option makes a dierence on the m68k, m88k, and the SPARC. Position-independent code requires special support, and therefore works only on certain machines. -ffixed-reg Treat the register named reg as a xed register; generated code should never refer to it (except perhaps as a stack pointer, frame pointer or in some other xed role). reg must be the name of a register. The register names accepted are machinespecic and are dened in the REGISTER_NAMES macro in the machine description macro le. This ag does not have a negative form, because it species a three-way choice. -fcall-used-reg Treat the register named reg as an allocable register that is clobbered by function calls. It may be allocated for temporaries or variables that do not live across a call. Functions compiled this way will not save and restore the register reg. It is an error to used this ag with the frame pointer or stack pointer. Use of this ag for other registers that have xed pervasive roles in the machines execution model will produce disastrous results. This ag does not have a negative form, because it species a three-way choice. -fcall-saved-reg Treat the register named reg as an allocable register saved by functions. It may be allocated even for temporaries or variables that live across a call. Functions compiled this way will save and restore the register reg if they use it. It is an error to used this ag with the frame pointer or stack pointer. Use of this ag for other registers that have xed pervasive roles in the machines execution model will produce disastrous results. A dierent sort of disaster will result from the use of this ag for a register in which function values may be returned. This ag does not have a negative form, because it species a three-way choice. -fpack-struct Pack all structure members together without holes. Warning: the -fpack-struct switch causes GCC to generate code that is not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Additionally, it makes the code suboptimal. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

161

-finstrument-functions Generate instrumentation calls for entry and exit to functions. Just after function entry and just before function exit, the following proling functions will be called with the address of the current function and its call site. (On some platforms, __builtin_return_address does not work beyond the current function, so the call site information may not be available to the proling functions otherwise.) void __cyg_profile_func_enter (void void void __cyg_profile_func_exit (void void *this_fn, *call_site); *this_fn, *call_site);

The rst argument is the address of the start of the current function, which may be looked up exactly in the symbol table. This instrumentation is also done for functions expanded inline in other functions. The proling calls will indicate where, conceptually, the inline function is entered and exited. This means that addressable versions of such functions must be available. If all your uses of a function are expanded inline, this may mean an additional expansion of code size. If you use extern inline in your C code, an addressable version of such functions must be provided. (This is normally the case anyways, but if you get lucky and the optimizer always expands the functions inline, you might have gotten away without providing static copies.) A function may be given the attribute no_instrument_function, in which case this instrumentation will not be done. This can be used, for example, for the proling functions listed above, high-priority interrupt routines, and any functions from which the proling functions cannot safely be called (perhaps signal handlers, if the proling routines generate output or allocate memory). -fstack-check Generate code to verify that you do not go beyond the boundary of the stack. You should specify this ag if you are running in an environment with multiple threads, but only rarely need to specify it in a single-threaded environment since stack overow is automatically detected on nearly all systems if there is only one stack. Note that this switch does not actually cause checking to be done; the operating system must do that. The switch causes generation of code to ensure that the operating system sees the stack being extended. -fstack-limit-register=reg -fstack-limit-symbol=sym -fno-stack-limit Generate code to ensure that the stack does not grow beyond a certain value, either the value of a register or the address of a symbol. If the stack would grow beyond the value, a signal is raised. For most targets, the signal is raised before the stack overruns the boundary, so it is possible to catch the signal without taking special precautions.

162

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

For instance, if the stack starts at absolute address 0x80000000 and grows downwards, you can use the ags -fstack-limit-symbol=__stack_limit and -Wl,--defsym,__stack_limit=0x7ffe0000 to enforce a stack limit of 128KB. Note that this may only work with the GNU linker. -fargument-alias -fargument-noalias -fargument-noalias-global Specify the possible relationships among parameters and between parameters and global data. -fargument-alias species that arguments (parameters) may alias each other and may alias global storage. -fargument-noalias species that arguments do not alias each other, but may alias global storage. -fargument-noalias-global species that arguments do not alias each other and do not alias global storage. Each language will automatically use whatever option is required by the language standard. You should not need to use these options yourself. -fleading-underscore This option and its counterpart, -fno-leading-underscore, forcibly change the way C symbols are represented in the object le. One use is to help link with legacy assembly code. Warning: the -fleading-underscore switch causes GCC to generate code that is not binary compatible with code generated without that switch. Use it to conform to a non-default application binary interface. Not all targets provide complete support for this switch. -ftls-model=model Alter the thread-local storage model to be used (see Section 5.48 [ThreadLocal], page 275). The model argument should be one of global-dynamic, local-dynamic, initial-exec or local-exec. The default without -fpic is initial-exec; with -fpic the default is global-dynamic.

3.19 Environment Variables Aecting GCC

This section describes several environment variables that aect how GCC operates. Some of them work by specifying directories or prexes to use when searching for various kinds of les. Some are used to specify other aspects of the compilation environment. Note that you can also specify places to search using options such as -B, -I and -L (see Section 3.14 [Directory Options], page 81). These take precedence over places specied using environment variables, which in turn take precedence over those specied by the conguration of GCC. See section Controlling the Compilation Driver gcc in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

163

LANG LC_CTYPE LC_MESSAGES LC_ALL These environment variables control the way that GCC uses localization information that allow GCC to work with dierent national conventions. GCC inspects the locale categories LC_CTYPE and LC_MESSAGES if it has been congured to do so. These locale categories can be set to any value supported by your installation. A typical value is en_UK for English in the United Kingdom. The LC_CTYPE environment variable species character classication. GCC uses it to determine the character boundaries in a string; this is needed for some multibyte encodings that contain quote and escape characters that would otherwise be interpreted as a string end or escape. The LC_MESSAGES environment variable species the language to use in diagnostic messages. If the LC_ALL environment variable is set, it overrides the value of LC_CTYPE and LC_MESSAGES; otherwise, LC_CTYPE and LC_MESSAGES default to the value of the LANG environment variable. If none of these variables are set, GCC defaults to traditional C English behavior. TMPDIR If TMPDIR is set, it species the directory to use for temporary les. GCC uses temporary les to hold the output of one stage of compilation which is to be used as input to the next stage: for example, the output of the preprocessor, which is the input to the compiler proper.

GCC_EXEC_PREFIX If GCC_EXEC_PREFIX is set, it species a prex to use in the names of the subprograms executed by the compiler. No slash is added when this prex is combined with the name of a subprogram, but you can specify a prex that ends with a slash if you wish. If GCC_EXEC_PREFIX is not set, GCC will attempt to gure out an appropriate prex to use based on the pathname it was invoked with. If GCC cannot nd the subprogram using the specied prex, it tries looking in the usual places for the subprogram. The default value of GCC_EXEC_PREFIX is prefix /lib/gcc-lib/ where prex is the value of prefix when you ran the configure script. Other prexes specied with -B take precedence over this prex. This prex is also used for nding les such as crt0.o that are used for linking. In addition, the prex is used in an unusual way in nding the directories to search for header les. For each of the standard directories whose name normally begins with /usr/local/lib/gcc-lib (more precisely, with the value of GCC_INCLUDE_DIR), GCC tries replacing that beginning with the specied prex to produce an alternate directory name. Thus, with -Bfoo/, GCC will search foo/bar where it would normally search /usr/local/lib/bar. These alternate directories are searched rst; the standard directories come next.

164

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

COMPILER_PATH The value of COMPILER_PATH is a colon-separated list of directories, much like PATH. GCC tries the directories thus specied when searching for subprograms, if it cant nd the subprograms using GCC_EXEC_PREFIX. LIBRARY_PATH The value of LIBRARY_PATH is a colon-separated list of directories, much like PATH. When congured as a native compiler, GCC tries the directories thus specied when searching for special linker les, if it cant nd them using GCC_ EXEC_PREFIX. Linking using GCC also uses these directories when searching for ordinary libraries for the -l option (but directories specied with -L come rst). LANG This variable is used to pass locale information to the compiler. One way in which this information is used is to determine the character set to be used when character literals, string literals and comments are parsed in C and C++. When the compiler is congured to allow multibyte characters, the following values for LANG are recognized: C-JIS C-SJIS C-EUCJP Recognize JIS characters. Recognize SJIS characters. Recognize EUCJP characters.

If LANG is not dened, or if it has some other value, then the compiler will use mblen and mbtowc as dened by the default locale to recognize and translate multibyte characters. Some additional environments variables aect the behavior of the preprocessor. CPATH C_INCLUDE_PATH CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH OBJC_INCLUDE_PATH Each variables value is a list of directories separated by a special character, much like PATH, in which to look for header les. The special character, PATH_SEPARATOR, is target-dependent and determined at GCC build time. For Windows-based targets it is a semicolon, and for almost all other targets it is a colon. CPATH species a list of directories to be searched as if specied with -I, but after any paths given with -I options on the command line. This environment variable is used regardless of which language is being preprocessed. The remaining environment variables apply only when preprocessing the particular language indicated. Each species a list of directories to be searched as if specied with -isystem, but after any paths given with -isystem options on the command line. In all these variables, an empty element instructs the compiler to search its current working directory. Empty elements can appear at the beginning or end of a path. For instance, if the value of CPATH is :/special/include, that has the same eect as -I. -I/special/include.

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

165

DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT If this variable is set, its value species how to output dependencies for Make based on the non-system header les processed by the compiler. System header les are ignored in the dependency output. The value of DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT can be just a le name, in which case the Make rules are written to that le, guessing the target name from the source le name. Or the value can have the form file target , in which case the rules are written to le le using target as the target name. In other words, this environment variable is equivalent to combining the options -MM and -MF (see Section 3.11 [Preprocessor Options], page 70), with an optional -MT switch too. SUNPRO_DEPENDENCIES This variable is the same as DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT (see above), except that system header les are not ignored, so it implies -M rather than -MM. However, the dependence on the main input le is omitted. See Section 3.11 [Preprocessor Options], page 70.

3.20 Running Protoize

The program protoize is an optional part of GCC. You can use it to add prototypes to a program, thus converting the program to ISO C in one respect. The companion program unprotoize does the reverse: it removes argument types from any prototypes that are found. When you run these programs, you must specify a set of source les as command line arguments. The conversion programs start out by compiling these les to see what functions they dene. The information gathered about a le foo is saved in a le named foo.X. After scanning comes actual conversion. The specied les are all eligible to be converted; any les they include (whether sources or just headers) are eligible as well. But not all the eligible les are converted. By default, protoize and unprotoize convert only source and header les in the current directory. You can specify additional directories whose les should be converted with the -d directory option. You can also specify particular les to exclude with the -x file option. A le is converted if it is eligible, its directory name matches one of the specied directory names, and its name within the directory has not been excluded. Basic conversion with protoize consists of rewriting most function denitions and function declarations to specify the types of the arguments. The only ones not rewritten are those for varargs functions. protoize optionally inserts prototype declarations at the beginning of the source le, to make them available for any calls that precede the functions denition. Or it can insert prototype declarations with block scope in the blocks where undeclared functions are called. Basic conversion with unprotoize consists of rewriting most function declarations to remove any argument types, and rewriting function denitions to the old-style pre-ISO form.

166

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Both conversion programs print a warning for any function declaration or denition that they cant convert. You can suppress these warnings with -q. The output from protoize or unprotoize replaces the original source le. The original le is renamed to a name ending with .save (for DOS, the saved lename ends in .sav without the original .c sux). If the .save (.sav for DOS) le already exists, then the source le is simply discarded. protoize and unprotoize both depend on GCC itself to scan the program and collect information about the functions it uses. So neither of these programs will work until GCC is installed. Here is a table of the options you can use with protoize and unprotoize. Each option works with both programs unless otherwise stated. -B directory Look for the le SYSCALLS.c.X in directory, instead of the usual directory (normally /usr/local/lib). This le contains prototype information about standard system functions. This option applies only to protoize. -c compilation-options Use compilation-options as the options when running gcc to produce the .X les. The special option -aux-info is always passed in addition, to tell gcc to write a .X le. Note that the compilation options must be given as a single argument to protoize or unprotoize. If you want to specify several gcc options, you must quote the entire set of compilation options to make them a single word in the shell. There are certain gcc arguments that you cannot use, because they would produce the wrong kind of output. These include -g, -O, -c, -S, and -o If you include these in the compilation-options, they are ignored. -C Rename les to end in .C (.cc for DOS-based le systems) instead of .c. This is convenient if you are converting a C program to C++. This option applies only to protoize. Add explicit global declarations. This means inserting explicit declarations at the beginning of each source le for each function that is called in the le and was not declared. These declarations precede the rst function denition that contains a call to an undeclared function. This option applies only to protoize. Indent old-style parameter declarations with the string string. This option applies only to protoize. unprotoize converts prototyped function denitions to old-style function definitions, where the arguments are declared between the argument list and the initial {. By default, unprotoize uses ve spaces as the indentation. If you want to indent with just one space instead, use -i " ". -k Keep the .X les. Normally, they are deleted after conversion is nished.

-g

-i string

Chapter 3: GCC Command Options

167

-l

Add explicit local declarations. protoize with -l inserts a prototype declaration for each function in each block which calls the function without any declaration. This option applies only to protoize. Make no real changes. This mode just prints information about the conversions that would have been done without -n. Make no .save les. The original les are simply deleted. Use this option with caution. Use the program program as the compiler. Normally, the name gcc is used.

-n -N -p program -q -v

Work quietly. Most warnings are suppressed. Print the version number, just like -v for gcc.

If you need special compiler options to compile one of your programs source les, then you should generate that les .X le specially, by running gcc on that source le with the appropriate options and the option -aux-info. Then run protoize on the entire set of les. protoize will use the existing .X le because it is newer than the source le. For example: gcc -Dfoo=bar file1.c -aux-info file1.X protoize *.c You need to include the special les along with the rest in the protoize command, even though their .X les already exist, because otherwise they wont get converted. See Section 10.10 [Protoize Caveats], page 321, for more information on how to use protoize successfully.

168

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 4: C Implementation-dened behavior

169

4 C Implementation-dened behavior
A conforming implementation of ISO C is required to document its choice of behavior in each of the areas that are designated implementation dened. The following lists all such areas, along with the section number from the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard.

4.1 Translation
How a diagnostic is identied (3.10, 5.1.1.3). Diagnostics consist of all the output sent to stderr by GCC. Whether each nonempty sequence of white-space characters other than new-line is retained or replaced by one space character in translation phase 3 (5.1.1.2).

4.2 Environment
The behavior of these points are dependent on the implementation of the C library, and are not dened by GCC itself.

4.3 Identiers
Which additional multibyte characters may appear in identiers and their correspondence to universal character names (6.4.2). The number of signicant initial characters in an identier (5.2.4.1, 6.4.2). For internal names, all characters are signicant. For external names, the number of signicant characters are dened by the linker; for almost all targets, all characters are signicant.

4.4 Characters
The number of bits in a byte (3.6). The values of the members of the execution character set (5.2.1). The unique value of the member of the execution character set produced for each of the standard alphabetic escape sequences (5.2.2). The value of a char object into which has been stored any character other than a member of the basic execution character set (6.2.5). Which of signed char or unsigned char has the same range, representation, and behavior as plain char (6.2.5, 6.3.1.1). The mapping of members of the source character set (in character constants and string literals) to members of the execution character set (6.4.4.4, 5.1.1.2). The value of an integer character constant containing more than one character or containing a character or escape sequence that does not map to a single-byte execution character (6.4.4.4).

170

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The value of a wide character constant containing more than one multibyte character, or containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not represented in the extended execution character set (6.4.4.4). The current locale used to convert a wide character constant consisting of a single multibyte character that maps to a member of the extended execution character set into a corresponding wide character code (6.4.4.4). The current locale used to convert a wide string literal into corresponding wide character codes (6.4.5). The value of a string literal containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not represented in the execution character set (6.4.5).

4.5 Integers
Any extended integer types that exist in the implementation (6.2.5). Whether signed integer types are represented using sign and magnitude, twos complement, or ones complement, and whether the extraordinary value is a trap representation or an ordinary value (6.2.6.2). GCC supports only twos complement integer types, and all bit patterns are ordinary values. The rank of any extended integer type relative to another extended integer type with the same precision (6.3.1.1). The result of, or the signal raised by, converting an integer to a signed integer type when the value cannot be represented in an object of that type (6.3.1.3). The results of some bitwise operations on signed integers (6.5).

4.6 Floating point

The accuracy of the oating-point operations and of the library functions in <math.h> and <complex.h> that return oating-point results (5.2.4.2.2). The rounding behaviors characterized by non-standard values of FLT_ROUNDS (5.2.4.2.2). The evaluation methods characterized by non-standard negative values of FLT_EVAL_ METHOD (5.2.4.2.2). The direction of rounding when an integer is converted to a oating-point number that cannot exactly represent the original value (6.3.1.4). The direction of rounding when a oating-point number is converted to a narrower oating-point number (6.3.1.5). How the nearest representable value or the larger or smaller representable value immediately adjacent to the nearest representable value is chosen for certain oating constants (6.4.4.2). Whether and how oating expressions are contracted when not disallowed by the FP_ CONTRACT pragma (6.5). The default state for the FENV_ACCESS pragma (7.6.1).

Chapter 4: C Implementation-dened behavior

171

Additional oating-point exceptions, rounding modes, environments, and classications, and their macro names (7.6, 7.12). The default state for the FP_CONTRACT pragma (7.12.2). Whether the inexact oating-point exception can be raised when the rounded result actually does equal the mathematical result in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (F.9). Whether the underow (and inexact) oating-point exception can be raised when a result is tiny but not inexact in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (F.9).

4.7 Arrays and pointers

The result of converting a pointer to an integer or vice versa (6.3.2.3). A cast from pointer to integer discards most-signicant bits if the pointer representation is larger than the integer type, sign-extends1 if the pointer representation is smaller than the integer type, otherwise the bits are unchanged. A cast from integer to pointer discards most-signicant bits if the pointer representation is smaller than the integer type, extends according to the signedness of the integer type if the pointer representation is larger than the integer type, otherwise the bits are unchanged. When casting from pointer to integer and back again, the resulting pointer must reference the same object as the original pointer, otherwise the behavior is undened. That is, one may not use integer arithmetic to avoid the undened behavior of pointer arithmetic as proscribed in 6.5.6/8. The size of the result of subtracting two pointers to elements of the same array (6.5.6).

4.8 Hints
The extent to which suggestions made by using the register storage-class specier are eective (6.7.1). The register specier aects code generation only in these ways: When used as part of the register variable extension, see Section 5.38 [Explicit Reg Vars], page 237. When -O0 is in use, the compiler allocates distinct stack memory for all variables that do not have the register storage-class specier; if register is specied, the variable may have a shorter lifespan than the code would indicate and may never be placed in memory. On some rare x86 targets, setjmp doesnt save the registers in all circumstances. In those cases, GCC doesnt allocate any variables in registers unless they are marked register. The extent to which suggestions made by using the inline function specier are eective (6.7.4).
1

Future versions of GCC may zero-extend, or use a target-dened ptr_extend pattern. Do not rely on sign extension.

172

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

GCC will not inline any functions if the -fno-inline option is used or if -O0 is used. Otherwise, GCC may still be unable to inline a function for many reasons; the -Winline option may be used to determine if a function has not been inlined and why not.

4.9 Structures, unions, enumerations, and bit-elds

Whether a plain int bit-eld is treated as a signed int bit-eld or as an unsigned int bit-eld (6.7.2, 6.7.2.1). Allowable bit-eld types other than _Bool, signed int, and unsigned int (6.7.2.1). Whether a bit-eld can straddle a storage-unit boundary (6.7.2.1). The order of allocation of bit-elds within a unit (6.7.2.1). The alignment of non-bit-eld members of structures (6.7.2.1). The integer type compatible with each enumerated type (6.7.2.2).

4.10 Qualiers
What constitutes an access to an object that has volatile-qualied type (6.7.3).

4.11 Preprocessing directives

How sequences in both forms of header names are mapped to headers or external source le names (6.4.7). Whether the value of a character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion matches the value of the same character constant in the execution character set (6.10.1). Whether the value of a single-character character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion may have a negative value (6.10.1). The places that are searched for an included <> delimited header, and how the places are specied or the header is identied (6.10.2). How the named source le is searched for in an included "" delimited header (6.10.2). The method by which preprocessing tokens (possibly resulting from macro expansion) in a #include directive are combined into a header name (6.10.2). The nesting limit for #include processing (6.10.2). GCC imposes a limit of 200 nested #includes. Whether the # operator inserts a \ character before the \ character that begins a universal character name in a character constant or string literal (6.10.3.2). The behavior on each recognized non-STDC #pragma directive (6.10.6). The denitions for __DATE__ and __TIME__ when respectively, the date and time of translation are not available (6.10.8). If the date and time are not available, __DATE__ expands to "??? ?? ????" and __ TIME__ expands to "??:??:??".

Chapter 4: C Implementation-dened behavior

173

4.12 Library functions

The behavior of these points are dependent on the implementation of the C library, and are not dened by GCC itself.

4.13 Architecture
The values or expressions assigned to the macros specied in the headers <float.h>, <limits.h>, and <stdint.h> (5.2.4.2, 7.18.2, 7.18.3). The number, order, and encoding of bytes in any object (when not explicitly specied in this International Standard) (6.2.6.1). The value of the result of the sizeof operator (6.5.3.4).

4.14 Locale-specic behavior

The behavior of these points are dependent on the implementation of the C library, and are not dened by GCC itself.

174

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

175

5 Extensions to the C Language Family

GNU C provides several language features not found in ISO standard C. (The -pedantic option directs GCC to print a warning message if any of these features is used.) To test for the availability of these features in conditional compilation, check for a predened macro __GNUC__, which is always dened under GCC. These extensions are available in C and Objective-C. Most of them are also available in C++. See Chapter 6 [Extensions to the C++ Language], page 279, for extensions that apply only to C++. Some features that are in ISO C99 but not C89 or C++ are also, as extensions, accepted by GCC in C89 mode and in C++.

5.1 Statements and Declarations in Expressions

A compound statement enclosed in parentheses may appear as an expression in GNU C. This allows you to use loops, switches, and local variables within an expression. Recall that a compound statement is a sequence of statements surrounded by braces; in this construct, parentheses go around the braces. For example: ({ int y = foo (); int z; if (y > 0) z = y; else z = - y; z; }) is a valid (though slightly more complex than necessary) expression for the absolute value of foo (). The last thing in the compound statement should be an expression followed by a semicolon; the value of this subexpression serves as the value of the entire construct. (If you use some other kind of statement last within the braces, the construct has type void, and thus eectively no value.) This feature is especially useful in making macro denitions safe (so that they evaluate each operand exactly once). For example, the maximum function is commonly dened as a macro in standard C as follows: #define max(a,b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b)) But this denition computes either a or b twice, with bad results if the operand has side eects. In GNU C, if you know the type of the operands (here lets assume int), you can dene the macro safely as follows: #define maxint(a,b) \ ({int _a = (a), _b = (b); _a > _b ? _a : _b; }) Embedded statements are not allowed in constant expressions, such as the value of an enumeration constant, the width of a bit-eld, or the initial value of a static variable. If you dont know the type of the operand, you can still do this, but you must use typeof (see Section 5.6 [Typeof], page 180). Statement expressions are not supported fully in G++, and their fate there is unclear. (It is possible that they will become fully supported at some point, or that they will be

176

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

deprecated, or that the bugs that are present will continue to exist indenitely.) Presently, statement expressions do not work well as default arguments. In addition, there are semantic issues with statement-expressions in C++. If you try to use statement-expressions instead of inline functions in C++, you may be surprised at the way object destruction is handled. For example: #define foo(a) ({int b = (a); b + 3; }) does not work the same way as: inline int foo(int a) { int b = a; return b + 3; } In particular, if the expression passed into foo involves the creation of temporaries, the destructors for those temporaries will be run earlier in the case of the macro than in the case of the function. These considerations mean that it is probably a bad idea to use statement-expressions of this form in header les that are designed to work with C++. (Note that some versions of the GNU C Library contained header les using statement-expression that lead to precisely this bug.)

5.2 Locally Declared Labels

Each statement expression is a scope in which local labels can be declared. A local label is simply an identier; you can jump to it with an ordinary goto statement, but only from within the statement expression it belongs to. A local label declaration looks like this: __label__ label ; or __label__ label1, label2, /* . . . */; Local label declarations must come at the beginning of the statement expression, right after the ({, before any ordinary declarations. The label declaration denes the label name, but does not dene the label itself. You must do this in the usual way, with label :, within the statements of the statement expression. The local label feature is useful because statement expressions are often used in macros. If the macro contains nested loops, a goto can be useful for breaking out of them. However, an ordinary label whose scope is the whole function cannot be used: if the macro can be expanded several times in one function, the label will be multiply dened in that function. A local label avoids this problem. For example: #define SEARCH(array, target) \ ({ \ __label__ found; \ typeof (target) _SEARCH_target = (target); \ typeof (*(array)) *_SEARCH_array = (array); \ int i, j; \ int value; \ for (i = 0; i < max; i++) \

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

177

for (j = 0; j < max; j++) if (_SEARCH_array[i][j] == _SEARCH_target) { value = i; goto found; } value = -1; found: value; })

\ \ \ \ \ \

5.3 Labels as Values

You can get the address of a label dened in the current function (or a containing function) with the unary operator &&. The value has type void *. This value is a constant and can be used wherever a constant of that type is valid. For example: void *ptr; /* . . . */ ptr = &&foo; To use these values, you need to be able to jump to one. This is done with the computed goto statement1 , goto *exp ;. For example, goto *ptr; Any expression of type void * is allowed. One way of using these constants is in initializing a static array that will serve as a jump table: static void *array[] = { &&foo, &&bar, &&hack }; Then you can select a label with indexing, like this: goto *array[i]; Note that this does not check whether the subscript is in boundsarray indexing in C never does that. Such an array of label values serves a purpose much like that of the switch statement. The switch statement is cleaner, so use that rather than an array unless the problem does not t a switch statement very well. Another use of label values is in an interpreter for threaded code. The labels within the interpreter function can be stored in the threaded code for super-fast dispatching. You may not use this mechanism to jump to code in a dierent function. If you do that, totally unpredictable things will happen. The best way to avoid this is to store the label address only in automatic variables and never pass it as an argument. An alternate way to write the above example is static const int array[] = { &&foo - &&foo, &&bar - &&foo, &&hack - &&foo }; goto *(&&foo + array[i]); This is more friendly to code living in shared libraries, as it reduces the number of dynamic relocations that are needed, and by consequence, allows the data to be read-only.
1

The analogous feature in Fortran is called an assigned goto, but that name seems inappropriate in C, where one can do more than simply store label addresses in label variables.

178

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

5.4 Nested Functions

A nested function is a function dened inside another function. (Nested functions are not supported for GNU C++.) The nested functions name is local to the block where it is dened. For example, here we dene a nested function named square, and call it twice: foo (double a, double b) { double square (double z) { return z * z; } return square (a) + square (b); } The nested function can access all the variables of the containing function that are visible at the point of its denition. This is called lexical scoping. For example, here we show a nested function which uses an inherited variable named offset: bar (int *array, int offset, int size) { int access (int *array, int index) { return array[index + offset]; } int i; /* . . . */ for (i = 0; i < size; i++) /* . . . */ access (array, i) /* . . . */ } Nested function denitions are permitted within functions in the places where variable denitions are allowed; that is, in any block, before the rst statement in the block. It is possible to call the nested function from outside the scope of its name by storing its address or passing the address to another function: hack (int *array, int size) { void store (int index, int value) { array[index] = value; } intermediate (store, size); } Here, the function intermediate receives the address of store as an argument. If intermediate calls store, the arguments given to store are used to store into array. But this technique works only so long as the containing function (hack, in this example) does not exit. If you try to call the nested function through its address after the containing function has exited, all hell will break loose. If you try to call it after a containing scope level has exited, and if it refers to some of the variables that are no longer in scope, you may be lucky, but its not wise to take the risk. If, however, the nested function does not refer to anything that has gone out of scope, you should be safe. GCC implements taking the address of a nested function using a technique called trampolines. A paper describing them is available as

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

179

http://people.debian.org/~aaronl/Usenix88-lexic.pdf. A nested function can jump to a label inherited from a containing function, provided the label was explicitly declared in the containing function (see Section 5.2 [Local Labels], page 176). Such a jump returns instantly to the containing function, exiting the nested function which did the goto and any intermediate functions as well. Here is an example: bar (int *array, int offset, int size) { __label__ failure; int access (int *array, int index) { if (index > size) goto failure; return array[index + offset]; } int i; /* . . . */ for (i = 0; i < size; i++) /* . . . */ access (array, i) /* . . . */ /* . . . */ return 0; /* Control comes here from access if it detects an error. */ failure: return -1; } A nested function always has internal linkage. Declaring one with extern is erroneous. If you need to declare the nested function before its denition, use auto (which is otherwise meaningless for function declarations). bar (int *array, int offset, int size) { __label__ failure; auto int access (int *, int); /* . . . */ int access (int *array, int index) { if (index > size) goto failure; return array[index + offset]; } /* . . . */ }

180

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

5.5 Constructing Function Calls

Using the built-in functions described below, you can record the arguments a function received, and call another function with the same arguments, without knowing the number or types of the arguments. You can also record the return value of that function call, and later return that value, without knowing what data type the function tried to return (as long as your caller expects that data type).

void * __builtin_apply_args ()

[Built-in Function] This built-in function returns a pointer to data describing how to perform a call with the same arguments as were passed to the current function. The function saves the arg pointer register, structure value address, and all registers that might be used to pass arguments to a function into a block of memory allocated on the stack. Then it returns the address of that block.

void * __builtin_apply (void (*function )(), void

[Built-in Function] *arguments, size_t size ) This built-in function invokes function with a copy of the parameters described by arguments and size.

The value of arguments should be the value returned by __builtin_apply_args. The argument size species the size of the stack argument data, in bytes. This function returns a pointer to data describing how to return whatever value was returned by function. The data is saved in a block of memory allocated on the stack. It is not always simple to compute the proper value for size. The value is used by __builtin_apply to compute the amount of data that should be pushed on the stack and copied from the incoming argument area.

void __builtin_return (void *result )

[Built-in Function] This built-in function returns the value described by result from the containing function. You should specify, for result, a value returned by __builtin_apply.

5.6 Referring to a Type with typeof

Another way to refer to the type of an expression is with typeof. The syntax of using of this keyword looks like sizeof, but the construct acts semantically like a type name dened with typedef. There are two ways of writing the argument to typeof: with an expression or with a type. Here is an example with an expression: typeof (x[0](1)) This assumes that x is an array of pointers to functions; the type described is that of the values of the functions. Here is an example with a typename as the argument:

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

181

typeof (int *) Here the type described is that of pointers to int. If you are writing a header le that must work when included in ISO C programs, write __typeof__ instead of typeof. See Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 239. A typeof-construct can be used anywhere a typedef name could be used. For example, you can use it in a declaration, in a cast, or inside of sizeof or typeof. typeof is often useful in conjunction with the statements-within-expressions feature. Here is how the two together can be used to dene a safe maximum macro that operates on any arithmetic type and evaluates each of its arguments exactly once: #define max(a,b) \ ({ typeof (a) _a = (a); \ typeof (b) _b = (b); \ _a > _b ? _a : _b; }) The reason for using names that start with underscores for the local variables is to avoid conicts with variable names that occur within the expressions that are substituted for a and b. Eventually we hope to design a new form of declaration syntax that allows you to declare variables whose scopes start only after their initializers; this will be a more reliable way to prevent such conicts. Some more examples of the use of typeof: This declares y with the type of what x points to. typeof (*x) y; This declares y as an array of such values. typeof (*x) y[4]; This declares y as an array of pointers to characters: typeof (typeof (char *)[4]) y; It is equivalent to the following traditional C declaration: char *y[4]; To see the meaning of the declaration using typeof, and why it might be a useful way to write, lets rewrite it with these macros: #define pointer(T) typeof(T *) #define array(T, N) typeof(T [N]) Now the declaration can be rewritten this way: array (pointer (char), 4) y; Thus, array (pointer (char), 4) is the type of arrays of 4 pointers to char. Compatibility Note: In addition to typeof, GCC 2 supported a more limited extension which permitted one to write typedef T = expr ; with the eect of declaring T to have the type of the expression expr. This extension does not work with GCC 3 (versions between 3.0 and 3.2 will crash; 3.2.1 and later give an error). Code which relies on it should be rewritten to use typeof: typedef typeof(expr ) T ; This will work with all versions of GCC.

182

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

5.7 Generalized Lvalues

Compound expressions, conditional expressions and casts are allowed as lvalues provided their operands are lvalues. This means that you can take their addresses or store values into them. Standard C++ allows compound expressions and conditional expressions as lvalues, and permits casts to reference type, so use of this extension is deprecated for C++ code. For example, a compound expression can be assigned, provided the last expression in the sequence is an lvalue. These two expressions are equivalent: (a, b) += 5 a, (b += 5) Similarly, the address of the compound expression can be taken. These two expressions are equivalent: &(a, b) a, &b A conditional expression is a valid lvalue if its type is not void and the true and false branches are both valid lvalues. For example, these two expressions are equivalent: (a ? b : c) = 5 (a ? b = 5 : (c = 5)) A cast is a valid lvalue if its operand is an lvalue. A simple assignment whose left-hand side is a cast works by converting the right-hand side rst to the specied type, then to the type of the inner left-hand side expression. After this is stored, the value is converted back to the specied type to become the value of the assignment. Thus, if a has type char *, the following two expressions are equivalent: (int)a = 5 (int)(a = (char *)(int)5) An assignment-with-arithmetic operation such as += applied to a cast performs the arithmetic using the type resulting from the cast, and then continues as in the previous case. Therefore, these two expressions are equivalent: (int)a += 5 (int)(a = (char *)(int) ((int)a + 5)) You cannot take the address of an lvalue cast, because the use of its address would not work out coherently. Suppose that &(int)f were permitted, where f has type float. Then the following statement would try to store an integer bit-pattern where a oating point number belongs: *&(int)f = 1; This is quite dierent from what (int)f = 1 would dothat would convert 1 to oating point and store it. Rather than cause this inconsistency, we think it is better to prohibit use of & on a cast. If you really do want an int * pointer with the address of f, you can simply write (int *)&f.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

183

5.8 Conditionals with Omitted Operands

The middle operand in a conditional expression may be omitted. Then if the rst operand is nonzero, its value is the value of the conditional expression. Therefore, the expression x ? : y has the value of x if that is nonzero; otherwise, the value of y. This example is perfectly equivalent to x ? x : y In this simple case, the ability to omit the middle operand is not especially useful. When it becomes useful is when the rst operand does, or may (if it is a macro argument), contain a side eect. Then repeating the operand in the middle would perform the side eect twice. Omitting the middle operand uses the value already computed without the undesirable eects of recomputing it.

5.9 Double-Word Integers

ISO C99 supports data types for integers that are at least 64 bits wide, and as an extension GCC supports them in C89 mode and in C++. Simply write long long int for a signed integer, or unsigned long long int for an unsigned integer. To make an integer constant of type long long int, add the sux LL to the integer. To make an integer constant of type unsigned long long int, add the sux ULL to the integer. You can use these types in arithmetic like any other integer types. Addition, subtraction, and bitwise boolean operations on these types are open-coded on all types of machines. Multiplication is open-coded if the machine supports fullword-to-doubleword a widening multiply instruction. Division and shifts are open-coded only on machines that provide special support. The operations that are not open-coded use special library routines that come with GCC. There may be pitfalls when you use long long types for function arguments, unless you declare function prototypes. If a function expects type int for its argument, and you pass a value of type long long int, confusion will result because the caller and the subroutine will disagree about the number of bytes for the argument. Likewise, if the function expects long long int and you pass int. The best way to avoid such problems is to use prototypes.

5.10 Complex Numbers

ISO C99 supports complex oating data types, and as an extension GCC supports them in C89 mode and in C++, and supports complex integer data types which are not part of ISO C99. You can declare complex types using the keyword _Complex. As an extension, the older GNU keyword __complex__ is also supported. For example, _Complex double x; declares x as a variable whose real part and imaginary part are both of type double. _Complex short int y; declares y to have real and imaginary parts of type short int; this is not likely to be useful, but it shows that the set of complex types is complete.

184

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

To write a constant with a complex data type, use the sux i or j (either one; they are equivalent). For example, 2.5fi has type _Complex float and 3i has type _Complex int. Such a constant always has a pure imaginary value, but you can form any complex value you like by adding one to a real constant. This is a GNU extension; if you have an ISO C99 conforming C library (such as GNU libc), and want to construct complex constants of oating type, you should include <complex.h> and use the macros I or _Complex_I instead. To extract the real part of a complex-valued expression exp, write __real__ exp . Likewise, use __imag__ to extract the imaginary part. This is a GNU extension; for values of oating type, you should use the ISO C99 functions crealf, creal, creall, cimagf, cimag and cimagl, declared in <complex.h> and also provided as built-in functions by GCC. The operator ~ performs complex conjugation when used on a value with a complex type. This is a GNU extension; for values of oating type, you should use the ISO C99 functions conjf, conj and conjl, declared in <complex.h> and also provided as built-in functions by GCC. GCC can allocate complex automatic variables in a noncontiguous fashion; its even possible for the real part to be in a register while the imaginary part is on the stack (or vice-versa). Only the DWARF2 debug info format can represent this, so use of DWARF2 is recommended. If you are using the stabs debug info format, GCC describes a noncontiguous complex variable as if it were two separate variables of noncomplex type. If the variables actual name is foo, the two ctitious variables are named foo$real and foo$imag. You can examine and set these two ctitious variables with your debugger.

5.11 Hex Floats

ISO C99 supports oating-point numbers written not only in the usual decimal notation, such as 1.55e1, but also numbers such as 0x1.fp3 written in hexadecimal format. As a GNU extension, GCC supports this in C89 mode (except in some cases when strictly conforming) and in C++. In that format the 0x hex introducer and the p or P exponent eld are mandatory. The exponent is a decimal number that indicates the power of 2 by 15 which the signicant part will be multiplied. Thus 0x1.f is 1 16 , p3 multiplies it by 8, and the value of 0x1.fp3 is the same as 1.55e1. Unlike for oating-point numbers in the decimal notation the exponent is always required in the hexadecimal notation. Otherwise the compiler would not be able to resolve the ambiguity of, e.g., 0x1.f. This could mean 1.0f or 1.9375 since f is also the extension for oating-point constants of type float.

5.12 Arrays of Length Zero

Zero-length arrays are allowed in GNU C. They are very useful as the last element of a structure which is really a header for a variable-length object: struct line { int length; char contents[0]; };

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

185

struct line *thisline = (struct line *) malloc (sizeof (struct line) + this_length); thisline->length = this_length; In ISO C90, you would have to give contents a length of 1, which means either you waste space or complicate the argument to malloc. In ISO C99, you would use a exible array member, which is slightly dierent in syntax and semantics: Flexible array members are written as contents[] without the 0. Flexible array members have incomplete type, and so the sizeof operator may not be applied. As a quirk of the original implementation of zero-length arrays, sizeof evaluates to zero. Flexible array members may only appear as the last member of a struct that is otherwise non-empty. A structure containing a exible array member, or a union containing such a structure (possibly recursively), may not be a member of a structure or an element of an array. (However, these uses are permitted by GCC as extensions.) GCC versions before 3.0 allowed zero-length arrays to be statically initialized, as if they were exible arrays. In addition to those cases that were useful, it also allowed initializations in situations that would corrupt later data. Non-empty initialization of zero-length arrays is now treated like any case where there are more initializer elements than the array holds, in that a suitable warning about "excess elements in array" is given, and the excess elements (all of them, in this case) are ignored. Instead GCC allows static initialization of exible array members. This is equivalent to dening a new structure containing the original structure followed by an array of sucient size to contain the data. I.e. in the following, f1 is constructed as if it were declared like f2. struct f1 { int x; int y[]; } f1 = { 1, { 2, 3, 4 } }; struct f2 { struct f1 f1; int data[3]; } f2 = { { 1 }, { 2, 3, 4 } }; The convenience of this extension is that f1 has the desired type, eliminating the need to consistently refer to f2.f1. This has symmetry with normal static arrays, in that an array of unknown size is also written with []. Of course, this extension only makes sense if the extra data comes at the end of a toplevel object, as otherwise we would be overwriting data at subsequent osets. To avoid undue complication and confusion with initialization of deeply nested arrays, we simply disallow any non-empty initialization except when the structure is the top-level object. For example: struct foo { int x; int y[]; }; struct bar { struct foo z; };

186

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

struct struct struct struct

foo bar bar foo

a = { 1, { b = { { 1, c = { { 1, d[1] = { {

2, 3, 4 } }; { 2, 3, 4 } } }; { } } }; 1 { 2, 3, 4 } } };

// // // //

Valid. Invalid. Valid. Invalid.

5.13 Structures With No Members

GCC permits a C structure to have no members: struct empty { }; The structure will have size zero. In C++, empty structures are part of the language. G++ treats empty structures as if they had a single member of type char.

5.14 Arrays of Variable Length

Variable-length automatic arrays are allowed in ISO C99, and as an extension GCC accepts them in C89 mode and in C++. (However, GCCs implementation of variable-length arrays does not yet conform in detail to the ISO C99 standard.) These arrays are declared like any other automatic arrays, but with a length that is not a constant expression. The storage is allocated at the point of declaration and deallocated when the brace-level is exited. For example: FILE * concat_fopen (char *s1, char *s2, char *mode) { char str[strlen (s1) + strlen (s2) + 1]; strcpy (str, s1); strcat (str, s2); return fopen (str, mode); } Jumping or breaking out of the scope of the array name deallocates the storage. Jumping into the scope is not allowed; you get an error message for it. You can use the function alloca to get an eect much like variable-length arrays. The function alloca is available in many other C implementations (but not in all). On the other hand, variable-length arrays are more elegant. There are other dierences between these two methods. Space allocated with alloca exists until the containing function returns. The space for a variable-length array is deallocated as soon as the array names scope ends. (If you use both variable-length arrays and alloca in the same function, deallocation of a variable-length array will also deallocate anything more recently allocated with alloca.) You can also use variable-length arrays as arguments to functions: struct entry tester (int len, char data[len][len]) {

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

187

/* . . . */ } The length of an array is computed once when the storage is allocated and is remembered for the scope of the array in case you access it with sizeof. If you want to pass the array rst and the length afterward, you can use a forward declaration in the parameter listanother GNU extension. struct entry tester (int len; char data[len][len], int len) { /* . . . */ } The int len before the semicolon is a parameter forward declaration, and it serves the purpose of making the name len known when the declaration of data is parsed. You can write any number of such parameter forward declarations in the parameter list. They can be separated by commas or semicolons, but the last one must end with a semicolon, which is followed by the real parameter declarations. Each forward declaration must match a real declaration in parameter name and data type. ISO C99 does not support parameter forward declarations.

5.15 Macros with a Variable Number of Arguments.

In the ISO C standard of 1999, a macro can be declared to accept a variable number of arguments much as a function can. The syntax for dening the macro is similar to that of a function. Here is an example:
#define debug(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, __VA_ARGS__)

Here ... is a variable argument. In the invocation of such a macro, it represents the zero or more tokens until the closing parenthesis that ends the invocation, including any commas. This set of tokens replaces the identier __VA_ARGS__ in the macro body wherever it appears. See the CPP manual for more information. GCC has long supported variadic macros, and used a dierent syntax that allowed you to give a name to the variable arguments just like any other argument. Here is an example: #define debug(format, args...) fprintf (stderr, format, args) This is in all ways equivalent to the ISO C example above, but arguably more readable and descriptive. GNU CPP has two further variadic macro extensions, and permits them to be used with either of the above forms of macro denition. In standard C, you are not allowed to leave the variable argument out entirely; but you are allowed to pass an empty argument. For example, this invocation is invalid in ISO C, because there is no comma after the string: debug ("A message") GNU CPP permits you to completely omit the variable arguments in this way. In the above examples, the compiler would complain, though since the expansion of the macro still has the extra comma after the format string.

188

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

To help solve this problem, CPP behaves specially for variable arguments used with the token paste operator, ##. If instead you write
#define debug(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, ## __VA_ARGS__)

and if the variable arguments are omitted or empty, the ## operator causes the preprocessor to remove the comma before it. If you do provide some variable arguments in your macro invocation, GNU CPP does not complain about the paste operation and instead places the variable arguments after the comma. Just like any other pasted macro argument, these arguments are not macro expanded.

5.16 Slightly Looser Rules for Escaped Newlines

Recently, the preprocessor has relaxed its treatment of escaped newlines. Previously, the newline had to immediately follow a backslash. The current implementation allows whitespace in the form of spaces, horizontal and vertical tabs, and form feeds between the backslash and the subsequent newline. The preprocessor issues a warning, but treats it as a valid escaped newline and combines the two lines to form a single logical line. This works within comments and tokens, as well as between tokens. Comments are not treated as whitespace for the purposes of this relaxation, since they have not yet been replaced with spaces.

5.17 Non-Lvalue Arrays May Have Subscripts

In ISO C99, arrays that are not lvalues still decay to pointers, and may be subscripted, although they may not be modied or used after the next sequence point and the unary & operator may not be applied to them. As an extension, GCC allows such arrays to be subscripted in C89 mode, though otherwise they do not decay to pointers outside C99 mode. For example, this is valid in GNU C though not valid in C89: struct foo {int a[4];}; struct foo f(); bar (int index) { return f().a[index]; }

5.18 Arithmetic on void- and Function-Pointers

In GNU C, addition and subtraction operations are supported on pointers to void and on pointers to functions. This is done by treating the size of a void or of a function as 1. A consequence of this is that sizeof is also allowed on void and on function types, and returns 1. The option -Wpointer-arith requests a warning if these extensions are used.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

189

5.19 Non-Constant Initializers

As in standard C++ and ISO C99, the elements of an aggregate initializer for an automatic variable are not required to be constant expressions in GNU C. Here is an example of an initializer with run-time varying elements: foo (float f, float g) { float beat_freqs[2] = { f-g, f+g }; /* . . . */ }

5.20 Compound Literals

ISO C99 supports compound literals. A compound literal looks like a cast containing an initializer. Its value is an object of the type specied in the cast, containing the elements specied in the initializer; it is an lvalue. As an extension, GCC supports compound literals in C89 mode and in C++. Usually, the specied type is a structure. Assume that struct foo and structure are declared as shown: struct foo {int a; char b[2];} structure; Here is an example of constructing a struct foo with a compound literal: structure = ((struct foo) {x + y, a, 0}); This is equivalent to writing the following: { struct foo temp = {x + y, a, 0}; structure = temp; } You can also construct an array. If all the elements of the compound literal are (made up of) simple constant expressions, suitable for use in initializers of objects of static storage duration, then the compound literal can be coerced to a pointer to its rst element and used in such an initializer, as shown here: char **foo = (char *[]) { "x", "y", "z" }; Compound literals for scalar types and union types are is also allowed, but then the compound literal is equivalent to a cast. As a GNU extension, GCC allows initialization of objects with static storage duration by compound literals (which is not possible in ISO C99, because the initializer is not a constant). It is handled as if the object was initialized only with the bracket enclosed list if compound literals and object types match. The initializer list of the compound literal must be constant. If the object being initialized has array type of unknown size, the size is determined by compound literal size. static struct foo x = (struct foo) {1, a, b}; static int y[] = (int []) {1, 2, 3}; static int z[] = (int [3]) {1}; The above lines are equivalent to the following:

190

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

static struct foo x = {1, a, b}; static int y[] = {1, 2, 3}; static int z[] = {1, 0, 0};

5.21 Designated Initializers

Standard C89 requires the elements of an initializer to appear in a xed order, the same as the order of the elements in the array or structure being initialized. In ISO C99 you can give the elements in any order, specifying the array indices or structure eld names they apply to, and GNU C allows this as an extension in C89 mode as well. This extension is not implemented in GNU C++. To specify an array index, write [index ] = before the element value. For example, int a[6] = { [4] = 29, [2] = 15 }; is equivalent to int a[6] = { 0, 0, 15, 0, 29, 0 }; The index values must be constant expressions, even if the array being initialized is automatic. An alternative syntax for this which has been obsolete since GCC 2.5 but GCC still accepts is to write [index ] before the element value, with no =. To initialize a range of elements to the same value, write [first ... last ] = value . This is a GNU extension. For example, int widths[] = { [0 ... 9] = 1, [10 ... 99] = 2, [100] = 3 }; If the value in it has side-eects, the side-eects will happen only once, not for each initialized eld by the range initializer. Note that the length of the array is the highest value specied plus one. In a structure initializer, specify the name of a eld to initialize with .fieldname = before the element value. For example, given the following structure, struct point { int x, y; }; the following initialization struct point p = { .y = yvalue, .x = xvalue }; is equivalent to struct point p = { xvalue, yvalue }; Another syntax which has the same meaning, obsolete since GCC 2.5, is fieldname :, as shown here: struct point p = { y: yvalue, x: xvalue }; The [index ] or .fieldname is known as a designator. You can also use a designator (or the obsolete colon syntax) when initializing a union, to specify which element of the union should be used. For example, union foo { int i; double d; }; union foo f = { .d = 4 };

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

191

will convert 4 to a double to store it in the union using the second element. By contrast, casting 4 to type union foo would store it into the union as the integer i, since it is an integer. (See Section 5.23 [Cast to Union], page 191.) You can combine this technique of naming elements with ordinary C initialization of successive elements. Each initializer element that does not have a designator applies to the next consecutive element of the array or structure. For example, int a[6] = { [1] = v1, v2, [4] = v4 }; is equivalent to int a[6] = { 0, v1, v2, 0, v4, 0 }; Labeling the elements of an array initializer is especially useful when the indices are characters or belong to an enum type. For example: int whitespace[256] = { [ ] = 1, [\t] = 1, [\h] = 1, [\f] = 1, [\n] = 1, [\r] = 1 }; You can also write a series of .fieldname and [index ] designators before an = to specify a nested subobject to initialize; the list is taken relative to the subobject corresponding to the closest surrounding brace pair. For example, with the struct point declaration above:
struct point ptarray[10] = { [2].y = yv2, [2].x = xv2, [0].x = xv0 };

If the same eld is initialized multiple times, it will have value from the last initialization. If any such overridden initialization has side-eect, it is unspecied whether the side-eect happens or not. Currently, gcc will discard them and issue a warning.

5.22 Case Ranges

You can specify a range of consecutive values in a single case label, like this: case low ... high : This has the same eect as the proper number of individual case labels, one for each integer value from low to high, inclusive. This feature is especially useful for ranges of ASCII character codes: case A ... Z: Be careful: Write spaces around the ..., for otherwise it may be parsed wrong when you use it with integer values. For example, write this: case 1 ... 5: rather than this: case 1...5:

5.23 Cast to a Union Type

A cast to union type is similar to other casts, except that the type specied is a union type. You can specify the type either with union tag or with a typedef name. A cast to union

192

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

is actually a constructor though, not a cast, and hence does not yield an lvalue like normal casts. (See Section 5.20 [Compound Literals], page 189.) The types that may be cast to the union type are those of the members of the union. Thus, given the following union and variables: union foo { int i; double d; }; int x; double y; both x and y can be cast to type union foo. Using the cast as the right-hand side of an assignment to a variable of union type is equivalent to storing in a member of the union: union foo u; /* . . . */ u = (union foo) x u = (union foo) y

u.i = x u.d = y You can also use the union cast as a function argument: void hack (union foo); /* . . . */ hack ((union foo) x);

5.24 Mixed Declarations and Code

ISO C99 and ISO C++ allow declarations and code to be freely mixed within compound statements. As an extension, GCC also allows this in C89 mode. For example, you could do: int i; /* . . . */ i++; int j = i + 2; Each identier is visible from where it is declared until the end of the enclosing block.

5.25 Declaring Attributes of Functions

In GNU C, you declare certain things about functions called in your program which help the compiler optimize function calls and check your code more carefully. The keyword __attribute__ allows you to specify special attributes when making a declaration. This keyword is followed by an attribute specication inside double parentheses. The following attributes are currently dened for functions on all targets: noreturn, noinline, always_inline, pure, const, nothrow, format, format_arg, no_instrument_ function, section, constructor, destructor, used, unused, deprecated, weak, malloc, alias, and nonnull. Several other attributes are dened for functions on particular target systems. Other attributes, including section are supported for variables declarations (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207) and for types (see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211).

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

193

You may also specify attributes with __ preceding and following each keyword. This allows you to use them in header les without being concerned about a possible macro of the same name. For example, you may use __noreturn__ instead of noreturn. See Section 5.26 [Attribute Syntax], page 202, for details of the exact syntax for using attributes. noreturn A few standard library functions, such as abort and exit, cannot return. GCC knows this automatically. Some programs dene their own functions that never return. You can declare them noreturn to tell the compiler this fact. For example,
void fatal () __attribute__ ((noreturn)); void fatal (/* . . . */) { /* . . . */ /* Print error message. */ /* . . . */ exit (1); }

The noreturn keyword tells the compiler to assume that fatal cannot return. It can then optimize without regard to what would happen if fatal ever did return. This makes slightly better code. More importantly, it helps avoid spurious warnings of uninitialized variables. Do not assume that registers saved by the calling function are restored before calling the noreturn function. It does not make sense for a noreturn function to have a return type other than void. The attribute noreturn is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 2.5. An alternative way to declare that a function does not return, which works in the current version and in some older versions, is as follows:
typedef void voidfn (); volatile voidfn fatal;

noinline

This function attribute prevents a function from being considered for inlining.

always_inline Generally, functions are not inlined unless optimization is specied. For functions declared inline, this attribute inlines the function even if no optimization level was specied. pure Many functions have no eects except the return value and their return value depends only on the parameters and/or global variables. Such a function can be subject to common subexpression elimination and loop optimization just as an arithmetic operator would be. These functions should be declared with the attribute pure. For example,
int square (int) __attribute__ ((pure));

says that the hypothetical function square is safe to call fewer times than the program says. Some of common examples of pure functions are strlen or memcmp. Interesting non-pure functions are functions with innite loops or those depending

194

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

on volatile memory or other system resource, that may change between two consecutive calls (such as feof in a multithreading environment). The attribute pure is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 2.96. const Many functions do not examine any values except their arguments, and have no eects except the return value. Basically this is just slightly more strict class than the pure attribute above, since function is not allowed to read global memory. Note that a function that has pointer arguments and examines the data pointed to must not be declared const. Likewise, a function that calls a non-const function usually must not be const. It does not make sense for a const function to return void. The attribute const is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 2.5. An alternative way to declare that a function has no side eects, which works in the current version and in some older versions, is as follows:
typedef int intfn (); extern const intfn square;

This approach does not work in GNU C++ from 2.6.0 on, since the language species that the const must be attached to the return value. nothrow The nothrow attribute is used to inform the compiler that a function cannot throw an exception. For example, most functions in the standard C library can be guaranteed not to throw an exception with the notable exceptions of qsort and bsearch that take function pointer arguments. The nothrow attribute is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 3.2.

format (archetype, string-index, first-to-check ) The format attribute species that a function takes printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon style arguments which should be type-checked against a format string. For example, the declaration:
extern int my_printf (void *my_object, const char *my_format, ...) __attribute__ ((format (printf, 2, 3)));

causes the compiler to check the arguments in calls to my_printf for consistency with the printf style format string argument my_format. The parameter archetype determines how the format string is interpreted, and should be printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon. (You can also use __printf_ _, __scanf__, __strftime__ or __strfmon__.) The parameter string-index species which argument is the format string argument (starting from 1), while rst-to-check is the number of the rst argument to check against the format string. For functions where the arguments are not available to be checked (such as vprintf), specify the third parameter as zero. In this case the compiler only checks the format string for consistency. For strftime formats, the third parameter is required to be zero. Since non-static C++ methods have an implicit this argument, the arguments of such methods should be counted from two, not one, when giving values for string-index and rst-to-check.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

195

In the example above, the format string (my_format) is the second argument of the function my_print, and the arguments to check start with the third argument, so the correct parameters for the format attribute are 2 and 3. The format attribute allows you to identify your own functions which take format strings as arguments, so that GCC can check the calls to these functions for errors. The compiler always (unless -ffreestanding is used) checks formats for the standard library functions printf, fprintf, sprintf, scanf, fscanf, sscanf, strftime, vprintf, vfprintf and vsprintf whenever such warnings are requested (using -Wformat), so there is no need to modify the header le stdio.h. In C99 mode, the functions snprintf, vsnprintf, vscanf, vfscanf and vsscanf are also checked. Except in strictly conforming C standard modes, the X/Open function strfmon is also checked as are printf_unlocked and fprintf_unlocked. See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21. format_arg (string-index ) The format_arg attribute species that a function takes a format string for a printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon style function and modies it (for example, to translate it into another language), so the result can be passed to a printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon style function (with the remaining arguments to the format function the same as they would have been for the unmodied string). For example, the declaration:
extern char * my_dgettext (char *my_domain, const char *my_format) __attribute__ ((format_arg (2)));

causes the compiler to check the arguments in calls to a printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon type function, whose format string argument is a call to the my_dgettext function, for consistency with the format string argument my_format. If the format_arg attribute had not been specied, all the compiler could tell in such calls to format functions would be that the format string argument is not constant; this would generate a warning when -Wformat-nonliteral is used, but the calls could not be checked without the attribute. The parameter string-index species which argument is the format string argument (starting from one). Since non-static C++ methods have an implicit this argument, the arguments of such methods should be counted from two. The format-arg attribute allows you to identify your own functions which modify format strings, so that GCC can check the calls to printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon type function whose operands are a call to one of your own function. The compiler always treats gettext, dgettext, and dcgettext in this manner except when strict ISO C support is requested by -ansi or an appropriate -std option, or -ffreestanding is used. See Section 3.4 [Options Controlling C Dialect], page 21. nonnull (arg-index, ...) The nonnull attribute species that some function parameters should be nonnull pointers. For instance, the declaration:
extern void * my_memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t len)

196

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

__attribute__((nonnull (1, 2)));

causes the compiler to check that, in calls to my_memcpy, arguments dest and src are non-null. If the compiler determines that a null pointer is passed in an argument slot marked as non-null, and the -Wnonnull option is enabled, a warning is issued. The compiler may also choose to make optimizations based on the knowledge that certain function arguments will not be null. If no argument index list is given to the nonnull attribute, all pointer arguments are marked as non-null. To illustrate, the following declaration is equivalent to the previous example:
extern void * my_memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t len) __attribute__((nonnull));

no_instrument_function If -finstrument-functions is given, proling function calls will be generated at entry and exit of most user-compiled functions. Functions with this attribute will not be so instrumented. section ("section-name ") Normally, the compiler places the code it generates in the text section. Sometimes, however, you need additional sections, or you need certain particular functions to appear in special sections. The section attribute species that a function lives in a particular section. For example, the declaration:
extern void foobar (void) __attribute__ ((section ("bar")));

puts the function foobar in the bar section. Some le formats do not support arbitrary sections so the section attribute is not available on all platforms. If you need to map the entire contents of a module to a particular section, consider using the facilities of the linker instead. constructor destructor The constructor attribute causes the function to be called automatically before execution enters main (). Similarly, the destructor attribute causes the function to be called automatically after main () has completed or exit () has been called. Functions with these attributes are useful for initializing data that will be used implicitly during the execution of the program. These attributes are not currently implemented for Objective-C. unused This attribute, attached to a function, means that the function is meant to be possibly unused. GCC will not produce a warning for this function. GNU C++ does not currently support this attribute as denitions without parameters are valid in C++. This attribute, attached to a function, means that code must be emitted for the function even if it appears that the function is not referenced. This is useful, for example, when the function is referenced only in inline assembly. The deprecated attribute results in a warning if the function is used anywhere in the source le. This is useful when identifying functions that are expected

used

deprecated

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

197

to be removed in a future version of a program. The warning also includes the location of the declaration of the deprecated function, to enable users to easily nd further information about why the function is deprecated, or what they should do instead. Note that the warnings only occurs for uses:
int old_fn () __attribute__ ((deprecated)); int old_fn (); int (*fn_ptr)() = old_fn;

results in a warning on line 3 but not line 2. The deprecated attribute can also be used for variables and types (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207, see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211.) weak The weak attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as a weak symbol rather than a global. This is primarily useful in dening library functions which can be overridden in user code, though it can also be used with non-function declarations. Weak symbols are supported for ELF targets, and also for a.out targets when using the GNU assembler and linker. The malloc attribute is used to tell the compiler that a function may be treated as if it were the malloc function. The compiler assumes that calls to malloc result in pointers that cannot alias anything. This will often improve optimization.

malloc

alias ("target ") The alias attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as an alias for another symbol, which must be specied. For instance,
void __f () { /* Do something. */; } void f () __attribute__ ((weak, alias ("__f")));

declares f to be a weak alias for __f. In C++, the mangled name for the target must be used. Not all target machines support this attribute. visibility ("visibility_type ") The visibility attribute on ELF targets causes the declaration to be emitted with default, hidden, protected or internal visibility.
void __attribute__ ((visibility ("protected"))) f () { /* Do something. */; } int i __attribute__ ((visibility ("hidden")));

See the ELF gABI for complete details, but the short story is: default Default visibility is the normal case for ELF. This value is available for the visibility attribute to override other options that may change the assumed visibility of symbols. Hidden visibility indicates that the symbol will not be placed into the dynamic symbol table, so no other module (executable or shared library) can reference it directly. Protected visibility indicates that the symbol will be placed in the dynamic symbol table, but that references within the dening module will bind to the local symbol. That is, the symbol cannot be overridden by another module.

hidden

protected

198

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

internal

Internal visibility is like hidden visibility, but with additional processor specic semantics. Unless otherwise specied by the psABI, gcc denes internal visibility to mean that the function is never called from another module. Note that hidden symbols, while they cannot be referenced directly by other modules, can be referenced indirectly via function pointers. By indicating that a symbol cannot be called from outside the module, gcc may for instance omit the load of a PIC register since it is known that the calling function loaded the correct value.

Not all ELF targets support this attribute. regparm (number ) On the Intel 386, the regparm attribute causes the compiler to pass up to number integer arguments in registers EAX, EDX, and ECX instead of on the stack. Functions that take a variable number of arguments will continue to be passed all of their arguments on the stack. Beware that on some ELF systems this attribute is unsuitable for global functions in shared libraries with lazy binding (which is the default). Lazy binding will send the rst call via resolving code in the loader, which might assume EAX, EDX and ECX can be clobbered, as per the standard calling conventions. Solaris 8 is aected by this. GNU systems with GLIBC 2.1 or higher, and FreeBSD, are believed to be safe since the loaders there save all registers. (Lazy binding can be disabled with the linker or the loader if desired, to avoid the problem.) stdcall On the Intel 386, the stdcall attribute causes the compiler to assume that the called function will pop o the stack space used to pass arguments, unless it takes a variable number of arguments. On the Intel 386, the cdecl attribute causes the compiler to assume that the calling function will pop o the stack space used to pass arguments. This is useful to override the eects of the -mrtd switch.

cdecl

longcall/shortcall On the RS/6000 and PowerPC, the longcall attribute causes the compiler to always call this function via a pointer, just as it would if the -mlongcall option had been specied. The shortcall attribute causes the compiler not to do this. These attributes override both the -mlongcall switch and the #pragma longcall setting. See Section 3.17.10 [RS/6000 and PowerPC Options], page 106, for more information on whether long calls are necessary. long_call/short_call This attribute species how a particular function is called on ARM. Both attributes override the -mlong-calls (see Section 3.17.5 [ARM Options], page 97) command line switch and #pragma long_calls settings. The long_ call attribute causes the compiler to always call the function by rst loading its address into a register and then using the contents of that register. The

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

199

short_call attribute always places the oset to the function from the call site into the BL instruction directly. function_vector Use this attribute on the H8/300 and H8/300H to indicate that the specied function should be called through the function vector. Calling a function through the function vector will reduce code size, however; the function vector has a limited size (maximum 128 entries on the H8/300 and 64 entries on the H8/300H) and shares space with the interrupt vector. You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for this attribute to work correctly. interrupt Use this attribute on the ARM, AVR, M32R/D and Xstormy16 ports to indicate that the specied function is an interrupt handler. The compiler will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when this attribute is present. Note, interrupt handlers for the H8/300, H8/300H and SH processors can be specied via the interrupt_handler attribute. Note, on the AVR, interrupts will be enabled inside the function. Note, for the ARM, you can specify the kind of interrupt to be handled by adding an optional parameter to the interrupt attribute like this:
void f () __attribute__ ((interrupt ("IRQ")));

Permissible values for this parameter are: IRQ, FIQ, SWI, ABORT and UNDEF. interrupt_handler Use this attribute on the H8/300, H8/300H and SH to indicate that the specied function is an interrupt handler. The compiler will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when this attribute is present. sp_switch Use this attribute on the SH to indicate an interrupt_handler function should switch to an alternate stack. It expects a string argument that names a global variable holding the address of the alternate stack.
void *alt_stack; void f () __attribute__ ((interrupt_handler, sp_switch ("alt_stack")));

trap_exit Use this attribute on the SH for an interrupt_handle to return using trapa instead of rte. This attribute expects an integer argument specifying the trap number to be used. eightbit_data Use this attribute on the H8/300 and H8/300H to indicate that the specied variable should be placed into the eight bit data section. The compiler will generate more ecient code for certain operations on data in the eight bit data area. Note the eight bit data area is limited to 256 bytes of data.

200

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for this attribute to work correctly. tiny_data Use this attribute on the H8/300H to indicate that the specied variable should be placed into the tiny data section. The compiler will generate more ecient code for loads and stores on data in the tiny data section. Note the tiny data area is limited to slightly under 32kbytes of data. signal Use this attribute on the AVR to indicate that the specied function is a signal handler. The compiler will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in a signal handler when this attribute is present. Interrupts will be disabled inside the function. Use this attribute on the ARM, AVR and IP2K ports to indicate that the specied function does not need prologue/epilogue sequences generated by the compiler. It is up to the programmer to provide these sequences.

naked

model (model-name ) Use this attribute on the M32R/D to set the addressability of an object, and of the code generated for a function. The identier model-name is one of small, medium, or large, representing each of the code models. Small model objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their addresses can be loaded with the ld24 instruction), and are callable with the bl instruction. Medium model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the compiler will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses), and are callable with the bl instruction. Large model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the compiler will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses), and may not be reachable with the bl instruction (the compiler will generate the much slower seth/add3/jl instruction sequence). far On 68HC11 and 68HC12 the far attribute causes the compiler to use a calling convention that takes care of switching memory banks when entering and leaving a function. This calling convention is also the default when using the -mlong-calls option. On 68HC12 the compiler will use the call and rtc instructions to call and return from a function. On 68HC11 the compiler will generate a sequence of instructions to invoke a board-specic routine to switch the memory bank and call the real function. The board-specic routine simulates a call. At the end of a function, it will jump to a board-specic routine instead of using rts. The board-specic return routine simulates the rtc. near On 68HC11 and 68HC12 the near attribute causes the compiler to use the normal calling convention based on jsr and rts. This attribute can be used to cancel the eect of the -mlong-calls option.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

201

dllimport On Windows targets, the dllimport attribute causes the compiler to reference a function or variable via a global pointer to a pointer that is set up by the Windows dll library. The pointer name is formed by combining _imp__ and the function or variable name. The attribute implies extern storage. Currently, the attribute is ignored for inlined functions. If the attribute is applied to a symbol denition, an error is reported. If a symbol previously declared dllimport is later dened, the attribute is ignored in subsequent references, and a warning is emitted. The attribute is also overriden by a subsequent declaration as dllexport. When applied to C++ classes, the attribute marks non-inlined member functions and static data members as imports. However, the attribute is ignored for virtual methods to allow creation of vtables using thunks. On cygwin, mingw and arm-pe targets, __declspec(dllimport) is recognized as a synonym for __attribute__ ((dllimport)) for compatibility with other Windows compilers. The use of the dllimport attribute on functions is not necessary, but provides a small performance benet by eliminating a thunk in the dll. The use of the dllimport attribute on imported variables was required on older versions of GNU ld, but can now be avoided by passing the --enable-auto-import switch to ld. As with functions, using the attribute for a variable eliminates a thunk in the dll. One drawback to using this attribute is that a pointer to a function or variable marked as dllimport cannot be used as a constant address. The attribute can be disabled for functions by setting the -mnop-fun-dllimport ag. dllexport On Windows targets the dllexport attribute causes the compiler to provide a global pointer to a pointer in a dll, so that it can be referenced with the dllimport attribute. The pointer name is formed by combining _imp__ and the function or variable name. Currently, the dllexportattribute is ignored for inlined functions, but export can be forced by using the -fkeep-inline-functions ag. The attribute is also ignored for undened symbols. When applied to C++ classes. the attribute marks dened non-inlined member functions and static data members as exports. Static consts initialized in-class are not marked unless they are also dened out-of-class. On cygwin, mingw and arm-pe targets, __declspec(dllexport) is recognized as a synonym for __attribute__ ((dllexport)) for compatibility with other Windows compilers. Alternative methods for including the symbol in the dlls export table are to use a .def le with an EXPORTS section or, with GNU ld, using the --export-all linker ag. You can specify multiple attributes in a declaration by separating them by commas within the double parentheses or by immediately following an attribute declaration with another attribute declaration.

202

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Some people object to the __attribute__ feature, suggesting that ISO Cs #pragma should be used instead. At the time __attribute__ was designed, there were two reasons for not doing this. 1. It is impossible to generate #pragma commands from a macro. 2. There is no telling what the same #pragma might mean in another compiler. These two reasons applied to almost any application that might have been proposed for #pragma. It was basically a mistake to use #pragma for anything. The ISO C99 standard includes _Pragma, which now allows pragmas to be generated from macros. In addition, a #pragma GCC namespace is now in use for GCC-specic pragmas. However, it has been found convenient to use __attribute__ to achieve a natural attachment of attributes to their corresponding declarations, whereas #pragma GCC is of use for constructs that do not naturally form part of the grammar. See section Miscellaneous Preprocessing Directives in The GNU C Preprocessor.

5.26 Attribute Syntax

This section describes the syntax with which __attribute__ may be used, and the constructs to which attribute speciers bind, for the C language. Some details may vary for C++ and Objective-C. Because of infelicities in the grammar for attributes, some forms described here may not be successfully parsed in all cases. There are some problems with the semantics of attributes in C++. For example, there are no manglings for attributes, although they may aect code generation, so problems may arise when attributed types are used in conjunction with templates or overloading. Similarly, typeid does not distinguish between types with dierent attributes. Support for attributes in C++ may be restricted in future to attributes on declarations only, but not on nested declarators. See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192, for details of the semantics of attributes applying to functions. See Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207, for details of the semantics of attributes applying to variables. See Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211, for details of the semantics of attributes applying to structure, union and enumerated types. An attribute specier is of the form __attribute__ ((attribute-list )). An attribute list is a possibly empty comma-separated sequence of attributes, where each attribute is one of the following: Empty. Empty attributes are ignored. A word (which may be an identier such as unused, or a reserved word such as const). A word, followed by, in parentheses, parameters for the attribute. These parameters take one of the following forms: An identier. For example, mode attributes use this form. An identier followed by a comma and a non-empty comma-separated list of expressions. For example, format attributes use this form. A possibly empty comma-separated list of expressions. For example, format_arg attributes use this form with the list being a single integer constant expression, and alias attributes use this form with the list being a single string constant.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

203

An attribute specier list is a sequence of one or more attribute speciers, not separated by any other tokens. An attribute specier list may appear after the colon following a label, other than a case or default label. The only attribute it makes sense to use after a label is unused. This feature is intended for code generated by programs which contains labels that may be unused but which is compiled with -Wall. It would not normally be appropriate to use in it human-written code, though it could be useful in cases where the code that jumps to the label is contained within an #ifdef conditional. An attribute specier list may appear as part of a struct, union or enum specier. It may go either immediately after the struct, union or enum keyword, or after the closing brace. It is ignored if the content of the structure, union or enumerated type is not dened in the specier in which the attribute specier list is usedthat is, in usages such as struct __attribute__((foo)) bar with no following opening brace. Where attribute speciers follow the closing brace, they are considered to relate to the structure, union or enumerated type dened, not to any enclosing declaration the type specier appears in, and the type dened is not complete until after the attribute speciers. Otherwise, an attribute specier appears as part of a declaration, counting declarations of unnamed parameters and type names, and relates to that declaration (which may be nested in another declaration, for example in the case of a parameter declaration), or to a particular declarator within a declaration. Where an attribute specier is applied to a parameter declared as a function or an array, it should apply to the function or array rather than the pointer to which the parameter is implicitly converted, but this is not yet correctly implemented. Any list of speciers and qualiers at the start of a declaration may contain attribute speciers, whether or not such a list may in that context contain storage class speciers. (Some attributes, however, are essentially in the nature of storage class speciers, and only make sense where storage class speciers may be used; for example, section.) There is one necessary limitation to this syntax: the rst old-style parameter declaration in a function denition cannot begin with an attribute specier, because such an attribute applies to the function instead by syntax described below (which, however, is not yet implemented in this case). In some other cases, attribute speciers are permitted by this grammar but not yet supported by the compiler. All attribute speciers in this place relate to the declaration as a whole. In the obsolescent usage where a type of int is implied by the absence of type speciers, such a list of speciers and qualiers may be an attribute specier list with no other speciers or qualiers. An attribute specier list may appear immediately before a declarator (other than the rst) in a comma-separated list of declarators in a declaration of more than one identier using a single list of speciers and qualiers. Such attribute speciers apply only to the identier before whose declarator they appear. For example, in
__attribute__((noreturn)) void d0 (void), __attribute__((format(printf, 1, 2))) d1 (const char *, ...), d2 (void)

the noreturn attribute applies to all the functions declared; the format attribute only applies to d1. An attribute specier list may appear immediately before the comma, = or semicolon terminating the declaration of an identier other than a function denition. At present,

204

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

such attribute speciers apply to the declared object or function, but in future they may attach to the outermost adjacent declarator. In simple cases there is no dierence, but, for example, in
void (****f)(void) __attribute__((noreturn));

at present the noreturn attribute applies to f, which causes a warning since f is not a function, but in future it may apply to the function ****f. The precise semantics of what attributes in such cases will apply to are not yet specied. Where an assembler name for an object or function is specied (see Section 5.37 [Asm Labels], page 237), at present the attribute must follow the asm specication; in future, attributes before the asm specication may apply to the adjacent declarator, and those after it to the declared object or function. An attribute specier list may, in future, be permitted to appear after the declarator in a function denition (before any old-style parameter declarations or the function body). Attribute speciers may be mixed with type qualiers appearing inside the [] of a parameter array declarator, in the C99 construct by which such qualiers are applied to the pointer to which the array is implicitly converted. Such attribute speciers apply to the pointer, not to the array, but at present this is not implemented and they are ignored. An attribute specier list may appear at the start of a nested declarator. At present, there are some limitations in this usage: the attributes correctly apply to the declarator, but for most individual attributes the semantics this implies are not implemented. When attribute speciers follow the * of a pointer declarator, they may be mixed with any type qualiers present. The following describes the formal semantics of this syntax. It will make the most sense if you are familiar with the formal specication of declarators in the ISO C standard. Consider (as in C99 subclause 6.7.5 paragraph 4) a declaration T D1, where T contains declaration speciers that specify a type Type (such as int) and D1 is a declarator that contains an identier ident. The type specied for ident for derived declarators whose type does not include an attribute specier is as in the ISO C standard. If D1 has the form ( attribute-specifier-list D ), and the declaration T D species the type derived-declarator-type-list Type for ident, then T D1 species the type deriveddeclarator-type-list attribute-specier-list Type for ident. If D1 has the form * type-qualifier-and-attribute-specifier-list D, and the declaration T D species the type derived-declarator-type-list Type for ident, then T D1 species the type derived-declarator-type-list type-qualier-and-attribute-specier-list Type for ident. For example,
void (__attribute__((noreturn)) ****f) (void);

species the type pointer to pointer to pointer to pointer to non-returning function returning void. As another example,
char *__attribute__((aligned(8))) *f;

species the type pointer to 8-byte-aligned pointer to char. Note again that this does not work with most attributes; for example, the usage of aligned and noreturn attributes given above is not yet supported. For compatibility with existing code written for compiler versions that did not implement attributes on nested declarators, some laxity is allowed in the placing of attributes. If an

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

205

attribute that only applies to types is applied to a declaration, it will be treated as applying to the type of that declaration. If an attribute that only applies to declarations is applied to the type of a declaration, it will be treated as applying to that declaration; and, for compatibility with code placing the attributes immediately before the identier declared, such an attribute applied to a function return type will be treated as applying to the function type, and such an attribute applied to an array element type will be treated as applying to the array type. If an attribute that only applies to function types is applied to a pointer-to-function type, it will be treated as applying to the pointer target type; if such an attribute is applied to a function return type that is not a pointer-to-function type, it will be treated as applying to the function type.

5.27 Prototypes and Old-Style Function Denitions

GNU C extends ISO C to allow a function prototype to override a later old-style nonprototype denition. Consider the following example: /* Use prototypes unless the compiler is old-fashioned. #ifdef __STDC__ #define P(x) x #else #define P(x) () #endif /* Prototype function declaration. int isroot P((uid_t)); */ */

/* Old-style function denition. */ int isroot (x) /* ??? lossage here ??? */ uid_t x; { return x == 0; } Suppose the type uid_t happens to be short. ISO C does not allow this example, because subword arguments in old-style non-prototype denitions are promoted. Therefore in this example the function denitions argument is really an int, which does not match the prototype argument type of short. This restriction of ISO C makes it hard to write code that is portable to traditional C compilers, because the programmer does not know whether the uid_t type is short, int, or long. Therefore, in cases like these GNU C allows a prototype to override a later oldstyle denition. More precisely, in GNU C, a function prototype argument type overrides the argument type specied by a later old-style denition if the former type is the same as the latter type before promotion. Thus in GNU C the above example is equivalent to the following: int isroot (uid_t);

206

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

int isroot (uid_t x) { return x == 0; } GNU C++ does not support old-style function denitions, so this extension is irrelevant.

5.28 C++ Style Comments

In GNU C, you may use C++ style comments, which start with // and continue until the end of the line. Many other C implementations allow such comments, and they are included in the 1999 C standard. However, C++ style comments are not recognized if you specify an -std option specifying a version of ISO C before C99, or -ansi (equivalent to -std=c89).

5.29 Dollar Signs in Identier Names

In GNU C, you may normally use dollar signs in identier names. This is because many traditional C implementations allow such identiers. However, dollar signs in identiers are not supported on a few target machines, typically because the target assembler does not allow them.

5.30 The Character

ESC

in Constants

You can use the sequence \e in a string or character constant to stand for the ASCII character ESC .

5.31 Inquiring on Alignment of Types or Variables

The keyword __alignof__ allows you to inquire about how an object is aligned, or the minimum alignment usually required by a type. Its syntax is just like sizeof. For example, if the target machine requires a double value to be aligned on an 8-byte boundary, then __alignof__ (double) is 8. This is true on many RISC machines. On more traditional machine designs, __alignof__ (double) is 4 or even 2. Some machines never actually require alignment; they allow reference to any data type even at an odd address. For these machines, __alignof__ reports the recommended alignment of a type. If the operand of __alignof__ is an lvalue rather than a type, its value is the required alignment for its type, taking into account any minimum alignment specied with GCCs __attribute__ extension (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207). For example, after this declaration: struct foo { int x; char y; } foo1; the value of __alignof__ (foo1.y) is 1, even though its actual alignment is probably 2 or 4, the same as __alignof__ (int).

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

207

It is an error to ask for the alignment of an incomplete type.

5.32 Specifying Attributes of Variables

The keyword __attribute__ allows you to specify special attributes of variables or structure elds. This keyword is followed by an attribute specication inside double parentheses. Some attributes are currently dened generically for variables. Other attributes are dened for variables on particular target systems. Other attributes are available for functions (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192) and for types (see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211). Other front ends might dene more attributes (see Chapter 6 [Extensions to the C++ Language], page 279). You may also specify attributes with __ preceding and following each keyword. This allows you to use them in header les without being concerned about a possible macro of the same name. For example, you may use __aligned__ instead of aligned. See Section 5.26 [Attribute Syntax], page 202, for details of the exact syntax for using attributes. aligned (alignment ) This attribute species a minimum alignment for the variable or structure eld, measured in bytes. For example, the declaration:
int x __attribute__ ((aligned (16))) = 0;

causes the compiler to allocate the global variable x on a 16-byte boundary. On a 68040, this could be used in conjunction with an asm expression to access the move16 instruction which requires 16-byte aligned operands. You can also specify the alignment of structure elds. For example, to create a double-word aligned int pair, you could write:
struct foo { int x[2] __attribute__ ((aligned (8))); };

This is an alternative to creating a union with a double member that forces the union to be double-word aligned. As in the preceding examples, you can explicitly specify the alignment (in bytes) that you wish the compiler to use for a given variable or structure eld. Alternatively, you can leave out the alignment factor and just ask the compiler to align a variable or eld to the maximum useful alignment for the target machine you are compiling for. For example, you could write:
short array[3] __attribute__ ((aligned));

Whenever you leave out the alignment factor in an aligned attribute specication, the compiler automatically sets the alignment for the declared variable or eld to the largest alignment which is ever used for any data type on the target machine you are compiling for. Doing this can often make copy operations more ecient, because the compiler can use whatever instructions copy the biggest chunks of memory when performing copies to or from the variables or elds that you have aligned this way. The aligned attribute can only increase the alignment; but you can decrease it by specifying packed as well. See below.

208

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Note that the eectiveness of aligned attributes may be limited by inherent limitations in your linker. On many systems, the linker is only able to arrange for variables to be aligned up to a certain maximum alignment. (For some linkers, the maximum supported alignment may be very very small.) If your linker is only able to align variables up to a maximum of 8 byte alignment, then specifying aligned(16) in an __attribute__ will still only provide you with 8 byte alignment. See your linker documentation for further information. cleanup (cleanup_function ) The cleanup attribute runs a function when the variable goes out of scope. This attribute can only be applied to auto function scope variables; it may not be applied to parameters or variables with static storage duration. The function must take one parameter, a pointer to a type compatible with the variable. The return value of the function (if any) is ignored. If -fexceptions is enabled, then cleanup function will be run during the stack unwinding that happens during the processing of the exception. Note that the cleanup attribute does not allow the exception to be caught, only to perform an action. It is undened what happens if cleanup function does not return normally. common nocommon The common attribute requests GCC to place a variable in common storage. The nocommon attribute requests the opposite to allocate space for it directly. These attributes override the default chosen by the -fno-common and -fcommon ags respectively. The deprecated attribute results in a warning if the variable is used anywhere in the source le. This is useful when identifying variables that are expected to be removed in a future version of a program. The warning also includes the location of the declaration of the deprecated variable, to enable users to easily nd further information about why the variable is deprecated, or what they should do instead. Note that the warning only occurs for uses:
extern int old_var __attribute__ ((deprecated)); extern int old_var; int new_fn () { return old_var; }

deprecated

results in a warning on line 3 but not line 2. The deprecated attribute can also be used for functions and types (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192, see Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211.) mode (mode ) This attribute species the data type for the declarationwhichever type corresponds to the mode mode. This in eect lets you request an integer or oating point type according to its width. You may also specify a mode of byte or __byte__ to indicate the mode corresponding to a one-byte integer, word or __word__ for the mode of a oneword integer, and pointer or __pointer__ for the mode used to represent pointers.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

209

packed

The packed attribute species that a variable or structure eld should have the smallest possible alignmentone byte for a variable, and one bit for a eld, unless you specify a larger value with the aligned attribute. Here is a structure in which the eld x is packed, so that it immediately follows a: struct foo { char a; int x[2] __attribute__ ((packed)); };

section ("section-name ") Normally, the compiler places the objects it generates in sections like data and bss. Sometimes, however, you need additional sections, or you need certain particular variables to appear in special sections, for example to map to special hardware. The section attribute species that a variable (or function) lives in a particular section. For example, this small program uses several specic section names:
struct duart a __attribute__ ((section ("DUART_A"))) = { 0 }; struct duart b __attribute__ ((section ("DUART_B"))) = { 0 }; char stack[10000] __attribute__ ((section ("STACK"))) = { 0 }; int init_data __attribute__ ((section ("INITDATA"))) = 0; main() { /* Initialize stack pointer */ init_sp (stack + sizeof (stack)); /* Initialize initialized data */ memcpy (&init_data, &data, &edata - &data); /* Turn on the serial ports */ init_duart (&a); init_duart (&b); }

Use the section attribute with an initialized denition of a global variable, as shown in the example. GCC issues a warning and otherwise ignores the section attribute in uninitialized variable declarations. You may only use the section attribute with a fully initialized global denition because of the way linkers work. The linker requires each object be dened once, with the exception that uninitialized variables tentatively go in the common (or bss) section and can be multiply dened. You can force a variable to be initialized with the -fno-common ag or the nocommon attribute. Some le formats do not support arbitrary sections so the section attribute is not available on all platforms. If you need to map the entire contents of a module to a particular section, consider using the facilities of the linker instead. shared On Windows, in addition to putting variable denitions in a named section, the section can also be shared among all running copies of an executable or DLL.

210

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

For example, this small program denes shared data by putting it in a named section shared and marking the section shareable:
int foo __attribute__((section ("shared"), shared)) = 0; int main() { /* Read and write foo. All running copies see the same value. */ return 0; }

You may only use the shared attribute along with section attribute with a fully initialized global denition because of the way linkers work. See section attribute for more information. The shared attribute is only available on Windows. tls_model ("tls_model ") The tls_model attribute sets thread-local storage model (see Section 5.48 [Thread-Local], page 275) of a particular __thread variable, overriding -ftlsmodel= command line switch on a per-variable basis. The tls model argument should be one of global-dynamic, local-dynamic, initial-exec or localexec. Not all targets support this attribute. transparent_union This attribute, attached to a function parameter which is a union, means that the corresponding argument may have the type of any union member, but the argument is passed as if its type were that of the rst union member. For more details see See Section 5.33 [Type Attributes], page 211. You can also use this attribute on a typedef for a union data type; then it applies to all function parameters with that type. unused This attribute, attached to a variable, means that the variable is meant to be possibly unused. GCC will not produce a warning for this variable.

vector_size (bytes ) This attribute species the vector size for the variable, measured in bytes. For example, the declaration:
int foo __attribute__ ((vector_size (16)));

causes the compiler to set the mode for foo, to be 16 bytes, divided into int sized units. Assuming a 32-bit int (a vector of 4 units of 4 bytes), the corresponding mode of foo will be V4SI. This attribute is only applicable to integral and oat scalars, although arrays, pointers, and function return values are allowed in conjunction with this construct. Aggregates with this attribute are invalid, even if they are of the same size as a corresponding scalar. For example, the declaration:
struct S { int a; }; struct S __attribute__ ((vector_size (16))) foo;

is invalid even if the size of the structure is the same as the size of the int.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

211

weak

The weak attribute is described in See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192.

model (model-name ) Use this attribute on the M32R/D to set the addressability of an object. The identier model-name is one of small, medium, or large, representing each of the code models. Small model objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their addresses can be loaded with the ld24 instruction). Medium and large model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the compiler will generate seth/add3 instructions to load their addresses). dllimport The dllimport attribute is described in See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192. dlexport The dllexport attribute is described in See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192.

To specify multiple attributes, separate them by commas within the double parentheses: for example, __attribute__ ((aligned (16), packed)).

5.33 Specifying Attributes of Types

The keyword __attribute__ allows you to specify special attributes of struct and union types when you dene such types. This keyword is followed by an attribute specication inside double parentheses. Six attributes are currently dened for types: aligned, packed, transparent_union, unused, deprecated and may_alias. Other attributes are dened for functions (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192) and for variables (see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207). You may also specify any one of these attributes with __ preceding and following its keyword. This allows you to use these attributes in header les without being concerned about a possible macro of the same name. For example, you may use __aligned__ instead of aligned. You may specify the aligned and transparent_union attributes either in a typedef declaration or just past the closing curly brace of a complete enum, struct or union type denition and the packed attribute only past the closing brace of a denition. You may also specify attributes between the enum, struct or union tag and the name of the type rather than after the closing brace. See Section 5.26 [Attribute Syntax], page 202, for details of the exact syntax for using attributes. aligned (alignment ) This attribute species a minimum alignment (in bytes) for variables of the specied type. For example, the declarations:
struct S { short f[3]; } __attribute__ ((aligned (8))); typedef int more_aligned_int __attribute__ ((aligned (8)));

212

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

force the compiler to insure (as far as it can) that each variable whose type is struct S or more_aligned_int will be allocated and aligned at least on a 8-byte boundary. On a SPARC, having all variables of type struct S aligned to 8-byte boundaries allows the compiler to use the ldd and std (doubleword load and store) instructions when copying one variable of type struct S to another, thus improving run-time eciency. Note that the alignment of any given struct or union type is required by the ISO C standard to be at least a perfect multiple of the lowest common multiple of the alignments of all of the members of the struct or union in question. This means that you can eectively adjust the alignment of a struct or union type by attaching an aligned attribute to any one of the members of such a type, but the notation illustrated in the example above is a more obvious, intuitive, and readable way to request the compiler to adjust the alignment of an entire struct or union type. As in the preceding example, you can explicitly specify the alignment (in bytes) that you wish the compiler to use for a given struct or union type. Alternatively, you can leave out the alignment factor and just ask the compiler to align a type to the maximum useful alignment for the target machine you are compiling for. For example, you could write:
struct S { short f[3]; } __attribute__ ((aligned));

Whenever you leave out the alignment factor in an aligned attribute specication, the compiler automatically sets the alignment for the type to the largest alignment which is ever used for any data type on the target machine you are compiling for. Doing this can often make copy operations more ecient, because the compiler can use whatever instructions copy the biggest chunks of memory when performing copies to or from the variables which have types that you have aligned this way. In the example above, if the size of each short is 2 bytes, then the size of the entire struct S type is 6 bytes. The smallest power of two which is greater than or equal to that is 8, so the compiler sets the alignment for the entire struct S type to 8 bytes. Note that although you can ask the compiler to select a time-ecient alignment for a given type and then declare only individual stand-alone objects of that type, the compilers ability to select a time-ecient alignment is primarily useful only when you plan to create arrays of variables having the relevant (eciently aligned) type. If you declare or use arrays of variables of an eciently-aligned type, then it is likely that your program will also be doing pointer arithmetic (or subscripting, which amounts to the same thing) on pointers to the relevant type, and the code that the compiler generates for these pointer arithmetic operations will often be more ecient for eciently-aligned types than for other types. The aligned attribute can only increase the alignment; but you can decrease it by specifying packed as well. See below. Note that the eectiveness of aligned attributes may be limited by inherent limitations in your linker. On many systems, the linker is only able to arrange for variables to be aligned up to a certain maximum alignment. (For some

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

213

linkers, the maximum supported alignment may be very very small.) If your linker is only able to align variables up to a maximum of 8 byte alignment, then specifying aligned(16) in an __attribute__ will still only provide you with 8 byte alignment. See your linker documentation for further information. packed This attribute, attached to an enum, struct, or union type denition, species that the minimum required memory be used to represent the type. Specifying this attribute for struct and union types is equivalent to specifying the packed attribute on each of the structure or union members. Specifying the -fshort-enums ag on the line is equivalent to specifying the packed attribute on all enum denitions. You may only specify this attribute after a closing curly brace on an enum denition, not in a typedef declaration, unless that declaration also contains the denition of the enum.

transparent_union This attribute, attached to a union type denition, indicates that any function parameter having that union type causes calls to that function to be treated in a special way. First, the argument corresponding to a transparent union type can be of any type in the union; no cast is required. Also, if the union contains a pointer type, the corresponding argument can be a null pointer constant or a void pointer expression; and if the union contains a void pointer type, the corresponding argument can be any pointer expression. If the union member type is a pointer, qualiers like const on the referenced type must be respected, just as with normal pointer conversions. Second, the argument is passed to the function using the calling conventions of the rst member of the transparent union, not the calling conventions of the union itself. All members of the union must have the same machine representation; this is necessary for this argument passing to work properly. Transparent unions are designed for library functions that have multiple interfaces for compatibility reasons. For example, suppose the wait function must accept either a value of type int * to comply with Posix, or a value of type union wait * to comply with the 4.1BSD interface. If waits parameter were void *, wait would accept both kinds of arguments, but it would also accept any other pointer type and this would make argument type checking less useful. Instead, <sys/wait.h> might dene the interface as follows:
typedef union { int *__ip; union wait *__up; } wait_status_ptr_t __attribute__ ((__transparent_union__)); pid_t wait (wait_status_ptr_t);

This interface allows either int * or union wait * arguments to be passed, using the int * calling convention. The program can call wait with arguments of either type: int w1 () { int w; return wait (&w); }

214

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

int w2 () { union wait w; return wait (&w); } With this interface, waits implementation might look like this: pid_t wait (wait_status_ptr_t p) { return waitpid (-1, p.__ip, 0); } unused When attached to a type (including a union or a struct), this attribute means that variables of that type are meant to appear possibly unused. GCC will not produce a warning for any variables of that type, even if the variable appears to do nothing. This is often the case with lock or thread classes, which are usually dened and then not referenced, but contain constructors and destructors that have nontrivial bookkeeping functions. The deprecated attribute results in a warning if the type is used anywhere in the source le. This is useful when identifying types that are expected to be removed in a future version of a program. If possible, the warning also includes the location of the declaration of the deprecated type, to enable users to easily nd further information about why the type is deprecated, or what they should do instead. Note that the warnings only occur for uses and then only if the type is being applied to an identier that itself is not being declared as deprecated.
typedef int T1 __attribute__ ((deprecated)); T1 x; typedef T1 T2; T2 y; typedef T1 T3 __attribute__ ((deprecated)); T3 z __attribute__ ((deprecated));

deprecated

results in a warning on line 2 and 3 but not lines 4, 5, or 6. No warning is issued for line 4 because T2 is not explicitly deprecated. Line 5 has no warning because T3 is explicitly deprecated. Similarly for line 6. The deprecated attribute can also be used for functions and variables (see Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192, see Section 5.32 [Variable Attributes], page 207.) may_alias Accesses to objects with types with this attribute are not subjected to typebased alias analysis, but are instead assumed to be able to alias any other type of objects, just like the char type. See -fstrict-aliasing for more information on aliasing issues. Example of use:
typedef short __attribute__((__may_alias__)) short_a; int main (void) { int a = 0x12345678; short_a *b = (short_a *) &a; b[1] = 0;

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

215

if (a == 0x12345678) abort(); exit(0); }

If you replaced short_a with short in the variable declaration, the above program would abort when compiled with -fstrict-aliasing, which is on by default at -O2 or above in recent GCC versions. To specify multiple attributes, separate them by commas within the double parentheses: for example, __attribute__ ((aligned (16), packed)).

5.34 An Inline Function is As Fast As a Macro

By declaring a function inline, you can direct GCC to integrate that functions code into the code for its callers. This makes execution faster by eliminating the function-call overhead; in addition, if any of the actual argument values are constant, their known values may permit simplications at compile time so that not all of the inline functions code needs to be included. The eect on code size is less predictable; object code may be larger or smaller with function inlining, depending on the particular case. Inlining of functions is an optimization and it really works only in optimizing compilation. If you dont use -O, no function is really inline. Inline functions are included in the ISO C99 standard, but there are currently substantial dierences between what GCC implements and what the ISO C99 standard requires. To declare a function inline, use the inline keyword in its declaration, like this: inline int inc (int *a) { (*a)++; } (If you are writing a header le to be included in ISO C programs, write __inline__ instead of inline. See Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 239.) You can also make all simple enough functions inline with the option -finline-functions. Note that certain usages in a function denition can make it unsuitable for inline substitution. Among these usages are: use of varargs, use of alloca, use of variable sized data types (see Section 5.14 [Variable Length], page 186), use of computed goto (see Section 5.3 [Labels as Values], page 177), use of nonlocal goto, and nested functions (see Section 5.4 [Nested Functions], page 178). Using -Winline will warn when a function marked inline could not be substituted, and will give the reason for the failure. Note that in C and Objective-C, unlike C++, the inline keyword does not aect the linkage of the function. GCC automatically inlines member functions dened within the class body of C++ programs even if they are not explicitly declared inline. (You can override this with -fno-default-inline; see Section 3.5 [Options Controlling C++ Dialect], page 25.)

216

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

When a function is both inline and static, if all calls to the function are integrated into the caller, and the functions address is never used, then the functions own assembler code is never referenced. In this case, GCC does not actually output assembler code for the function, unless you specify the option -fkeep-inline-functions. Some calls cannot be integrated for various reasons (in particular, calls that precede the functions denition cannot be integrated, and neither can recursive calls within the denition). If there is a nonintegrated call, then the function is compiled to assembler code as usual. The function must also be compiled as usual if the program refers to its address, because that cant be inlined. When an inline function is not static, then the compiler must assume that there may be calls from other source les; since a global symbol can be dened only once in any program, the function must not be dened in the other source les, so the calls therein cannot be integrated. Therefore, a non-static inline function is always compiled on its own in the usual fashion. If you specify both inline and extern in the function denition, then the denition is used only for inlining. In no case is the function compiled on its own, not even if you refer to its address explicitly. Such an address becomes an external reference, as if you had only declared the function, and had not dened it. This combination of inline and extern has almost the eect of a macro. The way to use it is to put a function denition in a header le with these keywords, and put another copy of the denition (lacking inline and extern) in a library le. The denition in the header le will cause most calls to the function to be inlined. If any uses of the function remain, they will refer to the single copy in the library. Since GCC eventually will implement ISO C99 semantics for inline functions, it is best to use static inline only to guarentee compatibility. (The existing semantics will remain available when -std=gnu89 is specied, but eventually the default will be -std=gnu99 and that will implement the C99 semantics, though it does not do so yet.) GCC does not inline any functions when not optimizing unless you specify the always_inline attribute for the function, like this: /* Prototype. */ inline void foo (const char) __attribute__((always_inline));

5.35 Assembler Instructions with C Expression Operands

In an assembler instruction using asm, you can specify the operands of the instruction using C expressions. This means you need not guess which registers or memory locations will contain the data you want to use. You must specify an assembler instruction template much like what appears in a machine description, plus an operand constraint string for each operand. For example, here is how to use the 68881s fsinx instruction: asm ("fsinx %1,%0" : "=f" (result) : "f" (angle)); Here angle is the C expression for the input operand while result is that of the output operand. Each has "f" as its operand constraint, saying that a oating point register is required. The = in =f indicates that the operand is an output; all output operands

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

217

constraints must use =. The constraints use the same language used in the machine description (see Section 5.36 [Constraints], page 222). Each operand is described by an operand-constraint string followed by the C expression in parentheses. A colon separates the assembler template from the rst output operand and another separates the last output operand from the rst input, if any. Commas separate the operands within each group. The total number of operands is currently limited to 30; this limitation may be lifted in some future version of GCC. If there are no output operands but there are input operands, you must place two consecutive colons surrounding the place where the output operands would go. As of GCC version 3.1, it is also possible to specify input and output operands using symbolic names which can be referenced within the assembler code. These names are specied inside square brackets preceding the constraint string, and can be referenced inside the assembler code using %[name ] instead of a percentage sign followed by the operand number. Using named operands the above example could look like: asm ("fsinx %[angle],%[output]" : [output] "=f" (result) : [angle] "f" (angle)); Note that the symbolic operand names have no relation whatsoever to other C identiers. You may use any name you like, even those of existing C symbols, but you must ensure that no two operands within the same assembler construct use the same symbolic name. Output operand expressions must be lvalues; the compiler can check this. The input operands need not be lvalues. The compiler cannot check whether the operands have data types that are reasonable for the instruction being executed. It does not parse the assembler instruction template and does not know what it means or even whether it is valid assembler input. The extended asm feature is most often used for machine instructions the compiler itself does not know exist. If the output expression cannot be directly addressed (for example, it is a bit-eld), your constraint must allow a register. In that case, GCC will use the register as the output of the asm, and then store that register into the output. The ordinary output operands must be write-only; GCC will assume that the values in these operands before the instruction are dead and need not be generated. Extended asm supports input-output or read-write operands. Use the constraint character + to indicate such an operand and list it with the output operands. When the constraints for the read-write operand (or the operand in which only some of the bits are to be changed) allows a register, you may, as an alternative, logically split its function into two separate operands, one input operand and one write-only output operand. The connection between them is expressed by constraints which say they need to be in the same location when the instruction executes. You can use the same C expression for both operands, or dierent expressions. For example, here we write the (ctitious) combine instruction with bar as its read-only source operand and foo as its read-write destination: asm ("combine %2,%0" : "=r" (foo) : "0" (foo), "g" (bar)); The constraint "0" for operand 1 says that it must occupy the same location as operand 0. A number in constraint is allowed only in an input operand and it must refer to an output operand. Only a number in the constraint can guarantee that one operand will be in the same place as another. The mere fact that foo is the value of both operands is not enough to

218

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

guarantee that they will be in the same place in the generated assembler code. The following would not work reliably: asm ("combine %2,%0" : "=r" (foo) : "r" (foo), "g" (bar)); Various optimizations or reloading could cause operands 0 and 1 to be in dierent registers; GCC knows no reason not to do so. For example, the compiler might nd a copy of the value of foo in one register and use it for operand 1, but generate the output operand 0 in a dierent register (copying it afterward to foos own address). Of course, since the register for operand 1 is not even mentioned in the assembler code, the result will not work, but GCC cant tell that. As of GCC version 3.1, one may write [name ] instead of the operand number for a matching constraint. For example: asm ("cmoveq %1,%2,%[result]" : [result] "=r"(result) : "r" (test), "r"(new), "[result]"(old)); Some instructions clobber specic hard registers. To describe this, write a third colon after the input operands, followed by the names of the clobbered hard registers (given as strings). Here is a realistic example for the VAX: asm volatile ("movc3 %0,%1,%2" : /* no outputs */ : "g" (from), "g" (to), "g" (count) : "r0", "r1", "r2", "r3", "r4", "r5"); You may not write a clobber description in a way that overlaps with an input or output operand. For example, you may not have an operand describing a register class with one member if you mention that register in the clobber list. Variables declared to live in specic registers (see Section 5.38 [Explicit Reg Vars], page 237), and used as asm input or output operands must have no part mentioned in the clobber description. There is no way for you to specify that an input operand is modied without also specifying it as an output operand. Note that if all the output operands you specify are for this purpose (and hence unused), you will then also need to specify volatile for the asm construct, as described below, to prevent GCC from deleting the asm statement as unused. If you refer to a particular hardware register from the assembler code, you will probably have to list the register after the third colon to tell the compiler the registers value is modied. In some assemblers, the register names begin with %; to produce one % in the assembler code, you must write %% in the input. If your assembler instruction can alter the condition code register, add cc to the list of clobbered registers. GCC on some machines represents the condition codes as a specic hardware register; cc serves to name this register. On other machines, the condition code is handled dierently, and specifying cc has no eect. But it is valid no matter what the machine. If your assembler instruction modies memory in an unpredictable fashion, add memory to the list of clobbered registers. This will cause GCC to not keep memory values cached in registers across the assembler instruction. You will also want to add the volatile keyword if the memory aected is not listed in the inputs or outputs of the asm, as the memory clobber does not count as a side-eect of the asm.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

219

You can put multiple assembler instructions together in a single asm template, separated by the characters normally used in assembly code for the system. A combination that works in most places is a newline to break the line, plus a tab character to move to the instruction eld (written as \n\t). Sometimes semicolons can be used, if the assembler allows semicolons as a line-breaking character. Note that some assembler dialects use semicolons to start a comment. The input operands are guaranteed not to use any of the clobbered registers, and neither will the output operands addresses, so you can read and write the clobbered registers as many times as you like. Here is an example of multiple instructions in a template; it assumes the subroutine _foo accepts arguments in registers 9 and 10: asm ("movl %0,r9\n\tmovl %1,r10\n\tcall _foo" : /* no outputs */ : "g" (from), "g" (to) : "r9", "r10"); Unless an output operand has the & constraint modier, GCC may allocate it in the same register as an unrelated input operand, on the assumption the inputs are consumed before the outputs are produced. This assumption may be false if the assembler code actually consists of more than one instruction. In such a case, use & for each output operand that may not overlap an input. See Section 5.36.4 [Modiers], page 225. If you want to test the condition code produced by an assembler instruction, you must include a branch and a label in the asm construct, as follows: asm ("clr %0\n\tfrob %1\n\tbeq 0f\n\tmov #1,%0\n0:" : "g" (result) : "g" (input)); This assumes your assembler supports local labels, as the GNU assembler and most Unix assemblers do. Speaking of labels, jumps from one asm to another are not supported. The compilers optimizers do not know about these jumps, and therefore they cannot take account of them when deciding how to optimize. Usually the most convenient way to use these asm instructions is to encapsulate them in macros that look like functions. For example, #define sin(x) \ ({ double __value, __arg = (x); \ asm ("fsinx %1,%0": "=f" (__value): "f" (__arg)); __value; })

Here the variable __arg is used to make sure that the instruction operates on a proper double value, and to accept only those arguments x which can convert automatically to a double. Another way to make sure the instruction operates on the correct data type is to use a cast in the asm. This is dierent from using a variable __arg in that it converts more dierent types. For example, if the desired type were int, casting the argument to int would accept a pointer with no complaint, while assigning the argument to an int variable named __arg would warn about using a pointer unless the caller explicitly casts it. If an asm has output operands, GCC assumes for optimization purposes the instruction has no side eects except to change the output operands. This does not mean instructions

220

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

with a side eect cannot be used, but you must be careful, because the compiler may eliminate them if the output operands arent used, or move them out of loops, or replace two with one if they constitute a common subexpression. Also, if your instruction does have a side eect on a variable that otherwise appears not to change, the old value of the variable may be reused later if it happens to be found in a register. You can prevent an asm instruction from being deleted, moved signicantly, or combined, by writing the keyword volatile after the asm. For example: #define get_and_set_priority(new) ({ int __old; asm volatile ("get_and_set_priority %0, %1" : "=g" (__old) : "g" (new)); __old; }) \ \ \ \

If you write an asm instruction with no outputs, GCC will know the instruction has sideeects and will not delete the instruction or move it outside of loops. The volatile keyword indicates that the instruction has important side-eects. GCC will not delete a volatile asm if it is reachable. (The instruction can still be deleted if GCC can prove that control-ow will never reach the location of the instruction.) In addition, GCC will not reschedule instructions across a volatile asm instruction. For example: *(volatile int *)addr = foo; asm volatile ("eieio" : : ); Assume addr contains the address of a memory mapped device register. The PowerPC eieio instruction (Enforce In-order Execution of I/O) tells the CPU to make sure that the store to that device register happens before it issues any other I/O. Note that even a volatile asm instruction can be moved in ways that appear insignicant to the compiler, such as across jump instructions. You cant expect a sequence of volatile asm instructions to remain perfectly consecutive. If you want consecutive output, use a single asm. Also, GCC will perform some optimizations across a volatile asm instruction; GCC does not forget everything when it encounters a volatile asm instruction the way some other compilers do. An asm instruction without any operands or clobbers (an old style asm) will be treated identically to a volatile asm instruction. It is a natural idea to look for a way to give access to the condition code left by the assembler instruction. However, when we attempted to implement this, we found no way to make it work reliably. The problem is that output operands might need reloading, which would result in additional following store instructions. On most machines, these instructions would alter the condition code before there was time to test it. This problem doesnt arise for ordinary test and compare instructions because they dont have any output operands. For reasons similar to those described above, it is not possible to give an assembler instruction access to the condition code left by previous instructions. If you are writing a header le that should be includable in ISO C programs, write __asm__ instead of asm. See Section 5.39 [Alternate Keywords], page 239.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

221

5.35.1 i386 oating point asm operands

There are several rules on the usage of stack-like regs in asm operands insns. These rules apply only to the operands that are stack-like regs: 1. Given a set of input regs that die in an asm operands, it is necessary to know which are implicitly popped by the asm, and which must be explicitly popped by gcc. An input reg that is implicitly popped by the asm must be explicitly clobbered, unless it is constrained to match an output operand. 2. For any input reg that is implicitly popped by an asm, it is necessary to know how to adjust the stack to compensate for the pop. If any non-popped input is closer to the top of the reg-stack than the implicitly popped reg, it would not be possible to know what the stack looked likeits not clear how the rest of the stack slides up. All implicitly popped input regs must be closer to the top of the reg-stack than any input that is not implicitly popped. It is possible that if an input dies in an insn, reload might use the input reg for an output reload. Consider this example: asm ("foo" : "=t" (a) : "f" (b)); This asm says that input B is not popped by the asm, and that the asm pushes a result onto the reg-stack, i.e., the stack is one deeper after the asm than it was before. But, it is possible that reload will think that it can use the same reg for both the input and the output, if input B dies in this insn. If any input operand uses the f constraint, all output reg constraints must use the & earlyclobber. The asm above would be written as asm ("foo" : "=&t" (a) : "f" (b)); 3. Some operands need to be in particular places on the stack. All output operands fall in this categorythere is no other way to know which regs the outputs appear in unless the user indicates this in the constraints. Output operands must specically indicate which reg an output appears in after an asm. =f is not allowed: the operand constraints must select a class with a single reg. 4. Output operands may not be inserted between existing stack regs. Since no 387 opcode uses a read/write operand, all output operands are dead before the asm operands, and are pushed by the asm operands. It makes no sense to push anywhere but the top of the reg-stack. Output operands must start at the top of the reg-stack: output operands may not skip a reg. 5. Some asm statements may need extra stack space for internal calculations. This can be guaranteed by clobbering stack registers unrelated to the inputs and outputs. Here are a couple of reasonable asms to want to write. This asm takes one input, which is internally popped, and produces two outputs. asm ("fsincos" : "=t" (cos), "=u" (sin) : "0" (inp));

222

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

This asm takes two inputs, which are popped by the fyl2xp1 opcode, and replaces them with one output. The user must code the st(1) clobber for reg-stack.c to know that fyl2xp1 pops both inputs. asm ("fyl2xp1" : "=t" (result) : "0" (x), "u" (y) : "st(1)");

5.36 Constraints for asm Operands

Here are specic details on what constraint letters you can use with asm operands. Constraints can say whether an operand may be in a register, and which kinds of register; whether the operand can be a memory reference, and which kinds of address; whether the operand may be an immediate constant, and which possible values it may have. Constraints can also require two operands to match.

5.36.2 Simple Constraints

The simplest kind of constraint is a string full of letters, each of which describes one kind of operand that is permitted. Here are the letters that are allowed: whitespace Whitespace characters are ignored and can be inserted at any position except the rst. This enables each alternative for dierent operands to be visually aligned in the machine description even if they have dierent number of constraints and modiers. m o A memory operand is allowed, with any kind of address that the machine supports in general. A memory operand is allowed, but only if the address is osettable. This means that adding a small integer (actually, the width in bytes of the operand, as determined by its machine mode) may be added to the address and the result is also a valid memory address. For example, an address which is constant is osettable; so is an address that is the sum of a register and a constant (as long as a slightly larger constant is also within the range of address-osets supported by the machine); but an autoincrement or autodecrement address is not osettable. More complicated indirect/indexed addresses may or may not be osettable depending on the other addressing modes that the machine supports. Note that in an output operand which can be matched by another operand, the constraint letter o is valid only when accompanied by both < (if the target machine has predecrement addressing) and > (if the target machine has preincrement addressing). V < A memory operand that is not osettable. In other words, anything that would t the m constraint but not the o constraint. A memory operand with autodecrement addressing (either predecrement or postdecrement) is allowed.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

223

> r i n

A memory operand with autoincrement addressing (either preincrement or postincrement) is allowed. A register operand is allowed provided that it is in a general register. An immediate integer operand (one with constant value) is allowed. This includes symbolic constants whose values will be known only at assembly time. An immediate integer operand with a known numeric value is allowed. Many systems cannot support assembly-time constants for operands less than a word wide. Constraints for these operands should use n rather than i.

I, J, K, . . . P Other letters in the range I through P may be dened in a machine-dependent fashion to permit immediate integer operands with explicit integer values in specied ranges. For example, on the 68000, I is dened to stand for the range of values 1 to 8. This is the range permitted as a shift count in the shift instructions. E An immediate oating operand (expression code const_double) is allowed, but only if the target oating point format is the same as that of the host machine (on which the compiler is running). An immediate oating operand const_vector) is allowed. (expression code const_double or

F G, H s

G and H may be dened in a machine-dependent fashion to permit immediate oating operands in particular ranges of values. An immediate integer operand whose value is not an explicit integer is allowed. This might appear strange; if an insn allows a constant operand with a value not known at compile time, it certainly must allow any known value. So why use s instead of i? Sometimes it allows better code to be generated. For example, on the 68000 in a fullword instruction it is possible to use an immediate operand; but if the immediate value is between 128 and 127, better code results from loading the value into a register and using the register. This is because the load into the register can be done with a moveq instruction. We arrange for this to happen by dening the letter K to mean any integer outside the range 128 to 127, and then specifying Ks in the operand constraints. Any register, memory or immediate integer operand is allowed, except for registers that are not general registers. Any operand whatsoever is allowed.

g X

0, 1, 2, . . . 9 An operand that matches the specied operand number is allowed. If a digit is used together with letters within the same alternative, the digit should come last. This number is allowed to be more than a single digit. If multiple digits are encountered consecutively, they are interpreted as a single decimal integer. There is scant chance for ambiguity, since to-date it has never been desirable that

224

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

10 be interpreted as matching either operand 1 or operand 0. Should this be desired, one can use multiple alternatives instead. This is called a matching constraint and what it really means is that the assembler has only a single operand that lls two roles which asm distinguishes. For example, an add instruction uses two input operands and an output operand, but on most CISC machines an add instruction really has only two operands, one of them an input-output operand:
addl #35,r12

Matching constraints are used in these circumstances. More precisely, the two operands that match must include one input-only operand and one output-only operand. Moreover, the digit must be a smaller number than the number of the operand that uses it in the constraint. p An operand that is a valid memory address is allowed. This is for load address and push address instructions. p in the constraint must be accompanied by address_operand as the predicate in the match_operand. This predicate interprets the mode specied in the match_operand as the mode of the memory reference for which the address would be valid. other-letters Other letters can be dened in machine-dependent fashion to stand for particular classes of registers or other arbitrary operand types. d, a and f are dened on the 68000/68020 to stand for data, address and oating point registers.

5.36.3 Multiple Alternative Constraints

Sometimes a single instruction has multiple alternative sets of possible operands. For example, on the 68000, a logical-or instruction can combine register or an immediate value into memory, or it can combine any kind of operand into a register; but it cannot combine one memory location into another. These constraints are represented as multiple alternatives. An alternative can be described by a series of letters for each operand. The overall constraint for an operand is made from the letters for this operand from the rst alternative, a comma, the letters for this operand from the second alternative, a comma, and so on until the last alternative. If all the operands t any one alternative, the instruction is valid. Otherwise, for each alternative, the compiler counts how many instructions must be added to copy the operands so that that alternative applies. The alternative requiring the least copying is chosen. If two alternatives need the same amount of copying, the one that comes rst is chosen. These choices can be altered with the ? and ! characters: ? Disparage slightly the alternative that the ? appears in, as a choice when no alternative applies exactly. The compiler regards this alternative as one unit more costly for each ? that appears in it.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

225

Disparage severely the alternative that the ! appears in. This alternative can still be used if it ts without reloading, but if reloading is needed, some other alternative will be used.

5.36.4 Constraint Modier Characters

Here are constraint modier characters. = + Means that this operand is write-only for this instruction: the previous value is discarded and replaced by output data. Means that this operand is both read and written by the instruction. When the compiler xes up the operands to satisfy the constraints, it needs to know which operands are inputs to the instruction and which are outputs from it. = identies an output; + identies an operand that is both input and output; all other operands are assumed to be input only. If you specify = or + in a constraint, you put it in the rst character of the constraint string. Means (in a particular alternative) that this operand is an earlyclobber operand, which is modied before the instruction is nished using the input operands. Therefore, this operand may not lie in a register that is used as an input operand or as part of any memory address. & applies only to the alternative in which it is written. In constraints with multiple alternatives, sometimes one alternative requires & while others do not. See, for example, the movdf insn of the 68000. An input operand can be tied to an earlyclobber operand if its only use as an input occurs before the early result is written. Adding alternatives of this form often allows GCC to produce better code when only some of the inputs can be aected by the earlyclobber. See, for example, the mulsi3 insn of the ARM. & does not obviate the need to write =. Declares the instruction to be commutative for this operand and the following operand. This means that the compiler may interchange the two operands if that is the cheapest way to make all operands t the constraints. GCC can only handle one commutative pair in an asm; if you use more, the compiler may fail. Says that all following characters, up to the next comma, are to be ignored as a constraint. They are signicant only for choosing register preferences. Says that the following character should be ignored when choosing register preferences. * has no eect on the meaning of the constraint as a constraint, and no eect on reloading.

&

# *

5.36.5 Constraints for Particular Machines

Whenever possible, you should use the general-purpose constraint letters in asm arguments, since they will convey meaning more readily to people reading your code. Failing that, use

226

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

the constraint letters that usually have very similar meanings across architectures. The most commonly used constraints are m and r (for memory and general-purpose registers respectively; see Section 5.36.2 [Simple Constraints], page 222), and I, usually the letter indicating the most common immediate-constant format. For each machine architecture, the config/machine /machine.h le denes additional constraints. These constraints are used by the compiler itself for instruction generation, as well as for asm statements; therefore, some of the constraints are not particularly interesting for asm. The constraints are dened through these macros: REG_CLASS_FROM_LETTER Register class constraints (usually lower case). CONST_OK_FOR_LETTER_P Immediate constant constraints, for non-oating point constants of word size or smaller precision (usually upper case). CONST_DOUBLE_OK_FOR_LETTER_P Immediate constant constraints, for all oating point constants and for constants of greater than word size precision (usually upper case). EXTRA_CONSTRAINT Special cases of registers or memory. This macro is not required, and is only dened for some machines. Inspecting these macro denitions in the compiler source for your machine is the best way to be certain you have the right constraints. However, here is a summary of the machine-dependent constraints available on some particular machines. ARM familyarm.h f Floating-point register F G I One of the oating-point constants 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 or 10.0 Floating-point constant that would satisfy the constraint F if it were negated Integer that is valid as an immediate operand in a data processing instruction. That is, an integer in the range 0 to 255 rotated by a multiple of 2 Integer in the range 4095 to 4095 Integer that satises constraint I when inverted (ones complement) Integer that satises constraint I when negated (twos complement) Integer in the range 0 to 32 A memory reference where the exact address is in a single register (m is preferable for asm statements) An item in the constant pool

J K L M Q R

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

227

S AVR familyavr.h l a d w e b q t x y z I J K L M N O P G

A symbol in the text segment of the current le Registers from r0 to r15 Registers from r16 to r23 Registers from r16 to r31 Registers from r24 to r31. These registers can be used in adiw command Pointer register (r26r31) Base pointer register (r28r31) Stack pointer register (SPH:SPL) Temporary register r0 Register pair X (r27:r26) Register pair Y (r29:r28) Register pair Z (r31:r30) Constant greater than 1, less than 64 Constant greater than 64, less than 1 Constant integer 2 Constant integer 0 Constant that ts in 8 bits Constant integer 1 Constant integer 8, 16, or 24 Constant integer 1 A oating point constant 0.0

IBM RS6000rs6000.h b Address base register f h q c l x y z Floating point register MQ, CTR, or LINK register MQ register CTR register LINK register CR register (condition register) number 0 CR register (condition register) FPMEM stack memory for FPR-GPR transfers

228

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

I J K L M N O P G Q R S T U Intel 386i386.h q Q R

Signed 16-bit constant Unsigned 16-bit constant shifted left 16 bits (use L instead for SImode constants) Unsigned 16-bit constant Signed 16-bit constant shifted left 16 bits Constant larger than 31 Exact power of 2 Zero Constant whose negation is a signed 16-bit constant Floating point constant that can be loaded into a register with one instruction per word Memory operand that is an oset from a register (m is preferable for asm statements) AIX TOC entry Constant suitable as a 64-bit mask operand Constant suitable as a 32-bit mask operand System V Release 4 small data area reference a, b, c, or d register for the i386. For x86-64 it is equivalent to r class. (for 8-bit instructions that do not use upper halves) a, b, c, or d register. (for 8-bit instructions, that do use upper halves) Legacy registerequivalent to r class in i386 mode. (for non-8-bit registers used together with 8-bit upper halves in a single instruction) Species the a or d registers. This is primarily useful for 64-bit integer values (when in 32-bit mode) intended to be returned with the d register holding the most signicant bits and the a register holding the least signicant bits. Floating point register First (top of stack) oating point register Second oating point register a register b register c register Species constant that can be easily constructed in SSE register without loading it from memory.

f t u a b c C

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

229

d D S x y I J K L M N Z

d register di register si register xmm SSE register MMX register Constant in range 0 to 31 (for 32-bit shifts) Constant in range 0 to 63 (for 64-bit shifts) 0xff 0xffff 0, 1, 2, or 3 (shifts for lea instruction) Constant in range 0 to 255 (for out instruction) Constant in range 0 to 0xffffffff or symbolic reference known to t specied range. (for using immediates in zero extending 32-bit to 64-bit x86-64 instructions) Constant in range 2147483648 to 2147483647 or symbolic reference known to t specied range. (for using immediates in 64-bit x86-64 instructions) Standard 80387 oating point constant Floating point register (fp0 to fp3) Local register (r0 to r15) Global register (g0 to g15) Any local or global register Integers from 0 to 31 0 Integers from 31 to 0 Floating point 0 Floating point 1

G Intel 960i960.h f l b d I J K G H

Intel IA-64ia64.h a General register r0 to r3 for addl instruction b c d e Branch register Predicate register (c as in conditional) Application register residing in M-unit Application register residing in I-unit

230

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

f m

Floating-point register Memory operand. Remember that m allows postincrement and postdecrement which require printing with %Pn on IA-64. Use S to disallow postincrement and postdecrement. Floating-point constant 0.0 or 1.0 14-bit signed integer constant 22-bit signed integer constant 8-bit signed integer constant for logical instructions 8-bit adjusted signed integer constant for compare pseudo-ops 6-bit unsigned integer constant for shift counts 9-bit signed integer constant for load and store postincrements The constant zero 0 or -1 for dep instruction Non-volatile memory for oating-point loads and stores Integer constant in the range 1 to 4 for shladd instruction Memory operand except postincrement and postdecrement Register in the class ACC_REGS (acc0 to acc7). Register in the class EVEN_ACC_REGS (acc0 to acc7). Register in the class CC_REGS (fcc0 to fcc3 and icc0 to icc3). Register in the class GPR_REGS (gr0 to gr63). Register in the class EVEN_REGS (gr0 to gr63). Odd registers are excluded not in the class but through the use of a machine mode larger than 4 bytes. Register in the class FPR_REGS (fr0 to fr63). Register in the class FEVEN_REGS (fr0 to fr63). Odd registers are excluded not in the class but through the use of a machine mode larger than 4 bytes. Register in the class LR_REG (the lr register). Register in the class QUAD_REGS (gr2 to gr63). Register numbers not divisible by 4 are excluded not in the class but through the use of a machine mode larger than 8 bytes. Register in the class ICC_REGS (icc0 to icc3). Register in the class FCC_REGS (fcc0 to fcc3). Register in the class ICR_REGS (cc4 to cc7).

G I J K L M N O P Q R S FRVfrv.h a b c d e

f h

l q

t u v

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

231

w x

Register in the class FCR_REGS (cc0 to cc3). Register in the class QUAD_FPR_REGS (fr0 to fr63). Register numbers not divisible by 4 are excluded not in the class but through the use of a machine mode larger than 8 bytes. Register in the class SPR_REGS (lcr and lr). Register in the class QUAD_ACC_REGS (acc0 to acc7). Register in the class ACCG_REGS (accg0 to accg7). Register in the class CR_REGS (cc0 to cc7). Floating point constant zero 6-bit signed integer constant 10-bit signed integer constant 16-bit signed integer constant 16-bit unsigned integer constant 12-bit signed integer constant that is negativei.e. in the range of 2048 to 1 Constant zero 12-bit signed integer constant that is greater than zeroi.e. in the range of 1 to 2047. DP or IP registers (general address) IP register IPL register IPH register DP register DPH register DPL register SP register DP or SP registers (osettable address) Non-pointer registers (not SP, DP, IP) Non-SP registers (everything except SP) Indirect thru IP - Avoid this except for QImode, since we cant access extra bytes Indirect thru SP or DP with short displacement (0..127) Data-section immediate value

z A B C G I J L M N O P IP2Kip2k.h a f j k b y z q c d u R S T

232

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

I J K L M N O P MIPSmips.h d f h l x y z I J K L M N O P G Q R S

Integers from 255 to 1 Integers from 0 to 7valid bit number in a register Integers from 0 to 127valid displacement for addressing mode Integers from 1 to 127 Integer 1 Integer 1 Zero Integers from 0 to 255 General-purpose integer register Floating-point register (if available) Hi register Lo register Hi or Lo register General-purpose integer register Floating-point status register Signed 16-bit constant (for arithmetic instructions) Zero Zero-extended 16-bit constant (for logic instructions) Constant with low 16 bits zero (can be loaded with lui) 32-bit constant which requires two instructions to load (a constant which is not I, K, or L) Negative 16-bit constant Exact power of two Positive 16-bit constant Floating point zero Memory reference that can be loaded with more than one instruction (m is preferable for asm statements) Memory reference that can be loaded with one instruction (m is preferable for asm statements) Memory reference in external OSF/rose PIC format (m is preferable for asm statements)

Motorola 680x0m68k.h a Address register

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

233

d f x y I J K L M G H

Data register 68881 oating-point register, if available Sun FPA (oating-point) register, if available First 16 Sun FPA registers, if available Integer in the range 1 to 8 16-bit signed number Signed number whose magnitude is greater than 0x80 Integer in the range 8 to 1 Signed number whose magnitude is greater than 0x100 Floating point constant that is not a 68881 constant Floating point constant that can be used by Sun FPA

Motorola 68HC11 & 68HC12 familiesm68hc11.h a Register a b d q t u w x y z A B D L M N O P SPARCsparc.h f Register b Register d An 8-bit register Temporary soft register .tmp A soft register .d1 to .d31 Stack pointer register Register x Register y Pseudo register z (replaced by x or y at the end) An address register: x, y or z An address register: x or y Register pair (x:d) to form a 32-bit value Constants in the range 65536 to 65535 Constants whose 16-bit low part is zero Constant integer 1 or 1 Constant integer 16 Constants in the range 8 to 2 Floating-point register on the SPARC-V8 architecture and lower oating-point register on the SPARC-V9 architecture.

234

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Floating-point register. It is equivalent to f on the SPARC-V8 architecture and contains both lower and upper oating-point registers on the SPARC-V9 architecture. Floating-point condition code register. Lower oating-point register. It is only valid on the SPARC-V9 architecture when the Visual Instruction Set is available. Floating-point register. It is only valid on the SPARC-V9 architecture when the Visual Instruction Set is available. 64-bit global or out register for the SPARC-V8+ architecture. Signed 13-bit constant Zero 32-bit constant with the low 12 bits clear (a constant that can be loaded with the sethi instruction) A constant in the range supported by movcc instructions A constant in the range supported by movrcc instructions Same as K, except that it veries that bits that are not in the lower 32-bit range are all zero. Must be used instead of K for modes wider than SImode The constant 4096 Floating-point zero Signed 13-bit constant, sign-extended to 32 or 64 bits Floating-point constant whose integral representation can be moved into an integer register using a single sethi instruction Floating-point constant whose integral representation can be moved into an integer register using a single mov instruction Floating-point constant whose integral representation can be moved into an integer register using a high/lo sum instruction sequence Memory address aligned to an 8-byte boundary Even register Memory address for e constraint registers.

c d b h I J K L M N

O G H Q R S T U W

TMS320C3x/C4xc4x.h a Auxiliary (address) register (ar0-ar7) b c f k Stack pointer register (sp) Standard (32-bit) precision integer register Extended (40-bit) precision register (r0-r11) Block count register (bk)

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

235

q t u v x y z G H I J K L M N O Q R S T U

Extended (40-bit) precision low register (r0-r7) Extended (40-bit) precision register (r0-r1) Extended (40-bit) precision register (r2-r3) Repeat count register (rc) Index register (ir0-ir1) Status (condition code) register (st) Data page register (dp) Floating-point zero Immediate 16-bit oating-point constant Signed 16-bit constant Signed 8-bit constant Signed 5-bit constant Unsigned 16-bit constant Unsigned 8-bit constant Ones complement of unsigned 16-bit constant High 16-bit constant (32-bit constant with 16 LSBs zero) Indirect memory reference with signed 8-bit or index register displacement Indirect memory reference with unsigned 5-bit displacement Indirect memory reference with 1 bit or index register displacement Direct memory reference Symbolic address

S/390 and zSeriess390.h a Address register (general purpose register except r0) d f I J K L Q S Data register (arbitrary general purpose register) Floating-point register Unsigned 8-bit constant (0255) Unsigned 12-bit constant (04095) Signed 16-bit constant (3276832767) Unsigned 16-bit constant (065535) Memory reference without index register Symbolic constant suitable for use with the larl instruction

Xstormy16stormy16.h a Register r0.

236

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

b c d e t y z I J K L M N O P Q R S T U Xtensaxtensa.h a b A I J K L

Register r1. Register r2. Register r8. Registers r0 through r7. Registers r0 and r1. The carry register. Registers r8 and r9. A constant between 0 and 3 inclusive. A constant that has exactly one bit set. A constant that has exactly one bit clear. A constant between 0 and 255 inclusive. A constant between 255 and 0 inclusive. A constant between 3 and 0 inclusive. A constant between 1 and 4 inclusive. A constant between 4 and 1 inclusive. A memory reference that is a stack push. A memory reference that is a stack pop. A memory reference that refers to a constant address of known value. The register indicated by Rx (not implemented yet). A constant that is not between 2 and 15 inclusive.

General-purpose 32-bit register One-bit boolean register MAC16 40-bit accumulator register Signed 12-bit integer constant, for use in MOVI instructions Signed 8-bit integer constant, for use in ADDI instructions Integer constant valid for BccI instructions Unsigned constant valid for BccUI instructions

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

237

5.37 Controlling Names Used in Assembler Code

You can specify the name to be used in the assembler code for a C function or variable by writing the asm (or __asm__) keyword after the declarator as follows: int foo asm ("myfoo") = 2; This species that the name to be used for the variable foo in the assembler code should be myfoo rather than the usual _foo. On systems where an underscore is normally prepended to the name of a C function or variable, this feature allows you to dene names for the linker that do not start with an underscore. It does not make sense to use this feature with a non-static local variable since such variables do not have assembler names. If you are trying to put the variable in a particular register, see Section 5.38 [Explicit Reg Vars], page 237. GCC presently accepts such code with a warning, but will probably be changed to issue an error, rather than a warning, in the future. You cannot use asm in this way in a function denition; but you can get the same eect by writing a declaration for the function before its denition and putting asm there, like this: extern func () asm ("FUNC"); func (x, y) int x, y; /* . . . */ It is up to you to make sure that the assembler names you choose do not conict with any other assembler symbols. Also, you must not use a register name; that would produce completely invalid assembler code. GCC does not as yet have the ability to store static variables in registers. Perhaps that will be added.

5.38 Variables in Specied Registers

GNU C allows you to put a few global variables into specied hardware registers. You can also specify the register in which an ordinary register variable should be allocated. Global register variables reserve registers throughout the program. This may be useful in programs such as programming language interpreters which have a couple of global variables that are accessed very often. Local register variables in specic registers do not reserve the registers. The compilers data ow analysis is capable of determining where the specied registers contain live values, and where they are available for other uses. Stores into local register variables may be deleted when they appear to be dead according to dataow analysis. References to local register variables may be deleted or moved or simplied. These local variables are sometimes convenient for use with the extended asm feature (see Section 5.35 [Extended Asm], page 216), if you want to write one output of the assembler instruction directly into a particular register. (This will work provided the register you specify ts the constraints specied for that operand in the asm.)

238

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

5.38.1 Dening Global Register Variables

You can dene a global register variable in GNU C like this: register int *foo asm ("a5"); Here a5 is the name of the register which should be used. Choose a register which is normally saved and restored by function calls on your machine, so that library routines will not clobber it. Naturally the register name is cpu-dependent, so you would need to conditionalize your program according to cpu type. The register a5 would be a good choice on a 68000 for a variable of pointer type. On machines with register windows, be sure to choose a global register that is not aected magically by the function call mechanism. In addition, operating systems on one type of cpu may dier in how they name the registers; then you would need additional conditionals. For example, some 68000 operating systems call this register %a5. Eventually there may be a way of asking the compiler to choose a register automatically, but rst we need to gure out how it should choose and how to enable you to guide the choice. No solution is evident. Dening a global register variable in a certain register reserves that register entirely for this use, at least within the current compilation. The register will not be allocated for any other purpose in the functions in the current compilation. The register will not be saved and restored by these functions. Stores into this register are never deleted even if they would appear to be dead, but references may be deleted or moved or simplied. It is not safe to access the global register variables from signal handlers, or from more than one thread of control, because the system library routines may temporarily use the register for other things (unless you recompile them specially for the task at hand). It is not safe for one function that uses a global register variable to call another such function foo by way of a third function lose that was compiled without knowledge of this variable (i.e. in a dierent source le in which the variable wasnt declared). This is because lose might save the register and put some other value there. For example, you cant expect a global register variable to be available in the comparison-function that you pass to qsort, since qsort might have put something else in that register. (If you are prepared to recompile qsort with the same global register variable, you can solve this problem.) If you want to recompile qsort or other source les which do not actually use your global register variable, so that they will not use that register for any other purpose, then it suces to specify the compiler option -ffixed-reg . You need not actually add a global register declaration to their source code. A function which can alter the value of a global register variable cannot safely be called from a function compiled without this variable, because it could clobber the value the caller expects to nd there on return. Therefore, the function which is the entry point into the part of the program that uses the global register variable must explicitly save and restore the value which belongs to its caller. On most machines, longjmp will restore to each global register variable the value it had at the time of the setjmp. On some machines, however, longjmp will not change the value of global register variables. To be portable, the function that called setjmp should make

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

239

other arrangements to save the values of the global register variables, and to restore them in a longjmp. This way, the same thing will happen regardless of what longjmp does. All global register variable declarations must precede all function denitions. If such a declaration could appear after function denitions, the declaration would be too late to prevent the register from being used for other purposes in the preceding functions. Global register variables may not have initial values, because an executable le has no means to supply initial contents for a register. On the SPARC, there are reports that g3 . . . g7 are suitable registers, but certain library functions, such as getwd, as well as the subroutines for division and remainder, modify g3 and g4. g1 and g2 are local temporaries. On the 68000, a2 . . . a5 should be suitable, as should d2 . . . d7. Of course, it will not do to use more than a few of those.

5.38.2 Specifying Registers for Local Variables

You can dene a local register variable with a specied register like this: register int *foo asm ("a5"); Here a5 is the name of the register which should be used. Note that this is the same syntax used for dening global register variables, but for a local variable it would appear within a function. Naturally the register name is cpu-dependent, but this is not a problem, since specic registers are most often useful with explicit assembler instructions (see Section 5.35 [Extended Asm], page 216). Both of these things generally require that you conditionalize your program according to cpu type. In addition, operating systems on one type of cpu may dier in how they name the registers; then you would need additional conditionals. For example, some 68000 operating systems call this register %a5. Dening such a register variable does not reserve the register; it remains available for other uses in places where ow control determines the variables value is not live. However, these registers are made unavailable for use in the reload pass; excessive use of this feature leaves the compiler too few available registers to compile certain functions. This option does not guarantee that GCC will generate code that has this variable in the register you specify at all times. You may not code an explicit reference to this register in an asm statement and assume it will always refer to this variable. Stores into local register variables may be deleted when they appear to be dead according to dataow analysis. References to local register variables may be deleted or moved or simplied.

5.39 Alternate Keywords

-ansi and the various -std options disable certain keywords. This causes trouble when you want to use GNU C extensions, or a general-purpose header le that should be usable by all programs, including ISO C programs. The keywords asm, typeof and inline are not available in programs compiled with -ansi or -std (although inline can be used in

240

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

a program compiled with -std=c99). The ISO C99 keyword restrict is only available when -std=gnu99 (which will eventually be the default) or -std=c99 (or the equivalent -std=iso9899:1999) is used. The way to solve these problems is to put __ at the beginning and end of each problematical keyword. For example, use __asm__ instead of asm, and __inline__ instead of inline. Other C compilers wont accept these alternative keywords; if you want to compile with another compiler, you can dene the alternate keywords as macros to replace them with the customary keywords. It looks like this: #ifndef __GNUC__ #define __asm__ asm #endif -pedantic and other options cause warnings for many GNU C extensions. You can prevent such warnings within one expression by writing __extension__ before the expression. __extension__ has no eect aside from this.

5.40 Incomplete enum Types

You can dene an enum tag without specifying its possible values. This results in an incomplete type, much like what you get if you write struct foo without describing the elements. A later declaration which does specify the possible values completes the type. You cant allocate variables or storage using the type while it is incomplete. However, you can work with pointers to that type. This extension may not be very useful, but it makes the handling of enum more consistent with the way struct and union are handled. This extension is not supported by GNU C++.

5.41 Function Names as Strings

GCC predenes two magic identiers to hold the name of the current function. The identier __FUNCTION__ holds the name of the function as it appears in the source. The identier __PRETTY_FUNCTION__ holds the name of the function pretty printed in a language specic fashion. These names are always the same in a C function, but in a C++ function they may be dierent. For example, this program:
extern "C" { extern int printf (char *, ...); } class a { public: sub (int i) { printf ("__FUNCTION__ = %s\n", __FUNCTION__); printf ("__PRETTY_FUNCTION__ = %s\n", __PRETTY_FUNCTION__); }

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

241

}; int main (void) { a ax; ax.sub (0); return 0; }

gives this output:

__FUNCTION__ = sub __PRETTY_FUNCTION__ = int a::sub (int)

The compiler automagically replaces the identiers with a string literal containing the appropriate name. Thus, they are neither preprocessor macros, like __FILE__ and __LINE_ _, nor variables. This means that they catenate with other string literals, and that they can be used to initialize char arrays. For example
char here[] = "Function " __FUNCTION__ " in " __FILE__;

On the other hand, #ifdef __FUNCTION__ does not have any special meaning inside a function, since the preprocessor does not do anything special with the identier __FUNCTION__. Note that these semantics are deprecated, and that GCC 3.2 will handle __FUNCTION__ and __PRETTY_FUNCTION__ the same way as __func__. __func__ is dened by the ISO standard C99: The identier __func__ is implicitly declared by the translator as if, immediately following the opening brace of each function denition, the declaration
static const char __func__[] = "function-name";

appeared, where function-name is the name of the lexically-enclosing function. This name is the unadorned name of the function. By this denition, __func__ is a variable, not a string literal. In particular, __func__ does not catenate with other string literals. In C++, __FUNCTION__ and __PRETTY_FUNCTION__ are variables, declared in the same way as __func__.

5.42 Getting the Return or Frame Address of a Function

These functions may be used to get information about the callers of a function.

void * __builtin_return_address (unsigned int level )

[Built-in Function] This function returns the return address of the current function, or of one of its callers. The level argument is number of frames to scan up the call stack. A value of 0 yields the return address of the current function, a value of 1 yields the return address of the caller of the current function, and so forth. When inlining the expected behavior is that the function will return the address of the function that will be returned to. To work around this behavior use the noinline function attribute.

242

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The level argument must be a constant integer. On some machines it may be impossible to determine the return address of any function other than the current one; in such cases, or when the top of the stack has been reached, this function will return 0 or a random value. In addition, __builtin_ frame_address may be used to determine if the top of the stack has been reached. This function should only be used with a nonzero argument for debugging purposes.

void * __builtin_frame_address (unsigned int level )

[Built-in Function] This function is similar to __builtin_return_address, but it returns the address of the function frame rather than the return address of the function. Calling __builtin_ frame_address with a value of 0 yields the frame address of the current function, a value of 1 yields the frame address of the caller of the current function, and so forth. The frame is the area on the stack which holds local variables and saved registers. The frame address is normally the address of the rst word pushed on to the stack by the function. However, the exact denition depends upon the processor and the calling convention. If the processor has a dedicated frame pointer register, and the function has a frame, then __builtin_frame_address will return the value of the frame pointer register. On some machines it may be impossible to determine the frame address of any function other than the current one; in such cases, or when the top of the stack has been reached, this function will return 0 if the rst frame pointer is properly initialized by the startup code. This function should only be used with a nonzero argument for debugging purposes.

5.43 Using vector instructions through built-in functions

On some targets, the instruction set contains SIMD vector instructions that operate on multiple values contained in one large register at the same time. For example, on the i386 the MMX, 3Dnow! and SSE extensions can be used this way. The rst step in using these extensions is to provide the necessary data types. This should be done using an appropriate typedef: typedef int v4si __attribute__ ((mode(V4SI))); The base type int is eectively ignored by the compiler, the actual properties of the new type v4si are dened by the __attribute__. It denes the machine mode to be used; for vector types these have the form Vn B ; n should be the number of elements in the vector, and B should be the base mode of the individual elements. The following can be used as base modes: QI HI SI DI SF An integer that is as wide as the smallest addressable unit, usually 8 bits. An integer, twice as wide as a QI mode integer, usually 16 bits. An integer, four times as wide as a QI mode integer, usually 32 bits. An integer, eight times as wide as a QI mode integer, usually 64 bits. A oating point value, as wide as a SI mode integer, usually 32 bits.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

243

DF

A oating point value, as wide as a DI mode integer, usually 64 bits.

Specifying a combination that is not valid for the current architecture will cause gcc to synthesize the instructions using a narrower mode. For example, if you specify a variable of type V4SI and your architecture does not allow for this specic SIMD type, gcc will produce code that uses 4 SIs. The types dened in this manner can be used with a subset of normal C operations. Currently, gcc will allow using the following operators on these types: +, -, *, /, unary minus. The operations behave like C++ valarrays. Addition is dened as the addition of the corresponding elements of the operands. For example, in the code below, each of the 4 elements in a will be added to the corresponding 4 elements in b and the resulting vector will be stored in c. typedef int v4si __attribute__ ((mode(V4SI))); v4si a, b, c; c = a + b; Subtraction, multiplication, and division operate in a similar manner. Likewise, the result of using the unary minus operator on a vector type is a vector whose elements are the negative value of the corresponding elements in the operand. You can declare variables and use them in function calls and returns, as well as in assignments and some casts. You can specify a vector type as a return type for a function. Vector types can also be used as function arguments. It is possible to cast from one vector type to another, provided they are of the same size (in fact, you can also cast vectors to and from other datatypes of the same size). You cannot operate between vectors of dierent lengths or dierent signedness without a cast. A port that supports hardware vector operations, usually provides a set of built-in functions that can be used to operate on vectors. For example, a function to add two vectors and multiply the result by a third could look like this: v4si f (v4si a, v4si b, v4si c) { v4si tmp = __builtin_addv4si (a, b); return __builtin_mulv4si (tmp, c); }

5.44 Other built-in functions provided by GCC

GCC provides a large number of built-in functions other than the ones mentioned above. Some of these are for internal use in the processing of exceptions or variable-length argument lists and will not be documented here because they may change from time to time; we do not recommend general use of these functions. The remaining functions are provided for optimization purposes.

244

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

GCC includes built-in versions of many of the functions in the standard C library. The versions prexed with __builtin_ will always be treated as having the same meaning as the C library function even if you specify the -fno-builtin option. (see Section 3.4 [C Dialect Options], page 21) Many of these functions are only optimized in certain cases; if they are not optimized in a particular case, a call to the library function will be emitted. The functions abort, exit, _Exit and _exit are recognized and presumed not to return, but otherwise are not built in. _exit is not recognized in strict ISO C mode (-ansi, -std=c89 or -std=c99). _Exit is not recognized in strict C89 mode (-ansi or -std=c89). All these functions have corresponding versions prexed with __builtin_, which may be used even in strict C89 mode. Outside strict ISO C mode, the functions alloca, bcmp, bzero, index, rindex, ffs, fputs_unlocked, printf_unlocked and fprintf_unlocked may be handled as built-in functions. All these functions have corresponding versions prexed with __builtin_, which may be used even in strict C89 mode. The ISO C99 functions conj, conjf, conjl, creal, crealf, creall, cimag, cimagf, cimagl, imaxabs, llabs, snprintf, vscanf, vsnprintf and vsscanf are handled as builtin functions except in strict ISO C90 mode. There are also built-in versions of the ISO C99 functions cosf, cosl, expf, expl, fabsf, fabsl, logf, logl, sinf, sinl, sqrtf, and sqrtl, that are recognized in any mode since ISO C90 reserves these names for the purpose to which ISO C99 puts them. All these functions have corresponding versions prexed with __builtin_. The ISO C90 functions abs, cos, exp, fabs, fprintf, fputs, labs, log, memcmp, memcpy, memset, printf, putchar, puts, scanf, sin, snprintf, sprintf, sqrt, sscanf, strcat, strchr, strcmp, strcpy, strcspn, strlen, strncat, strncmp, strncpy, strpbrk, strrchr, strspn, strstr, vprintf and vsprintf are all recognized as built-in functions unless -fno-builtin is specied (or -fno-builtin-function is specied for an individual function). All of these functions have corresponding versions prexed with __builtin_. GCC provides built-in versions of the ISO C99 oating point comparison macros that avoid raising exceptions for unordered operands. They have the same names as the standard macros ( isgreater, isgreaterequal, isless, islessequal, islessgreater, and isunordered) , with __builtin_ prexed. We intend for a library implementor to be able to simply #define each standard macro to its built-in equivalent.

int __builtin_types_compatible_p (type1, type2 )

[Built-in Function] You can use the built-in function __builtin_types_compatible_p to determine whether two types are the same. This built-in function returns 1 if the unqualied versions of the types type1 and type2 (which are types, not expressions) are compatible, 0 otherwise. The result of this built-in function can be used in integer constant expressions. This built-in function ignores top level qualiers (e.g., const, volatile). For example, int is equivalent to const int. The type int[] and int[5] are compatible. On the other hand, int and char * are not compatible, even if the size of their types, on the particular architecture are the same. Also, the amount of pointer indirection is taken into account when determining similarity. Consequently, short * is not similar to short **. Furthermore, two types that are typedefed are considered compatible if their underlying types are compatible.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

245

An enum type is considered to be compatible with another enum type. For example, enum {foo, bar} is similar to enum {hot, dog}. You would typically use this function in code whose execution varies depending on the arguments types. For example:
#define foo(x) \ ({ \ typeof (x) tmp; \ if (__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), long double)) \ tmp = foo_long_double (tmp); \ else if (__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), double)) \ tmp = foo_double (tmp); \ else if (__builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), float)) \ tmp = foo_float (tmp); \ else \ abort (); \ tmp; \ })

Note: This construct is only available for C. type __builtin_choose_expr (const_exp, exp1, exp2 ) [Built-in Function] You can use the built-in function __builtin_choose_expr to evaluate code depending on the value of a constant expression. This built-in function returns exp1 if const exp, which is a constant expression that must be able to be determined at compile time, is nonzero. Otherwise it returns 0. This built-in function is analogous to the ? : operator in C, except that the expression returned has its type unaltered by promotion rules. Also, the built-in function does not evaluate the expression that was not chosen. For example, if const exp evaluates to true, exp2 is not evaluated even if it has side-eects. This built-in function can return an lvalue if the chosen argument is an lvalue. If exp1 is returned, the return type is the same as exp1s type. Similarly, if exp2 is returned, its return type is the same as exp2. Example:
#define foo(x) __builtin_choose_expr ( __builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), double), foo_double (x), __builtin_choose_expr ( __builtin_types_compatible_p (typeof (x), float), foo_float (x), /* The void expression results in a compile-time error \ when assigning the result to something. */ \ (void)0)) \ \ \ \ \ \ \

Note: This construct is only available for C. Furthermore, the unused expression (exp1 or exp2 depending on the value of const exp) may still generate syntax errors. This may change in future revisions.

int __builtin_constant_p (exp )

[Built-in Function] You can use the built-in function __builtin_constant_p to determine if a value is known to be constant at compile-time and hence that GCC can perform constantfolding on expressions involving that value. The argument of the function is the value

246

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

to test. The function returns the integer 1 if the argument is known to be a compiletime constant and 0 if it is not known to be a compile-time constant. A return of 0 does not indicate that the value is not a constant, but merely that GCC cannot prove it is a constant with the specied value of the -O option. You would typically use this function in an embedded application where memory was a critical resource. If you have some complex calculation, you may want it to be folded if it involves constants, but need to call a function if it does not. For example:
#define Scale_Value(X) \ (__builtin_constant_p (X) \ ? ((X) * SCALE + OFFSET) : Scale (X))

You may use this built-in function in either a macro or an inline function. However, if you use it in an inlined function and pass an argument of the function as the argument to the built-in, GCC will never return 1 when you call the inline function with a string constant or compound literal (see Section 5.20 [Compound Literals], page 189) and will not return 1 when you pass a constant numeric value to the inline function unless you specify the -O option. You may also use __builtin_constant_p in initializers for static data. For instance, you can write
static const int table[] = { __builtin_constant_p (EXPRESSION) ? (EXPRESSION) : -1, /* . . . */ };

This is an acceptable initializer even if EXPRESSION is not a constant expression. GCC must be more conservative about evaluating the built-in in this case, because it has no opportunity to perform optimization. Previous versions of GCC did not accept this built-in in data initializers. The earliest version where it is completely safe is 3.0.1.

long __builtin_expect (long exp, long c )

[Built-in Function] You may use __builtin_expect to provide the compiler with branch prediction information. In general, you should prefer to use actual prole feedback for this (-fprofile-arcs), as programmers are notoriously bad at predicting how their programs actually perform. However, there are applications in which this data is hard to collect. The return value is the value of exp, which should be an integral expression. The value of c must be a compile-time constant. The semantics of the built-in are that it is expected that exp == c. For example:
if (__builtin_expect (x, 0)) foo ();

would indicate that we do not expect to call foo, since we expect x to be zero. Since you are limited to integral expressions for exp, you should use constructions such as
if (__builtin_expect (ptr != NULL, 1)) error ();

when testing pointer or oating-point values.

void __builtin_prefetch (const void *addr, ...)

[Built-in Function] This function is used to minimize cache-miss latency by moving data into a cache before it is accessed. You can insert calls to __builtin_prefetch into code for

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

247

which you know addresses of data in memory that is likely to be accessed soon. If the target supports them, data prefetch instructions will be generated. If the prefetch is done early enough before the access then the data will be in the cache by the time it is accessed. The value of addr is the address of the memory to prefetch. There are two optional arguments, rw and locality. The value of rw is a compile-time constant one or zero; one means that the prefetch is preparing for a write to the memory address and zero, the default, means that the prefetch is preparing for a read. The value locality must be a compile-time constant integer between zero and three. A value of zero means that the data has no temporal locality, so it need not be left in the cache after the access. A value of three means that the data has a high degree of temporal locality and should be left in all levels of cache possible. Values of one and two mean, respectively, a low or moderate degree of temporal locality. The default is three.
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { a[i] = a[i] + b[i]; __builtin_prefetch (&a[i+j], 1, 1); __builtin_prefetch (&b[i+j], 0, 1); /* . . . */ }

Data prefetch does not generate faults if addr is invalid, but the address expression itself must be valid. For example, a prefetch of p->next will not fault if p->next is not a valid address, but evaluation will fault if p is not a valid address. If the target does not support data prefetch, the address expression is evaluated if it includes side eects but no other code is generated and GCC does not issue a warning.

double __builtin_huge_val (void)

[Built-in Function] Returns a positive innity, if supported by the oating-point format, else DBL_MAX. This function is suitable for implementing the ISO C macro HUGE_VAL. [Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_huge_val, except the return type is float.

float __builtin_huge_valf (void) long double __builtin_huge_vall (void) double __builtin_inf (void)

[Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_huge_val, except the return type is long double. [Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_huge_val, except a warning is generated if the target oatingpoint format does not support innities. This function is suitable for implementing the ISO C99 macro INFINITY. [Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_inf, except the return type is float.

float __builtin_inff (void) long double __builtin_infl (void)

[Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_inf, except the return type is long double. [Built-in Function] This is an implementation of the ISO C99 function nan.

double __builtin_nan (const char *str)

248

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Since ISO C99 denes this function in terms of strtod, which we do not implement, a description of the parsing is in order. The string is parsed as by strtol; that is, the base is recognized by leading 0 or 0x prexes. The number parsed is placed in the signicand such that the least signicant bit of the number is at the least signicant bit of the signicand. The number is truncated to t the signicand eld provided. The signicand is forced to be a quiet NaN. This function, if given a string literal, is evaluated early enough that it is considered a compile-time constant.

float __builtin_nanf (const char *str)

Similar to __builtin_nan, except the return type is float.

[Built-in Function]

long double __builtin_nanl (const char *str) double __builtin_nans (const char *str)

[Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_nan, except the return type is long double. [Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_nan, except the signicand is forced to be a signaling NaN. The nans function is proposed by WG14 N965. [Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_nans, except the return type is float.

float __builtin_nansf (const char *str) long double __builtin_nansl (const char *str)

[Built-in Function] Similar to __builtin_nans, except the return type is long double.

5.45 Built-in Functions Specic to Particular Target Machines

On some target machines, GCC supports many built-in functions specic to those machines. Generally these generate calls to specic machine instructions, but allow the compiler to schedule those calls.

5.45.1 Alpha Built-in Functions

These built-in functions are available for the Alpha family of processors, depending on the command-line switches used. The following built-in functions are always available. They all generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. long __builtin_alpha_implver (void) long __builtin_alpha_rpcc (void) long __builtin_alpha_amask (long) long __builtin_alpha_cmpbge (long, long) long __builtin_alpha_extbl (long, long) long __builtin_alpha_extwl (long, long) long __builtin_alpha_extll (long, long) long __builtin_alpha_extql (long, long) long __builtin_alpha_extwh (long, long)

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

249

long long long long long long long long long long long long long long long long long long long

__builtin_alpha_extlh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_extqh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_insbl (long, long) __builtin_alpha_inswl (long, long) __builtin_alpha_insll (long, long) __builtin_alpha_insql (long, long) __builtin_alpha_inswh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_inslh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_insqh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_mskbl (long, long) __builtin_alpha_mskwl (long, long) __builtin_alpha_mskll (long, long) __builtin_alpha_mskql (long, long) __builtin_alpha_mskwh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_msklh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_mskqh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_umulh (long, long) __builtin_alpha_zap (long, long) __builtin_alpha_zapnot (long, long)

The following built-in functions are always with -mmax or -mcpu=cpu where cpu is pca56 or later. They all generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. long long long long long long long long long long long long long __builtin_alpha_pklb (long) __builtin_alpha_pkwb (long) __builtin_alpha_unpkbl (long) __builtin_alpha_unpkbw (long) __builtin_alpha_minub8 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_minsb8 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_minuw4 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_minsw4 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_maxub8 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_maxsb8 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_maxuw4 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_maxsw4 (long, long) __builtin_alpha_perr (long, long)

The following built-in functions are always with -mcix or -mcpu=cpu where cpu is ev67 or later. They all generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. long __builtin_alpha_cttz (long) long __builtin_alpha_ctlz (long) long __builtin_alpha_ctpop (long) The following builtins are available on systems that use the OSF/1 PALcode. Normally they invoke the rduniq and wruniq PAL calls, but when invoked with -mtls-kernel, they invoke rdval and wrval. void *__builtin_thread_pointer (void) void __builtin_set_thread_pointer (void *)

250

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

5.45.2 X86 Built-in Functions

These built-in functions are available for the i386 and x86-64 family of computers, depending on the command-line switches used. The following machine modes are available for use with MMX built-in functions (see Section 5.43 [Vector Extensions], page 242): V2SI for a vector of two 32-bit integers, V4HI for a vector of four 16-bit integers, and V8QI for a vector of eight 8-bit integers. Some of the built-in functions operate on MMX registers as a whole 64-bit entity, these use DI as their mode. If 3Dnow extensions are enabled, V2SF is used as a mode for a vector of two 32-bit oating point values. If SSE extensions are enabled, V4SF is used for a vector of four 32-bit oating point values. Some instructions use a vector of four 32-bit integers, these use V4SI. Finally, some instructions operate on an entire vector register, interpreting it as a 128-bit integer, these use mode TI. The following built-in functions are made available by -mmmx. All of them generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. v8qi __builtin_ia32_paddb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_paddw (v4hi, v4hi) v2si __builtin_ia32_paddd (v2si, v2si) v8qi __builtin_ia32_psubb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_psubw (v4hi, v4hi) v2si __builtin_ia32_psubd (v2si, v2si) v8qi __builtin_ia32_paddsb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_paddsw (v4hi, v4hi) v8qi __builtin_ia32_psubsb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_psubsw (v4hi, v4hi) v8qi __builtin_ia32_paddusb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_paddusw (v4hi, v4hi) v8qi __builtin_ia32_psubusb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_psubusw (v4hi, v4hi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pmullw (v4hi, v4hi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pmulhw (v4hi, v4hi) di __builtin_ia32_pand (di, di) di __builtin_ia32_pandn (di,di) di __builtin_ia32_por (di, di) di __builtin_ia32_pxor (di, di) v8qi __builtin_ia32_pcmpeqb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pcmpeqw (v4hi, v4hi) v2si __builtin_ia32_pcmpeqd (v2si, v2si) v8qi __builtin_ia32_pcmpgtb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pcmpgtw (v4hi, v4hi) v2si __builtin_ia32_pcmpgtd (v2si, v2si) v8qi __builtin_ia32_punpckhbw (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_punpckhwd (v4hi, v4hi)

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

251

v2si v8qi v4hi v2si v8qi v4hi v8qi

__builtin_ia32_punpckhdq (v2si, v2si) __builtin_ia32_punpcklbw (v8qi, v8qi) __builtin_ia32_punpcklwd (v4hi, v4hi) __builtin_ia32_punpckldq (v2si, v2si) __builtin_ia32_packsswb (v4hi, v4hi) __builtin_ia32_packssdw (v2si, v2si) __builtin_ia32_packuswb (v4hi, v4hi)

The following built-in functions are made available either with -msse, or with a combination of -m3dnow and -march=athlon. All of them generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. v4hi __builtin_ia32_pmulhuw (v4hi, v4hi) v8qi __builtin_ia32_pavgb (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pavgw (v4hi, v4hi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_psadbw (v8qi, v8qi) v8qi __builtin_ia32_pmaxub (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pmaxsw (v4hi, v4hi) v8qi __builtin_ia32_pminub (v8qi, v8qi) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pminsw (v4hi, v4hi) int __builtin_ia32_pextrw (v4hi, int) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pinsrw (v4hi, int, int) int __builtin_ia32_pmovmskb (v8qi) void __builtin_ia32_maskmovq (v8qi, v8qi, char *) void __builtin_ia32_movntq (di *, di) void __builtin_ia32_sfence (void) The following built-in functions are available when -msse is used. All of them generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. int __builtin_ia32_comieq (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_comineq (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_comilt (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_comile (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_comigt (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_comige (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_ucomieq (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_ucomineq (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_ucomilt (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_ucomile (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_ucomigt (v4sf, v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_ucomige (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_addps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_subps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_mulps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_divps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_addss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_subss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_mulss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_divss (v4sf, v4sf)

252

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpeqps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpltps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpleps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpgtps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpgeps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpunordps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpneqps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpnltps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpnleps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpngtps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpngeps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpordps (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpeqss (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpltss (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpless (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpunordss (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpneqss (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpnlts (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpnless (v4sf, v4sf) v4si __builtin_ia32_cmpordss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_maxps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_maxss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_minps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_minss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_andps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_andnps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_orps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_xorps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_movss (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_movhlps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_movlhps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_unpckhps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_unpcklps (v4sf, v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_cvtpi2ps (v4sf, v2si) v4sf __builtin_ia32_cvtsi2ss (v4sf, int) v2si __builtin_ia32_cvtps2pi (v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_cvtss2si (v4sf) v2si __builtin_ia32_cvttps2pi (v4sf) int __builtin_ia32_cvttss2si (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_rcpps (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_rsqrtps (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_sqrtps (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_rcpss (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_rsqrtss (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_sqrtss (v4sf) v4sf __builtin_ia32_shufps (v4sf, v4sf, int) void __builtin_ia32_movntps (float *, v4sf)

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

253

int __builtin_ia32_movmskps (v4sf) The following built-in functions are available when -msse is used. v4sf __builtin_ia32_loadaps (float *) Generates the movaps machine instruction as a load from memory. void __builtin_ia32_storeaps (float *, v4sf) Generates the movaps machine instruction as a store to memory. v4sf __builtin_ia32_loadups (float *) Generates the movups machine instruction as a load from memory. void __builtin_ia32_storeups (float *, v4sf) Generates the movups machine instruction as a store to memory. v4sf __builtin_ia32_loadsss (float *) Generates the movss machine instruction as a load from memory. void __builtin_ia32_storess (float *, v4sf) Generates the movss machine instruction as a store to memory. v4sf __builtin_ia32_loadhps (v4sf, v2si *) Generates the movhps machine instruction as a load from memory. v4sf __builtin_ia32_loadlps (v4sf, v2si *) Generates the movlps machine instruction as a load from memory void __builtin_ia32_storehps (v4sf, v2si *) Generates the movhps machine instruction as a store to memory. void __builtin_ia32_storelps (v4sf, v2si *) Generates the movlps machine instruction as a store to memory. The following built-in functions are available when -m3dnow is used. All of them generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. void __builtin_ia32_femms (void) v8qi __builtin_ia32_pavgusb (v8qi, v8qi) v2si __builtin_ia32_pf2id (v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfacc (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfadd (v2sf, v2sf) v2si __builtin_ia32_pfcmpeq (v2sf, v2sf) v2si __builtin_ia32_pfcmpge (v2sf, v2sf) v2si __builtin_ia32_pfcmpgt (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfmax (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfmin (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfmul (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfrcp (v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfrcpit1 (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfrcpit2 (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfrsqrt (v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfrsqrtit1 (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfsub (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfsubr (v2sf, v2sf)

254

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

v2sf __builtin_ia32_pi2fd (v2si) v4hi __builtin_ia32_pmulhrw (v4hi, v4hi) The following built-in functions are available when both -m3dnow and -march=athlon are used. All of them generate the machine instruction that is part of the name. v2si __builtin_ia32_pf2iw (v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfnacc (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pfpnacc (v2sf, v2sf) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pi2fw (v2si) v2sf __builtin_ia32_pswapdsf (v2sf) v2si __builtin_ia32_pswapdsi (v2si)

5.45.3 PowerPC AltiVec Built-in Functions

These built-in functions are available for the PowerPC family of computers, depending on the command-line switches used. The following machine modes are available for use with AltiVec built-in functions (see Section 5.43 [Vector Extensions], page 242): V4SI for a vector of four 32-bit integers, V4SF for a vector of four 32-bit oating point numbers, V8HI for a vector of eight 16-bit integers, and V16QI for a vector of sixteen 8-bit integers. The following functions are made available by including <altivec.h> and using -maltivec and -mabi=altivec. The functions implement the functionality described in Motorolas AltiVec Programming Interface Manual. There are a few dierences from Motorolas documentation and GCCs implementation. Vector constants are done with curly braces (not parentheses). Vector initializers require no casts if the vector constant is of the same type as the variable it is initializing. The vector bool type is deprecated and will be discontinued in further revisions. Use vector signed instead. If signed or unsigned is omitted, the vector type will default to signed. Lastly, all overloaded functions are implemented with macros for the C implementation. So code the following example will not work:
vec_add ((vector signed int){1, 2, 3, 4}, foo);

Since vec add is a macro, the vector constant in the above example will be treated as four dierent arguments. Wrap the entire argument in parentheses for this to work. The C++ implementation does not use macros. Note: Only the <altivec.h> interface is supported. Internally, GCC uses built-in functions to achieve the functionality in the aforementioned header le, but they are not supported and are subject to change without notice.
vector vector vector vector signed signed signed signed char vec_abs (vector signed char, vector signed char); short vec_abs (vector signed short, vector signed short); int vec_abs (vector signed int, vector signed int); float vec_abs (vector signed float, vector signed float);

vector signed char vec_abss (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed short vec_abss (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector signed char vec_add (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_add (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

255

vector unsigned char vec_add (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_add (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_add (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_add (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_add (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_add (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_add (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_add (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_add (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_add (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector float vec_add (vector float, vector float); vector unsigned int vec_addc (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned char vec_adds (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_adds (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_adds (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_adds (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_adds (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_adds (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_adds (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_adds (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned int vec_adds (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_adds (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_adds (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_adds (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_and (vector float, vector float); float vec_and (vector float, vector signed int); float vec_and (vector signed int, vector float); signed int vec_and (vector signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_and (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); unsigned int vec_and (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_and (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); signed short vec_and (vector signed short, vector signed short); unsigned short vec_and (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); unsigned short vec_and (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); unsigned short vec_and (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); signed char vec_and (vector signed char, vector signed char); unsigned char vec_and (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);

vector unsigned char vec_and (vector unsigned char, vector signed char);

256

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector unsigned char vec_and (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_andc (vector float, vector float); float vec_andc (vector float, vector signed int); float vec_andc (vector signed int, vector float); signed int vec_andc (vector signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_andc (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); unsigned int vec_andc (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_andc (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int);

vector signed short vec_andc (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_andc (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_andc (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_andc (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_andc (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_andc (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_andc (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_andc (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_avg (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_avg (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_avg (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_avg (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned int vec_avg (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_avg (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector float vec_ceil (vector float); vector signed int vec_cmpb (vector float, vector float); vector signed char vec_cmpeq (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed char vec_cmpeq (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_cmpeq (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector signed short vec_cmpeq (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_cmpeq (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_cmpeq (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_cmpeq (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_cmpge (vector float, vector float); vector signed char vec_cmpgt (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_cmpgt (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed short vec_cmpgt (vector unsigned short,

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

257

vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_cmpgt (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector signed int vec_cmpgt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_cmpgt (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_cmpgt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_cmple (vector float, vector float); vector signed char vec_cmplt (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_cmplt (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed short vec_cmplt (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_cmplt (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector signed int vec_cmplt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_cmplt (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_cmplt (vector float, vector float); vector float vec_ctf (vector unsigned int, const char); vector float vec_ctf (vector signed int, const char); vector signed int vec_cts (vector float, const char); vector unsigned int vec_ctu (vector float, const char); void vec_dss (const char); void vec_dssall (void); void vec_dst (void *, int, const char); void vec_dstst (void *, int, const char); void vec_dststt (void *, int, const char); void vec_dstt (void *, int, const char); vector float vec_expte (vector float, vector float); vector float vec_floor (vector float, vector float); vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_ld (int, vector float *); float vec_ld (int, float *): signed int vec_ld (int, int *); signed int vec_ld (int, vector signed int *); unsigned int vec_ld (int, vector unsigned int *); unsigned int vec_ld (int, unsigned int *); signed short vec_ld (int, short *, vector signed short *); unsigned short vec_ld (int, unsigned short *, vector unsigned short *); signed char vec_ld (int, signed char *); signed char vec_ld (int, vector signed char *); unsigned char vec_ld (int, unsigned char *); unsigned char vec_ld (int, vector unsigned char *);

vector signed char vec_lde (int, signed char *);

258

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector vector vector vector vector vector void void void void void void void void void void void void void void

unsigned char vec_lde (int, unsigned char *); signed short vec_lde (int, short *); unsigned short vec_lde (int, unsigned short *); float vec_lde (int, float *); signed int vec_lde (int, int *); unsigned int vec_lde (int, unsigned int *);

float vec_ldl (int, float *); float vec_ldl (int, vector float *); signed int vec_ldl (int, vector signed int *); signed int vec_ldl (int, int *); unsigned int vec_ldl (int, unsigned int *); unsigned int vec_ldl (int, vector unsigned int *); signed short vec_ldl (int, vector signed short *); signed short vec_ldl (int, short *); unsigned short vec_ldl (int, vector unsigned short *); unsigned short vec_ldl (int, unsigned short *); signed char vec_ldl (int, vector signed char *); signed char vec_ldl (int, signed char *); unsigned char vec_ldl (int, vector unsigned char *); unsigned char vec_ldl (int, unsigned char *);

vector float vec_loge (vector float); vector unsigned char vec_lvsl (int, void *, int *); vector unsigned char vec_lvsr (int, void *, int *); vector float vec_madd (vector float, vector float, vector float); vector signed short vec_madds (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned char vec_max (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_max (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_max (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_max (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_max (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_max (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_max (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_max (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned int vec_max (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_max (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_max (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_max (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector float vec_max (vector float, vector float); vector signed char vec_mergeh (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_mergeh (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_mergeh (vector signed short, vector signed short);

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

259

vector unsigned short vec_mergeh (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector float vec_mergeh (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_mergeh (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_mergeh (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed char vec_mergel (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_mergel (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_mergel (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_mergel (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector float vec_mergel (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_mergel (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_mergel (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned short vec_mfvscr (void); vector unsigned char vec_min (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_min (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_min (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_min (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_min (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_min (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_min (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_min (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned int vec_min (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_min (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_min (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_min (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector float vec_min (vector float, vector float); vector signed short vec_mladd (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector signed short); vector signed short vec_mladd (vector signed short, vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_mladd (vector unsigned short, vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_mladd (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_mradds (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned int vec_msum (vector unsigned char,

260

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector unsigned char, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_msum (vector signed char, vector unsigned char, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_msum (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_msum (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_msums (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_msums (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector signed int); void void void void void void vec_mtvscr vec_mtvscr vec_mtvscr vec_mtvscr vec_mtvscr vec_mtvscr (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector signed int); unsigned int); signed short); unsigned short); signed char); unsigned char);

vector unsigned short vec_mule (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_mule (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned int vec_mule (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_mule (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_mulo (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_mulo (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned int vec_mulo (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_mulo (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector float vec_nmsub (vector float, vector float, vector float); vector vector vector vector vector float vec_nor (vector float, vector float); signed int vec_nor (vector signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_nor (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); signed short vec_nor (vector signed short, vector signed short); unsigned short vec_nor (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_nor (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_nor (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_or (vector float, vector float); float vec_or (vector float, vector signed int); float vec_or (vector signed int, vector float); signed int vec_or (vector signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_or (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); unsigned int vec_or (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_or (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); signed short vec_or (vector signed short, vector signed short); unsigned short vec_or (vector signed short,

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

261

vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_or (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_or (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_or (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_or (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_or (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_or (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_pack (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned char vec_pack (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_pack (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned short vec_pack (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed short vec_packpx (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned char vec_packs (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_packs (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_packs (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed short vec_packs (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned char vec_packsu (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned char vec_packsu (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_packsu (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned short vec_packsu (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector float vec_perm (vector float, vector float, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_perm (vector signed int, vector signed int, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned int vec_perm (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_perm (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned short vec_perm (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_perm (vector signed char, vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_perm (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector float vec_re (vector float); vector signed char vec_rl (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_rl (vector unsigned char,

262

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_rl (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_rl (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_rl (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_rl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector float vec_round (vector float); vector float vec_rsqrte (vector float); vector float vec_sel (vector float, vector float, vector signed int); vector float vec_sel (vector float, vector float, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_sel (vector signed int, vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_sel (vector signed int, vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_sel (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_sel (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed short vec_sel (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector signed short); vector signed short vec_sel (vector signed short, vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_sel (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_sel (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_sel (vector signed char, vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed char vec_sel (vector signed char, vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sel (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_sel (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_sl (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sl (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_sl (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_sl (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_sl (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_sl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector float vec_sld (vector float, vector float, const char); vector signed int vec_sld (vector signed int, vector signed int, const char); vector unsigned int vec_sld (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int, const char);

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

263

vector signed short vec_sld (vector signed short, vector signed short, const char); vector unsigned short vec_sld (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short, const char); vector signed char vec_sld (vector signed char, vector signed char, const char); vector unsigned char vec_sld (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char, const char); vector vector vector vector vector signed int vec_sll (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); signed int vec_sll (vector signed int, vector unsigned short); signed int vec_sll (vector signed int, vector unsigned char); unsigned int vec_sll (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); unsigned int vec_sll (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned int vec_sll (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_sll (vector vector signed short vec_sll (vector vector vector signed short vec_sll (vector signed short, vector unsigned int); signed short, unsigned short); signed short, vector unsigned char);

vector unsigned short vec_sll (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned short vec_sll (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_sll (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_sll (vector signed char, vector unsigned int); vector signed char vec_sll (vector signed char, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_sll (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sll (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned char vec_sll (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned char vec_sll (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_slo (vector float, vector signed char); float vec_slo (vector float, vector unsigned char); signed int vec_slo (vector signed int, vector signed char); signed int vec_slo (vector signed int, vector unsigned char); unsigned int vec_slo (vector unsigned int, vector signed char); unsigned int vec_slo (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned char);

vector signed short vec_slo (vector signed short, vector signed char); vector signed short vec_slo (vector signed short, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned short vec_slo (vector unsigned short, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_slo (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_slo (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed char vec_slo (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_slo (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_slo (vector unsigned char,

264

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector unsigned char); vector vector vector vector vector vector vector signed char vec_splat (vector signed char, const char); unsigned char vec_splat (vector unsigned char, const char); signed short vec_splat (vector signed short, const char); unsigned short vec_splat (vector unsigned short, const char); float vec_splat (vector float, const char); signed int vec_splat (vector signed int, const char); unsigned int vec_splat (vector unsigned int, const char);

vector signed char vec_splat_s8 (const char); vector signed short vec_splat_s16 (const char); vector signed int vec_splat_s32 (const char); vector unsigned char vec_splat_u8 (const char); vector unsigned short vec_splat_u16 (const char); vector unsigned int vec_splat_u32 (const char); vector signed char vec_sr (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sr (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_sr (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_sr (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_sr (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_sr (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed char vec_sra (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sra (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_sra (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_sra (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_sra (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_sra (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector vector vector vector vector signed int vec_srl (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); signed int vec_srl (vector signed int, vector unsigned short); signed int vec_srl (vector signed int, vector unsigned char); unsigned int vec_srl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); unsigned int vec_srl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned int vec_srl (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_srl (vector vector signed short vec_srl (vector vector vector signed short vec_srl (vector signed short, vector unsigned int); signed short, unsigned short); signed short, vector unsigned char);

vector unsigned short vec_srl (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned short vec_srl (vector unsigned short,

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

265

vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_srl (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_srl (vector signed char, vector unsigned int); vector signed char vec_srl (vector signed char, vector unsigned short); vector signed char vec_srl (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_srl (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned char vec_srl (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned char vec_srl (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_sro (vector float, vector signed char); float vec_sro (vector float, vector unsigned char); signed int vec_sro (vector signed int, vector signed char); signed int vec_sro (vector signed int, vector unsigned char); unsigned int vec_sro (vector unsigned int, vector signed char); unsigned int vec_sro (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned char);

vector signed short vec_sro (vector signed short, vector signed char); vector signed short vec_sro (vector signed short, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned short vec_sro (vector unsigned short, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_sro (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_sro (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed char vec_sro (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sro (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_sro (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_st vec_ste vec_ste vec_ste vec_ste vec_ste vec_ste vec_ste (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector float, int, float *); float, int, vector float *); signed int, int, int *); signed int, int, unsigned int *); unsigned int, int, unsigned int *); unsigned int, int, vector unsigned int *); signed short, int, short *); signed short, int, vector unsigned short *); signed short, int, vector signed short *); unsigned short, int, unsigned short *); unsigned short, int, vector unsigned short *); signed char, int, signed char *); signed char, int, unsigned char *); signed char, int, vector signed char *); unsigned char, int, unsigned char *); unsigned char, int, vector unsigned char *); signed char, int, unsigned char *); signed char, int, signed char *); unsigned char, int, unsigned char *); signed short, int, short *); signed short, int, unsigned short *); unsigned short, int, void *); signed int, int, unsigned int *);

266

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

void vec_ste (vector signed int, int, int *); void vec_ste (vector unsigned int, int, unsigned int *); void vec_ste (vector float, int, float *); void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void void vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl vec_stl (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector (vector float, int, vector float *); float, int, float *); signed int, int, vector signed int *); signed int, int, int *); signed int, int, unsigned int *); unsigned int, int, vector unsigned int *); unsigned int, int, unsigned int *); signed short, int, short *); signed short, int, unsigned short *); signed short, int, vector signed short *); unsigned short, int, unsigned short *); unsigned short, int, vector signed short *); signed char, int, signed char *); signed char, int, unsigned char *); signed char, int, vector signed char *); unsigned char, int, unsigned char *); unsigned char, int, vector unsigned char *);

vector signed char vec_sub (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_sub (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_sub (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_sub (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed short vec_sub (vector signed short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_sub (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_sub (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_sub (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed int vec_sub (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_sub (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_sub (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_sub (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector float vec_sub (vector float, vector float); vector unsigned int vec_subc (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned char vec_subs (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector unsigned char vec_subs (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_subs (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed char vec_subs (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector unsigned short vec_subs (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); vector unsigned short vec_subs (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); vector unsigned short vec_subs (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); vector signed short vec_subs (vector signed short, vector signed short);

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

267

vector unsigned int vec_subs (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector unsigned int vec_subs (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_subs (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_subs (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector unsigned int vec_sum4s (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_sum4s (vector signed char, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_sum4s (vector signed short, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_sum2s (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_sums (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector float vec_trunc (vector float); vector signed short vec_unpackh (vector signed char); vector unsigned int vec_unpackh (vector signed short); vector signed int vec_unpackh (vector signed short); vector signed short vec_unpackl (vector signed char); vector unsigned int vec_unpackl (vector signed short); vector signed int vec_unpackl (vector signed short); vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector vector float vec_xor (vector float, vector float); float vec_xor (vector float, vector signed int); float vec_xor (vector signed int, vector float); signed int vec_xor (vector signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_xor (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); unsigned int vec_xor (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int vec_xor (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); signed short vec_xor (vector signed short, vector signed short); unsigned short vec_xor (vector signed short, vector unsigned short); unsigned short vec_xor (vector unsigned short, vector signed short); unsigned short vec_xor (vector unsigned short, vector unsigned short); signed char vec_xor (vector signed char, vector signed char); unsigned char vec_xor (vector signed char, vector unsigned char);

vector unsigned char vec_xor (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector unsigned char vec_xor (vector unsigned char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

268

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector

unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed int, vector unsigned int); signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector unsigned int);

vector signed int vec_all_eq (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_ge (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_gt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_in (vector float, vector float);

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

269

vector signed int vec_all_le (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_le (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_le (vector vector signed int vec_all_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_le (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_all_le (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_le (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_le (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_le (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_le (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_all_lt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_nan (vector float); vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector unsigned short,

270

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector

signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed int, vector unsigned int); signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector unsigned int);

vector signed int vec_all_ne (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_nge (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_ngt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_nle (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_nlt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_all_numeric (vector float); vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed int, vector unsigned int); signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector unsigned int);

vector signed int vec_any_eq (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector signed int, vector unsigned int);

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

271

vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_ge (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_gt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_le (vector vector signed int vec_any_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_le (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_le (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short, unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_any_le (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_le (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed char, vector signed char); signed short,

272

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

vector vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector

unsigned short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short);

vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector signed int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector unsigned int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector unsigned int, vector unsigned int); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector signed int, vector signed int); vector signed int vec_any_lt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_nan (vector float); vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector signed char, vector unsigned char); vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector signed char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector unsigned char, vector signed char); vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector unsigned char, unsigned char); signed short, unsigned short); signed short, vector signed short); unsigned short, signed short); unsigned short, unsigned short); signed int, vector unsigned int); signed int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector signed int); unsigned int, vector unsigned int);

vector signed int vec_any_ne (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_nge (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_ngt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_nle (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_nlt (vector float, vector float); vector signed int vec_any_numeric (vector float); vector signed int vec_any_out (vector float, vector float);

5.46 Pragmas Accepted by GCC

GCC supports several types of pragmas, primarily in order to compile code originally written for other compilers. Note that in general we do not recommend the use of pragmas; See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192, for further explanation.

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

273

5.46.1 ARM Pragmas

The ARM target denes pragmas for controlling the default addition of long_call and short_call attributes to functions. See Section 5.25 [Function Attributes], page 192, for information about the eects of these attributes. long_calls Set all subsequent functions to have the long_call attribute. no_long_calls Set all subsequent functions to have the short_call attribute. long_calls_off Do not aect the long_call or short_call attributes of subsequent functions.

5.46.2 RS/6000 and PowerPC Pragmas

The RS/6000 and PowerPC targets dene one pragma for controlling whether or not the longcall attribute is added to function declarations by default. This pragma overrides the -mlongcall option, but not the longcall and shortcall attributes. See Section 3.17.10 [RS/6000 and PowerPC Options], page 106, for more information about when long calls are and are not necessary. longcall (1) Apply the longcall attribute to all subsequent function declarations. longcall (0) Do not apply the longcall attribute to subsequent function declarations.

5.46.3 Darwin Pragmas

The following pragmas are available for all architectures running the Darwin operating system. These are useful for compatibility with other Mac OS compilers. mark tokens ... This pragma is accepted, but has no eect. options align=alignment This pragma sets the alignment of elds in structures. The values of alignment may be mac68k, to emulate m68k alignment, or power, to emulate PowerPC alignment. Uses of this pragma nest properly; to restore the previous setting, use reset for the alignment. segment tokens ... This pragma is accepted, but has no eect. unused (var [, var ]...) This pragma declares variables to be possibly unused. GCC will not produce warnings for the listed variables. The eect is similar to that of the unused attribute, except that this pragma may appear anywhere within the variables scopes.

274

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

5.46.4 Solaris Pragmas

For compatibility with the SunPRO compiler, the following pragma is supported. redefine_extname oldname newname This pragma gives the C function oldname the assembler label newname. The pragma must appear before the function declaration. This pragma is equivalent to the asm labels extension (see Section 5.37 [Asm Labels], page 237). The preprocessor denes __PRAGMA_REDEFINE_EXTNAME if the pragma is available.

5.46.5 Tru64 Pragmas

For compatibility with the Compaq C compiler, the following pragma is supported. extern_prefix string This pragma renames all subsequent function and variable declarations such that string is prepended to the name. This eect may be terminated by using another extern_prefix pragma with the empty string. This pragma is similar in intent to to the asm labels extension (see Section 5.37 [Asm Labels], page 237) in that the system programmer wants to change the assembly-level ABI without changing the source-level API. The preprocessor denes __PRAGMA_EXTERN_PREFIX if the pragma is available.

5.47 Unnamed struct/union elds within structs/unions.

For compatibility with other compilers, GCC allows you to dene a structure or union that contains, as elds, structures and unions without names. For example: struct { int a; union { int b; float c; }; int d; } foo; In this example, the user would be able to access members of the unnamed union with code like foo.b. Note that only unnamed structs and unions are allowed, you may not have, for example, an unnamed int. You must never create such structures that cause ambiguous eld denitions. For example, this structure: struct { int a; struct { int a; }; } foo;

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

275

It is ambiguous which a is being referred to with foo.a. Such constructs are not supported and must be avoided. In the future, such constructs may be detected and treated as compilation errors.

5.48 Thread-Local Storage

Thread-local storage (tls) is a mechanism by which variables are allocated such that there is one instance of the variable per extant thread. The run-time model GCC uses to implement this originates in the IA-64 processor-specic ABI, but has since been migrated to other processors as well. It requires signicant support from the linker (ld), dynamic linker (ld.so), and system libraries (libc.so and libpthread.so), so it is not available everywhere. At the user level, the extension is visible with a new storage class keyword: __thread. For example: __thread int i; extern __thread struct state s; static __thread char *p; The __thread specier may be used alone, with the extern or static speciers, but with no other storage class specier. When used with extern or static, __thread must appear immediately after the other storage class specier. The __thread specier may be applied to any global, le-scoped static, function-scoped static, or static data member of a class. It may not be applied to block-scoped automatic or non-static data member. When the address-of operator is applied to a thread-local variable, it is evaluated at run-time and returns the address of the current threads instance of that variable. An address so obtained may be used by any thread. When a thread terminates, any pointers to thread-local variables in that thread become invalid. No static initialization may refer to the address of a thread-local variable. In C++, if an initializer is present for a thread-local variable, it must be a constantexpression, as dened in 5.19.2 of the ANSI/ISO C++ standard. See ELF Handling For Thread-Local Storage (http://people.redhat.com/drepper/tls.pdf) for a detailed explanation of the four thread-local storage addressing models, and how the run-time is expected to function.

5.48.1 ISO/IEC 9899:1999 Edits for Thread-Local Storage

The following are a set of changes to ISO/IEC 9899:1999 (aka C99) that document the exact semantics of the language extension. 5.1.2 Execution environments Add new text after paragraph 1 Within either execution environment, a thread is a ow of control within a program. It is implementation dened whether or not there may be more than one thread associated with a program. It is implementation dened how threads beyond the rst are created, the name and type of

276

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

the function called at thread startup, and how threads may be terminated. However, objects with thread storage duration shall be initialized before thread startup. 6.2.4 Storage durations of objects Add new text before paragraph 3 An object whose identier is declared with the storage-class specier __thread has thread storage duration. Its lifetime is the entire execution of the thread, and its stored value is initialized only once, prior to thread startup. 6.4.1 Keywords Add __thread. 6.7.1 Storage-class speciers Add __thread to the list of storage class speciers in paragraph 1. Change paragraph 2 to With the exception of __thread, at most one storage-class specier may be given [. . . ]. The __thread specier may be used alone, or immediately following extern or static. Add new text after paragraph 6 The declaration of an identier for a variable that has block scope that species __thread shall also specify either extern or static. The __thread specier shall be used only with variables.

5.48.2 ISO/IEC 14882:1998 Edits for Thread-Local Storage

The following are a set of changes to ISO/IEC 14882:1998 (aka C++98) that document the exact semantics of the language extension. [intro.execution] New text after paragraph 4 A thread is a ow of control within the abstract machine. It is implementation dened whether or not there may be more than one thread. New text after paragraph 7 It is unspecied whether additional action must be taken to ensure when and whether side eects are visible to other threads. [lex.key] Add __thread. [basic.start.main] Add after paragraph 5 The thread that begins execution at the main function is called the main thread. It is implementation dened how functions beginning threads other than the main thread are designated or typed. A function so designated, as well as the main function, is called a thread startup function. It is implementation dened what happens if a thread startup function returns. It

Chapter 5: Extensions to the C Language Family

277

is implementation dened what happens to other threads when any thread calls exit. [basic.start.init] Add after paragraph 4 The storage for an object of thread storage duration shall be statically initialized before the rst statement of the thread startup function. An object of thread storage duration shall not require dynamic initialization. [basic.start.term] Add after paragraph 3 The type of an object with thread storage duration shall not have a nontrivial destructor, nor shall it be an array type whose elements (directly or indirectly) have non-trivial destructors. [basic.stc] Add thread storage duration to the list in paragraph 1. Change paragraph 2 Thread, static, and automatic storage durations are associated with objects introduced by declarations [. . . ]. Add __thread to the list of speciers in paragraph 3. [basic.stc.thread] New section before [basic.stc.static] The keyword __thread applied to a non-local object gives the object thread storage duration. A local variable or class data member declared both static and __thread gives the variable or member thread storage duration. [basic.stc.static] Change paragraph 1 All objects which have neither thread storage duration, dynamic storage duration nor are local [. . . ]. [dcl.stc] Add __thread to the list in paragraph 1. Change paragraph 1 With the exception of __thread, at most one storage-class-specier shall appear in a given decl-specier-seq. The __thread specier may be used alone, or immediately following the extern or static speciers. [. . . ] Add after paragraph 5 The __thread specier can be applied only to the names of objects and to anonymous unions. [class.mem] Add after paragraph 6 Non-static members shall not be __thread.

278

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language

279

6 Extensions to the C++ Language

The GNU compiler provides these extensions to the C++ language (and you can also use most of the C language extensions in your C++ programs). If you want to write code that checks whether these features are available, you can test for the GNU compiler the same way as for C programs: check for a predened macro __GNUC__. You can also use __GNUG__ to test specically for GNU C++ (see section Predened Macros in The GNU C Preprocessor).

6.1 Minimum and Maximum Operators in C++

It is very convenient to have operators which return the minimum or the maximum of two arguments. In GNU C++ (but not in GNU C), a <? b a >? b is the minimum, returning the smaller of the numeric values a and b; is the maximum, returning the larger of the numeric values a and b.

These operations are not primitive in ordinary C++, since you can use a macro to return the minimum of two things in C++, as in the following example. #define MIN(X,Y) ((X) < (Y) ? : (X) : (Y)) You might then use int min = MIN (i, j); to set min to the minimum value of variables i and j. However, side eects in X or Y may cause unintended behavior. For example, MIN (i++, j++) will fail, incrementing the smaller counter twice. The GNU C typeof extension allows you to write safe macros that avoid this kind of problem (see Section 5.6 [Typeof], page 180). However, writing MIN and MAX as macros also forces you to use function-call notation for a fundamental arithmetic operation. Using GNU C++ extensions, you can write int min = i <? j; instead. Since <? and >? are built into the compiler, they properly handle expressions with sideeects; int min = i++ <? j++; works correctly.

6.2 When is a Volatile Object Accessed?

Both the C and C++ standard have the concept of volatile objects. These are normally accessed by pointers and used for accessing hardware. The standards encourage compilers to refrain from optimizations concerning accesses to volatile objects that it might perform on non-volatile objects. The C standard leaves it implementation dened as to what constitutes a volatile access. The C++ standard omits to specify this, except to say that C++ should behave in a similar manner to C with respect to volatiles, where possible. The minimum either standard species is that at a sequence point all previous accesses to volatile objects have stabilized and no subsequent accesses have occurred. Thus an implementation is free to reorder and combine volatile accesses which occur between sequence points, but cannot do so for accesses across a sequence point. The use of volatiles does not allow you to violate the restriction on updating objects multiple times within a sequence point. In most expressions, it is intuitively obvious what is a read and what is a write. For instance

280

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

volatile int *dst = somevalue ; volatile int *src = someothervalue ; *dst = *src; will cause a read of the volatile object pointed to by src and stores the value into the volatile object pointed to by dst. There is no guarantee that these reads and writes are atomic, especially for objects larger than int. Less obvious expressions are where something which looks like an access is used in a void context. An example would be, volatile int *src = somevalue ; *src; With C, such expressions are rvalues, and as rvalues cause a read of the object, GCC interprets this as a read of the volatile being pointed to. The C++ standard species that such expressions do not undergo lvalue to rvalue conversion, and that the type of the dereferenced object may be incomplete. The C++ standard does not specify explicitly that it is this lvalue to rvalue conversion which is responsible for causing an access. However, there is reason to believe that it is, because otherwise certain simple expressions become undened. However, because it would surprise most programmers, G++ treats dereferencing a pointer to volatile object of complete type in a void context as a read of the object. When the object has incomplete type, G++ issues a warning. struct S; struct T {int m;}; volatile S *ptr1 = somevalue ; volatile T *ptr2 = somevalue ; *ptr1; *ptr2; In this example, a warning is issued for *ptr1, and *ptr2 causes a read of the object pointed to. If you wish to force an error on the rst case, you must force a conversion to rvalue with, for instance a static cast, static_cast<S>(*ptr1). When using a reference to volatile, G++ does not treat equivalent expressions as accesses to volatiles, but instead issues a warning that no volatile is accessed. The rationale for this is that otherwise it becomes dicult to determine where volatile access occur, and not possible to ignore the return value from functions returning volatile references. Again, if you wish to force a read, cast the reference to an rvalue.

6.3 Restricting Pointer Aliasing

As with gcc, g++ understands the C99 feature of restricted pointers, specied with the __ restrict__, or __restrict type qualier. Because you cannot compile C++ by specifying the -std=c99 language ag, restrict is not a keyword in C++. In addition to allowing restricted pointers, you can specify restricted references, which indicate that the reference is not aliased in the local context. void fn (int *__restrict__ rptr, int &__restrict__ rref) { /* . . . */

Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language

281

} In the body of fn, rptr points to an unaliased integer and rref refers to a (dierent) unaliased integer. You may also specify whether a member functions this pointer is unaliased by using __restrict__ as a member function qualier. void T::fn () __restrict__ { /* . . . */ } Within the body of T::fn, this will have the eective denition T *__restrict__ const this. Notice that the interpretation of a __restrict__ member function qualier is dierent to that of const or volatile qualier, in that it is applied to the pointer rather than the object. This is consistent with other compilers which implement restricted pointers. As with all outermost parameter qualiers, __restrict__ is ignored in function denition matching. This means you only need to specify __restrict__ in a function denition, rather than in a function prototype as well.

6.4 Vague Linkage

There are several constructs in C++ which require space in the object le but are not clearly tied to a single translation unit. We say that these constructs have vague linkage. Typically such constructs are emitted wherever they are needed, though sometimes we can be more clever. Inline Functions Inline functions are typically dened in a header le which can be included in many dierent compilations. Hopefully they can usually be inlined, but sometimes an out-of-line copy is necessary, if the address of the function is taken or if inlining fails. In general, we emit an out-of-line copy in all translation units where one is needed. As an exception, we only emit inline virtual functions with the vtable, since it will always require a copy. Local static variables and string constants used in an inline function are also considered to have vague linkage, since they must be shared between all inlined and out-of-line instances of the function. VTables C++ virtual functions are implemented in most compilers using a lookup table, known as a vtable. The vtable contains pointers to the virtual functions provided by a class, and each object of the class contains a pointer to its vtable (or vtables, in some multiple-inheritance situations). If the class declares any noninline, non-pure virtual functions, the rst one is chosen as the key method for the class, and the vtable is only emitted in the translation unit where the key method is dened. Note: If the chosen key method is later dened as inline, the vtable will still be emitted in every translation unit which denes it. Make sure that any inline virtuals are declared inline in the class body, even if they are not dened there.

282

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

type info objects C++ requires information about types to be written out in order to implement dynamic_cast, typeid and exception handling. For polymorphic classes (classes with virtual functions), the type info object is written out along with the vtable so that dynamic_cast can determine the dynamic type of a class object at runtime. For all other types, we write out the type info object when it is used: when applying typeid to an expression, throwing an object, or referring to a type in a catch clause or exception specication. Template Instantiations Most everything in this section also applies to template instantiations, but there are other options as well. See Section 6.6 [Wheres the Template?], page 284. When used with GNU ld version 2.8 or later on an ELF system such as Linux/GNU or Solaris 2, or on Microsoft Windows, duplicate copies of these constructs will be discarded at link time. This is known as COMDAT support. On targets that dont support COMDAT, but do support weak symbols, GCC will use them. This way one copy will override all the others, but the unused copies will still take up space in the executable. For targets which do not support either COMDAT or weak symbols, most entities with vague linkage will be emitted as local symbols to avoid duplicate denition errors from the linker. This will not happen for local statics in inlines, however, as having multiple copies will almost certainly break things. See Section 6.5 [Declarations and Denitions in One Header], page 282, for another way to control placement of these constructs.

6.5 Declarations and Denitions in One Header

C++ object denitions can be quite complex. In principle, your source code will need two kinds of things for each object that you use across more than one source le. First, you need an interface specication, describing its structure with type declarations and function prototypes. Second, you need the implementation itself. It can be tedious to maintain a separate interface description in a header le, in parallel to the actual implementation. It is also dangerous, since separate interface and implementation denitions may not remain parallel. With GNU C++, you can use a single header le for both purposes. Warning: The mechanism to specify this is in transition. For the nonce, you must use one of two #pragma commands; in a future release of GNU C++, an alternative mechanism will make these #pragma commands unnecessary. The header le contains the full denitions, but is marked with #pragma interface in the source code. This allows the compiler to use the header le only as an interface specication when ordinary source les incorporate it with #include. In the single source le where the full implementation belongs, you can use either a naming convention or #pragma implementation to indicate this alternate use of the header le.

Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language

283

#pragma interface #pragma interface "subdir /objects.h" Use this directive in header les that dene object classes, to save space in most of the object les that use those classes. Normally, local copies of certain information (backup copies of inline member functions, debugging information, and the internal tables that implement virtual functions) must be kept in each object le that includes class denitions. You can use this pragma to avoid such duplication. When a header le containing #pragma interface is included in a compilation, this auxiliary information will not be generated (unless the main input source le itself uses #pragma implementation). Instead, the object les will contain references to be resolved at link time. The second form of this directive is useful for the case where you have multiple headers with the same name in dierent directories. If you use this form, you must specify the same string to #pragma implementation. #pragma implementation #pragma implementation "objects.h" Use this pragma in a main input le, when you want full output from included header les to be generated (and made globally visible). The included header le, in turn, should use #pragma interface. Backup copies of inline member functions, debugging information, and the internal tables used to implement virtual functions are all generated in implementation les. If you use #pragma implementation with no argument, it applies to an include le with the same basename1 as your source le. For example, in allclass.cc, giving just #pragma implementation by itself is equivalent to #pragma implementation "allclass.h". In versions of GNU C++ prior to 2.6.0 allclass.h was treated as an implementation le whenever you would include it from allclass.cc even if you never specied #pragma implementation. This was deemed to be more trouble than it was worth, however, and disabled. If you use an explicit #pragma implementation, it must appear in your source le before you include the aected header les. Use the string argument if you want a single implementation le to include code from multiple header les. (You must also use #include to include the header le; #pragma implementation only species how to use the leit doesnt actually include it.) There is no way to split up the contents of a single header le into multiple implementation les. #pragma implementation and #pragma interface also have an eect on function inlining. If you dene a class in a header le marked with #pragma interface, the eect on a function dened in that class is similar to an explicit extern declarationthe compiler
1

A les basename was the name stripped of all leading path information and of trailing suxes, such as .h or .C or .cc.

284

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

emits no code at all to dene an independent version of the function. Its denition is used only for inlining with its callers. Conversely, when you include the same header le in a main source le that declares it as #pragma implementation, the compiler emits code for the function itself; this denes a version of the function that can be found via pointers (or by callers compiled without inlining). If all calls to the function can be inlined, you can avoid emitting the function by compiling with -fno-implement-inlines. If any calls were not inlined, you will get linker errors.

6.6 Wheres the Template?

C++ templates are the rst language feature to require more intelligence from the environment than one usually nds on a UNIX system. Somehow the compiler and linker have to make sure that each template instance occurs exactly once in the executable if it is needed, and not at all otherwise. There are two basic approaches to this problem, which I will refer to as the Borland model and the Cfront model. Borland model Borland C++ solved the template instantiation problem by adding the code equivalent of common blocks to their linker; the compiler emits template instances in each translation unit that uses them, and the linker collapses them together. The advantage of this model is that the linker only has to consider the object les themselves; there is no external complexity to worry about. This disadvantage is that compilation time is increased because the template code is being compiled repeatedly. Code written for this model tends to include denitions of all templates in the header le, since they must be seen to be instantiated. Cfront model The AT&T C++ translator, Cfront, solved the template instantiation problem by creating the notion of a template repository, an automatically maintained place where template instances are stored. A more modern version of the repository works as follows: As individual object les are built, the compiler places any template denitions and instantiations encountered in the repository. At link time, the link wrapper adds in the objects in the repository and compiles any needed instances that were not previously emitted. The advantages of this model are more optimal compilation speed and the ability to use the system linker; to implement the Borland model a compiler vendor also needs to replace the linker. The disadvantages are vastly increased complexity, and thus potential for error; for some code this can be just as transparent, but in practice it can been very dicult to build multiple programs in one directory and one program in multiple directories. Code written for this model tends to separate denitions of non-inline member templates into a separate le, which should be compiled separately. When used with GNU ld version 2.8 or later on an ELF system such as Linux/GNU or Solaris 2, or on Microsoft Windows, g++ supports the Borland model. On other systems, g++ implements neither automatic model.

Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language

285

A future version of g++ will support a hybrid model whereby the compiler will emit any instantiations for which the template denition is included in the compile, and store template denitions and instantiation context information into the object le for the rest. The link wrapper will extract that information as necessary and invoke the compiler to produce the remaining instantiations. The linker will then combine duplicate instantiations. In the mean time, you have the following options for dealing with template instantiations: 1. Compile your template-using code with -frepo. The compiler will generate les with the extension .rpo listing all of the template instantiations used in the corresponding object les which could be instantiated there; the link wrapper, collect2, will then update the .rpo les to tell the compiler where to place those instantiations and rebuild any aected object les. The link-time overhead is negligible after the rst pass, as the compiler will continue to place the instantiations in the same les. This is your best option for application code written for the Borland model, as it will just work. Code written for the Cfront model will need to be modied so that the template denitions are available at one or more points of instantiation; usually this is as simple as adding #include <tmethods.cc> to the end of each template header. For library code, if you want the library to provide all of the template instantiations it needs, just try to link all of its object les together; the link will fail, but cause the instantiations to be generated as a side eect. Be warned, however, that this may cause conicts if multiple libraries try to provide the same instantiations. For greater control, use explicit instantiation as described in the next option. 2. Compile your code with -fno-implicit-templates to disable the implicit generation of template instances, and explicitly instantiate all the ones you use. This approach requires more knowledge of exactly which instances you need than do the others, but its less mysterious and allows greater control. You can scatter the explicit instantiations throughout your program, perhaps putting them in the translation units where the instances are used or the translation units that dene the templates themselves; you can put all of the explicit instantiations you need into one big le; or you can create small les like #include "Foo.h" #include "Foo.cc" template class Foo<int>; template ostream& operator << (ostream&, const Foo<int>&); for each of the instances you need, and create a template instantiation library from those. If you are using Cfront-model code, you can probably get away with not using -fno-implicit-templates when compiling les that dont #include the member template denitions. If you use one big le to do the instantiations, you may want to compile it without -fno-implicit-templates so you get all of the instances required by your explicit instantiations (but not by any other les) without having to specify them as well. g++ has extended the template instantiation syntax given in the ISO standard to allow forward declaration of explicit instantiations (with extern), instantiation of the

286

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

compiler support data for a template class (i.e. the vtable) without instantiating any of its members (with inline), and instantiation of only the static data members of a template class, without the support data or member functions (with (static): extern template int max (int, int); inline template class Foo<int>; static template class Foo<int>; 3. Do nothing. Pretend g++ does implement automatic instantiation management. Code written for the Borland model will work ne, but each translation unit will contain instances of each of the templates it uses. In a large program, this can lead to an unacceptable amount of code duplication. See Section 6.5 [Declarations and Denitions in One Header], page 282, for more discussion of these pragmas.

6.7 Extracting the function pointer from a bound pointer to member function
In C++, pointer to member functions (PMFs) are implemented using a wide pointer of sorts to handle all the possible call mechanisms; the PMF needs to store information about how to adjust the this pointer, and if the function pointed to is virtual, where to nd the vtable, and where in the vtable to look for the member function. If you are using PMFs in an inner loop, you should really reconsider that decision. If that is not an option, you can extract the pointer to the function that would be called for a given object/PMF pair and call it directly inside the inner loop, to save a bit of time. Note that you will still be paying the penalty for the call through a function pointer; on most modern architectures, such a call defeats the branch prediction features of the CPU. This is also true of normal virtual function calls. The syntax for this extension is extern A a; extern int (A::*fp)(); typedef int (*fptr)(A *); fptr p = (fptr)(a.*fp); For PMF constants (i.e. expressions of the form &Klasse::Member), no object is needed to obtain the address of the function. They can be converted to function pointers directly: fptr p1 = (fptr)(&A::foo); You must specify -Wno-pmf-conversions to use this extension.

6.8 C++-Specic Variable, Function, and Type Attributes

Some attributes only make sense for C++ programs. init_priority (priority ) In Standard C++, objects dened at namespace scope are guaranteed to be initialized in an order in strict accordance with that of their denitions in a given

Chapter 6: Extensions to the C++ Language

287

translation unit. No guarantee is made for initializations across translation units. However, GNU C++ allows users to control the order of initialization of objects dened at namespace scope with the init_priority attribute by specifying a relative priority, a constant integral expression currently bounded between 101 and 65535 inclusive. Lower numbers indicate a higher priority. In the following example, A would normally be created before B, but the init_ priority attribute has reversed that order:
Some_Class Some_Class A B __attribute__ ((init_priority (2000))); __attribute__ ((init_priority (543)));

Note that the particular values of priority do not matter; only their relative ordering. java_interface This type attribute informs C++ that the class is a Java interface. It may only be applied to classes declared within an extern "Java" block. Calls to methods declared in this interface will be dispatched using GCJs interface table mechanism, instead of regular virtual table dispatch.

6.9 Java Exceptions

The Java language uses a slightly dierent exception handling model from C++. Normally, GNU C++ will automatically detect when you are writing C++ code that uses Java exceptions, and handle them appropriately. However, if C++ code only needs to execute destructors when Java exceptions are thrown through it, GCC will guess incorrectly. Sample problematic code is:
struct S { ~S(); }; extern void bar(); void foo() { S s; bar(); } // is written in Java, and may throw exceptions

The usual eect of an incorrect guess is a link failure, complaining of a missing routine called __gxx_personality_v0. You can inform the compiler that Java exceptions are to be used in a translation unit, irrespective of what it might think, by writing #pragma GCC java_exceptions at the head of the le. This #pragma must appear before any functions that throw or catch exceptions, or run destructors when exceptions are thrown through them. You cannot mix Java and C++ exceptions in the same translation unit. It is believed to be safe to throw a C++ exception from one le through another le compiled for the Java exception model, or vice versa, but there may be bugs in this area.

6.10 Deprecated Features

In the past, the GNU C++ compiler was extended to experiment with new features, at a time when the C++ language was still evolving. Now that the C++ standard is complete, some of those features are superseded by superior alternatives. Using the old features might

288

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

cause a warning in some cases that the feature will be dropped in the future. In other cases, the feature might be gone already. While the list below is not exhaustive, it documents some of the options that are now deprecated: -fexternal-templates -falt-external-templates These are two of the many ways for g++ to implement template instantiation. See Section 6.6 [Template Instantiation], page 284. The C++ standard clearly denes how template denitions have to be organized across implementation units. g++ has an implicit instantiation mechanism that should work just ne for standard-conforming code. -fstrict-prototype -fno-strict-prototype Previously it was possible to use an empty prototype parameter list to indicate an unspecied number of parameters (like C), rather than no parameters, as C++ demands. This feature has been removed, except where it is required for backwards compatibility See Section 6.11 [Backwards Compatibility], page 288. The named return value extension has been deprecated, and is now removed from g++. The use of initializer lists with new expressions has been deprecated, and is now removed from g++. Floating and complex non-type template parameters have been deprecated, and are now removed from g++. The implicit typename extension has been deprecated and will be removed from g++ at some point. In some cases g++ determines that a dependent type such as TPL<T>::X is a type without needing a typename keyword, contrary to the standard.

6.11 Backwards Compatibility

Now that there is a denitive ISO standard C++, G++ has a specication to adhere to. The C++ language evolved over time, and features that used to be acceptable in previous drafts of the standard, such as the ARM [Annotated C++ Reference Manual], are no longer accepted. In order to allow compilation of C++ written to such drafts, G++ contains some backwards compatibilities. All such backwards compatibility features are liable to disappear in future versions of G++. They should be considered deprecated See Section 6.10 [Deprecated Features], page 287. For scope If a variable is declared at for scope, it used to remain in scope until the end of the scope which contained the for statement (rather than just within the for scope). G++ retains this, but issues a warning, if such a variable is accessed outside the for scope. Implicit C language Old C system header les did not contain an extern "C" {...} scope to set the language. On such systems, all header les are implicitly scoped inside a C language scope. Also, an empty prototype () will be treated as an unspecied number of arguments, rather than no arguments, as C++ demands.

Chapter 7: GNU Objective-C runtime features

289

7 GNU Objective-C runtime features

This document is meant to describe some of the GNU Objective-C runtime features. It is not intended to teach you Objective-C, there are several resources on the Internet that present the language. Questions and comments about this document to Ovidiu Predescu [email protected].

7.1 +load: Executing code before main

The GNU Objective-C runtime provides a way that allows you to execute code before the execution of the program enters the main function. The code is executed on a per-class and a per-category basis, through a special class method +load. This facility is very useful if you want to initialize global variables which can be accessed by the program directly, without sending a message to the class rst. The usual way to initialize global variables, in the +initialize method, might not be useful because +initialize is only called when the rst message is sent to a class object, which in some cases could be too late. Suppose for example you have a FileStream class that declares Stdin, Stdout and Stderr as global variables, like below: FileStream *Stdin = nil; FileStream *Stdout = nil; FileStream *Stderr = nil; @implementation FileStream + (void)initialize { Stdin = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:0]; Stdout = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:1]; Stderr = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:2]; } /* Other methods here */ @end In this example, the initialization of Stdin, Stdout and Stderr in +initialize occurs too late. The programmer can send a message to one of these objects before the variables are actually initialized, thus sending messages to the nil object. The +initialize method which actually initializes the global variables is not invoked until the rst message is sent to the class object. The solution would require these variables to be initialized just before entering main. The correct solution of the above problem is to use the +load method instead of +initialize:

290

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

@implementation FileStream + (void)load { Stdin = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:0]; Stdout = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:1]; Stderr = [[FileStream new] initWithFd:2]; } /* Other methods here */ @end The +load is a method that is not overridden by categories. If a class and a category of it both implement +load, both methods are invoked. This allows some additional initializations to be performed in a category. This mechanism is not intended to be a replacement for +initialize. You should be aware of its limitations when you decide to use it instead of +initialize.

7.1.1 What you can and what you cannot do in +load

The +load implementation in the GNU runtime guarantees you the following things: you can write whatever C code you like; you can send messages to Objective-C constant strings (@"this is a constant string"); you can allocate and send messages to objects whose class is implemented in the same le; the +load implementation of all super classes of a class are executed before the +load of that class is executed; the +load implementation of a class is executed before the +load implementation of any category. In particular, the following things, even if they can work in a particular case, are not guaranteed: allocation of or sending messages to arbitrary objects; allocation of or sending messages to objects whose classes have a category implemented in the same le; You should make no assumptions about receiving +load in sibling classes when you write +load of a class. The order in which sibling classes receive +load is not guaranteed. The order in which +load and +initialize are called could be problematic if this matters. If you dont allocate objects inside +load, it is guaranteed that +load is called before +initialize. If you create an object inside +load the +initialize method of objects class is invoked even if +load was not invoked. Note if you explicitly call +load on a class, +initialize will be called rst. To avoid possible problems try to implement only one of these methods.

Chapter 7: GNU Objective-C runtime features

291

The +load method is also invoked when a bundle is dynamically loaded into your running program. This happens automatically without any intervening operation from you. When you write bundles and you need to write +load you can safely create and send messages to objects whose classes already exist in the running program. The same restrictions as above apply to classes dened in bundle.

7.2 Type encoding

The Objective-C compiler generates type encodings for all the types. These type encodings are used at runtime to nd out information about selectors and methods and about objects and classes. The types are encoded in the following way: char unsigned char short unsigned short int unsigned int long unsigned long long long unsigned long long float double void id Class SEL char* unknown type bit-elds c C s S i I l L q Q f d v @ # : * ? b followed by the starting position of the bit-eld, the type of the bit-eld and the size of the bit-eld (the bit-elds encoding was changed from the NeXTs compiler encoding, see below)

The encoding of bit-elds has changed to allow bit-elds to be properly handled by the runtime functions that compute sizes and alignments of types that contain bit-elds. The previous encoding contained only the size of the bit-eld. Using only this information it is not possible to reliably compute the size occupied by the bit-eld. This is very important in the presence of the Boehms garbage collector because the objects are allocated using the typed memory facility available in this collector. The typed memory allocation requires information about where the pointers are located inside the object. The position in the bit-eld is the position, counting in bits, of the bit closest to the beginning of the structure. The non-atomic types are encoded as follows: pointers ^ followed by the pointed type.

292

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

arrays

[ followed by the number of elements in the array followed by the type of the elements followed by ] structures { followed by the name of the structure (or ? if the structure is unnamed), the = sign, the type of the members and by } unions ( followed by the name of the structure (or ? if the union is unnamed), the = sign, the type of the members followed by ) Here are some types and their encodings, as they are generated by the compiler on an i386 machine: Objective-C type int a[10]; struct { int i; float f[3]; int a:3; int b:2; char c; } Compiler encoding [10i] {?=i[3f]b128i3b131i2c}

In addition to the types the compiler also encodes the type speciers. The table below describes the encoding of the current Objective-C type speciers: Specier const in inout out bycopy oneway Encoding r n N o O V

The type speciers are encoded just before the type. Unlike types however, the type speciers are only encoded when they appear in method argument types.

7.3 Garbage Collection

Support for a new memory management policy has been added by using a powerful conservative garbage collector, known as the Boehm-Demers-Weiser conservative garbage collector. It is available from http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Hans_Boehm/gc/. To enable the support for it you have to congure the compiler using an additional argument, --enable-objc-gc. You need to have garbage collector installed before building the compiler. This will build an additional runtime library which has several enhancements to support the garbage collector. The new library has a new name, libobjc_gc.a to not conict with the non-garbage-collected library.

Chapter 7: GNU Objective-C runtime features

293

When the garbage collector is used, the objects are allocated using the so-called typed memory allocation mechanism available in the Boehm-Demers-Weiser collector. This mode requires precise information on where pointers are located inside objects. This information is computed once per class, immediately after the class has been initialized. There is a new runtime function class_ivar_set_gcinvisible() which can be used to declare a so-called weak pointer reference. Such a pointer is basically hidden for the garbage collector; this can be useful in certain situations, especially when you want to keep track of the allocated objects, yet allow them to be collected. This kind of pointers can only be members of objects, you cannot declare a global pointer as a weak reference. Every type which is a pointer type can be declared a weak pointer, including id, Class and SEL. Here is an example of how to use this feature. Suppose you want to implement a class whose instances hold a weak pointer reference; the following class does this: @interface WeakPointer : Object { const void* weakPointer; } - initWithPointer:(const void*)p; - (const void*)weakPointer; @end

@implementation WeakPointer + (void)initialize { class_ivar_set_gcinvisible (self, "weakPointer", YES); } - initWithPointer:(const void*)p { weakPointer = p; return self; } - (const void*)weakPointer { return weakPointer; } @end Weak pointers are supported through a new type character specier represented by the ! character. The class_ivar_set_gcinvisible() function adds or removes this specier to the string type description of the instance variable named as argument.

294

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

7.4 Constant string objects

GNU Objective-C provides constant string objects that are generated directly by the compiler. You declare a constant string object by prexing a C constant string with the character @: id myString = @"this is a constant string object"; The constant string objects are by default instances of the NXConstantString class which is provided by the GNU Objective-C runtime. To get the denition of this class you must include the objc/NXConstStr.h header le. User dened libraries may want to implement their own constant string class. To be able to support them, the GNU Objective-C compiler provides a new command line options -fconstant-string-class=class-name . The provided class should adhere to a strict structure, the same as NXConstantStrings structure: @interface MyConstantStringClass { Class isa; char *c_string; unsigned int len; } @end NXConstantString inherits from Object; user class libraries may choose to inherit the customized constant string class from a dierent class than Object. There is no requirement in the methods the constant string class has to implement, but the nal ivar layout of the class must be the compatible with the given structure. When the compiler creates the statically allocated constant string object, the c_string eld will be lled by the compiler with the string; the length eld will be lled by the compiler with the string length; the isa pointer will be lled with NULL by the compiler, and it will later be xed up automatically at runtime by the GNU Objective-C runtime library to point to the class which was set by the -fconstant-string-class option when the object le is loaded (if you wonder how it works behind the scenes, the name of the class to use, and the list of static objects to xup, are stored by the compiler in the object le in a place where the GNU runtime library will nd them at runtime). As a result, when a le is compiled with the -fconstant-string-class option, all the constant string objects will be instances of the class specied as argument to this option. It is possible to have multiple compilation units referring to dierent constant string classes, neither the compiler nor the linker impose any restrictions in doing this.

7.5 compatibility alias

This is a feature of the Objective-C compiler rather than of the runtime, anyway since it is documented nowhere and its existence was forgotten, we are documenting it here. The keyword @compatibility_alias allows you to dene a class name as equivalent to another class name. For example:

Chapter 7: GNU Objective-C runtime features

295

@compatibility_alias WOApplication GSWApplication; tells the compiler that each time it encounters WOApplication as a class name, it should replace it with GSWApplication (that is, WOApplication is just an alias for GSWApplication). There are some constraints on how this can be used WOApplication (the alias) must not be an existing class; GSWApplication (the real class) must be an existing class.

296

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 8: Binary Compatibility

297

8 Binary Compatibility
Binary compatibility encompasses several related concepts: application binary interface (ABI) The set of runtime conventions followed by all of the tools that deal with binary representations of a program, including compilers, assemblers, linkers, and language runtime support. Some ABIs are formal with a written specication, possibly designed by multiple interested parties. Others are simply the way things are actually done by a particular set of tools. ABI conformance A compiler conforms to an ABI if it generates code that follows all of the specications enumerated by that ABI. A library conforms to an ABI if it is implemented according to that ABI. An application conforms to an ABI if it is built using tools that conform to that ABI and does not contain source code that specically changes behavior specied by the ABI. calling conventions Calling conventions are a subset of an ABI that specify of how arguments are passed and function results are returned. interoperability Dierent sets of tools are interoperable if they generate les that can be used in the same program. The set of tools includes compilers, assemblers, linkers, libraries, header les, startup les, and debuggers. Binaries produced by different sets of tools are not interoperable unless they implement the same ABI. This applies to dierent versions of the same tools as well as tools from dierent vendors. intercallability Whether a function in a binary built by one set of tools can call a function in a binary built by a dierent set of tools is a subset of interoperability. implementation-dened features Language standards include lists of implementation-dened features whose behavior can vary from one implementation to another. Some of these features are normally covered by a platforms ABI and others are not. The features that are not covered by an ABI generally aect how a program behaves, but not intercallability. compatibility Conformance to the same ABI and the same behavior of implementation-dened features are both relevant for compatibility. The application binary interface implemented by a C or C++ compiler aects code generation and runtime support for: size and alignment of data types layout of structured types calling conventions

298

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

register usage conventions interfaces for runtime arithmetic support object le formats In addition, the application binary interface implemented by a C++ compiler aects code generation and runtime support for: name mangling exception handling invoking constructors and destructors layout, alignment, and padding of classes layout and alignment of virtual tables Some GCC compilation options cause the compiler to generate code that does not conform to the platforms default ABI. Other options cause dierent program behavior for implementation-dened features that are not covered by an ABI. These options are provided for consistency with other compilers that do not follow the platforms default ABI or the usual behavior of implementation-dened features for the platform. Be very careful about using such options. Most platforms have a well-dened ABI that covers C code, but ABIs that cover C++ functionality are not yet common. Starting with GCC 3.2, GCC binary conventions for C++ are based on a written, vendorneutral C++ ABI that was designed to be specic to 64-bit Itanium but also includes generic specications that apply to any platform. This C++ ABI is also implemented by other compiler vendors on some platforms, notably GNU/Linux and BSD systems. We have tried hard to provide a stable ABI that will be compatible with future GCC releases, but it is possible that we will encounter problems that make this dicult. Such problems could include dierent interpretations of the C++ ABI by dierent vendors, bugs in the ABI, or bugs in the implementation of the ABI in dierent compilers. GCCs -Wabi switch warns when G++ generates code that is probably not compatible with the C++ ABI. The C++ library used with a C++ compiler includes the Standard C++ Library, with functionality dened in the C++ Standard, plus language runtime support. The runtime support is included in a C++ ABI, but there is no formal ABI for the Standard C++ Library. Two implementations of that library are interoperable if one follows the de-facto ABI of the other and if they are both built with the same compiler, or with compilers that conform to the same ABI for C++ compiler and runtime support. When G++ and another C++ compiler conform to the same C++ ABI, but the implementations of the Standard C++ Library that they normally use do not follow the same ABI for the Standard C++ Library, object les built with those compilers can be used in the same program only if they use the same C++ library. This requires specifying the location of the C++ library header les when invoking the compiler whose usual library is not being used. The location of GCCs C++ header les depends on how the GCC build was congured, but can be seen by using the G++ -v option. With default conguration options for G++ 3.3 the compile line for a dierent C++ compiler needs to include -Igcc_install_directory /include/c++/3.3 Similarly, compiling code with G++ that must use a C++ library other than the GNU C++ library requires specifying the location of the header les for that other library.

Chapter 8: Binary Compatibility

299

The most straightforward way to link a program to use a particular C++ library is to use a C++ driver that species that C++ library by default. The g++ driver, for example, tells the linker where to nd GCCs C++ library (libstdc++) plus the other libraries and startup les it needs, in the proper order. If a program must use a dierent C++ library and its not possible to do the nal link using a C++ driver that uses that library by default, it is necessary to tell g++ the location and name of that library. It might also be necessary to specify dierent startup les and other runtime support libraries, and to suppress the use of GCCs support libraries with one or more of the options -nostdlib, -nostartfiles, and -nodefaultlibs.

300

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 9: gcova Test Coverage Program

301

9 gcova Test Coverage Program

gcov is a tool you can use in conjunction with GCC to test code coverage in your programs.

9.1 Introduction to gcov

gcov is a test coverage program. Use it in concert with GCC to analyze your programs to help create more ecient, faster running code and to discover untested parts of your program. You can use gcov as a proling tool to help discover where your optimization eorts will best aect your code. You can also use gcov along with the other proling tool, gprof, to assess which parts of your code use the greatest amount of computing time. Proling tools help you analyze your codes performance. Using a proler such as gcov or gprof, you can nd out some basic performance statistics, such as: how often each line of code executes what lines of code are actually executed how much computing time each section of code uses Once you know these things about how your code works when compiled, you can look at each module to see which modules should be optimized. gcov helps you determine where to work on optimization. Software developers also use coverage testing in concert with testsuites, to make sure software is actually good enough for a release. Testsuites can verify that a program works as expected; a coverage program tests to see how much of the program is exercised by the testsuite. Developers can then determine what kinds of test cases need to be added to the testsuites to create both better testing and a better nal product. You should compile your code without optimization if you plan to use gcov because the optimization, by combining some lines of code into one function, may not give you as much information as you need to look for hot spots where the code is using a great deal of computer time. Likewise, because gcov accumulates statistics by line (at the lowest resolution), it works best with a programming style that places only one statement on each line. If you use complicated macros that expand to loops or to other control structures, the statistics are less helpfulthey only report on the line where the macro call appears. If your complex macros behave like functions, you can replace them with inline functions to solve this problem. gcov creates a logle called sourcefile.gcov which indicates how many times each line of a source le sourcefile.c has executed. You can use these logles along with gprof to aid in ne-tuning the performance of your programs. gprof gives timing information you can use along with the information you get from gcov. gcov works only on code compiled with GCC. It is not compatible with any other proling or test coverage mechanism.

9.2 Invoking gcov

gcov [options ] sourcefile

gcov accepts the following options:

302

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-h --help -v --version

Display help about using gcov (on the standard output), and exit without doing any further processing.

Display the gcov version number (on the standard output), and exit without doing any further processing. -b --branch-probabilities Write branch frequencies to the output le, and write branch summary info to the standard output. This option allows you to see how often each branch in your program was taken. -c --branch-counts Write branch frequencies as the number of branches taken, rather than the percentage of branches taken. -n --no-output Do not create the gcov output le. -l --long-file-names Create long le names for included source les. For example, if the header le x.h contains code, and was included in the le a.c, then running gcov on the le a.c will produce an output le called a.c##x.h.gcov instead of x.h.gcov. This can be useful if x.h is included in multiple source les. -p --preserve-paths Preserve complete path information in the names of generated .gcov les. Without this option, just the lename component is used. With this option, all directories are used, with / characters translated to # characters, . directory components removed and .. components renamed to ^. This is useful if sourceles are in several dierent directories. It also aects the -l option. -f --function-summaries Output summaries for each function in addition to the le level summary. -o directory|file --object-directory directory --object-file file Specify either the directory containing the gcov data les, or the object path name. The .bb, .bbg, and .da data les are searched for using this option. If a directory is specied, the data les are in that directory and named after the source le name, without its extension. If a le is specied here, the data les

Chapter 9: gcova Test Coverage Program

303

are named after that le, without its extension. If this option is not supplied, it defaults to the current directory. gcov should be run with the current directory the same as that when you invoked the compiler. Otherwise it will not be able to locate the source les. gcov produces les called mangledname.gcov in the current directory. These contain the coverage information of the source le they correspond to. One .gcov le is produced for each source le containing code, which was compiled to produce the data les. The .gcov les contain the : separated elds along with program source code. The format is
execution_count :line_number :source line text

Additional block information may succeed each line, when requested by command line option. The execution count is - for lines containing no code and ##### for lines which were never executed. Some lines of information at the start have line number of zero. When printing percentages, 0% and 100% are only printed when the values are exactly 0% and 100% respectively. Other values which would conventionally be rounded to 0% or 100% are instead printed as the nearest non-boundary value. When using gcov, you must rst compile your program with two special GCC options: -fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage. This tells the compiler to generate additional information needed by gcov (basically a ow graph of the program) and also includes additional code in the object les for generating the extra proling information needed by gcov. These additional les are placed in the directory where the object le is located. Running the program will cause prole output to be generated. For each source le compiled with -fprofile-arcs, an accompanying .da le will be placed in the object le directory. Running gcov with your programs source le names as arguments will now produce a listing of the code along with frequency of execution for each line. For example, if your program is called tmp.c, this is what you see when you use the basic gcov facility:
$ gcc -fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage tmp.c $ a.out $ gcov tmp.c 90.00% of 10 source lines executed in file tmp.c Creating tmp.c.gcov.

The le tmp.c.gcov contains output from gcov. Here is a sample:

-: -: -: -: -: 1: 1: -: 1: -: 11: 10: -: 1: #####: -: 1: 0:Source:tmp.c 0:Object:tmp.bb 1:#include <stdio.h> 2: 3:int main (void) 4:{ 5: int i, total; 6: 7: total = 0; 8: 9: for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) 10: total += i; 11: 12: if (total != 45) 13: printf ("Failure\n"); 14: else 15: printf ("Success\n");

304

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

1: 1:

16: return 0; 17:}

When you use the -b option, your output looks like this:
$ gcov -b tmp.c 90.00% of 10 source lines executed in file tmp.c 80.00% of 5 branches executed in file tmp.c 80.00% of 5 branches taken at least once in file tmp.c 50.00% of 2 calls executed in file tmp.c Creating tmp.c.gcov.

Here is a sample of a resulting tmp.c.gcov le:

-: -: -: -: -: 1: 1: -: 1: -: 11: branch 0: branch 1: branch 2: 10: -: 1: branch 0: #####: call 0: branch 1: -: 1: call 0: 1: 1: 0:Source:tmp.c 0:Object:tmp.bb 1:#include <stdio.h> 2: 3:int main (void) 4:{ 5: int i, total; 6: 7: total = 0; 8: 9: for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) taken 90% taken 100% taken 100% 10: total += i; 11: 12: if (total != 45) taken 100% 13: printf ("Failure\n"); never executed never executed 14: else 15: printf ("Success\n"); returns 100% 16: return 0; 17:}

For each basic block, a line is printed after the last line of the basic block describing the branch or call that ends the basic block. There can be multiple branches and calls listed for a single source line if there are multiple basic blocks that end on that line. In this case, the branches and calls are each given a number. There is no simple way to map these branches and calls back to source constructs. In general, though, the lowest numbered branch or call will correspond to the leftmost construct on the source line. For a branch, if it was executed at least once, then a percentage indicating the number of times the branch was taken divided by the number of times the branch was executed will be printed. Otherwise, the message never executed is printed. For a call, if it was executed at least once, then a percentage indicating the number of times the call returned divided by the number of times the call was executed will be printed. This will usually be 100%, but may be less for functions call exit or longjmp, and thus may not return every time they are called. The execution counts are cumulative. If the example program were executed again without removing the .da le, the count for the number of times each line in the source was executed would be added to the results of the previous run(s). This is potentially useful

Chapter 9: gcova Test Coverage Program

305

in several ways. For example, it could be used to accumulate data over a number of program runs as part of a test verication suite, or to provide more accurate long-term information over a large number of program runs. The data in the .da les is saved immediately before the program exits. For each source le compiled with -fprofile-arcs, the proling code rst attempts to read in an existing .da le; if the le doesnt match the executable (diering number of basic block counts) it will ignore the contents of the le. It then adds in the new execution counts and nally writes the data to the le.

9.3 Using gcov with GCC Optimization

If you plan to use gcov to help optimize your code, you must rst compile your program with two special GCC options: -fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage. Aside from that, you can use any other GCC options; but if you want to prove that every single line in your program was executed, you should not compile with optimization at the same time. On some machines the optimizer can eliminate some simple code lines by combining them with other lines. For example, code like this:
if (a != b) c = 1; else c = 0;

can be compiled into one instruction on some machines. In this case, there is no way for gcov to calculate separate execution counts for each line because there isnt separate code for each line. Hence the gcov output looks like this if you compiled the program with optimization:
100: 100: 100: 100: 12:if (a != b) 13: c = 1; 14:else 15: c = 0;

The output shows that this block of code, combined by optimization, executed 100 times. In one sense this result is correct, because there was only one instruction representing all four of these lines. However, the output does not indicate how many times the result was 0 and how many times the result was 1.

9.4 Brief description of gcov data les

gcov uses three les for doing proling. The names of these les are derived from the original source le by substituting the le sux with either .bb, .bbg, or .da. All of these les are placed in the same directory as the source le, and contain data stored in a platform-independent method. The .bb and .bbg les are generated when the source le is compiled with the GCC -ftest-coverage option. The .bb le contains a list of source les (including headers), functions within those les, and line numbers corresponding to each basic block in the source le. The .bb le format consists of several lists of 4-byte integers which correspond to the line numbers of each basic block in the le. Each list is terminated by a line number of

306

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

0. A line number of 1 is used to designate that the source le name (padded to a 4-byte boundary and followed by another 1) follows. In addition, a line number of 2 is used to designate that the name of a function (also padded to a 4-byte boundary and followed by a 2) follows. The .bbg le is used to reconstruct the program ow graph for the source le. It contains a list of the program ow arcs (possible branches taken from one basic block to another) for each function which, in combination with the .bb le, enables gcov to reconstruct the program ow. In the .bbg le, the format is:
name of function #0 checksum of function #0 number of basic blocks for function #0 (4-byte number) total number of arcs for function #0 (4-byte number) count of arcs in basic block #0 (4-byte number) destination basic block of arc #0 (4-byte number) flag bits (4-byte number) destination basic block of arc #1 (4-byte number) flag bits (4-byte number) ... destination basic block of arc #N (4-byte number) flag bits (4-byte number) count of arcs in basic block #1 (4-byte number) destination basic block of arc #0 (4-byte number) flag bits (4-byte number) ...

A 1 (stored as a 4-byte number) is used to separate each functions list of basic blocks, and to verify that the le has been read correctly. The function name is stored as a 1 (4 bytes), the length (4 bytes), the name itself (padded to 4-byte boundary) followed by a 1 (4 bytes). The ags are dened as follows: bit0 On function spanning tree bit1 Is a fake edge bit2 Is the fall through edge from one block to its immediate successor. bit3-bit31 For future expansion

The .da le is generated when a program containing object les built with the GCC -fprofile-arcs option is executed. A separate .da le is created for each source le compiled with this option, and the name of the .da le is stored as an absolute pathname in the resulting object le. This path name is derived from the object le name by substituting a .da sux. The .da consists of one or more blocks with the following structure:
"magic" number 123 (4-byte number) number of functions (4-byte number) length of the "extension block" in bytes extension block (variable length) name of function #0 (the same format as in .bbg file) checksum of function #0 number of instrumented arcs (4-byte number) count of arc #0 (8-byte number) count of arc #1 (8-byte number)

Chapter 9: gcova Test Coverage Program

307

... count of arc #M_0 (8-byte number) name of function #1 (the same format as in .bbg file) checksum of function #1 ...

Multiple program runs might merge data into a single block, or might append a new block. The current structure of the extension block is as follows:
number of instrumented arcs in whole program (4-byte number) sum all of instrumented arcs in whole program (8-byte number) maximal value of counter in whole program (8-byte number) number of instrumented arcs in the object file (4-byte number) sum all of instrumented arcs in the object file (8-byte number) maximal value of counter in the object file (8-byte number)

All three of these les use the functions in gcov-io.h to store integers; the functions in this header provide a machine-independent mechanism for storing and retrieving data from a stream.

308

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

309

10 Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

This section describes known problems that aect users of GCC. Most of these are not GCC bugs per seif they were, we would x them. But the result for a user may be like the result of a bug. Some of these problems are due to bugs in other software, some are missing features that are too much work to add, and some are places where peoples opinions dier as to what is best.

10.1 Actual Bugs We Havent Fixed Yet

The fixincludes script interacts badly with automounters; if the directory of system header les is automounted, it tends to be unmounted while fixincludes is running. This would seem to be a bug in the automounter. We dont know any good way to work around it. The fixproto script will sometimes add prototypes for the sigsetjmp and siglongjmp functions that reference the jmp_buf type before that type is dened. To work around this, edit the oending le and place the typedef in front of the prototypes. When -pedantic-errors is specied, GCC will incorrectly give an error message when a function name is specied in an expression involving the comma operator.

10.2 Cross-Compiler Problems

You may run into problems with cross compilation on certain machines, for several reasons. Cross compilation can run into trouble for certain machines because some target machines assemblers require oating point numbers to be written as integer constants in certain contexts. The compiler writes these integer constants by examining the oating point value as an integer and printing that integer, because this is simple to write and independent of the details of the oating point representation. But this does not work if the compiler is running on a dierent machine with an incompatible oating point format, or even a dierent byte-ordering. In addition, correct constant folding of oating point values requires representing them in the target machines format. (The C standard does not quite require this, but in practice it is the only way to win.) It is now possible to overcome these problems by dening macros such as REAL_VALUE_ TYPE. But doing so is a substantial amount of work for each target machine. See section Cross Compilation and Floating Point in GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Internals. At present, the program mips-tfile which adds debug support to object les on MIPS systems does not work in a cross compile environment.

310

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

10.3 Interoperation
This section lists various diculties encountered in using GCC together with other compilers or with the assemblers, linkers, libraries and debuggers on certain systems. On many platforms, GCC supports a dierent ABI for C++ than do other compilers, so the object les compiled by GCC cannot be used with object les generated by another C++ compiler. An area where the dierence is most apparent is name mangling. The use of dierent name mangling is intentional, to protect you from more subtle problems. Compilers dier as to many internal details of C++ implementation, including: how class instances are laid out, how multiple inheritance is implemented, and how virtual function calls are handled. If the name encoding were made the same, your programs would link against libraries provided from other compilersbut the programs would then crash when run. Incompatible libraries are then detected at link time, rather than at run time. Older GDB versions sometimes fail to read the output of GCC version 2. If you have trouble, get GDB version 4.4 or later. DBX rejects some les produced by GCC, though it accepts similar constructs in output from PCC. Until someone can supply a coherent description of what is valid DBX input and what is not, there is nothing I can do about these problems. You are on your own. The GNU assembler (GAS) does not support PIC. To generate PIC code, you must use some other assembler, such as /bin/as. On some BSD systems, including some versions of Ultrix, use of proling causes static variable destructors (currently used only in C++) not to be run. On some SGI systems, when you use -lgl_s as an option, it gets translated magically to -lgl_s -lX11_s -lc_s. Naturally, this does not happen when you use GCC. You must specify all three options explicitly. On a SPARC, GCC aligns all values of type double on an 8-byte boundary, and it expects every double to be so aligned. The Sun compiler usually gives double values 8-byte alignment, with one exception: function arguments of type double may not be aligned. As a result, if a function compiled with Sun CC takes the address of an argument of type double and passes this pointer of type double * to a function compiled with GCC, dereferencing the pointer may cause a fatal signal. One way to solve this problem is to compile your entire program with GCC. Another solution is to modify the function that is compiled with Sun CC to copy the argument into a local variable; local variables are always properly aligned. A third solution is to modify the function that uses the pointer to dereference it via the following function access_double instead of directly with *:
inline double access_double (double *unaligned_ptr) { union d2i { double d; int i[2]; }; union d2i *p = (union d2i *) unaligned_ptr; union d2i u;

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

311

u.i[0] = p->i[0]; u.i[1] = p->i[1]; return u.d; }

Storing into the pointer can be done likewise with the same union. On Solaris, the malloc function in the libmalloc.a library may allocate memory that is only 4 byte aligned. Since GCC on the SPARC assumes that doubles are 8 byte aligned, this may result in a fatal signal if doubles are stored in memory allocated by the libmalloc.a library. The solution is to not use the libmalloc.a library. Use instead malloc and related functions from libc.a; they do not have this problem. Sun forgot to include a static version of libdl.a with some versions of SunOS (mainly 4.1). This results in undened symbols when linking static binaries (that is, if you use -static). If you see undened symbols _dlclose, _dlsym or _dlopen when linking, compile and link against the le mit/util/misc/dlsym.c from the MIT version of X windows. The 128-bit long double format that the SPARC port supports currently works by using the architecturally dened quad-word oating point instructions. Since there is no hardware that supports these instructions they must be emulated by the operating system. Long doubles do not work in Sun OS versions 4.0.3 and earlier, because the kernel emulator uses an obsolete and incompatible format. Long doubles do not work in Sun OS version 4.1.1 due to a problem in a Sun library. Long doubles do work on Sun OS versions 4.1.2 and higher, but GCC does not enable them by default. Long doubles appear to work in Sun OS 5.x (Solaris 2.x). On HP-UX version 9.01 on the HP PA, the HP compiler cc does not compile GCC correctly. We do not yet know why. However, GCC compiled on earlier HP-UX versions works properly on HP-UX 9.01 and can compile itself properly on 9.01. On the HP PA machine, ADB sometimes fails to work on functions compiled with GCC. Specically, it fails to work on functions that use alloca or variable-size arrays. This is because GCC doesnt generate HP-UX unwind descriptors for such functions. It may even be impossible to generate them. Debugging (-g) is not supported on the HP PA machine, unless you use the preliminary GNU tools. Taking the address of a label may generate errors from the HP-UX PA assembler. GAS for the PA does not have this problem. Using oating point parameters for indirect calls to static functions will not work when using the HP assembler. There simply is no way for GCC to specify what registers hold arguments for static functions when using the HP assembler. GAS for the PA does not have this problem. In extremely rare cases involving some very large functions you may receive errors from the HP linker complaining about an out of bounds unconditional branch oset. This used to occur more often in previous versions of GCC, but is now exceptionally rare. If you should run into it, you can work around by making your function smaller.

312

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

GCC compiled code sometimes emits warnings from the HP-UX assembler of the form:
(warning) Use of GR3 when frame >= 8192 may cause conflict.

These warnings are harmless and can be safely ignored. On the IBM RS/6000, compiling code of the form
extern int foo; ... foo ... static int foo;

will cause the linker to report an undened symbol foo. Although this behavior diers from most other systems, it is not a bug because redening an extern variable as static is undened in ISO C. In extremely rare cases involving some very large functions you may receive errors from the AIX Assembler complaining about a displacement that is too large. If you should run into it, you can work around by making your function smaller. The libstdc++.a library in GCC relies on the SVR4 dynamic linker semantics which merges global symbols between libraries and applications, especially necessary for C++ streams functionality. This is not the default behavior of AIX shared libraries and dynamic linking. libstdc++.a is built on AIX with runtime-linking enabled so that symbol merging can occur. To utilize this feature, the application linked with libstdc++.a must include the -Wl,-brtl ag on the link line. G++ cannot impose this because this option may interfere with the semantics of the user program and users may not always use g++ to link his or her application. Applications are not required to use the -Wl,-brtl ag on the link linethe rest of the libstdc++.a library which is not dependent on the symbol merging semantics will continue to function correctly. An application can interpose its own denition of functions for functions invoked by libstdc++.a with runtime-linking enabled on AIX. To accomplish this the application must be linked with runtime-linking option and the functions explicitly must be exported by the application (-Wl,-brtl,-bE:exportfile). AIX on the RS/6000 provides support (NLS) for environments outside of the United States. Compilers and assemblers use NLS to support locale-specic representations of various objects including oating-point numbers (. vs , for separating decimal fractions). There have been problems reported where the library linked with GCC does not produce the same oating-point formats that the assembler accepts. If you have this problem, set the LANG environment variable to C or En_US. Even if you specify -fdollars-in-identifiers, you cannot successfully use $ in identiers on the RS/6000 due to a restriction in the IBM assembler. GAS supports these identiers. On Ultrix, the Fortran compiler expects registers 2 through 5 to be saved by function calls. However, the C compiler uses conventions compatible with BSD Unix: registers 2 through 5 may be clobbered by function calls. GCC uses the same convention as the Ultrix C compiler. You can use these options to produce code compatible with the Fortran compiler:
-fcall-saved-r2 -fcall-saved-r3 -fcall-saved-r4 -fcall-saved-r5

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

313

On the Alpha, you may get assembler errors about invalid syntax as a result of oating point constants. This is due to a bug in the C library functions ecvt, fcvt and gcvt. Given valid oating point numbers, they sometimes print NaN.

10.4 Problems Compiling Certain Programs

Certain programs have problems compiling. Parse errors may occur compiling X11 on a Decstation running Ultrix 4.2 because of problems in DECs versions of the X11 header les X11/Xlib.h and X11/Xutil.h. People recommend adding -I/usr/include/mit to use the MIT versions of the header les, or xing the header les by adding this: #ifdef __STDC__ #define NeedFunctionPrototypes 0 #endif On various 386 Unix systems derived from System V, including SCO, ISC, and ESIX, you may get error messages about running out of virtual memory while compiling certain programs. You can prevent this problem by linking GCC with the GNU malloc (which thus replaces the malloc that comes with the system). GNU malloc is available as a separate package, and also in the le src/gmalloc.c in the GNU Emacs 19 distribution. If you have installed GNU malloc as a separate library package, use this option when you relink GCC: MALLOC=/usr/local/lib/libgmalloc.a Alternatively, if you have compiled gmalloc.c from Emacs 19, copy the object le to gmalloc.o and use this option when you relink GCC: MALLOC=gmalloc.o

10.5 Incompatibilities of GCC

There are several noteworthy incompatibilities between GNU C and K&R (non-ISO) versions of C. GCC normally makes string constants read-only. If several identical-looking string constants are used, GCC stores only one copy of the string. One consequence is that you cannot call mktemp with a string constant argument. The function mktemp always alters the string its argument points to. Another consequence is that sscanf does not work on some systems when passed a string constant as its format control string or input. This is because sscanf incorrectly tries to write into the string constant. Likewise fscanf and scanf. The best solution to these problems is to change the program to use char-array variables with initialization strings for these purposes instead of string constants. But if this is not possible, you can use the -fwritable-strings ag, which directs GCC to handle string constants the same way most C compilers do.

314

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

-2147483648 is positive. This is because 2147483648 cannot t in the type int, so (following the ISO C rules) its data type is unsigned long int. Negating this value yields 2147483648 again. GCC does not substitute macro arguments when they appear inside of string constants. For example, the following macro in GCC #define foo(a) "a" will produce output "a" regardless of what the argument a is. When you use setjmp and longjmp, the only automatic variables guaranteed to remain valid are those declared volatile. This is a consequence of automatic register allocation. Consider this function: jmp_buf j; foo () { int a, b; a = fun1 (); if (setjmp (j)) return a; a = fun2 (); /* longjmp (j) may occur in fun3. */ return a + fun3 (); } Here a may or may not be restored to its rst value when the longjmp occurs. If a is allocated in a register, then its rst value is restored; otherwise, it keeps the last value stored in it. If you use the -W option with the -O option, you will get a warning when GCC thinks such a problem might be possible. Programs that use preprocessing directives in the middle of macro arguments do not work with GCC. For example, a program like this will not work: foobar ( #define luser hack) ISO C does not permit such a construct. K&R compilers allow comments to cross over an inclusion boundary (i.e. started in an include le and ended in the including le). I think this would be quite ugly and cant imagine it could be needed. Declarations of external variables and functions within a block apply only to the block containing the declaration. In other words, they have the same scope as any other declaration in the same place. In some other C compilers, a extern declaration aects all the rest of the le even if it happens within a block. In traditional C, you can combine long, etc., with a typedef name, as shown here:

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

315

typedef int foo; typedef long foo bar; In ISO C, this is not allowed: long and other type modiers require an explicit int. PCC allows typedef names to be used as function parameters. Traditional C allows the following erroneous pair of declarations to appear together in a given scope: typedef int foo; typedef foo foo; GCC treats all characters of identiers as signicant. According to K&R-1 (2.2), No more than the rst eight characters are signicant, although more may be used.. Also according to K&R-1 (2.2), An identier is a sequence of letters and digits; the rst character must be a letter. The underscore counts as a letter., but GCC also allows dollar signs in identiers. PCC allows whitespace in the middle of compound assignment operators such as +=. GCC, following the ISO standard, does not allow this. GCC complains about unterminated character constants inside of preprocessing conditionals that fail. Some programs have English comments enclosed in conditionals that are guaranteed to fail; if these comments contain apostrophes, GCC will probably report an error. For example, this code would produce an error: #if 0 You cant expect this to work. #endif The best solution to such a problem is to put the text into an actual C comment delimited by /*...*/. Many user programs contain the declaration long time ();. In the past, the system header les on many systems did not actually declare time, so it did not matter what type your program declared it to return. But in systems with ISO C headers, time is declared to return time_t, and if that is not the same as long, then long time (); is erroneous. The solution is to change your program to use appropriate system headers (<time.h> on systems with ISO C headers) and not to declare time if the system header les declare it, or failing that to use time_t as the return type of time. When compiling functions that return float, PCC converts it to a double. GCC actually returns a float. If you are concerned with PCC compatibility, you should declare your functions to return double; you might as well say what you mean. When compiling functions that return structures or unions, GCC output code normally uses a method dierent from that used on most versions of Unix. As a result, code compiled with GCC cannot call a structure-returning function compiled with PCC, and vice versa. The method used by GCC is as follows: a structure or union which is 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes long is returned like a scalar. A structure or union with any other size is stored into an address supplied by the caller (usually in a special, xed register, but on some machines it is passed on the stack). The machine-description macros STRUCT_VALUE and STRUCT_INCOMING_VALUE tell GCC where to pass this address.

316

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

By contrast, PCC on most target machines returns structures and unions of any size by copying the data into an area of static storage, and then returning the address of that storage as if it were a pointer value. The caller must copy the data from that memory area to the place where the value is wanted. GCC does not use this method because it is slower and nonreentrant. On some newer machines, PCC uses a reentrant convention for all structure and union returning. GCC on most of these machines uses a compatible convention when returning structures and unions in memory, but still returns small structures and unions in registers. You can tell GCC to use a compatible convention for all structure and union returning with the option -fpcc-struct-return. GCC complains about program fragments such as 0x74ae-0x4000 which appear to be two hexadecimal constants separated by the minus operator. Actually, this string is a single preprocessing token. Each such token must correspond to one token in C. Since this does not, GCC prints an error message. Although it may appear obvious that what is meant is an operator and two values, the ISO C standard specically requires that this be treated as erroneous. A preprocessing token is a preprocessing number if it begins with a digit and is followed by letters, underscores, digits, periods and e+, e-, E+, E-, p+, p-, P+, or P- character sequences. (In strict C89 mode, the sequences p+, p-, P+ and P- cannot appear in preprocessing numbers.) To make the above program fragment valid, place whitespace in front of the minus sign. This whitespace will end the preprocessing number.

10.6 Fixed Header Files

GCC needs to install corrected versions of some system header les. This is because most target systems have some header les that wont work with GCC unless they are changed. Some have bugs, some are incompatible with ISO C, and some depend on special features of other compilers. Installing GCC automatically creates and installs the xed header les, by running a program called fixincludes (or for certain targets an alternative such as fixinc.svr4). Normally, you dont need to pay attention to this. But there are cases where it doesnt do the right thing automatically. If you update the systems header les, such as by installing a new system version, the xed header les of GCC are not automatically updated. The easiest way to update them is to reinstall GCC. (If you want to be clever, look in the makele and you can nd a shortcut.) On some systems, in particular SunOS 4, header le directories contain machine-specic symbolic links in certain places. This makes it possible to share most of the header les among hosts running the same version of SunOS 4 on dierent machine models. The programs that x the header les do not understand this special way of using symbolic links; therefore, the directory of xed header les is good only for the machine model used to build it.

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

317

In SunOS 4, only programs that look inside the kernel will notice the dierence between machine models. Therefore, for most purposes, you need not be concerned about this. It is possible to make separate sets of xed header les for the dierent machine models, and arrange a structure of symbolic links so as to use the proper set, but youll have to do this by hand. On Lynxos, GCC by default does not x the header les. This is because bugs in the shell cause the fixincludes script to fail. This means you will encounter problems due to bugs in the system header les. It may be no comfort that they arent GCCs fault, but it does mean that theres nothing for us to do about them.

10.7 Standard Libraries

GCC by itself attempts to be a conforming freestanding implementation. See Chapter 2 [Language Standards Supported by GCC], page 5, for details of what this means. Beyond the library facilities required of such an implementation, the rest of the C library is supplied by the vendor of the operating system. If that C library doesnt conform to the C standards, then your programs might get warnings (especially when using -Wall) that you dont expect. For example, the sprintf function on SunOS 4.1.3 returns char * while the C standard says that sprintf returns an int. The fixincludes program could make the prototype for this function match the Standard, but that would be wrong, since the function will still return char *. If you need a Standard compliant library, then you need to nd one, as GCC does not provide one. The GNU C library (called glibc) provides ISO C, POSIX, BSD, SystemV and X/Open compatibility for GNU/Linux and HURD-based GNU systems; no recent version of it supports other systems, though some very old versions did. Version 2.2 of the GNU C library includes nearly complete C99 support. You could also ask your operating system vendor if newer libraries are available.

10.8 Disappointments and Misunderstandings

These problems are perhaps regrettable, but we dont know any practical way around them. Certain local variables arent recognized by debuggers when you compile with optimization. This occurs because sometimes GCC optimizes the variable out of existence. There is no way to tell the debugger how to compute the value such a variable would have had, and it is not clear that would be desirable anyway. So GCC simply does not mention the eliminated variable when it writes debugging information. You have to expect a certain amount of disagreement between the executable and your source code, when you use optimization. Users often think it is a bug when GCC reports an error for code like this: int foo (struct mumble *);

318

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

struct mumble { ... }; int foo (struct mumble *x) { ... } This code really is erroneous, because the scope of struct mumble in the prototype is limited to the argument list containing it. It does not refer to the struct mumble dened with le scope immediately belowthey are two unrelated types with similar names in dierent scopes. But in the denition of foo, the le-scope type is used because that is available to be inherited. Thus, the denition and the prototype do not match, and you get an error. This behavior may seem silly, but its what the ISO standard species. It is easy enough for you to make your code work by moving the denition of struct mumble above the prototype. Its not worth being incompatible with ISO C just to avoid an error for the example shown above. Accesses to bit-elds even in volatile objects works by accessing larger objects, such as a byte or a word. You cannot rely on what size of object is accessed in order to read or write the bit-eld; it may even vary for a given bit-eld according to the precise usage. If you care about controlling the amount of memory that is accessed, use volatile but do not use bit-elds. GCC comes with shell scripts to x certain known problems in system header les. They install corrected copies of various header les in a special directory where only GCC will normally look for them. The scripts adapt to various systems by searching all the system header les for the problem cases that we know about. If new system header les are installed, nothing automatically arranges to update the corrected header les. You will have to reinstall GCC to x the new header les. More specically, go to the build directory and delete the les stmp-fixinc and stmp-headers, and the subdirectory include; then do make install again. On 68000 and x86 systems, for instance, you can get paradoxical results if you test the precise values of oating point numbers. For example, you can nd that a oating point value which is not a NaN is not equal to itself. This results from the fact that the oating point registers hold a few more bits of precision than t in a double in memory. Compiled code moves values between memory and oating point registers at its convenience, and moving them into memory truncates them. You can partially avoid this problem by using the -ffloat-store option (see Section 3.10 [Optimize Options], page 53). On AIX and other platforms without weak symbol support, templates need to be instantiated explicitly and symbols for static members of templates will not be generated. On AIX, GCC scans object les and library archives for static constructors and destructors when linking an application before the linker prunes unreferenced symbols. This is necessary to prevent the AIX linker from mistakenly assuming that static constructor or destructor are unused and removing them before the scanning can occur. All static constructors and destructors found will be referenced even though the modules in which they occur may not be used by the program. This may lead to both increased executable size and unexpected symbol references.

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

319

10.9 Common Misunderstandings with GNU C++

C++ is a complex language and an evolving one, and its standard denition (the ISO C++ standard) was only recently completed. As a result, your C++ compiler may occasionally surprise you, even when its behavior is correct. This section discusses some areas that frequently give rise to questions of this sort.

10.9.1 Declare and Dene Static Members

When a class has static data members, it is not enough to declare the static member; you must also dene it. For example: class Foo { ... void method(); static int bar; }; This declaration only establishes that the class Foo has an int named Foo::bar, and a member function named Foo::method. But you still need to dene both method and bar elsewhere. According to the ISO standard, you must supply an initializer in one (and only one) source le, such as: int Foo::bar = 0; Other C++ compilers may not correctly implement the standard behavior. As a result, when you switch to g++ from one of these compilers, you may discover that a program that appeared to work correctly in fact does not conform to the standard: g++ reports as undened symbols any static data members that lack denitions.

10.9.2 Temporaries May Vanish Before You Expect

It is dangerous to use pointers or references to portions of a temporary object. The compiler may very well delete the object before you expect it to, leaving a pointer to garbage. The most common place where this problem crops up is in classes like string classes, especially ones that dene a conversion function to type char * or const char *which is one reason why the standard string class requires you to call the c_str member function. However, any class that returns a pointer to some internal structure is potentially subject to this problem. For example, a program may use a function strfunc that returns string objects, and another function charfunc that operates on pointers to char: string strfunc (); void charfunc (const char *); void f () { const char *p = strfunc().c_str();

320

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

... charfunc (p); ... charfunc (p); } In this situation, it may seem reasonable to save a pointer to the C string returned by the c_str member function and use that rather than call c_str repeatedly. However, the temporary string created by the call to strfunc is destroyed after p is initialized, at which point p is left pointing to freed memory. Code like this may run successfully under some other compilers, particularly obsolete cfront-based compilers that delete temporaries along with normal local variables. However, the GNU C++ behavior is standard-conforming, so if your program depends on late destruction of temporaries it is not portable. The safe way to write such code is to give the temporary a name, which forces it to remain until the end of the scope of the name. For example: string& tmp = strfunc (); charfunc (tmp.c_str ());

10.9.3 Implicit Copy-Assignment for Virtual Bases

When a base class is virtual, only one subobject of the base class belongs to each full object. Also, the constructors and destructors are invoked only once, and called from the most-derived class. However, such objects behave unspecied when being assigned. For example: struct Base{ char *name; Base(char *n) : name(strdup(n)){} Base& operator= (const Base& other){ free (name); name = strdup (other.name); } }; struct A:virtual Base{ int val; A():Base("A"){} }; struct B:virtual Base{ int bval; B():Base("B"){} }; struct Derived:public A, public B{ Derived():Base("Derived"){}

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

321

}; void func(Derived &d1, Derived &d2) { d1 = d2; } The C++ standard species that Base::Base is only called once when constructing or copy-constructing a Derived object. It is unspecied whether Base::operator= is called more than once when the implicit copy-assignment for Derived objects is invoked (as it is inside func in the example). g++ implements the intuitive algorithm for copy-assignment: assign all direct bases, then assign all members. In that algorithm, the virtual base subobject can be encountered more than once. In the example, copying proceeds in the following order: val, name (via strdup), bval, and name again. If application code relies on copy-assignment, a user-dened copy-assignment operator removes any uncertainties. With such an operator, the application can dene whether and how the virtual base subobject is assigned.

10.10 Caveats of using protoize

The conversion programs protoize and unprotoize can sometimes change a source le in a way that wont work unless you rearrange it. protoize can insert references to a type name or type tag before the denition, or in a le where they are not dened. If this happens, compiler error messages should show you where the new references are, so xing the le by hand is straightforward. There are some C constructs which protoize cannot gure out. For example, it cant determine argument types for declaring a pointer-to-function variable; this you must do by hand. protoize inserts a comment containing ??? each time it nds such a variable; so you can nd all such variables by searching for this string. ISO C does not require declaring the argument types of pointer-to-function types. Using unprotoize can easily introduce bugs. If the program relied on prototypes to bring about conversion of arguments, these conversions will not take place in the program without prototypes. One case in which you can be sure unprotoize is safe is when you are removing prototypes that were made with protoize; if the program worked before without any prototypes, it will work again without them. You can nd all the places where this problem might occur by compiling the program with the -Wconversion option. It prints a warning whenever an argument is converted. Both conversion programs can be confused if there are macro calls in and around the text to be converted. In other words, the standard syntax for a declaration or denition must not result from expanding a macro. This problem is inherent in the design of C and cannot be xed. If only a few functions have confusing macro calls, you can easily convert them manually.

322

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

protoize cannot get the argument types for a function whose denition was not actually compiled due to preprocessing conditionals. When this happens, protoize changes nothing in regard to such a function. protoize tries to detect such instances and warn about them. You can generally work around this problem by using protoize step by step, each time specifying a dierent set of -D options for compilation, until all of the functions have been converted. There is no automatic way to verify that you have got them all, however. Confusion may result if there is an occasion to convert a function declaration or definition in a region of source code where there is more than one formal parameter list present. Thus, attempts to convert code containing multiple (conditionally compiled) versions of a single function header (in the same vicinity) may not produce the desired (or expected) results. If you plan on converting source les which contain such code, it is recommended that you rst make sure that each conditionally compiled region of source code which contains an alternative function header also contains at least one additional follower token (past the nal right parenthesis of the function header). This should circumvent the problem. unprotoize can become confused when trying to convert a function denition or declaration which contains a declaration for a pointer-to-function formal argument which has the same name as the function being dened or declared. We recommend you avoid such choices of formal parameter names. You might also want to correct some of the indentation by hand and break long lines. (The conversion programs dont write lines longer than eighty characters in any case.)

10.11 Certain Changes We Dont Want to Make

This section lists changes that people frequently request, but which we do not make because we think GCC is better without them. Checking the number and type of arguments to a function which has an old-fashioned denition and no prototype. Such a feature would work only occasionallyonly for calls that appear in the same le as the called function, following the denition. The only way to check all calls reliably is to add a prototype for the function. But adding a prototype eliminates the motivation for this feature. So the feature is not worthwhile. Warning about using an expression whose type is signed as a shift count. Shift count operands are probably signed more often than unsigned. Warning about this would cause far more annoyance than good. Warning about assigning a signed value to an unsigned variable. Such assignments must be very common; warning about them would cause more annoyance than good. Warning when a non-void function value is ignored. Coming as I do from a Lisp background, I balk at the idea that there is something dangerous about discarding a value. There are functions that return values which

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

323

some callers may nd useful; it makes no sense to clutter the program with a cast to void whenever the value isnt useful. Making -fshort-enums the default. This would cause storage layout to be incompatible with most other C compilers. And it doesnt seem very important, given that you can get the same result in other ways. The case where it matters most is when the enumeration-valued object is inside a structure, and in that case you can specify a eld width explicitly. Making bit-elds unsigned by default on particular machines where the ABI standard says to do so. The ISO C standard leaves it up to the implementation whether a bit-eld declared plain int is signed or not. This in eect creates two alternative dialects of C. The GNU C compiler supports both dialects; you can specify the signed dialect with -fsigned-bitfields and the unsigned dialect with -funsigned-bitfields. However, this leaves open the question of which dialect to use by default. Currently, the preferred dialect makes plain bit-elds signed, because this is simplest. Since int is the same as signed int in every other context, it is cleanest for them to be the same in bit-elds as well. Some computer manufacturers have published Application Binary Interface standards which specify that plain bit-elds should be unsigned. It is a mistake, however, to say anything about this issue in an ABI. This is because the handling of plain bit-elds distinguishes two dialects of C. Both dialects are meaningful on every type of machine. Whether a particular object le was compiled using signed bit-elds or unsigned is of no concern to other object les, even if they access the same bit-elds in the same data structures. A given program is written in one or the other of these two dialects. The program stands a chance to work on most any machine if it is compiled with the proper dialect. It is unlikely to work at all if compiled with the wrong dialect. Many users appreciate the GNU C compiler because it provides an environment that is uniform across machines. These users would be inconvenienced if the compiler treated plain bit-elds dierently on certain machines. Occasionally users write programs intended only for a particular machine type. On these occasions, the users would benet if the GNU C compiler were to support by default the same dialect as the other compilers on that machine. But such applications are rare. And users writing a program to run on more than one type of machine cannot possibly benet from this kind of compatibility. This is why GCC does and will treat plain bit-elds in the same fashion on all types of machines (by default). There are some arguments for making bit-elds unsigned by default on all machines. If, for example, this becomes a universal de facto standard, it would make sense for GCC to go along with it. This is something to be considered in the future. (Of course, users strongly concerned about portability should indicate explicitly in each bit-eld whether it is signed or not. In this way, they write programs which have the same meaning in both C dialects.)

324

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Undening __STDC__ when -ansi is not used. Currently, GCC denes __STDC__ unconditionally. This provides good results in practice. Programmers normally use conditionals on __STDC__ to ask whether it is safe to use certain features of ISO C, such as function prototypes or ISO token concatenation. Since plain gcc supports all the features of ISO C, the correct answer to these questions is yes. Some users try to use __STDC__ to check for the availability of certain library facilities. This is actually incorrect usage in an ISO C program, because the ISO C standard says that a conforming freestanding implementation should dene __STDC__ even though it does not have the library facilities. gcc -ansi -pedantic is a conforming freestanding implementation, and it is therefore required to dene __STDC__, even though it does not come with an ISO C library. Sometimes people say that dening __STDC__ in a compiler that does not completely conform to the ISO C standard somehow violates the standard. This is illogical. The standard is a standard for compilers that claim to support ISO C, such as gcc -ansi not for other compilers such as plain gcc. Whatever the ISO C standard says is relevant to the design of plain gcc without -ansi only for pragmatic reasons, not as a requirement. GCC normally denes __STDC__ to be 1, and in addition denes __STRICT_ANSI__ if you specify the -ansi option, or a -std option for strict conformance to some version of ISO C. On some hosts, system include les use a dierent convention, where __STDC_ _ is normally 0, but is 1 if the user species strict conformance to the C Standard. GCC follows the host convention when processing system include les, but when processing user les it follows the usual GNU C convention. Undening __STDC__ in C++. Programs written to compile with C++-to-C translators get the value of __STDC__ that goes with the C compiler that is subsequently used. These programs must test __STDC_ _ to determine what kind of C preprocessor that compiler uses: whether they should concatenate tokens in the ISO C fashion or in the traditional fashion. These programs work properly with GNU C++ if __STDC__ is dened. They would not work otherwise. In addition, many header les are written to provide prototypes in ISO C but not in traditional C. Many of these header les can work without change in C++ provided __STDC__ is dened. If __STDC__ is not dened, they will all fail, and will all need to be changed to test explicitly for C++ as well. Deleting empty loops. Historically, GCC has not deleted empty loops under the assumption that the most likely reason you would put one in a program is to have a delay, so deleting them will not make real programs run any faster. However, the rationale here is that optimization of a nonempty loop cannot produce an empty one, which holds for C but is not always the case for C++. Moreover, with -funroll-loops small empty loops are already removed, so the current behavior is both sub-optimal and inconsistent and will change in the future.

Chapter 10: Known Causes of Trouble with GCC

325

Making side eects happen in the same order as in some other compiler. It is never safe to depend on the order of evaluation of side eects. For example, a function call like this may very well behave dierently from one compiler to another: void func (int, int); int i = 2; func (i++, i++); There is no guarantee (in either the C or the C++ standard language denitions) that the increments will be evaluated in any particular order. Either increment might happen rst. func might get the arguments 2, 3, or it might get 3, 2, or even 2, 2. Not allowing structures with volatile elds in registers. Strictly speaking, there is no prohibition in the ISO C standard against allowing structures with volatile elds in registers, but it does not seem to make any sense and is probably not what you wanted to do. So the compiler will give an error message in this case. Making certain warnings into errors by default. Some ISO C testsuites report failure when the compiler does not produce an error message for a certain program. ISO C requires a diagnostic message for certain kinds of invalid programs, but a warning is dened by GCC to count as a diagnostic. If GCC produces a warning but not an error, that is correct ISO C support. If test suites call this failure, they should be run with the GCC option -pedantic-errors, which will turn these warnings into errors.

10.12 Warning Messages and Error Messages

The GNU compiler can produce two kinds of diagnostics: errors and warnings. Each kind has a dierent purpose: Errors report problems that make it impossible to compile your program. GCC reports errors with the source le name and line number where the problem is apparent. Warnings report other unusual conditions in your code that may indicate a problem, although compilation can (and does) proceed. Warning messages also report the source le name and line number, but include the text warning: to distinguish them from error messages. Warnings may indicate danger points where you should check to make sure that your program really does what you intend; or the use of obsolete features; or the use of nonstandard features of GNU C or C++. Many warnings are issued only if you ask for them, with one of the -W options (for instance, -Wall requests a variety of useful warnings). GCC always tries to compile your program if possible; it never gratuitously rejects a program whose meaning is clear merely because (for instance) it fails to conform to a standard. In some cases, however, the C and C++ standards specify that certain extensions are forbidden, and a diagnostic must be issued by a conforming compiler. The -pedantic option tells GCC to issue warnings in such cases; -pedantic-errors says to make them errors instead. This does not mean that all non-ISO constructs get warnings or errors.

326

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

See Section 3.8 [Options to Request or Suppress Warnings], page 33, for more detail on these and related command-line options.

Chapter 11: Reporting Bugs

327

11 Reporting Bugs
Your bug reports play an essential role in making GCC reliable. When you encounter a problem, the rst thing to do is to see if it is already known. See Chapter 10 [Trouble], page 309. If it isnt known, then you should report the problem.

11.1 Have You Found a Bug?

If you are not sure whether you have found a bug, here are some guidelines: If the compiler gets a fatal signal, for any input whatever, that is a compiler bug. Reliable compilers never crash. If the compiler produces invalid assembly code, for any input whatever (except an asm statement), that is a compiler bug, unless the compiler reports errors (not just warnings) which would ordinarily prevent the assembler from being run. If the compiler produces valid assembly code that does not correctly execute the input source code, that is a compiler bug. However, you must double-check to make sure, because you may have a program whose behavior is undened, which happened by chance to give the desired results with another C or C++ compiler. For example, in many nonoptimizing compilers, you can write x; at the end of a function instead of return x;, with the same results. But the value of the function is undened if return is omitted; it is not a bug when GCC produces dierent results. Problems often result from expressions with two increment operators, as in f (*p++, *p++). Your previous compiler might have interpreted that expression the way you intended; GCC might interpret it another way. Neither compiler is wrong. The bug is in your code. After you have localized the error to a single source line, it should be easy to check for these things. If your program is correct and well dened, you have found a compiler bug. If the compiler produces an error message for valid input, that is a compiler bug. If the compiler does not produce an error message for invalid input, that is a compiler bug. However, you should note that your idea of invalid input might be my idea of an extension or support for traditional practice. If you are an experienced user of one of the languages GCC supports, your suggestions for improvement of GCC are welcome in any case.

11.2 How and where to Report Bugs

Bugs should be reported to our bug database. Please refer to http://gcc.gnu.org/bugs.html for up-to-date instructions how to submit bug reports. Copies of this le in HTML (bugs.html) and plain text (BUGS) are also part of GCC releases.

328

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 12: How To Get Help with GCC

329

12 How To Get Help with GCC

If you need help installing, using or changing GCC, there are two ways to nd it: Send a message to a suitable network mailing list. First try [email protected] (for help installing or using GCC), and if that brings no response, try [email protected]. For help changing GCC, ask [email protected]. If you think you have found a bug in GCC, please report it following the instructions at see Section 11.2 [Bug Reporting], page 327. Look in the service directory for someone who might help you for a fee. The service directory is found at http://www.gnu.org/prep/service.html. For further information, see http://gcc.gnu.org/faq.html#support.

330

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chapter 13: Contributing to GCC Development

331

13 Contributing to GCC Development

If you would like to help pretest GCC releases to assure they work well, our current development sources are available by CVS (see http://gcc.gnu.org/cvs.html). Source and binary snapshots are also available for FTP; see http://gcc.gnu.org/snapshots.html. If you would like to work on improvements to GCC, please read the advice at these URLs:
http://gcc.gnu.org/contribute.html http://gcc.gnu.org/contributewhy.html

for information on how to make useful contributions and avoid duplication of eort. Suggested projects are listed at http://gcc.gnu.org/projects/.

332

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Funding Free Software

333

Funding Free Software

If you want to have more free software a few years from now, it makes sense for you to help encourage people to contribute funds for its development. The most eective approach known is to encourage commercial redistributors to donate. Users of free software systems can boost the pace of development by encouraging for-afee distributors to donate part of their selling price to free software developersthe Free Software Foundation, and others. The way to convince distributors to do this is to demand it and expect it from them. So when you compare distributors, judge them partly by how much they give to free software development. Show distributors they must compete to be the one who gives the most. To make this approach work, you must insist on numbers that you can compare, such as, We will donate ten dollars to the Frobnitz project for each disk sold. Dont be satised with a vague promise, such as A portion of the prots are donated, since it doesnt give a basis for comparison. Even a precise fraction of the prots from this disk is not very meaningful, since creative accounting and unrelated business decisions can greatly alter what fraction of the sales price counts as prot. If the price you pay is $50, ten percent of the prot is probably less than a dollar; it might be a few cents, or nothing at all. Some redistributors do development work themselves. This is useful too; but to keep everyone honest, you need to inquire how much they do, and what kind. Some kinds of development make much more long-term dierence than others. For example, maintaining a separate version of a program contributes very little; maintaining the standard version of a program for the whole community contributes much. Easy new ports contribute little, since someone else would surely do them; dicult ports such as adding a new CPU to the GNU Compiler Collection contribute more; major new features or packages contribute the most. By establishing the idea that supporting further development is the proper thing to do when distributing free software for a fee, we can assure a steady ow of resources into making more free software. Copyright c 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Verbatim copying and redistribution of this section is permitted without royalty; alteration is not permitted.

334

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

The GNU Project and GNU/Linux

335

The GNU Project and GNU/Linux

The GNU Project was launched in 1984 to develop a complete Unix-like operating system which is free software: the GNU system. (GNU is a recursive acronym for GNUs Not Unix; it is pronounced guh-NEW.) Variants of the GNU operating system, which use the kernel Linux, are now widely used; though these systems are often referred to as Linux, they are more accurately called GNU/Linux systems. For more information, see:
http://www.gnu.org/ http://www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html

336

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

337

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

Version 2, June 1991 Copyright c 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free softwareto make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundations software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too. When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things. To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights. We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) oer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the software. Also, for each authors protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modied by someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any problems introduced by others will not reect on the original authors reputations. Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain patent licenses, in eect making the program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must be licensed for everyones free use or not licensed at all. The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modication follow.

338

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION

0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the terms of this General Public License. The Program, below, refers to any such program or work, and a work based on the Program means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with modications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in the term modication.) Each licensee is addressed as you. Activities other than copying, distribution and modication are not covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. 1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Programs source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program. You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your option oer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. 2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such modications or work under the terms of Section 1 above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: a. You must cause the modied les to carry prominent notices stating that you changed the les and the date of any change. b. You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under the terms of this License. c. If the modied program normally reads commands interactively when run, you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on the Program is not required to print an announcement.) These requirements apply to the modied work as a whole. If identiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

339

for other licensees extend to the entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or collective works based on the Program. In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under the scope of this License. 3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: a. Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, b. Accompany it with a written oer, valid for at least three years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, c. Accompany it with the information you received as to the oer to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you received the program in object code or executable form with such an oer, in accord with Subsection b above.) The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modications to it. For an executable work, complete source code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any associated interface denition les, plus the scripts used to control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a special exception, the source code distributed need not include anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component itself accompanies the executable. If distribution of executable or object code is made by oering access to copy from a designated place, then oering equivalent access to copy the source code from the same place counts as distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not compelled to copy the source along with the object code. 4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance. 5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you

340

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it. 6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further restrictions on the recipients exercise of the rights granted herein. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to this License. 7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the Program at all. For example, if a patent license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain entirely from distribution of the Program. If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other circumstances. It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the integrity of the free software distribution system, which is implemented by public license practices. Many people have made generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed through that system in reliance on consistent application of that system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot impose that choice. This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a consequence of the rest of this License. 8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright holder who places the Program under this License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written in the body of this License. 9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may dier in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program species a version number of this License which applies to it and any later version, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation.

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

341

10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose distribution conditions are dierent, write to the author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.

NO WARRANTY
11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

342

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source le to most eectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and each le should have at least the copyright line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
one line to give the programs name and a brief idea of what it does. Copyright (C) year name of author This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) year name of author Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type show w. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type show c for details.

The hypothetical commands show w and show c should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something other than show w and show c; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu itemswhatever suits your program. You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if any, to sign a copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names:
Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program Gnomovision (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. signature of Ty Coon, 1 April 1989 Ty Coon, President of Vice

This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General Public License instead of this License.

GNU Free Documentation License

343

GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002 c 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Copyright 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the eective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modications made by others. This License is a kind of copyleft, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The Document, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as you. You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. A Modied Version of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modications and/or translated into another language. A Secondary Section is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Documents overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. The Invariant Sections are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released

344

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

under this License. If a section does not t the above denition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. The Cover Texts are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A Transparent copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specication is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent le format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modication by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not Transparent is called Opaque. Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ascii without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTEX input format, sgml or xml using a publicly available dtd, and standard-conforming simple html, PostScript or pdf designed for human modication. Examples of transparent image formats include png, xcf and jpg. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, sgml or xml for which the dtd and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated html, PostScript or pdf produced by some word processors for output purposes only. The Title Page means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, Title Page means the text near the most prominent appearance of the works title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. A section Entitled XYZ means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specic section name mentioned below, such as Acknowledgements, Dedications, Endorsements, or History.) To Preserve the Title of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section Entitled XYZ according to this denition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no eect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and

GNU Free Documentation License

345

that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3. You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Documents license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects. If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to t legibly, you should put the rst ones listed (as many as t reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public. It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS You may copy and distribute a Modied Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modied Version under precisely this License, with the Modied Version lling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modication of the Modied Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modied Version: A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.

346

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modications in the Modied Version, together with at least ve of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than ve), unless they release you from this requirement. C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modied Version, as the publisher. D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document. E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modications adjacent to the other copyright notices. F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modied Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Documents license notice. H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. I. Preserve the section Entitled History, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modied Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled History in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modied Version as stated in the previous sentence. J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the History section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission. K. For any section Entitled Acknowledgements or Dedications, Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. M. Delete any section Entitled Endorsements. Such a section may not be included in the Modied Version. N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled Endorsements or to conict in title with any Invariant Section. O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modied Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modied Versions license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

GNU Free Documentation License

347

You may add a section Entitled Endorsements, provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modied Version by various partiesfor example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative denition of a standard. You may add a passage of up to ve words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modied Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modied Version. 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms dened in section 4 above for modied versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodied, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but dierent contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled History in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled History; likewise combine any sections Entitled Acknowledgements, and any sections Entitled Dedications. You must delete all sections Entitled Endorsements. 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects. You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called

348

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

an aggregate if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilations users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Documents Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modication, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warrany Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled Acknowledgements, Dedications, or History, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may dier in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/. Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document species that a particular numbered version of this License or any later version applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specied version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

GNU Free Documentation License

349

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the with...Texts. line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts being list.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.

350

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Contributors to GCC

351

Contributors to GCC
The GCC project would like to thank its many contributors. Without them the project would not have been nearly as successful as it has been. Any omissions in this list are accidental. Feel free to contact [email protected] or [email protected] if you have been left out or some of your contributions are not listed. Please keep this list in alphabetical order. Analog Devices helped implement the support for complex data types and iterators. John David Anglin for threading-related xes and improvements to libstdc++-v3, and the HP-UX port. James van Artsdalen wrote the code that makes ecient use of the Intel 80387 register stack. Alasdair Baird for various bug xes. Gerald Baumgartner added the signature extension to the C++ front end. Godmar Back for his Java improvements and encouragement. Scott Bambrough for help porting the Java compiler. Wolfgang Bangerth for processing tons of bug reports. Jon Beniston for his Windows port of Java. Daniel Berlin for better DWARF2 support, faster/better optimizations, improved alias analysis, plus migrating us to Bugzilla. Geo Berry for his Java object serialization work and various patches. Eric Blake for helping to make GCJ and libgcj conform to the specications. Segher Boessenkool for various xes. Hans-J. Boehm for his garbage collector, IA-64 lib port, and other Java work. Neil Booth for work on cpplib, lang hooks, debug hooks and other miscellaneous cleanups. Eric Botcazou for xing middle- and backend bugs left and right. Per Bothner for his direction via the steering committee and various improvements to our infrastructure for supporting new languages. Chill front end implementation. Initial implementations of cpplib, x-header, cong.guess, libio, and past C++ library (libg++) maintainer. Dreaming up, designing and implementing much of GCJ. Devon Bowen helped port GCC to the Tahoe. Don Bowman for mips-vxworks contributions. Dave Brolley for work on cpplib and Chill. Robert Brown implemented the support for Encore 32000 systems. Christian Bruel for improvements to local store elimination. Herman A.J. ten Brugge for various xes. Joerg Brunsmann for Java compiler hacking and help with the GCJ FAQ. Joe Buck for his direction via the steering committee. Craig Burley for leadership of the Fortran eort. Stephan Buys for contributing Doxygen notes for libstdc++.

352

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Paolo Carlini for libstdc++ work: lots of eciency improvements to the string class, hard detective work on the frustrating localization issues, and keeping up with the problem reports. John Carr for his alias work, SPARC hacking, infrastructure improvements, previous contributions to the steering committee, loop optimizations, etc. Stephane Carrez for 68HC11 and 68HC12 ports. Steve Chamberlain for support for the Renesas SH and H8 processors and the PicoJava processor, and for GCJ cong xes. Glenn Chambers for help with the GCJ FAQ. John-Marc Chandonia for various libgcj patches. Scott Christley for his Objective-C contributions. Eric Christopher for his Java porting help and clean-ups. Branko Cibej for more warning contributions. The GNU Classpath project for all of their merged runtime code. Nick Clifton for arm, mcore, fr30, v850, m32r work, --help, and other random hacking. Michael Cook for libstdc++ cleanup patches to reduce warnings. Ralf Corsepius for SH testing and minor bugxing. Stan Cox for care and feeding of the x86 port and lots of behind the scenes hacking. Alex Crain provided changes for the 3b1. Ian Dall for major improvements to the NS32k port. Dario Dariol contributed the four varieties of sample programs that print a copy of their source. Russell Davidson for fstream and stringstream xes in libstdc++. Mo DeJong for GCJ and libgcj bug xes. DJ Delorie for the DJGPP port, build and libiberty maintenance, and various bug xes. Gabriel Dos Reis for contributions to g++, contributions and maintenance of GCC diagnostics infrastructure, libstdc++-v3, including valarray<>, complex<>, maintaining the numerics library (including that pesky <limits> :-) and keeping up-to-date anything to do with numbers. Ulrich Drepper for his work on glibc, testing of GCC using glibc, ISO C99 support, CFG dumping support, etc., plus support of the C++ runtime libraries including for all kinds of C interface issues, contributing and maintaining complex<>, sanity checking and disbursement, conguration architecture, libio maintenance, and early math work. Zdenek Dvorak for a new loop unroller and various xes. Richard Earnshaw for his ongoing work with the ARM. David Edelsohn for his direction via the steering committee, ongoing work with the RS6000/PowerPC port, help cleaning up Haifa loop changes, doing the entire AIX port of libstdc++ with his bare hands, and for ensuring GCC properly keeps working on AIX.

Contributors to GCC

353

Kevin Ediger for the oating point formatting of num put::do put in libstdc++. Phil Edwards for libstdc++ work including conguration hackery, documentation maintainer, chief breaker of the web pages, the occasional iostream bug x, and work on shared library symbol versioning. Paul Eggert for random hacking all over GCC. Mark Elbrecht for various DJGPP improvements, and for libstdc++ conguration support for locales and fstream-related xes. Vadim Egorov for libstdc++ xes in strings, streambufs, and iostreams. Christian Ehrhardt for dealing with bug reports. Ben Elliston for his work to move the Objective-C runtime into its own subdirectory and for his work on autoconf. Marc Espie for OpenBSD support. Doug Evans for much of the global optimization framework, arc, m32r, and SPARC work. Christopher Faylor for his work on the Cygwin port and for caring and feeding the gcc.gnu.org box and saving its users tons of spam. Fred Fish for BeOS support and Ada xes. Ivan Fontes Garcia for the Portugese translation of the GCJ FAQ. Peter Gerwinski for various bug xes and the Pascal front end. Kaveh Ghazi for his direction via the steering committee, amazing work to make -W -Wall useful, and continuously testing GCC on a plethora of platforms. John Gilmore for a donation to the FSF earmarked improving GNU Java. Judy Goldberg for c++ contributions. Torbjorn Granlund for various xes and the c-torture testsuite, multiply- and divideby-constant optimization, improved long long support, improved leaf function register allocation, and his direction via the steering committee. Anthony Green for his -Os contributions and Java front end work. Stu Grossman for gdb hacking, allowing GCJ developers to debug our code. Michael K. Gschwind contributed the port to the PDP-11. Ron Guilmette implemented the protoize and unprotoize tools, the support for Dwarf symbolic debugging information, and much of the support for System V Release 4. He has also worked heavily on the Intel 386 and 860 support. Bruno Haible for improvements in the runtime overhead for EH, new warnings and assorted bug xes. Andrew Haley for his amazing Java compiler and library eorts. Chris Hanson assisted in making GCC work on HP-UX for the 9000 series 300. Michael Hayes for various thankless work hes done trying to get the c30/c40 ports functional. Lots of loop and unroll improvements and xes. Kate Hedstrom for staking the g77 folks with an initial testsuite. Richard Henderson for his ongoing SPARC, alpha, ia32, and ia64 work, loop opts, and generally xing lots of old problems weve ignored for years, ow rewrite and lots of further stu, including reviewing tons of patches.

354

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Aldy Hernandez for working on the PowerPC port, SIMD support, and various xes. Nobuyuki Hikichi of Software Research Associates, Tokyo, contributed the support for the Sony NEWS machine. Kazu Hirata for caring and feeding the Renesas H8/300 port and various xes. Manfred Hollstein for his ongoing work to keep the m88k alive, lots of testing and bug xing, particularly of our congury code. Steve Holmgren for MachTen patches. Jan Hubicka for his x86 port improvements. Christian Iseli for various bug xes. Kamil Iskra for general m68k hacking. Lee Iverson for random xes and MIPS testing. Andreas Jaeger for testing and benchmarking of GCC and various bug xes. Jakub Jelinek for his SPARC work and sibling call optimizations as well as lots of bug xes and test cases, and for improving the Java build system. Janis Johnson for ia64 testing and xes, her quality improvement sidetracks, and web page maintenance. Kean Johnston for SCO OpenServer support and various xes. Tim Josling for the sample language treelang based originally on Richard Kenners "toy language". Nicolai Josuttis for additional libstdc++ documentation. Klaus Kaempf for his ongoing work to make alpha-vms a viable target. David Kashtan of SRI adapted GCC to VMS. Ryszard Kabatek for many, many libstdc++ bug xes and optimizations of strings, especially member functions, and for auto ptr xes. Georey Keating for his ongoing work to make the PPC work for GNU/Linux and his automatic regression tester. Brendan Kehoe for his ongoing work with g++ and for a lot of early work in just about every part of libstdc++. Oliver M. Kellogg of Deutsche Aerospace contributed the port to the MIL-STD-1750A. Richard Kenner of the New York University Ultracomputer Research Laboratory wrote the machine descriptions for the AMD 29000, the DEC Alpha, the IBM RT PC, and the IBM RS/6000 as well as the support for instruction attributes. He also made changes to better support RISC processors including changes to common subexpression elimination, strength reduction, function calling sequence handling, and condition code support, in addition to generalizing the code for frame pointer elimination and delay slot scheduling. Richard Kenner was also the head maintainer of GCC for several years. Mumit Khan for various contributions to the Cygwin and Mingw32 ports and maintaining binary releases for Windows hosts, and for massive libstdc++ porting work to Cygwin/Mingw32. Robin Kirkham for cpu32 support. Mark Klein for PA improvements.

Contributors to GCC

355

Thomas Koenig for various bug xes. Bruce Korb for the new and improved xincludes code. Benjamin Kosnik for his g++ work and for leading the libstdc++-v3 eort. Charles LaBrec contributed the support for the Integrated Solutions 68020 system. Je Law for his direction via the steering committee, coordinating the entire egcs project and GCC 2.95, rolling out snapshots and releases, handling merges from GCC2, reviewing tons of patches that might have fallen through the cracks else, and random but extensive hacking. Marc Lehmann for his direction via the steering committee and helping with analysis and improvements of x86 performance. Ted Lemon wrote parts of the RTL reader and printer. Kriang Lerdsuwanakij for C++ improvements including template as template parameter support, and many C++ xes. Warren Levy for tremendous work on libgcj (Java Runtime Library) and random work on the Java front end. Alain Lichnewsky ported GCC to the MIPS CPU. Oskar Liljeblad for hacking on AWT and his many Java bug reports and patches. Robert Lipe for OpenServer support, new testsuites, testing, etc. Weiwen Liu for testing and various bug xes. Dave Love for his ongoing work with the Fortran front end and runtime libraries. Martin von Lwis for internal consistency checking infrastructure, various C++ improveo ments including namespace support, and tons of assistance with libstdc++/compiler merges. H.J. Lu for his previous contributions to the steering committee, many x86 bug reports, prototype patches, and keeping the GNU/Linux ports working. Greg McGary for random xes and (someday) bounded pointers. Andrew MacLeod for his ongoing work in building a real EH system, various code generation improvements, work on the global optimizer, etc. Vladimir Makarov for hacking some ugly i960 problems, PowerPC hacking improvements to compile-time performance, overall knowledge and direction in the area of instruction scheduling, and design and implementation of the automaton based instruction scheduler. Bob Manson for his behind the scenes work on dejagnu. Philip Martin for lots of libstdc++ string and vector iterator xes and improvements, and string clean up and testsuites. All of the Mauve project contributors, for Java test code. Bryce McKinlay for numerous GCJ and libgcj xes and improvements. Adam Megacz for his work on the Windows port of GCJ. Michael Meissner for LRS framework, ia32, m32r, v850, m88k, MIPS, powerpc, haifa, ECOFF debug support, and other assorted hacking. Jason Merrill for his direction via the steering committee and leading the g++ eort.

356

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

David Miller for his direction via the steering committee, lots of SPARC work, improvements in jump.c and interfacing with the Linux kernel developers. Gary Miller ported GCC to Charles River Data Systems machines. Alfred Minarik for libstdc++ string and ios bug xes, and turning the entire libstdc++ testsuite namespace-compatible. Mark Mitchell for his direction via the steering committee, mountains of C++ work, load/store hoisting out of loops, alias analysis improvements, ISO C restrict support, and serving as release manager for GCC 3.x. Alan Modra for various GNU/Linux bits and testing. Toon Moene for his direction via the steering committee, Fortran maintenance, and his ongoing work to make us make Fortran run fast. Jason Molenda for major help in the care and feeding of all the services on the gcc.gnu.org (formerly egcs.cygnus.com) machinemail, web services, ftp services, etc etc. Doing all this work on scrap paper and the backs of envelopes would have been... dicult. Catherine Moore for xing various ugly problems we have sent her way, including the haifa bug which was killing the Alpha & PowerPC Linux kernels. Mike Moreton for his various Java patches. David Mosberger-Tang for various Alpha improvements. Stephen Moshier contributed the oating point emulator that assists in crosscompilation and permits support for oating point numbers wider than 64 bits and for ISO C99 support. Bill Moyer for his behind the scenes work on various issues. Philippe De Muyter for his work on the m68k port. Joseph S. Myers for his work on the PDP-11 port, format checking and ISO C99 support, and continuous emphasis on (and contributions to) documentation. Nathan Myers for his work on libstdc++-v3: architecture and authorship through the rst three snapshots, including implementation of locale infrastructure, string, shadow C headers, and the initial project documentation (DESIGN, CHECKLIST, and so forth). Later, more work on MT-safe string and shadow headers. Felix Natter for documentation on porting libstdc++. Nathanael Nerode for cleaning up the conguration/build process. NeXT, Inc. donated the front end that supports the Objective-C language. Hans-Peter Nilsson for the CRIS and MMIX ports, improvements to the search engine setup, various documentation xes and other small xes. Geo Noer for this work on getting cygwin native builds working. Diego Novillo for his SPEC performance tracking web pages and assorted xes in the middle end and various back ends. David OBrien for the FreeBSD/alpha, FreeBSD/AMD x86-64, FreeBSD/ARM, FreeBSD/PowerPC, and FreeBSD/SPARC64 ports and related infrastructure improvements. Alexandre Oliva for various build infrastructure improvements, scripts and amazing testing work, including keeping libtool issues sane and happy.

Contributors to GCC

357

Melissa ONeill for various NeXT xes. Rainer Orth for random MIPS work, including improvements to our o32 ABI support, improvements to dejagnus MIPS support, Java conguration clean-ups and porting work, etc. Hartmut Penner for work on the s390 port. Paul Petersen wrote the machine description for the Alliant FX/8. Alexandre Petit-Bianco for implementing much of the Java compiler and continued Java maintainership. Matthias Pfaller for major improvements to the NS32k port. Gerald Pfeifer for his direction via the steering committee, pointing out lots of problems we need to solve, maintenance of the web pages, and taking care of documentation maintenance in general. Ovidiu Predescu for his work on the Objective-C front end and runtime libraries. Ken Raeburn for various improvements to checker, MIPS ports and various cleanups in the compiler. Rolf W. Rasmussen for hacking on AWT. David Reese of Sun Microsystems contributed to the Solaris on PowerPC port. Volker Reichelt for keeping up with the problem reports. Joern Rennecke for maintaining the sh port, loop, regmove & reload hacking. Loren J. Rittle for improvements to libstdc++-v3 including the FreeBSD port, threading xes, thread-related congury changes, critical threading documentation, and solutions to really tricky I/O problems, as well as keeping GCC properly working on FreeBSD and continuous testing. Craig Rodrigues for processing tons of bug reports. Gavin Romig-Koch for lots of behind the scenes MIPS work. Ken Rose for xes to our delay slot lling code. Paul Rubin wrote most of the preprocessor. Chip Salzenberg for libstdc++ patches and improvements to locales, traits, Makeles, libio, libtool hackery, and long long support. Juha Sarlin for improvements to the H8 code generator. Greg Satz assisted in making GCC work on HP-UX for the 9000 series 300. Roger Sayle for improvements to constant folding and GCCs RTL optimizers as well as for xing numerous bugs. Bradley Schatz for his work on the GCJ FAQ. Peter Schauer wrote the code to allow debugging to work on the Alpha. William Schelter did most of the work on the Intel 80386 support. Bernd Schmidt for various code generation improvements and major work in the reload pass as well a serving as release manager for GCC 2.95.3. Peter Schmid for constant testing of libstdc++ especially application testing, going above and beyond what was requested for the release criteria and libstdc++ header le tweaks.

358

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Jason Schroeder for jcf-dump patches. Andreas Schwab for his work on the m68k port. Joel Sherrill for his direction via the steering committee, RTEMS contributions and RTEMS testing. Nathan Sidwell for many C++ xes/improvements. Jerey Siegal for helping RMS with the original design of GCC, some code which handles the parse tree and RTL data structures, constant folding and help with the original VAX & m68k ports. Kenny Simpson for prompting libstdc++ xes due to defect reports from the LWG (thereby keeping us in line with updates from the ISO). Franz Sirl for his ongoing work with making the PPC port stable for linux. Andrey Slepuhin for assorted AIX hacking. Christopher Smith did the port for Convex machines. Danny Smith for his major eorts on the Mingw (and Cygwin) ports. Randy Smith nished the Sun FPA support. Scott Snyder for queue, iterator, istream, and string xes and libstdc++ testsuite entries. Brad Spencer for contributions to the GLIBCPP FORCE NEW technique. Richard Stallman, for writing the original gcc and launching the GNU project. Jan Stein of the Chalmers Computer Society provided support for Genix, as well as part of the 32000 machine description. Nigel Stephens for various mips16 related xes/improvements. Jonathan Stone wrote the machine description for the Pyramid computer. Graham Stott for various infrastructure improvements. John Stracke for his Java HTTP protocol xes. Mike Stump for his Elxsi port, g++ contributions over the years and more recently his vxworks contributions Je Sturm for Java porting help, bug xes, and encouragement. Shigeya Suzuki for this xes for the bsdi platforms. Ian Lance Taylor for his mips16 work, general congury hacking, xincludes, etc. Holger Teutsch provided the support for the Clipper CPU. Gary Thomas for his ongoing work to make the PPC work for GNU/Linux. Philipp Thomas for random bug xes throughout the compiler Jason Thorpe for thread support in libstdc++ on NetBSD. Kresten Krab Thorup wrote the run time support for the Objective-C language and the fantastic Java bytecode interpreter. Michael Tiemann for random bug xes, the rst instruction scheduler, initial C++ support, function integration, NS32k, SPARC and M88k machine description work, delay slot scheduling. Andreas Tobler for his work porting libgcj to Darwin. Teemu Torma for thread safe exception handling support.

Contributors to GCC

359

Leonard Tower wrote parts of the parser, RTL generator, and RTL denitions, and of the VAX machine description. Tom Tromey for internationalization support and for his many Java contributions and libgcj maintainership. Lassi Tuura for improvements to cong.guess to determine HP processor types. Petter Urkedal for libstdc++ CXXFLAGS, math, and algorithms xes. Brent Verner for work with the libstdc++ cshadow les and their associated congure steps. Todd Vierling for contributions for NetBSD ports. Jonathan Wakely for contributing libstdc++ Doxygen notes and XHTML guidance. Dean Wakerley for converting the install documentation from HTML to texinfo in time for GCC 3.0. Krister Walfridsson for random bug xes. Stephen M. Webb for time and eort on making libstdc++ shadow les work with the tricky Solaris 8+ headers, and for pushing the build-time header tree. John Wehle for various improvements for the x86 code generator, related infrastructure improvements to help x86 code generation, value range propagation and other work, WE32k port. Ulrich Weigand for work on the s390 port. Zack Weinberg for major work on cpplib and various other bug xes. Matt Welsh for help with Linux Threads support in GCJ. Urban Widmark for help xing java.io. Mark Wielaard for new Java library code and his work integrating with Classpath. Dale Wiles helped port GCC to the Tahoe. Bob Wilson from Tensilica, Inc. for the Xtensa port. Jim Wilson for his direction via the steering committee, tackling hard problems in various places that nobody else wanted to work on, strength reduction and other loop optimizations. Carlo Wood for various xes. Tom Wood for work on the m88k port. Masanobu Yuhara of Fujitsu Laboratories implemented the machine description for the Tron architecture (specically, the Gmicro). Kevin Zachmann helped ported GCC to the Tahoe. Gilles Zunino for help porting Java to Irix. In addition to the above, all of which also contributed time and energy in testing GCC, we would like to thank the following for their contributions to testing: Michael Abd-El-Malek Thomas Arend Bonzo Armstrong Steven Ashe

360

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Chris Baldwin David Billinghurst Jim Blandy Stephane Bortzmeyer Horst von Brand Frank Braun Rodney Brown Sidney Cadot Bradford Castalia Ralph Doncaster Richard Emberson Levente Farkas Graham Fawcett Robert A. French Jrgen Freyh o Mark K. Gardner Charles-Antoine Gauthier Yung Shing Gene David Gilbert Simon Gornall Fred Gray John Grin Patrik Hagglund Phil Hargett Amancio Hasty Bryan W. Headley Kevin B. Hendricks Joep Jansen Christian Joensson David Kidd Tobias Kuipers Anand Krishnaswamy llewelly Damon Love Brad Lucier Matthias Klose Martin Knoblauch Jesse Macnish Stefan Morrell

Contributors to GCC

361

Anon A. Mous Matthias Mueller Pekka Nikander Jon Olson Magnus Persson Chris Pollard Richard Polton David Rees Paul Reilly Tom Reilly Torsten Rueger Danny Sadino Marc Schifer David Schuler Vin Shelton Tim Souder Adam Sulmicki George Talbot Gregory Warnes David E. Young And many others

And nally wed like to thank everyone who uses the compiler, submits bug reports and generally reminds us why were doing this work in the rst place.

362

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Option Index

363

Option Index
GCCs command line options are indexed here without any initial - or --. Where an option has both positive and negative forms (such as -foption and -fno-option ), relevant entries in the manual are indexed under the most appropriate form; it may sometimes be useful to look up both forms.

#
### . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

A
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 all_load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 allowable_client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 ansi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 21, 74, 244, 324 arch_errors_fatal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 arch_only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 aux-info. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

B
b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 bcopy-builtin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 bind_at_load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 bundle_loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

C
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 78 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 client_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 compatibility_version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 crossjumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 current_version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

D
d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 db . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49, 77 de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dependency-file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 df . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

dG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 di . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 dj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 77 dn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 77 do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 dr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 du . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dumpmachine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 dumpspecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 dumpversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 dv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 dw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 dX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 dylib_file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 dylinker_install_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 dynamiclib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

E
E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 78 EB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 141 EL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121, 141 exported_symbols_list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

F
fabi-version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 falign-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 falign-jumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

364

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

falign-labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 falign-loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 falt-external-templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 fargument-alias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 fargument-noalias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 fargument-noalias-global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 fbounds-check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 fbranch-probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 fcall-saved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160, 312 fcall-used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 fcaller-saves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 fcheck-new . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 fcommon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 fcond-mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 fconserve-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 fconstant-string-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 fcse-follow-jumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 fcse-skip-blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 fdata-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 fdelayed-branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fdelete-null-pointer-checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 fdiagnostics-show-location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 fdollars-in-identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 312 fdump-class-hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 fdump-translation-unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 fdump-tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 fdump-unnumbered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 feliminate-dwarf2-dups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 fexceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 fexpensive-optimizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fexternal-templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 ffast-math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 ffinite-math-only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 ffixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 ffloat-store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 318 ffor-scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 fforce-addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 fforce-mem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 ffreestanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 23, 195 ffunction-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 fgcse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 fgcse-lm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 fgcse-sm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 fgnu-runtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 fhosted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 filelist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 finhibit-size-directive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 finline-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 finline-limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 finstrument-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161, 196 fkeep-inline-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 215 fkeep-static-consts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 flat_namespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 fleading-underscore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 floop-optimize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 fmem-report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 fmessage-length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 fmove-all-movables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

fms-extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 27 fnew-ra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 fnext-runtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 fno-access-control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 fno-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 fno-branch-count-reg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 fno-builtin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 243 fno-common . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 208 fno-const-strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 fno-cprop-registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 fno-default-inline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 55, 215 fno-defer-pop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 fno-elide-constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 fno-enforce-eh-specs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 fno-for-scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 fno-function-cse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 fno-gnu-keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fno-gnu-linker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fno-guess-branch-probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 fno-ident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fno-implement-inlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 284 fno-implicit-inline-templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fno-implicit-templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 285 fno-inline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 fno-math-errno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 fno-nonansi-builtins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fno-operator-names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fno-optional-diags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fno-peephole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 fno-peephole2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 fno-rtti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fno-sched-interblock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fno-sched-spec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fno-show-column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 fno-signed-bitfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 fno-stack-limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 fno-trapping-math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 fno-unsigned-bitfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 fno-weak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 fno-zero-initialized-in-bss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 fnon-call-exceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 fomit-frame-pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 foptimize-register-move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 foptimize-sibling-calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 force_cpusubtype_ALL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 force_flat_namespace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 fpack-struct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 fpcc-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 316 fpermissive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 fpic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fPIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 fprefetch-loop-arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 fpreprocessed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 fprofile-arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 246 frandom-string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 freduce-all-givs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 freg-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 fregmove. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Option Index

365

frename-registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 freorder-blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 freorder-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 frepo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 285 frerun-cse-after-loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 frerun-loop-opt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 fsched-spec-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fsched-spec-load-dangerous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 fsched-verbose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 fschedule-insns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fschedule-insns2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 fshared-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 fshort-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 fshort-enums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158, 213, 323 fshort-wchar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 fsignaling-nans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 fsigned-bitfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 323 fsigned-char . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 fsingle-precision-constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 fssa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 fssa-ccp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 fssa-dce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 fstack-check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 fstack-limit-register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 fstack-limit-symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 fstats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 fstrength-reduce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 fstrict-aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 fsyntax-only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ftabstop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 ftemplate-depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ftest-coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 fthread-jumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 ftime-report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 ftracer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 ftrapv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 funroll-all-loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 funroll-loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 324 funsafe-math-optimizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 funsigned-bitfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 323 funsigned-char . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 funwind-tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 fuse-cxa-atexit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 fverbose-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fvolatile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fvolatile-global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fvolatile-static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 fvtable-gc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 fwritable-strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 313

gen-decls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 ggdb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 gnu-ld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 gstabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 gstabs+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 gvms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 gxcoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 gxcoff+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

H
H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 headerpad_max_install_names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 78 hp-ld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

I
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 81 I- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 81 idirafter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 if-conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 if-conversion2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 imacros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 image_base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 init . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 install_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 iprefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 isystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 iwithprefix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 iwithprefixbefore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

K
keep_private_externs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

L
l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 lobjc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

M
M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 m1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 m128bit-long-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 m16-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 m2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 m3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 m32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 126 m32-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 m32032 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

G
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102, 114, 121, 137 gcoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 gdwarf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 gdwarf+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 gdwarf-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

366

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

m32081 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 m32332 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 m32381 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 m32532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 m32r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 m32rx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 m340 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 m386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 m3dnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 m3e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m4-nofpu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m4-single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m4-single-only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 m40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 m45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 m4650 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 m486 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 m4byte-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 m5200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 126, 147 m68000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m68020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m68020-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 m68020-60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 m68030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m68040 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m68060 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m6811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 m6812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 m68881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 m68hc11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 m68hc12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 m68hcs12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 m68S12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 m8-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 m88000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 m88100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 m88110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 m96bit-long-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 mabi-mmixware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mabi=32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mabi=64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mabi=altivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mabi=eabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mabi=gnu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mabi=meabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mabi=n32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mabi=no-altivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mabi=no-spe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mabi=o64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mabi=spe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mabicalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mabort-on-noreturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mabshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mac0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 macc-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 macc-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

maccumulate-outgoing-args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 mads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 maix-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 maix32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 maix64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 malign-300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 malign-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 malign-int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 malignment-traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 malloc-cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 malpha-as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 maltivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mam33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 maout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mapcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mapcs-26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mapcs-32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mapcs-frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mapp-regs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 140 march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 117, 122, 127, 147 masm-compat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 masm-optimize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 masm=dialect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 mauto-incdec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 mauto-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 mb-step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mbackchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mbase-addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mbcopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mbig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 138 mbig-endian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 111, 144, 145, 154 mbig-memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mbig-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mbig-switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127, 140 mbigtable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mbit-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 mbitfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 142 mbk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mbooleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mbranch-cheap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mbranch-cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 mbranch-expensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mbranch-likely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mbranch-predict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mbroken-saverestore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 mbuild-constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 mbwx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mc68000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 mc68020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 mca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mcall-aix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mcall-gnu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mcall-lib-mul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 mcall-linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mcall-netbsd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mcall-prologues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mcall-solaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Option Index

367

mcall-sysv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mcall-sysv-eabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mcall-sysv-noeabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mcallee-super-interworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mcaller-super-interworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mcallgraph-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mcc-init . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mcf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mcheck-zero-division. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mcix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mcmodel=embmedany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mcmodel=kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mcmodel=large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mcmodel=medany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 mcmodel=medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mcmodel=medlow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 mcmodel=medmid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 mcmodel=small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mcode-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mcode-model=large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 mcode-model=medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 mcode-model=small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 mcomplex-addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mcond-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146, 153 mcond-move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mconst-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mconstant-gp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mcpu . . . . . 95, 99, 107, 122, 134, 138, 141, 147, 154 mcpu32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 mcypress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 MD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 mdalign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 mdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mdata-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mdb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mdebug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mdec-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mdensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mdisable-callt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mdisable-fpregs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mdisable-indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mdouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mdouble-float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mdp-isr-reload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mdwarf2-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 mdword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 meabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 melf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 150 melinux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 melinux-stacksize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 memb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 membedded-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 membedded-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mentry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mepsilon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 metrax100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

metrax4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mexplicit-relocs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mextmem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 mextmemory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 MF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 mfast-fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mfast-indirect-calls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mfaster-structs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 mfix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mfix7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mfixed-cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mfixed-range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 mflat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 mfloat-ieee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mfloat-vax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mfloat32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mfloat64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mflush-func . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mfmovd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mfp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mfp-arg-in-fpregs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 mfp-arg-in-gregs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 mfp-reg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mfp-rounding-mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 mfp-trap-mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 mfp32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mfp64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mfpa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 mfpe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mfpr-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mfpr-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mfpu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 150 mfull-fp-blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 mfull-toc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mfused-madd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 118, 155 mg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 mgas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118, 128, 133 mgnu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 mgnu-as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mgnu-ld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mgotplt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mgp32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mgp64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mgpopt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mgpr-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mgpr-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 mhalf-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mhandle-large-shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mhard-float . . . . . . . 93, 97, 109, 120, 146, 152, 155 mhard-quad-float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 mhardlit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mhc-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 mhimem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mhitachi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mic-compat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mic2.0-compat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

368

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

mic3.0-compat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 midentify-revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mieee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 137 mieee-compare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 mieee-conformant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 mieee-fp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 mieee-with-inexact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 mimpure-text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 min-line-mul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 minit-stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 minline-all-stringops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 minline-float-divide-max-throughput . . . . . 145 minline-float-divide-min-latency . . . . . . . . . 145 minline-int-divide-max-throughput . . . . . . . 146 minline-int-divide-min-latency . . . . . . . . . . . 145 minmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 mint16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mint32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136, 151 mint64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mintel-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mips1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 mips16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mips2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 mips3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 mips32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 mips4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 mips64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 misel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 misize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mjump-in-delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mkb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mknuthdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 ml . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 mlarge-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mleaf-procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mlibfuncs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mlibrary-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mlinker-opt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mlinux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mlittle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mlittle-endian . . . . . . . . 96, 98, 111, 144, 145, 154 mlive-g0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 mlong-calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 100, 120, 140 mlong-double-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mlong-load-store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mlong32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mlong64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mlongcall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 mlongcalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 mloop-unsigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 MM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 mmac16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mmad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mmangle-cpu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mmax-stack-frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mmc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

mmcu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 MMD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 mmedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mmemcpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mmemory-latency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 mmemparm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mminimal-toc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mminimum-fp-blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 mminmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mmips-as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 mmips-tfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mmmx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 mmpyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mmul16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mmul32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mmuladd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mmult-bug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mmulti-add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 mmulti-cond-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mmultiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 mmvcle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mmvme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 mnested-cond-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mnew-mnemonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 mno-3dnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 mno-4byte-functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-abicalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mno-abshi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mno-ac0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mno-align-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 mno-align-int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 mno-align-stringops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 mno-alignment-traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mno-altivec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mno-am33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mno-app-regs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 140 mno-asm-optimize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 mno-backchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mno-base-addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mno-bit-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 mno-bk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mno-booleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mno-branch-likely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mno-branch-predict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mno-bwx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mno-callgraph-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-check-zero-division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mno-cix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mno-code-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mno-complex-addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mno-cond-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mno-cond-move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mno-const-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mno-crt0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 mno-data-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mno-db . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mno-debug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Option Index

369

mno-density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mno-div . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mno-dwarf2-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 mno-dword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mno-eabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 mno-eflags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mno-embedded-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mno-embedded-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mno-ep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mno-epsilon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mno-explicit-relocs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mno-fancy-math-387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 mno-fast-fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mno-faster-structs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 mno-fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mno-flat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 mno-float32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mno-float64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mno-fp-in-toc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mno-fp-regs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mno-fp-ret-in-387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 mno-fpu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 mno-fused-madd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 118, 155 mno-gnu-as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mno-gnu-ld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mno-gotplt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mno-gpopt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mno-half-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mno-hardlit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-ieee-compare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 mno-ieee-fp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 mno-int16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mno-int32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mno-interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-knuthdiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mno-leaf-procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mno-libfuncs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mno-long-calls . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 100, 120, 129, 140 mno-longcall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 mno-longcalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 mno-loop-unsigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mno-mac16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mno-mad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mno-max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 mno-media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mno-memcpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mno-minmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mno-mips-tfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mno-mips16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 mno-mmx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 mno-mpyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mno-mul16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mno-mul32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mno-muladd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mno-mult-bug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mno-multi-cond-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mno-multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

mno-mvcle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mno-nested-cond-exec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mno-nsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mno-ocs-debug-info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mno-ocs-frame-position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mno-optimize-arg-area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 mno-pack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mno-parallel-insns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mno-parallel-mpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mno-pic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mno-power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mno-power2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mno-powerpc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mno-powerpc-gfxopt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mno-powerpc-gpopt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mno-powerpc64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mno-prolog-function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mno-prologue-epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mno-prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mno-push-args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 mno-register-names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mno-regnames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 mno-relax-immediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-relocatable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mno-relocatable-lib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mno-rnames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mno-rptb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mno-rpts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mno-scc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mno-sched-prolog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mno-sdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 145 mno-serialize-volatile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 156 mno-sext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mno-short-load-bytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mno-short-load-words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mno-side-effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mno-single-exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mno-slow-bytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-small-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 mno-soft-float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mno-space-regs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mno-split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mno-split-addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mno-sse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 mno-stack-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mno-stack-bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mno-stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mno-strict-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 110, 131 mno-string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 mno-sum-in-toc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 mno-svr3-shlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 mno-tablejump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-tail-call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mno-target-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 mno-text-section-literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 mno-toc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mno-toplevel-symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mno-unaligned-doubles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

370

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

mno-underscores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mno-uninit-const-in-rodata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 mno-update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 mno-vliw-branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mno-volatile-asm-stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mno-wide-bitfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mno-xl-call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 mno-zero-extend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 mnobitfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 142 mnohc-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 mnohimem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mnomacsave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mnominmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 mnomulti-add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 mnop-fun-dllimport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mnoregparam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mnosb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mnsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mnumerics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mocs-debug-info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mocs-frame-position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 mold-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 mold-mnemonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 momit-leaf-frame-pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 monchip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 moptimize-arg-area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 MP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 mpa-risc-1-0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mpa-risc-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mpa-risc-2-0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 mpack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 mpadstruct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mparallel-insns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mparallel-mpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mparanoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 mpcrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 mpdebug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mpe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 mpentium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 mpentiumpro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 mpic-register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mpoke-function-name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 mportable-runtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 mpower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mpower2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mpowerpc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mpowerpc-gfxopt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mpowerpc-gpopt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mpowerpc64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 mprefergot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mpreferred-stack-boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 mprolog-function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mprologue-epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mprototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mpush-args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 MQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 mregister-names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mregnames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

mregparam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mregparm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 139 mrelax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101, 102, 136, 137 mrelax-immediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mrelocatable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mrelocatable-lib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mrnames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mrodata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mrptb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mrpts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mrtd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 124, 142, 198 ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 ms2600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 msa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 msb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130, 143 mscc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mschedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 msda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 msdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 145 msdata-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 msdata=default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 msdata=eabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 msdata=none . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102, 113 msdata=sdata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 msdata=sysv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 msdata=use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 mserialize-volatile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 156 msext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 mshort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 92 mshort-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 mshort-load-bytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 mshort-load-words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 msim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112, 151 msingle-exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 msingle-float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 msingle-pic-base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 msio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 msize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 mslow-bytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 msmall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 msmall-data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 msmall-exec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 msmall-memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 msoft-float . . . 91, 93, 98, 109, 119, 123, 128, 130, 131, 142, 146, 150, 152, 155 msoft-quad-float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 msoft-reg-count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 mspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137, 140 msparclite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 msplit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 msplit-addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 msse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 mstack-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 mstack-bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mstats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 mstrict-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 110, 131 mstring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 mstructure-size-boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Option Index

371

msupersparc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 msvr3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 msvr3-shlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 msvr4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 msvr4-struct-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 MT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 mtail-call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 mtarget-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 mtda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mtext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mtext-section-literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 mthreads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 mthumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mthumb-interwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 mti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 mtiny-stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mtoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 mtomcat-stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 mtoplevel-symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 mtpcs-frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mtpcs-leaf-frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mtrap-large-shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mtrap-precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 mtune. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95, 99, 108, 117, 135, 147 multi_module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 multiply_defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 multiply_defined_unused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 munaligned-doubles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 muninit-const-in-rodata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 munix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 munix-asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 mupdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 muse-div-instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 musermode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 mv8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 mv850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mv850e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 mversion-03.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 mvliw-branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 mvms-return-codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 mvolatile-asm-stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 mvxworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mwarn-passed-structs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 mwide-bitfields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 mwindiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 mwords-little-endian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 mxl-call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 myellowknife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 mzda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mzero-extend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

nodefaultlibs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 nolibdld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 nomultidefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 noprebind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 noseglinkedit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 nostartfiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 nostdinc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 nostdinc++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 75 nostdlib. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

O
o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, O ........................................... O0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Os . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 54 54 54 54 54 54

P
p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 pagezero_size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 param . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 pass-exit-codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 pedantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 34, 72, 175, 240, 325 pedantic-errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 34, 72, 309, 325 pg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 prebind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 prebind_all_twolevel_modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 print-file-name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 print-libgcc-file-name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 print-multi-directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 print-multi-lib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 print-prog-name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 print-search-dirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 private_bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 pthread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Q
Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Qn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Qy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

N
no-crt0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 no-integrated-cpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 no-red-zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 noall_load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 nocpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

R
read_only_relocs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 remap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

372

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

S
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 78 save-temps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 sectalign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 sectcreate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 sectobjectsymbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 sectorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 seg_addr_table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 seg_addr_table_filename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 seg1addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 seglinkedit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 segprot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 segs_read_only_addr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 segs_read_write_addr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 shared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 shared-libgcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 sim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 sim2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 single_module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 specs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 116, 129 static-libgcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 21, 244, 324 std= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 sub_library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 sub_umbrella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 symbolic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

W
w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 72 W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 314 Wa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Wabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Waggregate-return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 71, 317 Wbad-function-cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Wcast-align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Wcast-qual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Wchar-subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Wcomment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 71 Wcomments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Wconversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 321 Wctor-dtor-privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Wdisabled-optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Wdiv-by-zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 weak_reference_mismatches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Weffc++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Wendif-labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 72 Werror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 72 Werror-implicit-function-declaration . . . . . 36 Wfloat-equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Wformat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 44, 194 Wformat-nonliteral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 195 Wformat-security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wformat=2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 whatsloaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 whyload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Wimplicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wimplicit-function-declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wimplicit-int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wimport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Winline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 215 Wl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Wlarger-than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Wlong-long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Wmain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wmissing-braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wmissing-declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wmissing-format-attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wmissing-noreturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wmissing-prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wmultichar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wnested-externs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Wno-deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Wno-deprecated-declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wno-div-by-zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Wno-format-extra-args . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Wno-format-y2k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Wno-format-zero-length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Wno-import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Wno-long-long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Wno-multichar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wno-non-template-friend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Wno-pmf-conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 286 Wno-protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Wnon-virtual-dtor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

T
target-help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 78 threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 traditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 313 traditional-cpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 77 trigraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 77 twolevel_namespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

U
u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 umbrella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 undef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 undefined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 unexported_symbols_list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

V
v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 78 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 78

Option Index

373

Wnonnull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wold-style-cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Woverloaded-virtual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Wp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Wpacked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Wpadded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Wparentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wpointer-arith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 188 Wredundant-decls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Wreorder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Wreturn-type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Wselector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Wsequence-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Wshadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Wsign-compare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wsign-promo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Wstrict-aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Wstrict-prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Wswitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Wswitch-enum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Wswitch-switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Wsynth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Wsystem-headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 72 Wtraditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 71

Wtrigraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, Wundeclared-selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wundef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, Wuninitialized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunknown-pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunreachable-code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused-function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused-label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused-macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused-parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused-value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wunused-variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wwrite-strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 33 72 39 40 45 39 38 38 72 38 39 38 43

X
x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 74 Xlinker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Y
Ym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 YP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

374

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

Keyword Index

375

Keyword Index
!
! in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

<
< in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 <? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

#
# in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #pragma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #pragma implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #pragma implementation, implied . . . . . . . . . . . . #pragma interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #pragma, reason for not using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 272 283 283 283 201

=
= in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

>
> in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 >? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

$
$ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

?
? in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 ?: extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182, 183 ?: side eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

%
% in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 %include . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 %include noerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 %rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

&
& in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

*
* in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

+
+ in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

-lgcc, use with -nodefaultlibs. . . . . . . . . . . . -lgcc, use with -nostdlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -nodefaultlibs and unresolved references . . . . -nostdlib and unresolved references . . . . . . . . . 79 79 79 79

.
.sdata/.sdata2 references (PowerPC) . . . . . . . . . 114

/
// . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

_ in variables in macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_apply_args. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_choose_expr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_constant_p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_expect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_frame_address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_huge_val . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_huge_valf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_huge_vall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_inf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_inff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_infl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_isgreater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_isgreaterequal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_isless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_islessequal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_islessgreater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_isunordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_nan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_nanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_nanl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_nans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_nansf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_nansl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_prefetch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_return_address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __builtin_types_compatible_p . . . . . . . . . . . . . __complex__ keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __declspec(dllexport) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __declspec(dllimport) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __extension__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

181 180 180 245 245 246 242 247 247 247 247 247 247 243 243 243 243 243 243 247 248 248 248 248 248 246 180 241 244 183 201 201 240

376

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

__func__ identier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 __FUNCTION__ identier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 __imag__ keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 __PRETTY_FUNCTION__ identier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 __real__ keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 __STDC_HOSTED__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 _Complex keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 _exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 _Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

autoincrement/decrement addressing . . . . . . . . . 222 automatic inline for C++ member fns . . . . . . . . 215 AVR Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

B
Backwards Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bcmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . binary compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bit shift overow (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bound pointer to member function . . . . . . . . . . . bug criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bugs, known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . built-in functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, bzero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 243 297 105 286 327 327 309 243 243

0
0 in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

A
ABI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 abort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 abs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 accessing volatiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Ada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 address constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 address of a label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 address_operand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 alias attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 aliasing of parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 aligned attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207, 211 alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 alloca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 alloca vs variable-length arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 alternate keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 always_inline function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 AMD x86-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 AMD1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ANSI C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ANSI C standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ANSI C89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ANSI support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ANSI X3.159-1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 apostrophes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 application binary interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 ARC Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 arguments in frame (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 ARM [Annotated C++ Reference Manual] . . . . . 288 ARM options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 arrays of length zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 arrays of variable length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 arrays, non-lvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 asm constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 asm expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 assembler instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 assembler names for identiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 assembler syntax, 88k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 assembly code, invalid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 attribute of types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 attribute of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 attribute syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

C
C compilation options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 C intermediate output, nonexistent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 C language extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 C language, traditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 C standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 C standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 c++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 C++. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 C++ comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 C++ compilation options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 C++ interface and implementation headers . . . . 282 C++ language extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 C++ member fns, automatically inline . . . . . . . 215 C++ misunderstandings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 C++ options, command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 C++ pragmas, eect on inlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 C++ source le suxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 C++ static data, declaring and dening . . . . . . . 319 C_INCLUDE_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 C89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 C90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 C94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 C95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 C99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 C9X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 calling functions through the function vector on the H8/300 processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 case labels in initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 case ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 cast to a union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 casts as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 cimag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 cimagf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 cimagl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 cleanup attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 code generation conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 code, mixed with declarations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 command options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 comments, C++ style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Keyword Index

377

common attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 comparison of signed and unsigned values, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 compiler bugs, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 compiler compared to C++ preprocessor . . . . . . . . . 3 compiler options, C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 compiler options, Objective-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 compiler version, specifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 COMPILER_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 complex conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 compound expressions as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 compound literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 computed gotos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 conditional expressions as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 conditional expressions, extensions . . . . . . . . . . . 183 conicting types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 conj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 conjf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 conjl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 const applied to function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 const function attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 constants in constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 constraint modier characters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 constraint, matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 constraints, asm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 constraints, machine specic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 constructing calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 constructor expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 constructor function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 core dump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 cos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 cosf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 cosl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 CPATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 CPLUS_INCLUDE_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 creal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 crealf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 creall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 CRIS Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 cross compiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

dependencies, make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 DEPENDENCIES_OUTPUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 deprecated attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 deprecated attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 designated initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 designator lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 designators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 destructor function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 diagnostic messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 dialect options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 digits in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 directory options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 divide instruction, 88k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 dollar signs in identier names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 double-word arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 downward funargs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

E
E in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . earlyclobber operand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . eight bit data on the H8/300 and H8/300H . . . empty structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . error messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . escaped newlines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . exclamation point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . exp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . expf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . expl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . explicit register variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . expressions containing statements . . . . . . . . . . . . expressions, compound, as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . expressions, conditional, as lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . expressions, constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . extended asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . extensible constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . extensions, ?: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182, extensions, C language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . extensions, C++ language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . external declaration scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 225 199 186 162 325 188 224 243 243 243 243 237 175 182 182 189 216 224 183 175 279 314

D
D30V Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Darwin options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 DBX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 deallocating variable length arrays . . . . . . . . . . . 186 debugging information options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 debugging, 88k OCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 declaration scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 declarations inside expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 declarations, mixed with code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 declaring attributes of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 declaring static data in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 dening static data in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 dependencies for make as output . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

F
F in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 fabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 fabsf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 fabsl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 fatal signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 FDL, GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . 343 ffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 le name sux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 le names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 exible array members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 float as function value type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 oating point precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64, 318 format function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

378

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

format_arg function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Fortran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 forwarding calls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 fprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 fprintf_unlocked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 fputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 fputs_unlocked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 freestanding environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 freestanding implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 FRV Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 fscanf, and constant strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 function addressability on the M32R/D . . . . . . . 200 function attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 function pointers, arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 function prototype declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 function without a prologue/epilogue code . . . . 200 function, size of pointer to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 functions called via pointer on the RS/6000 and PowerPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 functions in arbitrary sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 functions that are passed arguments in registers on the 386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 198 functions that behave like malloc . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 functions that do not pop the argument stack on the 386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 functions that do pop the argument stack on the 386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 functions that have no side eects . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 functions that never return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 functions that pop the argument stack on the 386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 198 functions which do not handle memory bank switching on 68HC11/68HC12 . . . . . . . . . . . 200 functions which handle memory bank switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 functions with non-null pointer arguments . . . . 192 functions with printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon style arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

H
H in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 hardware models and congurations, specifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 hex oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 hosted environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 23 hosted implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 HPPA Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

I
i in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 I in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 i386 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 IA-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 IBM RS/6000 and PowerPC Options . . . . . . . . . 106 IBM RT options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 identier names, dollar signs in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 identiers, names in assembler code . . . . . . . . . . 237 identifying source, compiler (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 imaxabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 implementation-dened behavior, C language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 implied #pragma implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 incompatibilities of GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 increment operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 indirect calls on ARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 init priority attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 initializations in expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 initializers with labeled elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 initializers, non-constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 inline automatic for C++ member fns . . . . . . . . 215 inline functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 inline functions, omission of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 inlining and C++ pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 installation trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 integrating function code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Intel 386 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 interface and implementation headers, C++ . . . 282 intermediate C version, nonexistent . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 interrupt handler functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 interrupt handler functions on the H8/300 and SH processors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 invalid assembly code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 invalid input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 invoking g++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ISO 9899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO C9X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ISO support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ISO/IEC 9899 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

G
g in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 G in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 g++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 G++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 GCC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 GCC command options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 GCC_EXEC_PREFIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 generalized lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 global oset table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 global register after longjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 global register variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 GNAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 goto with computed label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 gp-relative references (MIPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 gprof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 grouping options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Keyword Index

379

J
Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 java interface attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

K
keywords, alternate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 known causes of trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

L
labeled elements in initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 labels as values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 LANG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 164 language dialect options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 large bit shifts (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 LC_ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 LC_CTYPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 LC_MESSAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 length-zero arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 LIBRARY_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 link options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 LL integer sux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 llabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 load address instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 local labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 local variables in macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 local variables, specifying registers . . . . . . . . . . . 239 locale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 locale denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 logf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 logl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 long long data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 longjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 longjmp incompatibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 longjmp warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 lvalues, generalized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

malloc attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 matching constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 maximum operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 MCore options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 member fns, automatically inline . . . . . . . . . . . 215 memcmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 memcpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 memory references in constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 memset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 message formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 messages, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 messages, warning and error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 middle-operands, omitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 minimum operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 MIPS options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 misunderstandings in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 mixed declarations and code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 mktemp, and constant strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 MMIX Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 MN10200 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 MN10300 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 mode attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 modiers in constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 multiple alternative constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 multiprecision arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

N
n in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . names used in assembler code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . naming convention, implementation headers . . nested functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . newlines (escaped) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . no_instrument_function function attribute . . nocommon attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . noinline function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . non-constant initializers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . non-static inline function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nonnull function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . noreturn function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nothrow function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NS32K options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 237 283 178 188 196 208 193 189 216 195 193 194 141

M
m in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 M32R/D options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 M680x0 options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 M68hc1x options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 M88k options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 machine dependent options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 machine specic constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 macro with variable arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 macros containing asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 macros, inline alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 macros, local labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 macros, local variables in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 macros, statements in expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 macros, types of arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 make . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

O
o in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 OBJC_INCLUDE_PATH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Objective-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Objective-C options, command line . . . . . . . . . . . 32 OCS (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 osettable address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 old-style function denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 omitted middle-operands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 open coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 operand constraints, asm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 optimize options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 options to control diagnostics formatting . . . . . . 33 options to control warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

380

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

options, C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 options, code generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 options, debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 options, dialect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 options, directory search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 options, GCC command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 options, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 options, linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 options, Objective-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 options, optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 options, order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 options, preprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 order of evaluation, side eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 order of options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 other register constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 output le option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 overloaded virtual fn, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Q
qsort, and global register variables . . . . . . . . . . 238 question mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

R
r in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 r0-relative references (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 ranges in case statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 read-only strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 register positions in frame (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 register variable after longjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 registers for local variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 registers in constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 registers, global allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 registers, global variables in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 regparm attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 reordering, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 reporting bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 rest argument (in macro) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 restricted pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 restricted references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 restricted this pointer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 rindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 RS/6000 and PowerPC Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 RT options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 RTTI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 run-time options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

P
p in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 packed attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 parameter forward declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 parameters, aliased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 PDP-11 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 PIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 pmf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 pointer arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 pointer to member function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 portions of temporary objects, pointers to . . . . 319 pragma, extern prex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 pragma, long calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, long calls o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, longcall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, no long calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, options align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, reason for not using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 pragma, redene extname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 pragma, segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragma, unused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 pragmas in C++, eect on inlining . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 pragmas, interface and implementation . . . . . . . 282 pragmas, warning of unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 preprocessing numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 preprocessing tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 preprocessor options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 printf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 printf_unlocked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 prof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 promotion of formal parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 pure function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 push address instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 putchar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 puts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

S
s in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 S/390 and zSeries Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 scanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 scanf, and constant strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 scope of a variable length array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 scope of declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 scope of external declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 search path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 section function attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 section variable attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 sequential consistency on 88k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 setjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 setjmp incompatibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 shared strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 shared variable attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 side eect in ?: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 side eects, macro argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 side eects, order of evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 signal handler functions on the AVR processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 signed and unsigned values, comparison warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 simple constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 sin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sinf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sinl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Keyword Index

381

sizeof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 smaller data references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 smaller data references (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 smaller data references (MIPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 smaller data references (PowerPC) . . . . . . . . . . . 114 snprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 SPARC options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Spec Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 specied registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 specifying compiler version and target machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 specifying hardware cong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 specifying machine version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 specifying registers for local variables . . . . . . . . . 239 sprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sqrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sqrtf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sqrtl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sscanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 sscanf, and constant strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 statements inside expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 static data in C++, declaring and dening . . . . . 319 stdarg.h and RT PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 strcat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strchr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strcmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strcpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strcspn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 string constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 strlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strncat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strncmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strncpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strpbrk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strrchr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strspn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 strstr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 struct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 structure passing (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 structures, constructor expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 submodel options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 subscripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 subscripting and function values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 suxes for C++ source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 SUNPRO_DEPENDENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 suppressing warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 surprises in C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 SVr4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 syntax checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 synthesized methods, warning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 system headers, warnings from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

T
target machine, specifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 target options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 TC1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 TC2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Technical Corrigenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Technical Corrigendum 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Technical Corrigendum 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 template instantiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 temporaries, lifetime of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Thread-Local Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 thunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 tiny data section on the H8/300H . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 tls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 tls_model attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 TMPDIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 TMS320C3x/C4x Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 traditional C language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 treelang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 6 type alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 type attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 type info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 typedef names as function parameters . . . . . . . . 315 typeof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

U
ULL integer sux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Ultrix calling convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 undened behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 undened function value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 underscores in variables in macros. . . . . . . . . . . . 181 underscores, avoiding (88k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 union, casting to a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 unknown pragmas, warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 unresolved references and -nodefaultlibs . . . . 79 unresolved references and -nostdlib . . . . . . . . . 79 unused attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 used attribute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

V
V in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V850 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vague linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . value after longjmp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variable addressability on the M32R/D . . . . . . . variable alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variable attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variable number of arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variable-length array scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variable-length arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variables in specied registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variables, local, in macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . variadic macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VAX calling convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 140 281 238 211 206 207 187 186 186 237 181 187 312

382

Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)

VAX options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 visibility attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 VLAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 void pointers, arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 void, size of pointer to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 volatile access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 volatile applied to function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 volatile read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 volatile write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 vprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 vscanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 vsnprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 vsprintf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 vsscanf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 vtable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

warning for synthesized methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 warning for unknown pragmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 warning messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 warnings from system headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 warnings vs errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 weak attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 whitespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

X
X in constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 X3.159-1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 x86-64 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Xstormy16 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Xtensa Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

W
warning for comparison of signed and unsigned values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 warning for overloaded virtual fn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 warning for reordering of member initializers . . . 30

Z
zero division on 88k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 zero-length arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 zero-size structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186