FIRST AND SECOND-ORDER TRANSIENT CIRCUITS

IN CIRCUITS WITH INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS CANNOT CHANGE INSTANTANEOUSLY. EVEN THE APPLICATION, OR REMOVAL, OF CONSTANT SOURCES CREATES A TRANSIENT BEHAVIOR

LEARNING GOALS
FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS Circuits that contain a single energy storing elements. Either a capacitor or an inductor SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS Circuits with two energy storing elements in any combination

ANALYSIS OF LINEAR CIRCUITS WITH INDUCTORS AND/OR CAPACITORS

THE CONVENTIONAL ANALYSIS USING MATHEMATICAL MODELS REQUIRES THE DETERMINATION OF (A SET OF) EQUATIONS THAT REPRESENT THE CIRCUIT. ONCE THE MODEL IS OBTAINED ANALYSIS REQUIRES THE SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS FOR THE CASES REQUIRED. REPRESENTS FOR EXAMPLE IN NODE OR LOOP ANALYSIS OF RESISTIVE CIRCUITS ONE REPRESENTS THE CIRCUIT BY A SET OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS THE MODEL

WHEN THERE ARE INDUCTORS OR CAPACITORS THE MODELS BECOME LINEAR ORDINARY (ODEs ODEs). DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (ODEs). HENCE, IN GENERAL, ONE NEEDS ALL THOSE TOOLS ELEMENTS. IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE CIRCUITS WITH ENERGY STORING ELEMENTS. MATHEMATICAL A METHOD BASED ON THEVENIN WILL BE DEVELOPED TO DERIVE MATHEMATICAL MODELS ELEMENT. FOR ANY ARBITRARY LINEAR CIRCUIT WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT. WHEN THE GENERAL APPROACH CAN BE SIMPLIFIED IN SOME SPECIAL CASES WHEN THE FORM OF THE SOLUTION CAN BE KNOWN BEFOREHAND. DETERMINING THE ANALYSIS IN THESE CASES BECOMES A SIMPLE MATTER OF DETERMINING SOME PARAMETERS. CONSTANT TWO SUCH CASES WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL FOR THE CASE OF CONSTANT SOURCES. AND ONE THAT ASSUMES THE AVAILABILITY OF THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND A SECOND THAT IS ENTIRELY BASED ON ELEMENTARY CIRCUIT ANALYSIS BUT IT IS NORMALLY LONGER WE WILL ALSO DISCUSS THE PERFORMANCE OF LINEAR CIRCUITS TO OTHER SIMPLE INPUTS

AN INTRODUCTION
CONDITIONS INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS CAN STORE ENERGY. UNDER SUITABLE CONDITIONS THIS ENERGY CAN BE RELEASED. THE RATE AT WHICH IT IS RELEASED WILL DEPEND ON THE PARAMETERS OF THE CIRCUIT CONNECTED TO THE TERMINALS OF THE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT

With the switch on the left the capacitor receives charge from the battery.

Switch to the right and the capacitor discharges through the lamp

GENERAL RESPONSE: FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS Including the initial conditions the model for the capacitor t t x t t 1 voltage or the inductor current e x ( t ) e x (t ) = e fTH ( x )dx * / e 0 will be shown to be of the form t
0 0

dx (t ) + ax (t ) = f (t ); x (0+) = x0 dt

x(t ) = e

t t0

dx + x = fTH ; x (0+ ) = x0 dt

1 x(t0 ) + e t0

tx

f TH ( x)dx

Solving the differential equation using integrating factors, one tries to convert the LHS into an is called the " time constant." exact derivative t it will be shown to provide significan t dx 1 + x = fTH /* e information on the reaction speed of the dt t t t circuit 1 dx 1 + e x = e fTH e The initial time, to , is arbitrary. The

THIS EXPRESSION ALLOWS THE COMPUTATION OF THE RESPONSE FOR ANY FORCING FUNCTION. WE WILL CONCENTRATE IN THE SPECIAL CASE WHEN THE RIGHT HAND SIDE IS CONSTANT

dt

t0

t t d 1 e x = e fTH dt

general expression can be used to study sequential switchings .

FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS WITH CONSTANT SOURCES

x(t ) = e

t t 0

dx + x = fTH ; x (0+ ) = x0 dt
x (t ) = e
t t0

fTH x(t0 ) + e e t
t x

1t x (t0 ) + e t
0

tx

x(t ) = e

t t 0

fTH ( x )dx

t t x(t0 ) + fTH e e e t
0

x(t ) = fTH + ( x(t0 ) fTH )e

t t0

t t 0

If the RHS is constant

t t0
TIME CONSTANT

x(t ) = e

t t 0

fTH x(t0 ) + e t
t
0

tx

The form of the solution is

dx

x(t ) = K1 + K 2e

; t t0

tx

=e e
t t0

TRANSIENT

Any variable in the circuit is of the form

t t

x(t ) = e

x(t0 ) +

fTH e

t0

e dx

y (t ) = K1 + K 2e

t t0

; t t0

Only the values of the constants K_1, K_2 will change

EVOLUTION OF THE TRANSIENT AND INTERPRETATION OF THE TIME CONSTANT Tangent reaches x-axis in one time constant

Drops 0.632 of initial value in one time constant

With less than 2% error transient is zero beyond this point A QUALITATIVE VIEW: THE SMALLER THE THE TIME CONSTANT THE FASTER THE TRANSIENT DISAPPEARS

THE TIME CONSTANT The following example illustrates the physical meaning of time constant

Charging a capacitor v C v S RS a KCL@a : RS dv v v S + C c+ C =0 + dt RS vS C v c _ The model

2 3 4 5

0.368 With less than 1% 0.135 error the transient 0.0498 is negligible after 0.0183 five time constants 0.0067

dv b C C dt

RTH C

dvC + vC = vTH dt

Assume v S = V S , v C ( 0) = 0

= RTH C
t

The solution can be shown to be

transient For practical purposes the capacitor is charged when the transient is negligible

vC (t ) = VS VS e

= RTH C

CIRCUITS WITH ONE ENERGY STORING ELEMENT THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION APPROACH CONDITIONS 1. THE CIRCUIT HAS ONLY CONSTANT INDEPENDENT SOURCES 2. THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR THE VARIABLE OF INTEREST IS SIMPLE TO OBTAIN. NORMALLY USING BASIC ANALYSIS TOOLS; e.g., KCL, KVL. . . OR THEVENIN 3. THE INITIAL CONDITION FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION IS KNOWN, OR CAN BE OBTAINED USING STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

FACT : WHEN ALL INDEPENDEN T SOURCES ARE CONSTANT FOR ANY VARIA BLE, y ( t ) , IN THE CIRCUIT THE SOLUTION IS OF THE FORM y (t ) = K1 + K 2e
( t tO ) ,

t > tO

SOLUTION STRATEGY: USE THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION AND THE INITIAL CONDITIONS TO FIND THE PARAMETERS K1 , K 2 ,

If the diff eq for y is known in the form

dy a1 + a0 y = f We can use this dt info to find the unknowns y (0 + ) = y 0

Use the diff eq to find two more equations by replacing the form of solution into the differential equation

Use the initial condition to get one more equation

y (0 + ) = K1 + K 2
K 2 = y ( 0 + ) K1

K2 dy y ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e , t > 0 = e dt

SHORTCUT: WRITE DIFFERENTIAL EQ. IN NORMALIZED FORM WITH COEFFICIENT OF VARIABLE = 1.

K2 t a1 e

t + a0 K1 + K 2 e f a 0 K 1 = f K1 = a0

= f

a1

dy a dy f + a0 y = f 1 +y= dt a0 dt a0

K1

a1 = 0 = a1 + a0 K 2 e a0

LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND v (t ), t > 0. ASSUME v (0) = VS

x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e

,t > 0

ANSWER : v (t ) = VS (VS

K1 = x (); t / 2)e RC , t > 0

t

K1 + K 2 = x ( 0 + )

STEP 2 STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

SOLUTION IS v (t ) = K1 + K 2e , t >0

for > 0 and t , v(t) K1 (steady state value)

dv v (t ) V S +C (t ) = 0 dt R

MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KCL @ v (t )

*/ R

initial condition v (0) = VS / 2

(DIFF. EQ. KNOWN, INITIAL CONDITION KNOWN) STEP 1 TIME CONSTANT dy +y= f dt dv RC (t ) + v (t ) = Vs dt Get time constant as coefficient of derivative

IN STEADY STATE THE SOLUTION IS A CONSTANT. HENCE ITS DERIVATIVE IS ZERO. FROM DIFF EQ. dv = 0 v = VS Steady state value from diff. eq. dt (equating steady state values) K1 = V S dy IF THE MODEL IS + y = f THEN K1 = f dt STEP 3 USE OF INITIAL CONDITION AT t = 0 v ( 0) = K 1 + K 2 K 2 = v ( 0 ) K1 K 2 = v (0) f v (0) = VS / 2 K 2 = VS / 2

LEARNING EXAMPLE

FIND i (t ), t > 0 + vR

x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e

,t > 0

K1 = x (); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ ) + vL
i (t ) = K1 + K 2e
t

KVL
i (t )

,t > 0

MODEL. USE KVL FOR t > 0

i (t )

VS = v R + v L = Ri (t ) + L
INITIAL CONDITION t < 0 i (0 ) = 0

di (t ) dt

i (0 + ) = 0 inductor i (0) = i (0+ ) L di VS = L STEP 1 (t ) + i (t ) = R R dt R

STEP 2 STEADY STATE i () = K = VS 1 R

t STEP 3 INITIAL CONDITION L VS R ANS : i (t ) = i ( 0 + ) = K1 + K 2 1 e R

LEARNING BY DOING

i (t ) = K1 + K 2e

,t > 0

v (t )

MODEL. KCL FOR t > 0

v (t ) + i (t ) R di L di v (t ) = L (t ) I S = (t ) + i (t ) INITIAL CONDITION : i (0+ ) = 0 R dt dt IS = L R STEP 2 i () = I S K1 = I S

STEP 1 =

STEP 3

i ( 0 + ) = 0 = K1 + K 2
t L ANS : i ( t ) = I S 1 e R

i ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e

,t > 0
INITIAL CONDITIONS
CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE FOR t < 0

MODEL FOR t > 0

vC ( 0 ) = i (t ) = v (t ) R2

3k (12) = 4V v (0+ ) = 4V 3k + 6k

STEP 1 = RP C = (2 103 )(100 106 F ) = 0.2 s STEP 2 v ( ) = K1 = 0 STEP 3

v (0+ ) = K1 + K 2 = 4V K 2 = 4V

IT IS SIMPLER TO DETERMINE MODEL FOR CAPACITOR VOLTAGE

v (t ) dv v (t ) + C (t ) + = 0; RP = R1 || R2 R2 R1 dt RP = 3k || 6k = 2k v (t ) dv =0 C (t ) + dt RP

v ( t ) = 4e

t 0.2 [V ], t

>0

4 ANS : i (t ) = e 0.2 [mA], t > 0 3

LEARNING EXAMPLE
FIND vO (t ), t > 0
v O ( t ) = K1 + K 2
t e

x ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e
,t > 0

,t > 0

K1 = x (); K1 + K 2 = x (0+ )

i (t )

STEP 2: FIND K1 USING STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

0.5 dvO ( t ) + vO (t ) = 6 vO () = 6V dt vO ( ) = K1 K1 = 6V

KVL(t>0)

MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KVL di VS1 + R1i (t ) + L (t ) + R3i (t ) = 0 dt di 2 ( t ) + 4i (t ) = 12 vO (t ) = 2i ( t )[V ] dt di 0.5 (t ) + i (t ) = 3[ A] dt dv 0.5 O ( t ) + vO (t ) = 6V = 0.5 STEP dt

THE NEXT STEP REQUIRES THE INITIAL VALUE OF THE VARIABLE, vO (0+ ) FOR THE INITIAL CONDITION ONE NEEDS THE INDUCTOR CURRENT FOR t<0 AND USES THE CONTINUITY OF THE INDUCTOR CURRENT DURING THE SWITCHING . THE STEADY STATE ASSUMPTION FOR t<0 SIMPLIFIES THE ANALYSIS 1

CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE (t<0) a

i L (t )
t <0

I1

RTH = 2 || 2 = 1 12 + 4 I1 4 = 0 I1 = 4[ A]

KVL

KVL VTH = VOC = 2 I1 4 = 4[V ]

b
MUST FIND i L (t )

FOR EXAMPLE USE THEVENIN ASSUMING INDUCTOR IN STEADY STATE

4 i L (0) = i (0+ ) = [ A] 3 4 8 i (0+ ) = vO (0+ ) = [V ] 3 3 8 10 K1 + K 2 = = 6 K 2 K 2 = 3 3

t

v O ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e

,t > 0

5 0.5 i (t ) = 3 e , t > 0 3

10 vO ( t ) = 6 e 0.5 [V ], t > 0 3

LEARNING EXTENSION FIND vO (t ), t > 0

v C ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e

,t > 0

K1 = vC (); K1 + K 2 = i1 (0+ )
R1

R2

DETERMINE vc (t ) MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KCL dv vC dv 2 1 C C (t ) + = 0 ( R1 + R2 )C C (t ) + vc = 0 vO ( t ) = vC ( t ) = vC ( t ) dt R1 + R2 dt 2+4 3

STEP 1 = ( R1 + R2 )C = (6 103 )(100 106 F ) = 0.6 s STEP 2

v C ( t ) = K1 + K 2 e

, t > 0 K1 = 0

8 0.6 vO (t ) = e [V ], t > 0 3

INITIAL CONDITIONS. CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE t<0

STEP 3 vC (0+ ) = 8 = K1 + K 2 K 2 = 8[V ]

+ 6 vC (0) = (12)V 9

vC ( t ) = 8e

t 0.6 [V ], t

>0

LEARNING EXTENSION FIND i1 (t ), t > 0

i1 (t ) = K1 + K 2e

,t > 0

K1 = i1 (); K1 + K 2 = i1 (0+ ) i1 (t )

CIRCUIT IN STEADY STATE PRIOR TO SWITCHING

i1 (0)

+ vL
MODEL FOR t > 0. USE KVL di 1 di1 L 1 + 18i1 (t ) = 0 (t ) + i1 (t ) = 0 dt 9 dt 1 STEP 1 = s 9

i1 (0) =

12V = 1A 12

STEP 3
i1 (0) = i1 (0+ ) = K1 + K 2 K 2 = 1[ A]
t

STEP 2

K1 = 0

FOR INITIAL CONDITIONS ONE NEEDS 1 ANS : i1(t ) = e 9 [ A] = e 9 t [ A], t > 0 INDUCTOR CURRENT FOR t<0

USING THEVENIN TO OBTAIN MODELS Obtain the voltage across the capacitor or the current through the inductor
Circuit with resistances and sources a Inductor or Capacitor b Representation of an arbitrary circuit with one storage element

RTH a VTH
+

Thevenin

Inductor or Capacitor b

RTH a VTH
+

L dvC ic = C iL dt b b vC vTH Case 1.1 Case 1.2 iR = Voltage across capacitor Current through inductor RTH di L L + RTH iL = vTH dv v v dt C C + C TH = 0 dt RTH L diL vTH dvC RTH C + vC = vTH R dt + iL = R = iSC dt TH TH

iR

ic

+ vc _

KCL@ node a

RTH a VTH
+

Use KVL

ic + iR = 0

+ vR

+ vL

vR + vL = vTH vR = RTH iL di vL = L L dt

EXAMPLE

Find iO (t); t > 0

Thevenin for t>0 at inductor terminals

6
+

6
t =0

6 3H 6

iO (t )

6
+

6
t >0

24V

24V

vTH = 0 RTH = 6 + (6 || (6 + 6))

The variable of interest is the inductor current. The model is

L diO vTH + iO = RTH dt RTH

And the solution is of the form

L 3H = = 0. 3 s RTH 10

diO 0.3 + iO = 0 ; t > 0 dt

t
t K 2 0t.3 0.3 e + K1 + K 2e 0.3 = 0 0.3

iO (t ) = K1 + K 2e ; t > 0
Next: Initial Condition

K1 = 0 iO (t ) = K 2e

t 0.3

;t >0

Determine iO ( 0 + ). Use steady state assumption and continuity of inductor current

6i1 + 6(i1 i3 ) + 6(i1 i2 ) = 0

Loop analysis

24 + 6(i2 i1 ) + 6(i2 i3 ) = 0

Circuit for t<0

6(i3 i1 ) + 6(i3 i2 ) = 0

iC (0+ ) = i3

6
+

6
t <0

6 3H 6

iO (t )

v1 v1 v1 24 + + = 0 v1 = 8 Node analysis 6 6 6

solution :

iC (0 +) =

32 mA 6

24V

Since K1=0 the solution is

6
+

i1

6
i2 t <0

6
v1

iO (0) = iO (0+)

iO (t ) = K 2e

t 0.3

;t >0

i3
iO (0+ ) =

Evaluating at 0+ K 2 =

24V

24 v1 + 6 6

32 iO (t ) = e 6

t 0.3 ;

32 6

t >0

EXAMPLE

Find iO (t), t > 0 100 F 6k iO (t )

6k 6k

vTH = 6V
RTH = 6k || 6k = 3k
= 3 *103 *100 *10 6 F = 0.3s

12V

+ vC
t =0

+ -

6k

For t > 0 iO =

vC

Model for v C dvC 0.3 + vC = 6 dt

t 0 .3

6k

Hence, if the capacitor voltage is known the problem is solved Model for v_c

vC = K 1 + K 2 e

RTH C

dvC + vC = vTH dt
6k
a

12V

iO (t )
+ -

+ vTH

6k t >0 6k

K1 = 6

t K2 t 1.5 e 1.5 + K1 + K 2e 0.3 = 6 1.5

6k

Now we need to determine the initial value v_c(0+) using continuity and the steady state assumption

12V

circuit in steady state before the switching 6k 6k + vC (0) iO (t )

+ -

6k

t <0

6k

vC (0) = 6V
Continuity of capacitor voltage

vC (0+ ) = 6V
K1 + K 2 = vC (0+ )

K1 = 6 K 2 = 0

vC (t ) = 6V ; t > 0
vC iO (t ) = = 1mA; t > 0 6k
Diff Eq Approach