C# 2005

Programmers Reference
Adrian Kingsley-Hughes Kathie Kingsley-Hughes

C# 2005
Programmers Reference

C# 2005
Programmers Reference
Adrian Kingsley-Hughes Kathie Kingsley-Hughes

C# 2005 Programmers Reference

Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc. 10475 Crosspoint Boulevard Indianapolis, IN 46256

www.wiley.com
Copyright 2007 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana Published simultaneously in Canada ISBN-13: 978-0-470-04641-8 ISBN-10: 0-470-04641-4 Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1B/RZ/RQ/QW/IN

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kingsley-Hughes, Adrian. C# 2005 programmers reference / Adrian Kingsley-Hughes, Kathie Kingsley-Hughes. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-470-04641-8 (paper/website) ISBN-10: 0-470-04641-4 (paper/website) 1. C# (Computer program language) I. Kingsley-Hughes, Kathie. II. Title. QA76.73.C154K575 2006 005.133--dc22 2006030327 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Legal Department, Wiley Publishing, Inc., 10475 Crosspoint Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46256, (317) 572-3447, fax (317) 572-4355, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: THE PUBLISHER AND THE AUTHOR MAKE NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS WORK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION WARRANTIES OF FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. NO WARRANTY MAY BE CREATED OR EXTENDED BY SALES OR PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS. THE ADVICE AND STRATEGIES CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR EVERY SITUATION. THIS WORK IS SOLD WITH THE UNDERSTANDING THAT THE PUBLISHER IS NOT ENGAGED IN RENDERING LEGAL, ACCOUNTING, OR OTHER PROFESSIONAL SERVICES. IF PROFESSIONAL ASSISTANCE IS REQUIRED, THE SERVICES OF A COMPETENT PROFESSIONAL PERSON SHOULD BE SOUGHT. NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR THE AUTHOR SHALL BE LIABLE FOR DAMAGES ARISING HEREFROM. THE FACT THAT AN ORGANIZATION OR WEBSITE IS REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK AS A CITATION AND/OR A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF FURTHER INFORMATION DOES NOT MEAN THAT THE AUTHOR OR THE PUBLISHER ENDORSES THE INFORMATION THE ORGANIZATION OR WEBSITE MAY PROVIDE OR RECOMMENDATIONS IT MAY MAKE. FURTHER, READERS SHOULD BE AWARE THAT INTERNET WEBSITES LISTED IN THIS WORK MAY HAVE CHANGED OR DISAPPEARED BETWEEN WHEN THIS WORK WAS WRITTEN AND WHEN IT IS READ. For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Trademarks: Wiley, the Wiley logo, Wrox, the Wrox logo, Programmer to Programmer, and related trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates, in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Wiley Publishing, Inc., is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

For our kids; you really are the best!

About the Authors

Adrian and Kathie Kingsley-Hughes have written several successful technical/PC books on a variety of computer and IT-related topics. They have also developed numerous successful training manuals and Internet-based courses for nearly a decade. Along with their day-to-day work, they currently teach online courses for several training providers, and Adrian also teaches several highly successful online courses for Barnes and Noble University. They have produced courses and materials that have been used extensively by many Fortune 500 companies and leading universities. Put simply, theyre both geeks!

Credits
Acquisitions Editor
Katie Mohr

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Project Coordinator Production Editor

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C.M. Jones Angela Denny Kit Malone Travis Silvers

Editorial Manager
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Proofreading and Indexing

Techbooks

Production Manager
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Vice President and Executive Group Publisher

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Vice President and Executive Publisher

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Acknowledgments
A book like this is never the work of just the authors; it comes about as a result of a lot of hard work and the collaboration of dozens of people. The names on the cover represent just a small part of the equation (as authors, we feel that we are standing on the shoulders of a great many people who dont get their names on the cover). Knowing where to start thanking people can be difficult, but with this book its not. First and foremost, our thanks and appreciation go out to Katie Mohr, our tireless, hard-working acquisitions editor at Wiley, who first approached us with the opportunity to write this book. The amount of work and effort you put into this book, Katie, was just amazing, and the final product is infinitely better thanks to your input. Our thanks also goes to our excellent development editor, Tom Dinse, who suggested a number of improvements and changes. Your feedback was very valuable, and it was a real pleasure to work with you! There are a whole bunch of folks over at Wiley whom we havent mentionedpeople who have worked anonymously in the background, laying out the book, indexing, proofreading, advertising, signing checkswe appreciate your valuable contribution to this title. No electrons were harmed in the making of this book, but some did have to work extra hard in order to meet deadlines.

Contents
Acknowledgments ix

Introduction
How This Book Is Different Who This Book Is For How This Book Is Structured How to Tackle the Chapters A Few Tips . . . Conventions Source Code Errata p2p.wrox.com

xxiii
xxiii xxiii xxiv xxv xxv xxvi xxvi xxvi xxvii

Chapter 1: What is C#?

The Name C# Overview
History C# and CLR Diversions Into .NET Standards Other Implementations

1
1 1
2 2 2 3 3

Sample C# Code The Benefits of Learning C# Summary

3 5 6

Chapter 2: Getting Started with C#

Getting Into C# is Cheaper Than You Think!
The Cheap End of the Spectrum How to Leverage Free C# Tools

7
7
7 10

One Cheap Utility That Makes Life Easier! Alternative Text Editors and C# Tools Enterprise Tools - Visual Studio and Visual C# Summary

13 15 15 16

Contents
Chapter 3: Overview of C#
C# C# Basics
Examining the C# Source Code

17
17 17
18

Types
Value Types Reference Types Predefined Types Overloading Conversions Array Types

19
19 19 19 22 22 22

Variables and Parameters Expressions Statements Classes

Constants Fields Methods Properties Events Operators Indexers Instance Constructors Finalizers Static Constructors Inheritance Static Classes

23 24 26 27
28 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 30

Structs Interfaces Delegates Enums Generics Iterators Nullable Types Summary

30 30 31 31 31 32 32 32

Chapter 4: C# Language Structure

C# Programs Grammars
Grammar Ambiguities Lexical Analysis

35
35 37
37 39

Summary

55

xii

Contents
Chapter 5: C# Concepts
Application Startup Application Termination C# Declarations Members
Namespace Members Struct Members Enumeration Members Class Members Interface Members Array Members Delegate Members

57
57 58 58 60
61 61 61 61 62 62 62

Member Access
Declared Accessibility

62
62

Signatures
Index Signatures Instance Constructor Signatures Method Signatures Operator Signatures Signatures and Overloading

63
63 63 63 64 64

Scope Namespace and Type Names Memory Management in C# Summary

64 66 66 67

Chapter 6: Types
Three Types of Types
The Difference Between Value and Reference Types

69
69
69

The C# Type System Value Types

System.ValueType Default Constructors Struct Types Simple Types Integral Type Using Types Floating-Point Types Decimal Types bool Type Enumeration Types

70 70
71 72 72 73 74 76 76 77 77 77

xiii

Contents
Reference Types
Class Types Object Type String Type Array Types Delegate Types The null Type Boxing and Unboxing Nullable Types

78
79 79 79 79 79 79 80 80

Summary

81

Chapter 7: Variables
What are Variables?
Not all Variables Are Created Equally

83
83
83

Categories of Variables
Static Variables Array Elements Instance Variables Value Parameter Reference Parameters Output Parameters Local Variables

84
85 85 86 87 87 88 88

Default Values Definite Assignment

Initially Assigned Variables Initially Unassigned Variables

89 89
90 90

Summary

98

Chapter 8: Conversions
Implicit Conversions
Identity Conversions Implicit Numeric Conversions Implicit Enumeration Conversions Implicit Reference Conversions Boxing Conversions Implicit Type Parameter Conversions Implicit Constant Expression Conversions User Defined Implicit Conversions

99
99
100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103

Explicit Conversions
Explicit Numeric Conversions Explicit Enumeration Conversions

103
103 105

xiv

Contents
Explicit Reference Conversions Unboxing Conversions Explicit Type Parameter Conversions User-Defined Explicit Conversions 106 107 107 107

Standard Conversions
Standard Implicit Conversions Standard Explicit Conversions User-Defined Conversions

107
107 108 108

Anonymous Method Conversions Method Group Conversions Null Type Conversions

Nullable Conversions

109 109 109

109

Summary

110

Chapter 9: Expressions
Classifications of Expressions
Results of an Expression

111
111
112

Expression Values Expressions and Operators

Three Kinds of Operator Operator Precedence and Associativity Operator Overloading Lifted Operators

112 112
113 113 115 118

Member Lookup
Base Types

119
120

Function Members Primary Expressions

Literals Simple Names Parenthesized Expressions Member Access Invocation Expressions Element Access Default Value Expression Anonymous Methods

121 125
125 126 126 126 127 127 130 131

Unary Expressions Cast Expressions Arithmetic Operators Shift Operators Relational/Type Testing Operators Logical Operators Conditional Logical Operators

131 131 131 132 132 133 133

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Contents
Null Coalescing Operator Assignment Operators Expression Constant Expressions Boolean Expressions Summary 134 135 135 135 138 138

Chapter 10: Statements

What are Statements? C# Statements
End Point and Reachability End Point Reachability

139
139 141
142 142 142

Code Blocks
Statement Lists

144
144

Empty Statements Labeled Statements Declaration Statements

Local Variable Declarations Local Constant Declarations

145 145 146

146 147

Expression Statements
Selection Statements Iteration Statements Jump Statements The using Statement The yield Statement

148
148 154 156 158 159

Summary

160

Chapter 11: Namespaces

What are Namespaces?
Organizing Classes Controlling Scope

161
161
161 162

Compilation Units Namespace Declarations Extern Alias Directives Using Directives

Namespace Members Type Declarations Qualified Alias Member

162 163 164 165

166 166 167

Summary

168

xvi

Contents
Chapter 12: Classes
What are Classes? Class Declarations
Class Modifiers Class Base Specification Base Classes Interface Implementations Class Body Partial Declarations

169
169 169
170 171 171 171 171 172

Class Members
Inheritance new Modifier Access Modifiers Static/Instance Members Constants

172
173 174 174 174 175

Fields
Static and Instance Fields readonly Fields

176
177 177

Methods
Method Parameters Static/Instance Methods Virtual Methods Override Method Sealed Methods Abstract Methods Method Body

178
179 180 180 180 181 181 181

Properties
Static/Instance Properties Accessors Virtual, Sealed, Override, and Abstract Accessors

181
182 182 183

Events
Field-Like Events Static/Instance Events Virtual, Sealed, Override, and Abstract Accessors

184
185 185 185

Indexers Operators
Unary Operators Binary Operators Conversion Operators

186 187
189 189 190

Instance Constructors

190

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Contents
Static Constructors Finalizers Summary 191 191 192

Chapter 13: Structs

What are Structs? Struct Declarations
Struct Struct Struct Struct Modifiers Interfaces Body Members

193
193 194
195 195 195 195

Differences Between Class and Struct

Value Semantics Inheritance Assignments Default Values Boxing/Unboxing this Field Initializers Constructors Finalizers Static Constructors

196
197 197 198 198 198 198 199 199 199 199

When to Use Structs Summary

199 200

Chapter 14: Arrays

What is an Array? Array Types
System.Array Type

201
201 203
204

Creating Arrays
Accessing Array Elements Array Members Array Covariance Array Initializers

205
205 205 205 206

Summary

208

Chapter 15: Interfaces

What is an Interface? Defining an Interface

209
209 210

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Contents
Interface Declarations
Modifiers Explicit Base Interfaces Interface Body Interface Members Interface Methods Interface Properties Interface Events

210
211 211 212 212 212 212 213

Summary

213

Chapter 16: Enums

Enum Declarations Enum Modifiers Enum Members Beware Circular References System.Enum
Enum Values and Operations

215
216 217 218 219 219
219

Summary

220

Chapter 17: Delegates

Delegates in Action Delegate Declarations
Modifiers Declaring Delegates Invocation List Delegate Instantiation

221
221 222
222 223 223 224

Summary

225

Chapter 18: Exceptions

Throwing Exceptions System.Exception Common Exception Classes Handling Exceptions
What If No Catch Clause Is Found?

227
227 228 228 229
229

Summary

229

xix

Contents
Chapter 19: Attributes
Introduction to Attributes Attribute Classes
Positional vs. Named Parameters Attribute Usage Types of Attribute Parameters

231
231 231
232 232 233

Attribute Specification Attribute Instances

Attribute Compilation Runtime Retrieval of Attribute Instances

233 236
237 237

Reserved Attributes
The Conditional Attribute

238
238

Summary

240

Chapter 20: Generics

C# Generics vs. C++ Templates
Advantages of Generics

241
241
242

Generic Class Declarations

Type Parameters Type Parameter Differences Instance Type Generic Class Members Static Fields in Generic Classes Static Constructors in Generic Classes Access to Protected Members Overloading in Generic Classes Operators in Generic Classes

242
243 244 244 245 246 246 246 246 247

Generic Struct Declarations Generic Interface Declarations Explicit Interface Member Implementations Generic Delegate Declarations Constructed Types
Type Arguments Open and Closed Types Members of Constructed Types Using Alias Directives Generic Methods

247 247 248 248 249

249 249 250 250 250

Where Generics Arent Used Constraints Summary

252 253 256

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Contents
Chapter 21: Iterators
Iterator Block
Iterator Blocks and Compile-time Errors Enumerator Interfaces Enumerable Interfaces Yield Type This

257
258
259 259 259 260 260

Enumerator Objects
The MoveNext Method Execution Interruptions The Current Property The Dispose Method

260
260 261 262 262

Enumerable Objects
GetEnumerator Method

263
263

Summary

264

Chapter 22: Unsafe Code

What is Unsafe Code? Advantages and Disadvantages of Unsafe Code
Advantages of Unsafe Code Disadvantages of Unsafe Code

265
265 266
266 266

Unsafe Code Contexts Pointer Basics

Void Pointers Pointer Operators

266 268
268 268

Unsafe in Action
Using the fixed Modifier

269
270

sizeof Operator Using stackalloc Compiling Unsafe Code Summary

272 273 273 273

Appendix A: C# Grammar Appendix B: Naming Conventions Appendix C: Standard Library

275 337 345

xxi

Contents
Appendix D: Portability Appendix E: XML Documentation Comments
Index

359 363
367

xxii

Introduction
In this book, were going to take a very detailed walk through the entire C# programming language. This book is not a learn C# in five minutes manual, nor is it a book that looks at how to build a couple of applications that you will probably never need to know how to build, because they have no relation to your job or your hobby. That kind of book can give you only the very simplest of overviews of a programming language.

How This Book Is Different

This book is different. Instead of giving you a basic overview of the language as many other books do (think of them as a bit like viewing a globe of the Earth, offering the outlines of the continents and countries and a few basic features like lakes and so on but not much in the way of detail), this book takes you all the way into the language and looks at what makes it tick (going back to the map analogy, you will zoom in from Earth orbit right down to street level, where youll be able to see every street name and all the buildings). All this doesnt mean that were not going to spend some time looking at the bigger C# picture. Were going to spend a few chapters looking at broader topics of C# (such as looking at what C# is and how to get started with C# before taking in an overview of the C# language). These foundation chapters will allow you to orient yourself before delving into the detailed look at the various aspects of the language. After giving you a few foundation chapters, we then dive right into C#. We start off by looking at the structure and concepts of the C# language. We then take a close look at C# types, variables, and conversions. Building on these chapters, we then progress onto examining the syntax of C# expressions and statements, before moving on to looking at how C# uses namespaces. We then move on to look at C# classes, structs, arrays, and enums and then delegates, exceptions, attributes, generics, and iterators. We round off the main chapters by taking a look at safe and unsafe coding practices in C#. The book ends with a number of appendixes that detail the C# grammar, naming conventions, portability, and XML documentation comments.

Who This Book Is For

This book isnt designed to teach C#. Its designed to aid those who already have a basic understanding of C# to be able to take the skills that they have and build on them by leveraging more advanced techniques and aspects of the language. If you dont have any experience at all with C#, we suggest that you take a look at the range of Wrox titles and choose a beginner-level book. This will give you all the basic knowledge you need to be able to take advantage of the advanced techniques.

Introduction

How This Book Is Structured

We start with the Introduction (what youre reading now!). Following is the rest of the book: Chapter 1: What is C#? This chapter takes a look at what C# is, its origins, and its history. Chapter 2: Getting Started with C#. You dont need a lot of software to get started programming with C#. In this chapter we look at what you really need and a few things that will make your life a little easier. Chapter 3: Overview of C#. Here we give you a whirlwind tour of C# and highlight some of the most important features of this powerful and flexible programming language. Chapter 4: C# Language Structure. In this chapter we take a look at the structure of the C# language, paying special attention to the lexical and syntactic grammar, the tokens, and the directives. Chapter 5: C# Concepts. In this chapter we take a look at many of the key concepts in C#, such as application startup and termination, members and member access, and overloading. Chapter 6: Types. We now begin to look at specific aspects of the C# language, starting with types. We look at value types and reference types and boxing and unboxing. Chapter 7: Variables. Next we look at a topic that is at the heart of data manipulation: variables. Chapter 8: Conversions. This chapter takes a look at conversion in C# (in particular, implicit, explicit, and standard conversions). Chapter 9: Expressions. At the heart of C# coding are expressions. In this chapter we take a look at the variety of expressions available in C#. Chapter 10: Statements. Lines of code are known as statements. In this chapter we look at the structure of statements and examine a number of different statements. Chapter 11: Namespaces. This chapter takes a look at how C# utilizes namespaces, which allows for disambiguation of items having the same name. Chapter 12: Classes. In this chapter we examine classes and how they are used to compartmentalize code in C#. Chapter 13: Structs. In this chapter we look at structs and how to use them in your coding. Chapter 14: Arrays. Arrays are a great way to structure data to make it easier to access and work with. In this chapter we look at the different sorts of arrays available in C#. Chapter 15: Interfaces. In this chapter we examine interfaces in C# and look at declarations, members, qualified member names, and implementations. Chapter 16: Enums. Enums are strongly typed constants, and in this chapter we examine how they are used in C# coding. Chapter 17: Delegates. This chapter looks at delegate declarations, instantiations, and invocations in C#. Chapter 18: Exceptions. This chapter examines exceptions and looks at their causes, handling, and exception classes. Chapter 19: Attributes. This chapter looks at attribute classes, instances, and reserved attributes.

xxiv

Introduction
Chapter 20: Generics. Generics are a new and interesting feature in C#. In this chapter we take a look at how to leverage generic declarations. Chapter 21: Iterators. Iterators allow for core-concise and faster code to be written. In this chapter we examine a number of different iterators available in C#. Chapter 22: Safe and Unsafe Code. In this chapter we look at how to make use of unsafe code features in C# without compromising the rest of the project. Appendix A: C# Grammar. Appendix B: Naming Conventions. Appendix C: Standard Library. Appendix D: Portability. Appendix E: XML Documentation Comments.

How to Tackle the Chapters

How you work your way through this book is entirely up to you. If you are relatively new to C#, youll probably want to start off right at the beginning and read Chapters 1 through 10. Then you can dip in and out of the other chapters as you see the need and as your programming skills with C# improve. If you are already a C# user, this book is likely to be more of a reference for you rather than a book that you read beginning to end, and you can dig into the various chapters as you need the information. The appendixes are resources for you to dip into when you need information on a particular aspect of C#. Unless you are totally committed to C#, we dont expect you to read these beginning to end. (Feel free to do so if you want to just remember that we warned you!)

A Few Tips . . .
This is a pretty big book and as such may seem daunting. As we sit at our desks writing this book, we can look up at the shelves in the office and see a number of big, thick books that we havent looked at in ages. We dont want this book to be one that just sits on the shelf gathering dust. We suggest that you make the book as readable as possible. As you read it and find something thats of particular use, get a highlighter pen (or better still, a fine colored pen, since that gives you better control than a highlighter) and highlight it. Additionally, make notes in the margin as to why you found that bit interesting, useful, or relevant. By doing so when you are reading a given page, it will make the information easier to find the next time you want to refer to it. Also, as you are reading, you might find it useful to turn down the corners of pages or add your own notes using Post-it Notes. Some of the most useful books we have on our shelves are ones that weve personalized in this way. You will also need access to a Windows-based PC with the Microsoft .NET Framework installed on it (chances are that you already have this installed). You will also need to have a minimum of a basic Windows text editor and a working knowledge of using Windows command-line applications.

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Introduction

Conventions
To help you get the most from the text and keep track of whats happening, weve used a number of conventions throughout the book. Tips, hints, tricks, and asides to the current discussion are offset and placed in italics like this. As for styles in the text: New terms and important words are highlighted when theyre introduced. Keyboard combinations appear like this: Ctrl+A. Filenames, URLs, and code within the text appear in monospaced font, like this: persistence.properties. Code is presented in two ways:

A gray background highlights examples of new and important code. The gray highlighting is not used for code thats less important in the present context or that has been shown before.

Source Code
As you work through the examples in this book, you may choose either to type all the code manually or to use the source code files that accompany the book. All of the source code used in this book is available for download at http://www.wrox.com. At the site, simply locate the books title (either by using the Search box or by using one of the title lists) and click the Download Code link on the books detail page to obtain all the source code for the book. Because many books have similar titles, you may find it easiest to search by ISBN; this books ISBN is 0-470-04641-4 (changing to 978-0-470-04641-8 as the new industry-wide 13-digit ISBN numbering system is phased in by January 2007). Decompress the downloaded code with your favorite compression tool. Alternatively, you can go to the main Wrox code-download page at http://www.wrox.com/dynamic/books/download.aspx to see the code available for this book and for all other Wrox books.

Errata
We make every effort to ensure that there are no errors in the text or in the code. However, no one is perfect, and mistakes do occur. If you find an error in one of our books, like a spelling mistake or faulty piece of code, we would be very grateful for your feedback. By sending in errata, you may save another reader hours of frustration, and at the same time you will be helping us provide even higher-quality information.

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Introduction
To find the errata page for this book, go to http://www.wrox.com and locate the title using the Search box or one of the title lists. Then, on the book details page, click the Book Errata link. On this page you can view all errata that has been submitted for this book and posted by Wrox editors. A complete book list including links to each books errata is also available at www.wrox.com/misc-pages/booklist.shtml. If you dont spot your error on the Book Errata page, go to www.wrox.com/contact/techsupport .shtml and complete the form there to send us the error you have found. Well check the information and, if appropriate, post a message to the books errata page and fix the problem in subsequent editions of the book.

p2p.wrox.com
For author and peer discussion, join the P2P forums at p2p.wrox.com. The forums are a Web-based system for you to post messages related to Wrox books and related technologies and interact with other readers and technology users. The forums offer a subscription feature to e-mail you topics of interest of your choosing when new posts are made to the forums. Wrox authors, editors, other industry experts, and your fellow readers are present on these forums. At http://p2p.wrox.com you will find a number of different forums that will help you not only as you read this book but also as you develop your own applications. To join the forums, just follow these steps:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Go to p2p.wrox.com and click the Register link. Read the terms of use and click Agree. Complete the required information to join as well as any optional information you want to provide and click Submit. You will receive an e-mail with information describing how to verify your account and complete the joining process.

You can read messages in the forums without joining P2P, but in order to post your own messages, you must join. Once you join, you can post new messages and respond to messages other users post. You can read messages at any time on the Web. If you would like to have new messages from a particular forum e-mailed to you, click the Subscribe to this Forum icon by the forum name in the forum listing. For more information about how to use the Wrox P2P, be sure to read the P2P FAQs for answers to questions about how the forum software works as well as many common questions specific to P2P and Wrox books. To read the FAQs, click the FAQ link on any P2P page.

xxvii

What is C#?
So, you want a C# reference? OK, well the best place to begin is by looking at what C# is and where it came from.

The Name
First off, the name. According to the ECMA-334 C# Language Specification (http://www. ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-334.htm), the name is combined of a Latin capital letter C (U+0043) followed by the number symbol # (U+0023). C# is pronounced C sharp or see sharp. The origin of the name is somewhat shrouded in mystery. Some believe that it may have been chosen by Microsoft to imply a progression from C++, with the # symbol composed of four + symbols arranged to form a square. Another origin for the name could be more musical, implying that its not as far from C as C++ is, because ++ is the symbol for the increment operator. In music, a # indicates a note that is one half step above the other, so C# might show that it is only a half step above C. The musical readers among you might have recognized that the # symbol on the keyboard is not the proper symbol for sharp. It is instead the number sign. This is used because the symbol for a musical sharp (U+266F) is not present on a standard keyboard, so expecting people to type it would be a bit of an inconvenience. Despite this symbol being used, the language is not called see pound or see hash or even see gate!

C# Over view
C# is an object-oriented programming language developed by Microsoft to become a key part of their .NET software development platform. Being object-oriented, C# is composed of a collection of individual programming units called classes that can interact with each other. C# is based on the C++ language, but there is no doubt that it was influenced by Microsofts other popular language, Visual Basic. One of the biggest advantages of C# is that its syntax (in other words, the structure of the code) is similar to that of a number of other popular programming

Chapter 1
languages, notably C++, Visual Basic, Java, and Delphi, which means that programmers from a variety of backgrounds can start programming with minimal learning. It is, however, simpler than C++ and Java.

History
C#s principal designer at Microsoft was Anders Hajlsberg. Hajlsberg brought to Microsoft considerable experience from Borland, where he wrote a Pascal compiler way back in the 1980s. In 1996 Hajlsberg left Borland to go to Microsoft, where he developed J++ and the Windows Foundation Classes before going to work on C# and the Common Language Runtime (CLR), the virtual machine and runtime library that is the cornerstone of .NET. (The .NET Framework allows code to be run on the host system). Hajlsberg had been very critical of the flaws present in languages such as C++, Delphi, Java, and Smalltalk, and these were in part what drove him to develop a better language C#. This also explains why C# shares a number of similarities with C++, Delphi, and Java, to name but a few.

C# and CLR
C# was designed to take advantage of the Common Language Runtime that .NET programs all rely upon. All applications written in C# require the CLR (in other words, the Microsoft .NET framework) to run, just as Visual Basic applications needed the appropriate runtime library to run. Information on the .NET Framework, along with download information, can be found at the Microsoft website: http://msdn.microsoft.com/netframework/. The main features of the CLR include: Managed code. Managed code outputted by Visual Studio applications and is run by the .NET Framework. Easy/automatic application installation. This can be carried out using Global Assembly Cache. Memory management. The CLR offers programmers an easy yet effective way to manage memory. This means better performance with less code. Automatic garbage collection. The .NET Framework automatically frees up memory when objects are no longer required. Excellent levels of security during execution. The .NET Framework includes an integrated security model that grants permission to resources based on evidence found in assemblies.

Diversions Into .NET

Just a quick diversion into .NET. The Microsoft .NET platform has four cornerstone components: .NET Building Block Services such as Passport .NET Compact Framework which runs on devices such as mobile phones and PDAs .NET user experience through XML integration (forms and so on) .NET Infrastructure such as the .NET Framework Common Language Runtime and .NET Framework Class Libraries and development applications such as Microsoft Visual Studio.NET

What is C#?
All the .NET programming languages have the .NET Framework class libraries integrated into them. The .NET class libraries also support functions such as file I/O, database operations, XML (Extensible Markup Language) and SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol). The important thing to remember about .NET programming or .NET development is that this means leveraging the .NET Framework, which includes the runtime environment and the class libraries.

Standards
One of the great things about C# is that Microsoft submitted the language to ECMA (European Computer Manufacturers Association) for format standardization. In December 2001, ECMA released the ECMA-334 C# Language Specification, and in 2003, C# became an ISO standard (ISO/IEC 23270). The ECMA-334 language specification can be downloaded free of charge from the ECMA website: http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-334.htm. The ISO/IEC 23270 standard is available for purchase from the ISO website (http://www.iso.org) or an electronic version can be downloaded free of charge. In Visual Studio 2005, Microsoft added support to C# for generics, partial types, and other features. While standardization has been proposed for these features, they are not currently part of the specification.

Other Implementations
C# has evolved from just being a Microsoft language to the point where there are independent implementations of C# in development. Two of the biggest are: DotGNU http://www.dotgnu.org/ Mono http://www.gotmono.com/

Its great to see a flourishing community build up around C#. This will give programmers wanting to make use of C# greater choice and flexibility. As with all independent implementations, however, you have to expect a certain amount of drift from the standards.

Sample C# Code
So, what does C# code look like? Well, well be looking at C# code a lot later in this book, but to begin with, heres a simple Hello, World! sample:
public class MyClass { public static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

Chapter 1
What will this code do when it has been compiled? Nothing exciting, just output the text Hello, World! to the output console (as shown in Figure 1-1).

Figure 1-1

The great thing about C# is that even if you knew nothing about the language, you could probably figure out how to change the message displayed on the screen to say something else with little or no difficulty. For example:
public class MyClass { public static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(C# Rules!); } }

This simple change changes the message displayed onscreen (see Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2

What is C#?
The simplicity of C# would also allow someone with very little experience to change the code to allow for multiple lines of text to be displayed (see Figure 1-3).
public class MyClass { public static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(C# Rules!); System.Console.WriteLine(C# is easy!); } }

Figure 1-3

Thats pretty simple stuff, even for a total beginner to grasp! Such ease of understanding is one of the elements that have made C# such a popular programming language. Dont think that its just simple stuff that C# is up to; this is merely the tip of the iceberg. C# is a fullfeatured and robust programming language thats up to any task to which you set it.

The Benefits of Learning C#

So, what are the advantages of taking the C# route? Well, as you have just seen, the main advantage that C# offers is a far shallower learning curve than that presented by other languages. Anyone with even a casual background in C, C++, or Java will have minimal problems with C#. C# also makes it easy for those with background in JavaScript, Visual Basic, or even VBScript to make the transition. Venturing into the realm of opinion (and your mileage may vary on this), we find that C# even beats Visual Basic .NET because C#s language is a lot less verbose, which makes even complicated programs seem more readable and concise.

Chapter 1

Summar y
This chapter provided a very quick look at what C# is. You examined the origin of its name and had a very quick tour of the language, starting with its history and moving on to look at how C# fits in with Microsoft .NET. You then took a look at the standards behind C# and discovered that there are implementations of C# by groups and companies other than Microsoft. Finally, you saw some very simple C# code (just to get some code into this chapter!) before looking at the benefits of learning C#. With all that out of the way, Chapter 2 looks at how you can get started using C#! We think youll be surprised just how little you need!

Getting Started with C#

You cant do any programming without having the right tools for the job! This chapter looks at what you need to get started with C#. We will cover both ends of the spectrum, from simple, no-cost tools to a cheap tool that will make programming in C# easier, all the way to the top-of-the-range tools that will set you back a small fortune!

Getting Into C# is Cheaper Than You Think!

When most people think of C#, they instantly think Microsoft. Then they start to think about how much its going to cost them to make use of the language after all, Microsoft is in the business of selling software, and that software can cost a lot. The truth is that you can start to use C# for absolutely nothing. Many people find this hard to believe at first, but its absolutely true. You can create C#-based applications for nothing. If you go to the other end of the cost spectrum, however, you can also spend a lot of money, buy expensive development environments, and use those to develop C# applications. What end of the cost spectrum you choose to work with is entirely up to you and is based on your needs.

The Cheap End of the Spectrum

At the cheap end are the no-cost C# development tools. And dont be fooled these are Microsoft tools. The bare minimum that you need to get started with C# programming are: A text editor (like Windows Notepad) The Microsoft .NET Framework

Chapter 2
The Text Editor
Youve probably already guessed why you need the text editor it allows you to type the C# code that will be compiled. Windows Notepad, as shown in Figure 2-1, is a good place for many to start for a number of reasons: Its free. Its familiar. Its darn simple to use!

Figure 2-1

There are a number of quirks to Windows Notepad. The main one is that it always wants to save files with the .txt file extension as opposed to the .cs file extension preferred for C# source code (see Figure 2-2). The other problem with Notepad is that it offers only very basic features. Its a plain-text editor and nothing more. There are no features designed specifically for the programmer at all (or anyone else for that matter). That said, if you are looking for a cheap way to get into C#, Windows Notepad is an automatic solution if you are a Windows user (and were going to assume that you are), Notepad is already installed on your PC, ready for you to begin coding with.

Getting Started with C#

Figure 2-2

The Microsoft .NET Framework

For basic C#, the only thing in addition to a text editor you need to have installed on your PC is the Microsoft .NET Framework. Given that this has been around for some time now, its more than likely that you have it installed. The easiest way to check is to look for the files it uses. Using Windows Explorer, go to C:\WINDOWS\Microsoft.NET\Framework and see if you have folders there. (In Figure 2-3, you see three folders: v1.0.3705, v1.1.4322, and v2.0.50727. The names of these folders correspond to the version numbers of the .NET Framework you have installed.)

Figure 2-3

Chapter 2
For the purposes of this book, we are going to assume that you have the latest version of the .NET Framework installed (which at the time of writing is v2.0.50727). If you dont have this installed (or want to reinstall the latest version just to be on the safe side), you can download it from the Microsoft website at http://msdn.microsoft.com/netframework/. Thats it! Thats the basic kit that you need to leverage C#.

How to Leverage Free C# Tools

OK, you have your Windows Notepad at the ready, and youve got the latest and greatest version of .NET Framework installed. How do you start making use of these and get some results with C#?

Writing Code
Well, its pretty obvious that you type the C# code into Notepad (some simple code is shown in Figure 2-4).

Figure 2-4

The process for using these free tools goes like this:

1.

Type the code into Notepad (see Figure 2-5).

Figure 2-5

2.

Save the file, remembering to give it the .cs file extension (see Figure 2-6). We also recommend that you save it in the .NET Framework folder for the latest version of the Framework, in our case v2.0.50727 (at least until you get comfortable using the command-line compiler, which comes next).

10

Getting Started with C#

Figure 2-6

3.

Open the Command Prompt (StartRun and type cmd and click OK) and navigate to the folder where you saved the file (see Figure 2-7). Alternatively, you can use the Windows XP Open Command Window Here PowerToy and right-click the folder in Windows Explorer and chose Open Command Window Here. You can download this PowerToy from the Microsoft website at http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/downloads/powertoys/xppowertoys.mspx.

Figure 2-7

11

Chapter 2
4.
Now youre ready to compile the source code. To do this, you will use the C# command line compiler that ships with the .NET Framework. The compiler is named csc.exe and is in the root folder for the .NET Framework: v2.0.50727. The syntax for compiling the code is simple:

csc.exe source.cs

In our example, the source code is called hello.cs. This means that to compile the code you use the following at the command line (see Figure 2-8):
csc.exe hello.cs

Figure 2-8

5.

The source code should now be compiled into an executable. The name of the executable is the same as for the source code, except that the .cs is replaced with .exe. In this example, the executable is called hello.exe.

To run the executable, type the following at the command line:

hello.exe

The executable file will be executed and the message displayed onscreen (as shown in Figure 2-9). Thats it! It really is that simple to compile a C# application developed using Notepad with the command-line compiler. Its very quick and very simple, and about the only stumbling block that can trip people up is using the Command Prompt something that weve had to use less and less over the past decade!

12

Getting Started with C#

Figure 2-9

One Cheap Utility That Makes Life Easier!

We could go on for pages and pages listing dozens of different tools and software utilities that could make your C# programming experience easier and more fun. However, were not going to do that! Partly because its boring, but mostly just because its just as easy for you to fire up a web browser, take a trip over to a search engine, and do a search (for example, a search for C# tools on Google brings up 8.9 million results). There is, however, one tool that we are going to recommend if you think that a lot of your time with C# is going to be spent at the cheap end of the cost spectrum: a text editor called UltraEdit (see Figure 2-10).

Figure 2-10

13

Chapter 2
Why do we recommend UltraEdit? Quite simply because it is the best text editor you are likely to come across and because it has features specifically designed for programmers. Some of these features include: Code folding. This allows you to fold or collapse functions and structure in C# code simply by clicking [+] and [-] that appear in the interface next to the code (see this in action in Figure 2-11).

Figure 2-11

Spell-checker. Can be handy! Syntax highlighting. Preconfigured syntax highlighting within the document, making C# code easier to follow Bookmark facility. Allows you to place bookmarks within code so you can get to them easily later on Support for ASP. This means that you can use it for web-enabled .NET applications. Line numbering. A very useful feature indeed, especially when trying to track down an error! Support for big files. By big, we mean over 4GB. Excellent Search. Can make use of regular expressions for precise searching Large line lengths. Notepad wraps lines after 1,024 characters; UltraEdit supports lines up to 9,000 characters (not that youre going to need that very often).

Theres a free 45-day trial version of UltraEdit available. A single license for UltraEdit costs $39.95. We think that this represents very good value for the money. For more information on UltraEdit, visit http://www.ultraedit.com.

14

Getting Started with C#

If you want to try other text editors, a quick search of the Internet will bring dozens to your attention. A good selection is available of both free text editors (think of them as replacements for Windows Notepad) and commercial ones. We find that UltraEdit works for us, but we want you to find the text editor that works for you!

Alternative Text Editors and C# Tools

There are a number of alternative text editors and C# tools that you could choose to use. Here is a shortlist of a few that you might like to try out: Crimson Editor http://www.crimsoneditor.com/ EditPad Lite http://www.editpadpro.com/editpadlite.html NoteTab http://www.notetab.com/ Notepad ++ http://notepad-plus.sourceforge.net/ EditPad Pro http://www.editpadpro.com/ Antechinus C# Editor http://software.ivertech.com/AntechinusCEditor_software4151.htm

Programmers Notepad http://www.pnotepad.org/

Enterprise Tools - Visual Studio and Visual C#

Finally, we shift our attention from no-cost and low-cost tools to high-cost tools for C# development. Were not going to spend much time covering enterprise tools in this book, because you really cant do them justice in a few pages. And anyway, Wrox has a number of other books specific to the Visual Studio/Visual C# platforms. As far as these enterprise tools are concerned, its likely that you already have them and know how to use them or that you dont have them and arent that interested in spending a lot of cash on them. For a complete list of Wrox titles, visit our website at http://www.Wrox.com! Briefly, two products from Microsoft allow you to program using C#. These are: Microsoft Visual Studio. This is the flagship programming package from Microsoft that incorporates: .NET Framework ASP.NET Visual Basic .NET Visual C++

15

Chapter 2
Visual J# Visual C#

Microsoft Visual C#. This is the standalone version of the C# development environment included in Visual Studio.

Visual Studio (current version is called Visual Studio 2005) comes in a number of different editions: Team System Edition. Allows for collaboration among software development teams. This is the flagship edition of Visual Studio. Profession Edition. Comprehensive development environment aimed at individual developers Visual Studio Standard Edition. Simplified version of the Professional Edition Visual Studio 2005 Tools for Microsoft Office. Tools to build robust Microsoft Office solutions

There are huge benefits in terms of speed of development and ease of use to having and using these tools, and they are pretty much a must if you want to really get down and leverage the Windows operating system. However, they represent a huge learning curve to anyone not familiar with them (the integrated development environment, while making the life of the professional developer easier, isnt all that user friendly to newcomers). To smooth this over, we are going to assume that youre either already experienced in using these tools and dont need us to tell you how to do that or that you arent using these just yet and dont need them right now. Microsoft also has a low-cost/no-cost version of Visual C# called Visual C# 2005 Express Edition aimed specifically at the hobbyist, novice, or student developer. This is a great solution for those who want to get into professional development but dont want to spend a lot of money on software. For more details on Microsoft Visual Studio visit, http://msdn.microsoft.com/vstudio/.

Summar y
This chapter looked at a span of tools that you can use for C# development, ranging from free tools that will enable you to do basic C# development, all the way up to sophisticated development environments such as Visual Studio that are very powerful but also very expensive. From this point on, we are going to try to remain tool neutral, but forgive us if we sometimes use or refer to a particular application (more than likely, this will be in screenshots). You are free to use whatever software application or combination of tools best suits your needs. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the C# programming language.

16

Overview of C#
This chapter takes you on a whirlwind tour of the C# language. OK! OK! We can hear what youre
saying: But you cant compress C# into a single chapter! We dont plan to do that. What were going to do here is run through the language and introduce to you its features. These features will be covered in greater detail in later chapters.

C#
You already know that C# is pronounced see-sharp and that C# is an object-oriented, type-safe (this means that you cannot treat a value as a type to which it does not belong; more on this later) language thats similar to C or C++.

C# Basics
Lets start by looking at the universal Hello, World! program in C#:
using System; class MyClass { static void Main() { Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

The preceding code is the source for the program, stored in text files that will have the extension .cs (for example, helloworld.cs). A C# program can consist of one or more source files.

Chapter 3
The source files are turned into programs using a compiler. Well use the command-line compiler here as opposed to looking at something more complicated, such as Visual Studio .NET. To compile this, we use the following command:
csc helloworld.cs

Note that to compile you will need the .NET Framework installed on the system. This is also required to run the executable. Here, csc is the C# compiler that ships with the .NET Framework (more accurately, it is csc.exe, but the extension is not needed), and helloworld.cs is the C# source file passed to the compiler as an argument for compiling. The result of compiling helloworld.cs is an executable file called by default helloworld.exe. Running the outputted executable will give the following output:
Hello, World!

Examining the C# Source Code

Lets take a look at the source code.
using System;

Here, the using directive is referencing a namespace called System. This is provided by the class library of the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI another name for the .NET Framework). It is this namespace that contains the Console class that well be using in a few lines in the source code. By making use of the using directive, we can make unqualified use of the types that are members of the namespace. What does this mean? Well, it means we have to write less code, allowing us to use:
Console.WriteLine

Instead of:
System.Console.WriteLine

OK, the savings here is only seven characters, but over the course of a program, this adds up. Notice that the method called Main is a member of a class called Hello. A static modifier is used so that the method it is assigned to becomes a method of the class rather than an instance of the class (dont worry if you dont know what this means just yet well be covering static modifiers in a later chapter). The Main method is the point at which execution begins for the application. This is called the entry point. The Hello, World output is handled by a class library that automatically handles all the work necessary to display the text onscreen.

18

Overview of C#

Types
A type is how a programming language classifies different values and expressions. While a computer stores all the data as zeros and ones, that data needs to have a context or meaning. To preserve this meaning, types are used. C# supports two basic kinds of type: Value types Reference types

These types are explained briefly in the following sections and will be expanded upon later in this book. For now, all you need to know are the kinds of types and what they represent.

Value Types
Value types are composed of the following: Enum types Struct types Simple types (for example, char, float, and int)

With value type variables, the variable contains the data, which is different from reference variables (as you will see in a moment). Also, with value types, each of the variables will have their own copy of the data and an operation on one copy does not affect any of the others.

Reference Types
Reference types are composed of the following: Array types Class types Delegate types Interface types

The main difference between reference types and value types is that with reference types the variables store references to the object rather than hold the actual data (compare this to value types). Here, if two or more variables point to the same object, an operation carried out on one affects all the other references.

Predefined Types
C# comes complete with a number of predefined types. There are two predefined reference types:
object This is the ultimate base type for all other types. string This is used to represent Unicode string values.

19

Chapter 3
The following are predefined value types: Signed integral types (int, long, sbyte, and short) Unsigned integral types (byte, unint, ulong and ushort) The types bool, char, and decimal Floating-point types (float and double)

The following table offers a complete listing of all the different types in C#, along with an explanation of the data they represent.

Type
Bool

Notes
Boolean type (values of true and false allowed) Example:
bool x = true; bool y = false;

Byte

8-bit unsigned integral type Example:

byte x = 13;

Char

A single Unicode character Example:

char x = x; char y = c;

Decimal

A high-precision decimal type, with at least 28 significant digits Example:

decimal x = 1.99M; decimal y = 9.02M;

Double

Double-precision floating point type Example:

double x = 1.99; double y = 9.02D;

Float

Single-precision floating point type Example:

float x = 1.99F;

Int

32-bit signed integral type Example:

int x = 7; int y = 17; int z = 1237;

20

Overview of C#
Type
Long

Notes
64-bit signed integral type Example:
long x = 17; long y = 37L;

Object

Base type for all other types Example:

object x = null;

Sbyte

8-bit signed integral type Example:

sbyte x = 17; sbyte y = 37;

Short

16-bit signed integral type Example:

short x = 17; short y = 37;

String

A sequence of Unicode characters Example:

string x = Hello, World!; string y = 37;

Uint

32-bit unsigned integral type Example:

uint x = 17; uint y = 37U;

Ulong

64-bit unsigned integral type Example:

ulong w = 17; ulong x = 37U; ulong y = 42L; ulong z = 54UL;

Ushort

16-bit unsigned integral type Example:

ushort x = 17;

21

Chapter 3

Overloading
Predefined types can make use of operator overloading. A good example of this are the comparison operators == and !=. They have different meanings for different predefined types, as explained below: Two expressions of int type are equal if they represent the same integer value. Example:
int x = 2; int y = 2; x == y would be true

Two expressions of object type are considered equal if both refer to the same object (or if both are null).
object x = null; object y = null; x == y would be true

Two expressions of string type are considered equal if the strings both the characters and whitespace are identical (or if both are null).
string x = Hello; string y = Hello; x == y would be true string x = Hello; string y = Hello ; x == y would be false, since whitespace differences matter.

Conversions
In C# there are two kinds of conversions between types: Implicit conversions. These are conversions that can be safely performed, and no additional scrutiny is required by the compiler to make sure that the output is accurate. Explicit conversions. With explicit conversions, there is more attention paid to the conversion and the accuracy and reliability of the output.

Array Types
C# supports both single and multidimensional arrays. As well as regular rectangular arrays, jagged arrays are supported. A jagged array is an array of an array. Jagged arrays are easy to spot in code because [] appears in the code more than once:
int[][] a2;

22

Overview of C#
Above you have an array of an array of int.
int[][][] a3;

And here is an array of an array of an array of int. Where do the names rectangular and jagged come from? Take a look at the following three-dimensional rectangular array:
int[,,] a1 = new int[10, 20, 30];

In this example, the length of a1s three dimensions are 10, 20, and 30, respectively, and this array contains 10 x 20 x 30 elements. This would make up a regular shape if drawn out. Jagged arrays, on the other hand, do not have this regular pattern.

Variables and Parameters

Variables represent storage locations, and every variable has a type that determines what values can be stored in the variable. Local variables are declared in function members (for example, methods, properties, and indexers). A local variable is defined by specifying the following: A type name A declarator that specifies the variable name and an optional initial value

The following code shows three local variable definitions:

int x; int y = 7; int z = 14;

A local variable declaration can also include multiple declarators. For example:
int x, y = 7, z = 14;

It is absolutely essential that a variable be assigned before its value can be obtained. If not, a compiler error will be generated. As an example, trying to compile the following code would result in a compiler error (because the line highlighted is using a variable that has not yet been assigned a value):
class Test { static void Main() { int x; int y = 7; int z = x + y; } }

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Chapter 3
A field is a variable associated with a class or struct or an instance of a class or struct. A field declared with the static modifier defines a static variable, and a field declared without this modifier defines an instance variable. A static field is associated with a type, and an instance variable is associated with an instance.
using Books.Data; class Titles { private static DataSet ds; public string Title; public decimal Price; }

In the preceding example, there is a class that has a private static variable and two public instance variables. Formal parameter declarations are also used to define variables. There are four different kinds: Value parameters. Used for in parameter passing, where the value of an argument is passed into a method Reference parameters. Used for by reference parameter passing, where the parameter acts as an alternative name for a caller that provided the argument Output parameters. Similar to a reference parameter, except that the initial value of the argument provided by the caller is not important Parameter arrays. Declared with a params modifier. There can be only one parameter array for any method, and it will always be the last parameter specified.

Expressions
C# includes a whole raft of operators that can be used in expressions. These are grouped into: Unary operators Binary operators Ternary operator (there is only one)

The following table further subdivides the operators present in C# and lists them in order of precedence, from highest to lowest:

24

Overview of C#
Category
Primary

Operator
x.y f(x) a[x] x++ x-new typeof checked unchecked + ! ~ ++x --x (T)x * / % + << >> < > <= >= is as == != & ^ | && || ?: Table continued on following page

Unary

Multiplicative

Additive Shift Relational/type-testing

Equality Logical AND Logical XOR Logical OR Conditional AND Conditional OR Conditional

25

Chapter 3
Category
Assignment

Operator
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=

When an expression contains multiple operators, the precedence of the operators controls the order in which the individual operators are evaluated. Precedence can be controlled by using parentheses. For example, the following expressions are processed differently:
x + y * z

Here y is multiplied by z and then the result added to x.

(x + y) * z

Here x and y are added together and the result multiplied by z.

Statements
Here is a listing of the statements present in C#. Many of them will be familiar to anyone who has used C or C++. Lists and block statements Labeled statements and goto statements Local constant declarations Local variable declarations Expression statements
if statements switch statements while statements do statements for statements

26

Overview of C#

foreach statements break statements continue statements return statements yield statements throw statements try statements checked statements unchecked statements lock statements using statements

Classes
Class declarations define new reference types. A class can inherit from another class and can also implement interfaces. All generic class declarations will have one or more type parameters. Class are made up of members and can include the following: Constants Events Fields Finalizers Indexers Instance constructors Methods Nested type declarations Operators Properties Static constructors

Each member will also have an associated accessibility, which is used to control the regions of code that are able to access the member.

27

Chapter 3
There are five possible forms of accessibility:
public Access is not limited. protected Access is limited to the containing class or types derived from the containing

class.
internal Access is limited to the program. protected internal Access is limited to the program or types derived from the

containing class.
private Access is limited to the containing type.

Constants
A constant is a class member that, as the name suggests, is used to represent a constant value. A constant value can either be declared or can be computed during compilation. Constants can depend on other constants within the same program as long as there arent any circular dependencies in the code (where A depends on B, but then B is defined and depends on A).

Fields
A field is a member used to represent a variable associated with an object or class.

Methods
A method is a member that implements an action that can be performed by an object or class. Methods have: A list of formal parameters (which can be empty) A return value (unless the return-type is void)

Methods can also be either static or nonstatic: Static methods are accessed through the class. Nonstatic methods are accessed through instances of the class.

Nonstatic methods are also known as instance methods.

Properties
A property is a member that provides access to a particular characteristic of an object or a class (for example, the length of a string). Properties are an extension of fields but differ in that they dont indicate storage locations.

28

Overview of C#
Properties have accessors that specify the statements executed when the values are read or written.

Events
An event is a member that allows an object or class to provide notifications. A class defines an event by providing an event declaration (which is of the delegate type) along with an optional set of event accessors.

Operators
An operator is a member used to define the meaning of an expression operator that can be applied to instances of the class. Three kinds of operators can be defined: Binary Conversion Unary

Indexers
An indexer is a member that allows an object to be indexed and accessed in much the same way as an array.

Instance Constructors
An instance constructor is a member that implements the actions needed to initialize an instance of a class.

Finalizers
A finalizer is a member that implements the actions required to finalize an instance of a class. These actions are carried out when a class is no longer required. Finalizers cannot make use of the following: Parameters Accessibility modifiers

Finalizers cannot be called explicitly. The finalizer for any instance is called automatically during the garbage collection process by the .NET Framework.

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Chapter 3

Static Constructors
A static constructor is a member that implements the actions needed to initialize a class. Static constructors cannot make use of any of the following: Parameters Accessibility modifiers

Static constructors cannot be called explicitly and are called automatically.

Inheritance
Classes support single inheritance (that is, they can only inherit from one class, also known as a superclass this prevents complex code structures). The type object is the base class for all classes. Methods, properties, and indexers can all be virtual. This means that their implementations can be overridden in derived classes.

Static Classes
Static classes are not intended to be instantiated, and they contain only static members. Static classes are all implicitly sealed, and they have no instance constructors.

Structs
Structs are quite similar to classes. The two main differences are: Structs are value types rather than reference types. Structs do not support inheritance.

So why use structs? Well, the main reason is performance: Because values are stored in the stack, they have a performance advantage over classes. Given the limitations of values, however, some programmers choose to opt for classes.

Interfaces
An interface is used to define a contract. But what is a contract? An interface contract is a guarantee by an object that it will support all of the elements of its interface. This contract is created using the Interface keyword, which declares a reference type that encapsulates the contract. A class or struct that implements an interface has to honor the contract, or an error occurs.

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Overview of C#
Interfaces can contain the following as members: Events Indexers Methods Properties

Delegates
Delegates allow programmers to make use of features in C# that other languages leverage using pointers. There are two main differences between delegates and pointers: Delegates are type-safe. Delegates are object-oriented.

A delegate declaration is used to define a class. This class is derived from the class System.Delegate. A delegate instance encapsulates one or more methods, and each method will be referred to as a callable entity. When dealing with instance methods, a callable entity is made up of an instance and a method on that instance. For static methods, a callable entity is made up of a method on its own.

Enums
An enum type declaration is used to define a type name for a related group of symbolic constants. Enums are used in situations where the programmer wants a fixed number of multiple choice options. The final choice is made at runtime from a set of options known at compile-time.

Generics
Generics is not a single feature but a group of features that the C# language offers. Generics is the ability that C# has to parameterize classes, structs, interfaces, and methods based on the types of data stored in them and manipulated. Many common classes and structs can be parameterized by the types of data being stored and manipulated. Parameterized classes are called generic class declarations, while parameterized structs are called generic struct declarations.

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Chapter 3
In addition, many interfaces will define contracts that can also be parameterized by the types of data they deal with. These are called generic interface declarations.

Iterators
In C#, the foreach statement is used to iterate through the elements contained in an enumerable collection. In order to be enumerable, a collection has to make use of the GetEnumerator method, which returns an enumerator. Note that GetEnumerator is a parameterless method. An iterator is a statement block used to output an ordered sequence of values. Iterators are easy to spot in code because they make use of one or more yield statements. These are:
yield return Produces the next value of the iteration yield break Used to indicate that the iteration is complete

Nullable Types
C# has support for user-defined nullable types. These nullable types provide support for nullability (that is, no value) across all value types. Nullable types are built using the type modifier ?. For example, int? is the nullable form of the type int, bool? is the nullable form of the type bool and, char? is the nullable form of the type char. A nullable types underlying type must be a non-nullable value type. Lifted conversions allow the predefined and user-defined operators that work on the standard value types to work also on the nullable versions of those types. Both nullable conversions and lifted conversions allow for predefined and user-defined conversions to work on non-nullable value types and with nullable forms of those types. Lifted operators allow for both predefined and user-defined operators that work for non-nullable value types also to work with nullable forms of those types.

Summar y
This chapter provided an overview of the C# programming language. You looked at: What C# is and where it came from C# basics

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Overview of C#
Types in C#, including overloading and conversions Variables Parameters Expressions Statements Classes Structs Interfaces Delegates Enums Generics Iterators

If youre new to C#, this chapter is recommended reading; otherwise, feel free to dip in as you wish. In Chapter 4, you go on to look at the C# language structure.

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C# Language Structure
To write good C# programs, you need to have a good understanding of the structure of C#. This chapter examines the language or lexical structure of C# programs. The order in which we are going to tackle this topic is as follows: C# programs Grammar Line terminators Comments White space Tokens Keywords Directives

C# Programs
All C# programs are made up of one or more source files. These source files, also known as compilation units, can be standalone text files or files contained within an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) such as Visual Studio. These compilation units contain an ordered sequence of Unicode characters (a round-about way of saying text) and for maximum portability, all file source files should be encoded using UTF-8 encoding. By using a simple text editor (like Notepad) or a specific development environment for C#, you will be sure that you are using the right format.

Chapter 4
A compilation unit consists of: Zero or more using directives Zero or more global attributes Zero or more namespace member declarations

An attribute is an object that represents data you want to associate with an element in your program, while an element to which you attach an attribute is called the target of that attribute. Each of these has a specific purpose: Using directives. Using directives allow for the use of namespaces (which are used to logically arrange classes, structs, interfaces, enums and delegates) and types defined in other namespaces. These affect the global attributes and namespace member declarations of a compilation unit. A Using directive from one compilation unit has no effect on other compilation units. Global attributes. These allow the specification of attributes for the whole project. Assemblies and modules both act as physical containers for types (or as a code placeholder; well look at these in greater detail later). An assembly can consist of several separate modules or for simpler projects, just the one. Namespace member declarations. These contribute members to a single declaration space called the global namespace.

When a C# program is compiled, all the compilation units are processed together, and this means that there is a dependency among them if a program consists of more than one compilation unit, the compiler will need access to all the compilation units to be able to successfully compile the source code. When a C# program is compiled, it goes through three steps: Transformation. This process converts the file into Unicode characters (from whatever character type and encoding scheme is used for the compilation units). Lexical analysis. This process translates the Unicode characters into a stream of tokens. Syntactic analysis. This is when the stream of tokens is transformed into Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) before being converted to executable code.

There are several kinds of tokens in C#: Identifiers Keywords Literals Operators Punctuators

Whitespace and comments are not tokens.

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C# Language Structure
A conforming compiler should be able to take in Unicode compilation units or source files encoded using UTF-8 and transform that into a sequence of Unicode characters. It is also possible that some compilers will take in compilation units using different encoding schemes (such as UTF-16 or UTF-32), but this should not be relied upon.

Grammars
The C# programming language uses two different kinds of grammar. Lexical grammar. This defines how Unicode characters are combined to form: Line terminators Whitespace Comments Tokens Preprocessing directives

Syntactic grammar. This defines how the valid tokens resulting from following the lexical grammar rules are combined to create C# programs.

Grammar Ambiguities
With any programming language, there is always scope for ambiguity. For example, take the following code statement:
F(X<Y, Z>(5));

This simple statement can be interpreted in two ways:

1. 2.

A call to F with two arguments: X<Y and Z>(5) A call to F with one argument that is a call to a generic method X that has two type arguments (an argument where each argument is simply a type) and a single regular argument

Fortunately, there are rules that the compiler follows to remove ambiguity. In the preceding example (where we have a sequence of tokens that end in a type argument list), the compiler takes note of the token that immediately follows the closing >. If it is one of the following:
( ) ] : ; ,

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Chapter 4

. ? == !=

The type argument list is taken to form part of the simple name, member access, or pointer member access preceding it, and all other options are discarded. If the next token isnt one listed above, the type argument list will not form part of the simple name, member access, or pointer member access preceding it. The preceding rule does not apply to parsing a type argument list in a namespace or type names. Going back to our original, rather ambiguous example:
F(X<Y, Z>(5));

Following the rules laid out above, this will be interpreted as a call to F with one argument that is a call to a generic method X that has two type arguments and a single regular argument. A couple of examples of a statement that would be interpreted as a call to F with two arguments would be as follows:
F(X<Y, Z>5); F(X<Y, Z>>5);

Lets examine another statement:

X = F<Y> + Z;

This statement will, from the perspective of the operators used, be interpreted as: Less than operator < Greater than operator > Unary-plus operator +

Another way to write the preceding statement would be:

X = (F < Y) > (+Z);

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C# Language Structure

Lexical Analysis
Every source file of a C# program has to adhere to the following lexical grammar pattern:
input: input-sectionopt input-section: input-section-part input-section input-section-part input-section-part: input-elementsopt pp-directive input-elements: input-element input-elements input-element: whitespace comment token

new-line

input-element

Five basic elements come together to form the lexical structure of a C# compilation unit. These are: Line terminators Whitespace Comments Tokens Preprocessing directives

Of all these, only tokens are important to the syntactic grammar of any C# program (except when the > token is combined with another token to make a single operator).When a compiler carries out lexical processing on a C# compilation unit, it is condensing the file into a series of tokens that then become the input for later syntactic processing. The line terminators, whitespace, and comments separating tokens are purely lexical and have no impact at all on the syntax of a C# program. Equally, preprocessing directives are used only to skip portions of the code in the source file and are again not important when it comes to syntax. Whenever there are several possible lexical grammar outputs from processing a source file, the lexical processor always picks the longest valid lexical element. For example, if the compiler encounters the following character sequence:
//

It processes and interprets it as the beginning of a single line of comment rather than two instances of the / token (which wouldnt be a single-line comment). Similarly, when the following is encountered:
!=

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Chapter 4
It is interpreted as a comparison operator. With this in mind, it is easy to see how a simple typographical mistake in the source code can result in the end program behaving in a very unusual way. More likely, though, there will be an error.

Line Terminators
A line terminator is used to divide sequences of characters in a C# source file into separate lines. There are a number of different possible line terminators: Carriage return: U+000D Line feed: U+000A A carriage return followed by a line feed: U+000D U+000A Next line: U+2085 Line separator: U+2028 Paragraph separator: U+2029

To maintain a high level of compatibility with the various source code editing tools available that add end-of-file markers and to allow source files to be looked at as a valid sequence of terminated lines, a couple of transformations are applied to every C# source file: If the final character in a C# source file is a Control-Z character (U+001A), this is deleted. A carriage return (U+000D) is added to the end of a C# source file if that file is not empty and if the last character is not a carriage return (U+000D), line feed (U+000A), next line (U+2085), line separator (U+2028), or a paragraph separator (U+2029).

Comments
Two types of comments are supported in C# source files: Delimited comments Single-line comments

The following sections provide a more detailed look at the two kinds of comments.

Delimited Comments
A delimited comment always begins with the /* characters and always ends with the */ characters. Delimited comments can also occupy a portion of a line:
/* Hello World test program */ class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

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C# Language Structure
A single line:
/* Hello World test program */ class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

Or multiple lines:
/* Hello World test program */ class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

Delimited comments can appear anywhere in the code, as long as they occupy a separate line. For example, the following are all valid:
/* Hello World test program */ class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

and:
class Test { /* Hello World test program */ static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

and:
/* Hello World test program */

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Chapter 4
class Test { static void Main() { /* String outputted to screen */ System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

However, this kind of comment layout is invalid:

class Test { static void Main() { System.Console. /* Hello World test program */ WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

Single-Line Comments
Single-line comments are, as their name suggests, comments on a single line. They begin with the // characters and extend to the end of the line:
class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); // displays Hello, World! } }

You can use as many single-line comments as you require:

// displays Hello, World! class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); // displays Hello, World! } }

Do not place single-line comments in the middle of statements. The following comments are invalid:
// displays Hello, World! class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine// displays Hello, World! (Hello, World!); } }

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C# Language Structure
And:
class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); }

Nesting Comments
You cannot and should not nest comments. For code clarity, you should not do the following: // /* Improper nesting of comments */ /* // Improper nesting of comments */ Nesting comments wont cause any error to be displayed; it is just bad form and makes the code difficult to read.

Whitespace
A white space is any character with the Unicode class Zs. This includes the space character as well as the horizontal tab character, the vertical tab character, and the form feed character.

Tokens
There are five kinds of token: Identifiers Keywords Literals Operators Punctuation

Whitespace and comments arent considered to be tokens, only separators for tokens.

Unicode Escape Sequences

Unicode escape sequences are used to represent Unicode characters. One Unicode sequence represents a single Unicode character. Unicode escape sequences are composed of the \U or \u characters followed by a hexadecimal number: \Uxxxx or \uxxxx.
\U0066 is equivalent to the character f. However, \U00660066 would be f0066, not ff. To get ff, the

following escape sequences would be required:

\U0066\U0066

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Chapter 4
The following code shows Unicode escape sequences in action:
class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(\u0048\u0065\u006C\u006c\u006f, World!); } }

The preceding code is equivalent to:

class Test { static void Main() { System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

Any Unicode escape sequences encountered in the following will be processed: Identifiers Regular string literals Character literals

Unicode escape sequences wont be processed if encountered anywhere else.

Identifiers
Rules for identifiers are exactly the same as those recommended by the Unicode Standard Annex 15 (http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/), except that: An underscore is allowable as an initial character, as is the tradition in C programming. Unicode escape sequences are allowable in identifiers. The @ character is allowable as a prefix to allow keywords to be used as identifiers. This can be extremely useful when you are using C# to interface with other programming languages. When the @ prefix is used to prefix an identifier, the identifier is called a verbatim identifier. While it is valid to use the @ prefix for identifiers that are not keywords, the practice is discouraged because of style.

Heres a look at the syntax of identifiers:

identifier: available-identifier @ identifier-or-keyword available-identifier: An identifier-or-keyword that is not a keyword identifier-or-keyword:

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C# Language Structure
identifier-start-character identifier-part-charactersopt

identifier-start-character: letter-character _ (the underscore character U+005F) identifier-part-characters: identifier-part-character identifier-part-characters identifier-part-character: letter-character decimal-digit-character connecting-character combining-character formatting-character letter-character: A Unicode character of classes Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, or Nl A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of classes Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, or Nl combining-character: A Unicode character of classes Mn or Mc A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of classes Mn or Mc decimal-digit-character: A Unicode character of the class Nd A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of the class Nd connecting-character: A Unicode character of the class Pc A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of the class Pc formatting-character: A Unicode character of the class Cf A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of the class Cf

identifier-part-character

Here are a few valid identifiers:

identifier1

_identifier
@private

Two identifiers are considered identical if they are the same after the following transformations have been applied (in the order listed): The @ prefix is removed from verbatim identifiers. Each Unicode escape sequence is transformed into Unicode characters. All formatting characters are removed.

Identifiers that make use of two consecutive underscore characters (_) are reserved for future use.

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Chapter 4
Keywords
A keyword is similar to an identifier, except that it is reserved. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers, except when prefixed with @. Here is a list of C# keywords:
abstract as base bool break byte case catch char checked class const continue decimal default delegate do double else enum event explicit extern false finally fixed float for foreach goto if implicit in int interface internal is lock long namespace new null object operator out override params private protected public readonly ref return sbyte sealed short sizeof stackalloc static string struct switch this throw true try typeof uint ulong unchecked unsafe ushort using virtual void volatile while

Literals
The job of a literal is simple it is used to represent a value in the source code. There are a number of different literals.

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C# Language Structure
Boolean Literals
There are two Boolean literals:
true false

The type of a Boolean literal is bool.

Integer Literals
Integer literals are used to write values for the following types:
int uint long ulong

Integer literals can take on two forms: Decimal value Hexadecimal value

You can determine the type of an integer literal as follows: If the integer literal has no suffix, it is of the type:
int uint long ulong

If the integer literal is suffixed with U or u, it is of the type:

uint ulong

If the integer literal is suffixed with L or l, it is of the type:

long ulong

If the integer literal is suffixed with UL, uL, Ul, LU, lU, or Lu, it is of the type:
ulong

If the value of any integer literal falls outside the range of the ulong type, a compiler error will be generated.

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Chapter 4
Real Literals
Real literals are used to write values for the following types:
float double decimal

The three types use different suffixes:

F or f for float D or d for double M or m for decimal

If no suffix is specified, the default type is double.

Character Literals
A character literal is used to represent a single character in quotes, as in x. The following table takes a look at the escape characters in C#:

Escape sequence
\ \ \\ \a \b \f \n \o \r \t \v

Character name
Single quote Double quote Backslash Alert Backspace Form feed New line Null Carriage return Horizontal tab Vertical tab

Unicode
0x0027 0x0022 0x005C 0x0007 0x0008 0x000C 0x000A 0x0000 0x000D 0x0009 0x000B

Heres a look at the syntax of character literals:

character-literal: character character:

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C# Language Structure
single-character simple-escape-sequence hexadecimal-escape-sequence unicode-escape-sequence single-character: Any character except (U+0027), \ (U+005C), and new-line-character simple-escape-sequence: one of \ \ \\ \0 \a \b \f \n \r \t \v hexadecimal-escape-sequence: \x hex-digit hex-digitopt

hex-digitopt

hex-digitopt

A character that follows a backslash character (\) must be one of the characters listed in the preceding table; otherwise, a compile-time error will occur.

String Literals
There is support for two types of string literals in C#: Regular string literals Verbatim string literals

A regular string literal is a string that consists of zero or more characters enclosed in double quotes. Regular string literals can include both simple escape sequences and hexadecimal and Unicode escape sequences.
string = Hello, World!;

A verbatim string literal is composed of the @ character followed by a double quote, then zero or more characters, and finally a closing double quote.
string = @Hello, World!;

The difference between a regular string literal and a verbatim string literal is that, in the latter, the characters that appear between the double-quote delimiters are interpreted verbatim, and string literals can span multiple lines in the source code. Note that the only exception to this verbatim processing are the \ characters, which represent a double quote.
string = @Hello , World!;

Null Literal
There isnt much to the null literal it is simply a null type.

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Chapter 4
Operators and Punctuators
C# has a number of operators and punctuators. Operators are used in expressions to describe operations involving one, two, or more operands. Punctuators are used for grouping and separating.
{ } [ ] ( ) . , : ; + * / % & | ^ ! ~ = < > ? ?? :: ++

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C# Language Structure

-&& || -> == != <= >= += -= *= /= %= &= |= ^= << <<= > > (right shift, composed of two tokens, > and >) > >= (right shift assignment, comprised of two tokens, > and >=)

Preprocessing Directives
Preprocessing directives add a great deal of functionality to your C# coding. With them, you can: Conditionally skip sections of source files Report errors Report warning conditions Delineate sections of code

The word preprocessing harks back to C and C++ and is used for consistency with these languages, as there is no preprocessing step with C#. In C# the following preprocessing directives are available:
#define and #undef Used to define and undefine conditional compilation symbols #if, #elif, #else, and #endif Used to skip sections of code

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Chapter 4

#line Used to control line numbers of errors and warnings #error and #warning Used to issue errors and warnings #region and #endregion Used to mark sections of code #pragma Used to provide contextual information to the compiler

Preprocessing directives are not C# tokens and do not form part of the syntactic grammar of C#. Each preprocessing directive must be on a new line in the source code. Additionally, each must always begin with # followed by the preprocessing directive name. Note that you can have whitespace before the # character and also between the # and the directive name, although this isnt recommended, as it can make the code harder to read. Any line of source code that contains the #define, #undef, #if, #elif, #else, #endif, or #line directive can end with a single-line comment. Delimited comments are not allowed on lines that contain preprocessing directives. Preprocessing directives can have a huge impact on the end result of compiling C# source code. For example, compiling the following:
#define A #undef B #define C #undef B class D { #if A void E() {} #else void F() {} #endif #if B void G() {} #else void H() {} #endif #if C void I() {} #else void J() {}

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C# Language Structure
#endif #if D void K() {} #else void L() {} #endif }

Is equivalent to the following:

class D { void void void void }

E() H() I() L()

{} {} {} {}

Conditional Compilation Symbols

The conditional compilation functionality is provided by #if, #elif, #else, and #endif directives, and they are controlled using preprocessing expressions and conditional compilation symbols. A conditional compilation symbol has two possible states: Defined Undefined

Initially, the symbol is set to undefined unless it has been explicitly defined otherwise. When a #defined directive is encountered, it remains as such until #undef is processed or the end of the source file is reached.

Preprocessing Expressions
Preprocessing expressions can occur in #if and #elif directives. The following operators are allowed in preprocessing expressions:
! == != && ||

Parentheses can be used to group operators. Evaluation of a preprocessing expression always yields a Boolean value.

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Chapter 4
Declaration Directives
Declaration directives are used to define or undefine conditional compilation symbols. The processing of a #define directive causes the conditional compilation symbol to become defined, starting with the source line that immediately follows the directive. The processing of a #undef directive will cause the conditional compilation symbol to become undefined, starting with the source line that immediately follows the directive. A #define can redefine a conditional compilation symbol that is already defined, without the need for an #undef directive for that symbol.

Conditional Compilation Directives

A conditional compilation directive can be used conditionally to include or exclude portions of a C# source file. When you use a conditional compilation directive, no more than one section of code is processed. The rules for processing are as follows:
#if and #elif directives are evaluated in order until one results in true. If an expression is true,

that section of code is selected. If all directives yield false, an #else directive, if present, is selected. In the event that all directives yield false and no #else is present, no selection is made.

Skipped code is not subject to lexical analysis.

Diagnostic Directives
Diagnostic directives are used explicitly to generate error and warning messages that are reported in the same way as other compile-time errors and warnings. Both
#warning Check code! and #error Code trouble here

produce a compile-time error and serve as a reminder that code needs altering.

Region Control Directives

Region control directives are used explicitly to mark regions of source code. No semantic meaning is attached to any region of code. These regions are for programmers or for use by automated tools.

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C# Language Structure
Region control directives are used as follows:
#region ...

#endregion

This is equivalent to the following:

#if true ...

#endif

Line Directives
Line directives are used to alter the line numbers and source file names reported by the compiler in output such as warnings and errors. When no #line directives are present in the source code, the compiler will report the correct line numbers and source file names in any output given.

Pragma Directives
#pragma is a preprocessing directive used to specify contextual information to a compiler.

Examples of when a pragma directive might be used include: Enabling/disabling specific warnings Specifying information that will be used by a debugger

Summar y
In this chapter you examined the lexical structure of C#, paying close attention to C# programs, grammar, line terminators, comments, whitespace, tokens, keywords, and directives. Paying close attention to the lexical grammar of C# can save you a lot of time in fewer bugs and reduced debugging time. In Chapter 5, you look at a variety of C# concepts.

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C# Concepts
In this chapter you examine some basic concepts in C#. The purpose of this analysis is to get you up to speed on the terminology and ideas that we will be expanding on later in the book. This chapter is worth a quick read even if youre familiar with, say, C++ or Java.

Application Star tup

Lets begin by looking at how application startup works in C#. An application starts to run when the execution environment calls a designated method, called the entry point. This entry point is always called Main. The entry point can take on one of four signatures:
static void Main() {...} static void Main(string[] args) {...} static int Main() {...} static int Main(string[] args) {...}

As you can see, it is possible for the entry point to return an int value that can be used during application termination. It is possible for the entry point to have one and only one parameter. This parameter can be called anything, but it has to conform to the following rules: The value of the parameter cannot be null. If you call the parameter args and if the length of the array designated by args is greater than zero, the array members args[0] through args[args.Length-1], inclusive, will be strings called application parameters. These are supplied with implementation-defined values by the host environment prior to the application being started (think of commandline arguments).

Chapter 5
There are also a few simple rules related to the Main method: A program can only contain one Main method entry point. Multiple definitions through overloading are not allowed. The entry point cannot be a generic class declaration or a generic struct declaration.

Application Termination
Youve looked at application startup; now youll look at application termination. Application termination is where control is returned to the execution environment. If the return type of the applications entry point method is set to int, the value returned will be the applications termination status code. This code allows the execution environment to determine whether the termination was successful or not. If the return type of the entry point method is void, reaching the right closing brace (}), which ends the method, or executing a return statement that has no expression will both result in a termination status code of 0. At the point just before an application termination, finalizers (see Chapter 3) for all of the objects used that have not yet been dealt with by garbage collection are called (unless this is suppressed).

C# Declarations
Declarations in C# are used to define separate aspects of a C# program. C# programs are built around a number of declarations: Type declarations. Used to define classes, delegates, enums, interfaces, and structs Namespace declarations. Contain type declarations and nested namespace declarations Various other declarations. For example, class declarations, which can contain declarations such as: Constants Events Fields Finalizers Indexers Instance constructors Methods Nested types

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C# Concepts
Operators Properties Static constructors

A declaration defines a name in the declaration space to which the declaration belongs. A compiler error will be generated if two or more declarations introduce members with the same name in a declaration space, unless: Two or more namespace declarations with the same name are allowable in the same declaration space. When this is the case, the individual namespace declarations are combined to form a single logical namespace with a single declaration space. A namespace declaration and one or more type declarations in the same declaration space can have the same name as long as the type declarations all have a minimum of one type parameter. Two or more methods with the same name but with different signatures are allowed in the same declaration. Two or more type declarations with the same name but different numbers of type parameters are allowed in the same declaration space. Two or more type declarations with the partial modifier in the same declaration space can have the same name, the same number of type parameters, and the same classification. These are combined into a single declaration space.

Declarations in separate programs but in the same namespace declaration space are allowed to have the same name. A type declaration space can never contain different kinds of members that have an identical name. There are a number of different kinds of namespace declarations: Within the source files of a program, namespace-member-declarations with no enclosing namespace-declaration are members of a single combined declaration space called the global declaration space. Within the source files of a program, namespace-member-declarations within namespacedeclarations that have the same fully qualified namespace name are members of a single combined declaration space. Each compilation-unit and namespace-body has an alias declaration space. The externalias-directive and using-alias-directive of the compilation-unit or namespacebody contributes a member to the alias declaration space. Each nonpartial class, struct, or interface declaration creates a new declaration space. Each partial class, struct, or interface declaration contributes to a declaration space shared by all matching parts in the same program. All the names are introduced into this declaration space through the type-parameter-list and class-member-declarations, struct-member-declarations, or interface-member-declarations. With the exception of overloaded instance constructor declarations and static constructor declarations, a class or struct member declaration are not able to introduce a member by the same name as the class or struct. A class, struct, or interface permits the declaration of overloaded methods and indexers. Also, a class or struct permits the declaration of overloaded instance constructors, operators, and types.

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Each enumeration declaration creates a new declaration space. The names are introduced into the declaration space through enum-member-declarations. Every block or switch block creates a declaration space for local variables and local constants called the local variable declaration space. Names are introduced into this declaration space through local-variable-declarations and local-constant-declarations. Every block or switch block creates a separate declaration space for labels called the label declaration space of the block. All names are introduced into this declaration space through labeled-statements, and the names are referenced through goto-statements.

The order in which the names are declared is usually of no significance. For example, the order is not significant for the declaration and use of:
Constants Events Finalizers Indexers Instance constructors Methods Namespaces Operators Properties Static constructors Types

However, declaration order is significant in the following circumstances: Declaration order for field declarations and local variable declarations determines the order in which any initializers are executed. Local variables and local constants have to be defined before they are used.

Declaration order for enum member declarations is important when constant-expression values are not present.

Members
Namespaces and types all have members. Members of a type can either be declared in the type or inherited from the base class of the type. When a type inherits from a base class, all members of the base class (except finalizers, instance constructors, and static constructors) become members of the derived type.

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The declared accessibility of a base class member does not control whether the members inheritedinheritance covers any member that isnt an instance constructor, static constructor, or finalizer.

Namespace Members
Any namespaces and types that dont have an enclosing namespace are members of the global namespace. Any namespaces and types declared within a namespace are members of that namespace. Namespaces have no access restrictions and are always publicly accessible. You cannot declare private, protected, or internal namespaces.

Struct Members
The members of a struct are the members declared in the struct and the members inherited from the direct base class of the struct System.ValueType and the indirect base class object.

Enumeration Members
The members of any enumeration are the constants declared in the enumeration itself and the members inherited from the direct base class System.Enum of the enumeration, along with the indirect base classes System.ValueType and object.

Class Members
The members of a class are the members declared in the class along with the members inherited from the base class. The members inherited from the base class include all of the following of the base class:
Constants Events Fields Indexers Methods Operators Properties Types

The following are not included:

Finalizers Instance constructors Static constructors

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Base class members are inherited irrespective of their accessibility. A class declaration can contain the following declarations:
Constants Events Fields Finalizers Indexers Instance constructors Methods Operators Properties Static constructors Types

Interface Members
Members of an interface are the members declared in the interface along with those declared in the base interfaces of the interface.

Array Members
All the members of an array are inherited from class System.Array, which is the abstract base type of all array types.

Delegate Members
All the members of a delegate are inherited from class System.Delegate. Delegates will be covered in greater detail in later chapters.

Member Access
Member declarations are allowed control over member access using declared accessibility (covered in the following section). When access is allowed, the member is accessible; otherwise, it is inaccessible.

Declared Accessibility
Declared accessibility of a member can be set to one of the following five categories: Public. In this case, access is not limited. Protected. Access is limited to the containing class or type derived from the containing class.

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Internal. Access is limited to the program. Protected internal. Access is limited to the program or types derived from the containing class. Private. Access is limited to the containing type.

When a member declaration does not include any access modifiers, there is a default declared accessibility: Namespaces implicitly have public declared accessibility (in fact, no access modifiers are allowed on namespace declarations). Types declared in compilation units or namespaces default to internal declared accessibility. Class members default to private declared accessibility. Struct members default to private declared accessibility. Interface members implicitly have public declared accessibility (no access modifiers are allowed). Enumeration members implicitly have public declared accessibility (no access modifiers are allowed).

Signatures
In C#, all indexes, instance constructors, methods, and operators are characterized by their signature. The following sections provide a rundown of the signature of each of these.

Index Signatures
The signature of an indexer is made up of the type of each of its formal parameters. They are processed in left-to-right order. The signature of an indexer does not include the element type or parameter names. Additionally, it does not include the params modifier that can be specified for the right-most parameter.

Instance Constructor Signatures

The signature of an instance constructor is made up of the type and style of the parameters (that is, whether it is value, reference, or output). They are processed in left-to-right order. The signature of an instance constructor does not include the parameter names or the params modifier specified for the right-most parameter.

Method Signatures
The signature of a method is made up of the following: The name of the method The number of type parameters The type and style of the parameters (that is, whether it is value, reference, or output)

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They are processed in left-to-right order. Note that the signature of a method does not include the following: Return type Parameter names Type parameter names The params modifier that can be specified for the right-most parameter

Operator Signatures
The signature of an operator is made up of the name of the operator and the type of each of the parameters. They are processed in left-to-right order. The signature of an operator does not include the following: Result type Parameter names

Signatures and Overloading

Signatures are a mechanism that allows for the overloading of members in classes, interfaces, and structs.

Overloading Indexers
Overloading indexers allows a class, interface, or struct to declare multiple indexers as long as their signatures are unique within that class, interface, or struct.

Overloading Instance Constructors

Overloading instance constructors allows a class or struct to declare multiple instance constructors as long as their signatures are different within that class or struct.

Overloading Methods
Overloading a method allows a class, interface, or struct to declare multiple methods where each has the same name as long as their signatures are different within the class, interface, or struct.

Overloading Operators
Overloading operators allows a class or struct to declare multiple operators with the same name as long as their signatures are different within that class or struct.

Scope
Scope is a term used in programming to describe the region of code within a program where it is possible to refer to an entity thats been declared without having to qualify the name.

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It is possible for various scopes to be nested, and an inner scope can declare again the meaning of a name from an outer scope. In this case, the name from the outer scope is hidden in the region of code covered by the inner scope. Furthermore, access to the outer name is possible only by qualifying the name. Here are the rules governing scope: The scope of a namespace member declared by a namespace-member-declaration that has no enclosing namespace-declaration is the entire program. The scope of a namespace member declared by a namespace-member-declaration within a namespace-declaration that has the fully qualified name is N (a shorthand representation) is the namespace-body of every namespace-declaration that has the fully qualified name is N or starts with N and is followed by a period. The scope of a namespace member declared by a namespace-member-declaration that has no enclosing namespace-declaration is the entire program. The scope of a namespace member declared by a namespace-member-declaration within a namespace-declaration that has the fully qualified name is N is the namespace-body of every namespace-declaration that has the fully qualified name N or starts with N and is followed by a period. The scope of a name defined by an extern-alias-directive covers the using-directives, global-attributes, and namespace-member-declarations of the compilation-unit or namespace-body where the extern-alias-directive is found. The scope of a name defined by a using-directive covers the global-attributes and namespace-member-declarations of the compilation-unit or namespace-body in which the using-directive is found. The scope of a member declared by a class-member-declaration is the class-body where the declaration is found. The scope of a class member also extends to the class-body of derived classes included in the accessibility domain of the member. The scope of a member declared by a struct-member-declaration is the struct-body where the declaration is found. The scope of a member declared by an enum-member-declaration is the enum-body where the declaration is found. The scope of a parameter declared in a method-declaration is the method-body of that method-declaration. The scope of a parameter declared in an indexer-declaration is the accessor-declarations of that indexer-declaration. The scope of a parameter declared in an operator-declaration is the block of that operator-declaration. The scope of a parameter declared in a constructor-declaration is the constructorinitializer and block of that constructor-declaration. The scope of a label declared in a labeled-statement is the block in which the declaration occurs.

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The scope of a local variable declared in a local-variable-declaration is the block in which the declaration occurs. The scope of a local variable declared in a switch-block of a switch statement is the switch block. The scope of a local variable declared in a for-initializer of a for statement is the for-initializer, the for-condition, and the for-iterator, along with the contained statement of the for statement. The scope of a local constant declared in a local-constant-declaration is the block in which the declaration is found.

Namespace and Type Names

A number of contexts in a C# program require a namespace-name or a type-name to be specified. The following shows the syntax for namespaces and type names.
namespace-name: namespace-or-type-name type-name: namespace-or-type-name namespace-or-type-name: identifier type-argument-listopt qualified-alias-member namespace-or-type-name . identifier type-argument-listopt

The namespace-or-type-name of a namespace-name has to refer to a namespace. Type arguments cannot be in a namespace-name. A type-name is a namespace-or-type-name that refers to a type. Following resolution as described in the following section, the namespace-or-type-name of a type-name has to refer to a type.

Memor y Management in C#
C# has at its core a rigorous memory management scheme built into the .NET Framework. This means that programmers have to write less code. Automatic memory-management policies are carried out by the garbage collector, and these policies mean that the programmer doesnt have to manually allocate and free memory used by objects. Here is the general lifecycle of an object:

1. 2.

The object is created. Memory is allocated for the object.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
The constructor is run. The object is now live. If the object is no longer in use (other than running finalizers), it needs finalization. Finalizers are run (unless overridden). The object is now inaccessible and is available for the garbage collector to carry out clean-up. The garbage collector frees up associated memory.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at a number of key concepts in C#. Application startup Application termination Declarations Members Member access Signatures Overloading Scope Namespaces and type names Memory management

In Chapter 6, you look at C# types.

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Everything in C# is a type, so its important to get a handle on what these different types are and how they work within the confines of C#.

Three Types of Types

For the purposes of this chapter, there are three kinds of type in C#: Value types Reference types Type-parameter types (form part of generics and are discussed in Chapter 20)

There is also a fourth type, used only in unsafe code called pointers, which you will come across in Chapter 22.

The Difference Between Value and Reference Types

There is a fundamental difference between value and reference types that is quite easy to understand: Value type variables: These types directly contain data. Reference type variables: These types contain only a reference to data and are known as objects.

This fundamental difference leads to some very interesting possibilities. For example, with reference types its possible for two or more variables to reference the same object, and if an operation is carried out on one variable, this affects the object referenced by all the other variables.

Chapter 6
The situation is different with value types. With value types, the variables each have their own copy of data, and working on one copy does not affect any of the others. Thus: Reference types refer to a single source of data. Value types each have their own copy of data.

This fundamental difference has huge practical applications in programming but can also be the source of a lot of problems if youre not aware of it.

ref and out Parameters

When a variable is either a ref or out parameter, it is important to note that the variable is in essence an alias for another variable rather than being a distinct variable itself. It doesnt have its own storage but instead references the storage area of another variable.

The C# Type System

Every value of any type in C# is unified and can be treated as an object, and every type, either directly or indirectly, derives from the object class type. Also, object will be the base class for all types. How the two types are treated as objects is also different: The values of reference types are handled as objects by simply viewing the value as object. The values of value types can only be treated as objects by carrying out boxing and unboxing operations (explained later in this chapter).

Value Types
Value types can be either: A struct type An enumeration type

C# offers a host of predefined struct types called simple types, and these are identified through reserved words, the syntax of which is listed as follows:
value-type: struct-type enum-type struct-type: type-name simple-type nullable-type

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simple-type: numeric-type bool numeric-type: integral-type floating-point-type decimal integral-type: sbyte byte short ushort int uint long ulong char floating-point-type: float double enum-type: type-name nullable-type: non-nullable-value-type ? non-nullable-value-type: enum-type type-name simple-type

All value types will implicitly inherit from the class object, and it is not possible for types to derive a value type, which makes value types sealed. One key aspect of a variable of the value types is that they will always, without exception, contain a value of that type. It is impossible for a value type to have a value that is null. Equally, the value of a value type cannot reference an object of a more derived type. Assignment to any variable of a value type results in a copy of that value being assigned, keeping the original value safe from alteration. This is different from reference values, where the reference is copied but not the object itself.

System.ValueType
All value types inherit implicitly from the System.ValueType class. This class inherits from the object class.

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Bear in mind that the System.ValueType class is a class-type from which every value-type is derived rather than being a value-type itself.

Default Constructors
All value types implicitly declare a public parameterless instance constructor. This constructor is called a default constructor, and it returns a zero-initialized instance known as a default value for the type. For all simple types, the default value will be produced by a bit pattern that corresponds to all zeros.

Type
sbyte byte short ushort int uint long ulong Char Float Double Decimal Bool

Default value
0

\x0000 0.0f 0.0d 0m false

For enum-types E (a shorthand notation), the default is 0. For struct-type, the default value will be the value produced when setting all the value types to their default values and all reference fields to null.

Struct Types
A struct type is a value type that can declare any of the following: Constants Fields Indexers Instance constructors Methods Nested types

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Operators Properties Static constructors

Simple Types
The predefined struct types in C# are called simple types. These are identified through the use of reserved words. These reserved words are aliases for predefined struct types contained in the System namespace. Here is a list of reserved words, along with their aliased types:

Reserved word
Bool Byte Char Decimal Double Float Int Long Sbyte Short Uint Ulong Ushort

Aliased type
System.Boolean System.Byte System.Char System.Decimal System.Double System.Single System.Int32 System.Int64 System.Sbyte System.Int16 System.Uint32 System.Uint64 System.Uint16

You can carry out more operations on simple types than is possible on other struct types: Most simple types allow values to be created by writing literals. When the operands of an expression are all value types (known as a constant expression), the compiler will evaluate the expression when it is compiled. This speeds program execution. Constants of simple types can be declared using const declarations.

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Integral Type
C# supports several different integral types, described in the following table:

Type
Sbyte

Description
Signed 8-bit integer

Value range
-128 to 127 0 to 255 -32768 to 32767 0 to 65535 -2147483648 to 2147483647 0 to 4294967295 -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 0 to 18446744073709551615 0 to 65535

Byte

Unsigned 8-bit integer

Short

Signed 16-bit integer

Ushort

Unsigned 16-bit integer

Int

Signed 32-bit integer

Uint

Unsigned 32-bit integer

Long

Signed 64-bit integer

Ulong

Unsigned 64-bit integer

Char

Unsigned 16-bit integer corresponding to the Unicode character set

Note that while char types are integral types, there are two differences: Implicit conversion to the char type from other types is not supported. Constants of the char type are written as character-literals or integer-literals and in combination with a cast to the char type.

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Types can also be signed (positive and negative) or unsigned:

Type
Sbyte Byte Short Ushort Int Uint Long Ulong Char Float Double Decimal Bool Each type also occupies a specific number of bytes in memory.

Signed?
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No N/A Yes Yes Yes No

Type
Sbyte Byte Short Ushort Int Uint Long Ulong Char Float Double Decimal Bool

Bytes Occupied
1 1 2 2 4 4 8 8 2 4 8 12 1/2

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To reduce on the system requirements of code, use the most appropriate type for your data. For example, if a short integer will do instead of a long one, use it and save six bytes for each entry. Using decimal instead of short would mean that each variable would require 12 bytes instead of two. The integral-type unary and binary operators always use the following levels of precision: signed 32-bit precision unsigned 32-bit precision signed 64-bit precision unsigned 64-bit precision

Using Types
Using types is easy. The type names prefix variable names. For example:
string str1 = Hello, World!; string str2 = str1; //str1 equals str2 int x = 10; int y = x; // y equals 10 y = 20; // y now equals 20

Floating-Point Types
C# supports two floating-point types:
Float Values ranging from approximately 1.5 1045 to 3.4 1038. Float has a precision accurate to 7 digits. Double Values ranging from approximately 5.0 10324 to 1.7 10308. Double has a precision

accurate to 15 or 16 digits.
float and double are represented using 32-bit single-precision and 64-bit double-precision formats.

The following sets of values are allowed: Positive and negative zero. In most cases, these are identical to simple zero, but some operations (division operations) distinguish between the two. Positive and negative infinity. Infinities are generated by dividing a nonzero number by zero. Not-a-Number (NaN). These are produced by invalid floating-point operations (carrying out a divide zero by zero, for example).

Floating-point operations do not produce exceptions. Instead, they produce one of the following in an exception situation: Zero Infinity NaN

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Here are the rules by which these are generated: The result of a floating-point operation can be rounded to the nearest value that can be represented by the destination format, and this may cause a nonzero value to be rounded to zero. If the magnitude of the result of a floating-point operation is too big for the destination format, the result of the operation is transformed into positive infinity or negative infinity. If a floating-point operation is invalid, the result of the operation produces NaN. If one or both operands of a floating-point operation are NaN, the result of the operation also becomes NaN.

Decimal Types
A decimal type is a 128-bit type. It has the range 1 10-28 to 1 1028 and has at least 28 significant digits. The decimal type is ideally suited for financial calculations. If a decimal arithmetic operation produces a result where the magnitude is too large for the decimal format, a System.OverflowException is thrown. Again, be aware that rounding operations can cause a loss of precision or a rounding to zero.

bool Type
The bool type represents a Boolean logic quantity that can be either true or false. There is no standard conversion between bool and other types, and it is distinct to integral types.

Enumeration Types
An enumeration type is a distinct type with named constants. Each enumeration type has an underlying type, which will be one of the following:
byte sbyte short ushort int uint long ulong

Enumeration types are defined through enumeration declarations. The direct base type of every enumeration type is the class System.Enum, while the direct base class of System.Enum is System.ValueType.

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Reference Types
A reference type is one of the following types:
class type interface type array type delegate type

A reference type value is a reference to an instance of that type, known as an object. Null values are allowed for reference types and mean that there is no instance of the type.
reference-type: class-type interface-type array-type delegate-type class-type: type-name object string interface-type: type-name array-type: non-array-type rank-specifiers non-array-type: value-type class-type interface-type delegate-type type-parameter rank-specifiers: rank-specifier rank-specifiers rank-specifier rank-specifier: [ dim-separatorsopt ] dim-separators: , dim-separators , delegate-type: type-name

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Class Types
A class type is a data structure that contains the following: Data members. These include constants and fields. Function members. These include events, methods, properties, instance constructors, indexers, operators, finalizers, and static constructors. Nested types.

Note that class types do support inheritance.

Object Type
The object class type is, ultimately, the base class of all other types and, every other type directly or indirectly derives from the object class type. The object keyword is an alias for the System.Object class.

String Type
The string type is a sealed class that inherits directly from object. Instances of the string class represent Unicode character strings and values of the string type can be written as string literals. The string keyword is an alias for the System.String class.

Array Types
An array is a data structure. An array can contain zero or more variables that are accessed through indices. The variables contained in an array (also called the elements) must all be of the same type, called the element type of the array.

Delegate Types
A delegate is a data structure that refers to one or more methods. For instance, a delegate also refers to the corresponding object instances.

The null Type

The null literal evaluates to the null value, which is used to indicate a reference that doesnt point to an object or array. It can also indicate the absence of a value. The null type has a single value, which is the null value. This means that any expression that has a null type can evaluate only to the null value.

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Boxing and Unboxing

Boxing and unboxing are key components of C# types. They act as a pathway between value and reference types by allowing value types to be converted to and from type object.

Boxing
A boxing conversion allows the programmer to implicitly convert any value type to object or System.ValueType or to any interface type implemented by the value type. There also exists an implicit boxing conversion from any enumeration type to System.Enum. Boxing a value of a value type consists of allocating an object instance and copying the value type value into that instance.

Unboxing
An unboxing conversion allows the programmer to carry out an explicit conversion from object or System.ValueType to any value type, or from any interface type to any value type that implements the interface type. There is an explicit unboxing conversion from System.Enum to any enumeration type. An unboxing operation consists of checking that the object instance is a boxed value of the given value type and then copying (not referring to) the value out of the instance.

Nullable Types
A nullable type is classed as a value type. The type specified before the ? modifier in a nullable type is called the underlying type of the nullable type. The underlying type of a nullable type can be any non-nullable value type or any type parameter limited to non-nullable value types. The underlying type of a nullable type shall not be a nullable type or a reference type.

Members
An instance of a nullable type T? has two public properties that are read-only. These are:
HasValue The type of this property is bool. Value The property is of type T.

For any instance where HasValue is true, it is said to be non-null. This instance will contain a value that will be returned by Value. If HasValue is false, the instance is said to be null. Trying to read Value will cause a System.InvalidOperationException to be thrown.

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Every nullable type T? has a public constructor. This takes a single argument of type T. Given a value x of type T, the constructor invocation below creates a non-null instance of T? where the Value property is x.
new T? (x)

Implemented Interfaces
A type of the form T? implements the same interfaces as System.Nullable<T>. This normally means that the interfaces implemented by T and T? are going to be different.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at a theme that is key to C# programming types. This chapter has revolved around the fundamental difference between value types (where each variable has an independent copy of the data) and reference types (which refer to the same data). In Chapter 7, you look at variables.

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Variables
In this chapter you look at a subject that is core to handling data of any kind in programming variables. Variables are the cornerstone of handling and passing data in C# and other programming languages. Whenever theres any data being handled or processed, variables are never far away!

What are Variables?

There are a number of ways to describe what a variable is. In cold computer terms, a variable is a storage location for data. Rather than having to mess around addressing memory locations directly (something that can lead even the best programmer into the tar pits), variables are referenced by the name attached to them. You can think of variables as storage boxes in memory. Each box is given a name and can hold specific kinds of data, called values. Every variable has a type. This type determines what values can be stored in the variable. C# is a type-safe language, and the compiler ensures that values stored in a variable are of the right type.

Not all Variables Are Created Equally

Not all variables are created in the same way. In fact, two kinds of variables can be created: Initially assigned. Here are a few simple examples:

int myInt = 3; string myString = Hello; char myChar = x;

Chapter 7
Initially unassigned. Here are a few simple examples:

int myInt; string myString; char myChar;

The difference between an initially assigned and an initially unassigned variable is that when an initially unassigned variable is created, it is created without an initial value, whereas an initially assigned variable has a well-defined initial value. A value has to be assigned to a variable before a value can be obtained from it (more on this later in this chapter).

Categories of Variables
There are seven distinct categories of variables: Static variables Instance variables Array elements Value parameters Reference parameters Output parameters Local variables

All these variables will be discussed over the course of this chapter. All seven types of variables are shown in the following code snippet:
class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

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Below is a list of the variable names used, along with the type of variable each name represents:
StaticVar This is a static variable. ArrayEl This is an array element. InstanceVar This is an instance variable. ValueParam This is a value parameter. RefParam This is a reference parameter. OutputParam This is an output parameter. LocalVar This is a local variable.

Lets take a look at each of these variable categories in turn.

Static Variables
Static variables are initially assigned variables. Any field declared with a static modifier is called a static variable. These variables come into being before the execution of a static constructor for the containing type. The variable disappears when the application domain it is associated with no longer exists. The initial value of the static variable is the default value of the type of the variable.
class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Array Elements
Array elements are initially assigned. The elements of an array appear when the array instance is created and disappears when there is no longer any reference to that array instance.

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The initial value of each array element is the default value of the type of the element.
class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Instance Variables
Any field declared without the static modifier is known as an instance variable. Instance variables can be used in the following: Classes Structs

class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Using Instance Variables in Classes

Instance variables used in classes are initially assigned variables. An instance variable of a class comes into being when a new instance of that class is created. The variable disappears when there are no longer any references to that instance (and any finalizers executed). The initial value of any instance variable of a class is the default value of the variable type.

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Using Instance Variables in Structs
Instance variables used in structs are initially assigned variables if the struct variable is assigned and are unassigned if the struct variable is unassigned. Instance variables of structs have the same lifecycle as that of the struct itself. That is, they are created when the struct is created and disappear when the struct ends.

Value Parameter
Value parameters are initially assigned. A value parameter is declared without a ref or out modifier. The lifecycle of a value parameter starts when the function member (instance constructor, accessor, method, or operator) to which the parameter belongs is invoked. Value parameters are initialized with the value of the argument given during invocation. Value parameters end on return of the function member (except where the parameter is captured by an anonymous method or the function member body is an iterator block).
class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Reference Parameters
When within function members, reference parameters are initially assigned. A parameter that has been declared with a ref modifier is called a reference parameter. It is important to note that reference parameters dont themselves create new storage locations in memory. Instead, they are a representation of an existing storage location. This means that the value of a reference parameter is always the same as that of the underlying variable.
class VarEx {

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public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Output Parameters
A parameter declared with an out modifier is called an output parameter. As with reference parameters, output parameters do not create any new storage locations on memory. Output parameters reference the same storage location as the variable given as the argument in the function member invocation. Definite assignment rules are applicable to output parameters: No variable needs to be definitely assigned before it can be passed as an output parameter in a member invocation function. Within a function member, output parameters are initially unassigned. Output parameters of a function member have to be definitely assigned before the function member returns normally.

class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Local Variables
Local variables are declared by:
local-variable-declaration The variable will be initially assigned. foreach-statement Here the local variable is an exception variable.

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specific-catch-clause of a try-statement The variable will be initially assigned.

class VarEx { public static int StaticVar; int InstanceVar; void F(int[] ArrayEl, int ValueParam, ref int RefParam, out int OutputParam) { int LocalVar = 1; OutputVar = ValueParam + RefParam++; } }

Default Values
Variables belonging to the following categories are initialized to their default values automatically: Static variables Instance variables (of class instances) Array elements

The default value of a variable depends on the type of the variable: For a variable of a value-type, the default value will be the same as the value computed by the value-types default constructor. For reference-type, the default value is null.

Definite Assignment
If the compiler can prove that a variable has been automatically initialized or has been the target of one or more assignment, that variable is said to be definitely assigned. There are a handful of rules for definite assignment: Initially assigned variables are always considered to be definitely assigned. Initially unassigned variables are considered to be definitely assigned if all the execution paths contain one of the following: An invocation expression that passes the variable as an output parameter An object-creation expression that passes the variable as an output parameter

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A simple assignment where the variable is a left operand A local variable declaration that includes a variable initializer (local variables only)

Separate rules apply to struct-type variables and their instance variables: An instance variable is definitely assigned if the containing struct-type variable is definitely assigned. A struct-type variable is definitely assigned if each of the instance variables is also definitely assigned.

Initially Assigned Variables

The following variable categories are classified as initially assigned: Static variables Array elements Value parameters Reference parameters Instance variables of class instances Instance variables of initially assigned struct variables Variables declared by: A using statement A foreach statement A catch clause

Initially Unassigned Variables

The following variable categories are initially unassigned: Instance variables of initially unassigned struct variables Local variables (except those declared in a foreach statement, a catch clause, or a using statement) Output parameters

Rules for Determining Definite Assignment

The compiler uses specific rules to check whether a variable is definitely assigned or not. To check, the compiler processes the body of each function that contains one (or more) unassigned variables. For each such variable (v) encountered, the compiler defines the assignment state for the variable at the following spots: At the beginning of every statement At the end of every statement

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A the point where control is transferred to another statement At the beginning of every expressions At the end of every expression

What follows are rules that control how the state of a variable is determined.

General Rules for Statements

v is not definitely assigned at the start of a function member body. v is definitely assigned at the start of an unreachable statement.

The definite assignment state of v at the start of any other statement can be determined by checking the definite assignment state of v on all control-flow transfers that target the beginning of that statement. The definite assignment state of v at the end of a block (checked, unchecked, if, while, do, for, foreach, lock, using, or switch statement) is determined by the compiler by checking the definite assignment state of v on all control-flow transfers that target the end of that statement.

Rules for Block Statements, Checked, and Unchecked Statements

The definite assignment state of v on the control transfer to the first statement of the statement list in the block will be the same as the definite assignment statement of v before the block, checked, or unchecked statement.

Rules for Expression Statements

The following rules apply for an expression statement stmt that consists of the expression expr:
v has the same assignment state at the beginning of expr as it does at the beginning of stmt.

When v is definitely assigned at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned at the end point of stmt.

Rules for Declaration Statements

If stmt is a declaration statement that does not have initializers, v will have the same definite assignment state at the end point of stmt as at the beginning of stmt. If stmt is a declaration statement that does have initializers, the definite assignment state for v is determined as if stmt were a statement list, with one assignment statement for each declaration with an initializer.

Rules for If Statements

Lets take a look at an if statement called stmt with the following form:
if ( expr ) then-stmt else else-stmt

v has the same definite assignment state at the beginning of expr as at the beginning of stmt.

If v is definitely assigned at the end of expr, it is also definitely assigned during the control-flow transfer to then-stmt and to either else-stmt or to the end of stmt if there is no else clause.

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If v is definitely assigned after an expression that returns a true at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned during the control-flow transfer to then-stmt and not definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to either else-stmt or to the end of stmt if there is no else clause. If v is definitely assigned after an expression that returns a false at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to else-stmt and not definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to then-stmt. It is definitely assigned at the end of stmt if and only if it is definitely assigned at the end-point of then-stmt. If none of the rules apply, v is not definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to either the then-stmt or else-stmt or to the end of stmt in the event that there is no else clause.

Rules for Switch Statements

In a switch statement, stmt that has the controlling expression expr: The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expr is the same as the state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v at control flow transfer to a switch block statement list is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the end of expr.

Rules for While Statements

Lets take a while statement stmt of the form:
while ( expr ) while-body

v has the same definite assignment state at the beginning of expr as it does at the beginning of stmt.

If v is definitely assigned at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to while-body and until the end of stmt. If v is definitely assigned after an expression that returns a true at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned at the point of control-flow transfer to while-body but not definitely assigned at the end of stmt. If v is definitely assigned after an expression that returns a false at the end of expr, it is also definitely assigned at the point of control-flow transfer to the end point of stmt but not definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to while-body.

Rules for Do Statements

Lets take a do statement stmt of the form:
do do-body while ( expr ) ;

v has the same definite assignment state on the control-flow transfer from the beginning of stmt to do-body as at the beginning of stmt. v has the same definite assignment state at the beginning of expr as it does at the end of do-body.

If v is definitely assigned at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned on control-flow transfer to the end point of stmt.

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If v is definitely assigned after an expression that returns a false at the end of expr, it is also definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to the end point of stmt but is not definitely assigned on the control-flow transfer to do-body.

Rules for Break, Continue, and Goto Statements

The definite assignment state of v on the control-flow transfer caused by a break, continue, or goto statement is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of the statement.

Rules for Throw Statements

Take a statement stmt of the form:
throw expr ;

The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expr is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of stmt.

Rules for Return Statements

The rules for return statements depend on the form that the statement takes: For a statement stmt of the form:
return expr ;

The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expr is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of stmt. If v is an output parameter, it will be definitely assigned either:

After expr At the end of the finally block of a try-finally or try-catch-finally that encloses the return statement

If the statement stmt has the following form:

return ;

If v is an output parameter, it will be definitely assigned either: Before stmt At the end of the finally block of a try-finally or try-catch-finally that encloses the return statement

Rules for Try-Catch Statements

For a try-catch statement stmt of the form:
try try-block catch ( ... ) catch-block-1 ... catch ( ... ) catch-block-n

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The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of try-block will be the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of catch-block-i is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v at the end-point of stmt is definitely assigned if v is definitely assigned at the end of try-block and every catch-block-i.

Rules for Try-Finally Statements

Lets examine a try statement stmt of the form:
try try-block finally finally-block

The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of try-block is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of finally-block is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v at the end of stmt is definitely assigned if either:
v is definitely assigned at the end-point of try-block. v is definitely assigned at the end-point of finally-block.

Rules for Foreach Statements

Lets look at a foreach statement stmt of the form:
foreach ( type identifier in expr ) embedded-statement

The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expr is the same as the state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v on the control-flow transfer to embedded-statement or to the end point of stmt will be the same as the state of v at the end of expr.

Rules for Using Statements

Lets next take a look at a using statement stmt of the form:
using ( resource-acquisition ) embedded-statement

The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of resource-acquisition is the same as the state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v during the control-flow transfer to embedded-statement is the same as the state of v at the end of resource-acquisition.

Rules for Lock Statements

Next, a lock statement stmt of the form:
lock ( expr ) embedded-statement

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The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expr will be the same as the state of v at the beginning of stmt. The definite assignment state of v during the control-flow transfer to embedded-statement is the same as the state of v at the end of expr.

Rules for Simple Expressions

The rules regarding simple expressions apply to the following expressions: Literals Simple names Member access expressions Nonindexed base access expressions
Typeof expressions

The definite assignment state of v at the end of the expression is the same as the definite assignment state of v at the beginning of the expression The following rules: The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expr1 is the same as the definite assignment state at the beginning of expr. The definite assignment state of v at the beginning of expri (where i is greater than one) is the same as the definite assignment state at the end of expri-1. The definite assignment state of v at the end of expr is the same as the definite assignment state at the end of exprn.

Apply to these expressions: Parenthesized expressions Element access expressions Base access expressions (with indexing) Increment expressions Decrement expressions Cast expressions unary +
~ * expressions

binary +
*

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/ % << >> < <= > >= == != is as & | ^ expressions

Compound assignment expressions Checked expressions Unchecked expressions Array Delegate creation expressions

Rules for && Expressions

Next, well look at an expression expr of the form:
expr-first && expr-second

The definite assignment state of v before expr-first will be the same as the definite assignment state of v before expr. The definite assignment state of v before expr-second will be definitely assigned if the state of v after expr-first is either definitely assigned or definitely assigned after a true expression. Otherwise, it will not be definitely assigned. The definite assignment state of v after expr is determined by: If the state of v after expr-first is definitely assigned, the state of v after expr is also definitely assigned. Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-second is definitely assigned and the state of v after expr-first is definitely assigned after false expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned. Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-second is definitely assigned or definitely assigned after a true expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned after true expression.

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Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-first is definitely assigned after false expression and the state of v after expr-second is definitely assigned after false expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned after a false expression. Otherwise, the state of v after expr is not definitely assigned.

Rules for || Expressions

Next, well look at an expression expr of the form:
expr-first || expr-second

The definite assignment state of v before expr-first will be the same as the definite assignment state of v before expr. The definite assignment state of v before expr-second will be definitely assigned if the state of v after expr-first is either definitely assigned or definitely assigned after a false expression. Otherwise, it will not be definitely assigned. The definite assignment state of v after expr is determined by: If the state of v after expr-first is definitely assigned, the state of v after expr is also definitely assigned. Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-second is definitely assigned and the state of v after expr-first is definitely assigned after a false expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned. Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-second is definitely assigned or definitely assigned after true expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned after a false expression. Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-first is definitely assigned after a true expression and the state of v after expr-second is definitely assigned after a true expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned after a false expression. Otherwise, the state of v after expr is not definitely assigned.

Rules for ! Expressions

For an expression expr of the form:
! expr-operand

The definite assignment state of v before expr-operand is identical to the definite assignment state of v before expr. The definite assignment state of v after expr is determined by: If the state of v after expr-operand is definitely assigned, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned. If the state of v after expr-operand is not definitely assigned, the state of v after expr is also not definitely assigned. If the state of v after expr-operand is definitely assigned after a false expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned after a true expression. If the state of v after expr-operand is definitely assigned after a true expression, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned after a false expression.

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Rules for ?: Expressions
For an expression expr of the form:
expr-cond ? expr-true : expr-false

The definite assignment state of v before expr-cond will be the same as the state of v before expr. The definite assignment state of v before expr-true is definitely assigned if the state of v after expr-cond is definitely assigned or definitely assigned after a true expression. The definite assignment state of v before expr-false is definitely assigned if the state of v after expr-cond is definitely assigned or definitely assigned after a false expression. The definite assignment state of v after expr is determined by: If expr-cond is a constant expression with a value true, the state of v after expr is the same as the state of v after expr-true. Otherwise, if expr-cond is a constant expression with a value false, the state of v after expr is the same as the state of v after expr-false. Otherwise, if the state of v after expr-true is definitely assigned and the state of v after expr-false is definitely assigned, the state of v after expr is definitely assigned. Otherwise, the state of v after expr is not definitely assigned.

Rules for Yield Statements

Finally, lets take a look at a yield return statement stmt of the form:
yield return expr ;

A variable v has the same definite assignment state at the beginning of expr as at the beginning of stmt. If a variable v is definitely assigned at the end of expr, it is definitely assigned at the end of stmt. Otherwise, it is not definitely assigned at the end of stmt.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at one of the most important elements related to programming variables. You learned about assigned and unassigned variables, along with the seven categories of variables. After that you examined default values and definite assignment before looking in detail at the rules for definite assignment. In Chapter 8, you look at conversions in C#.

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In this chapter you look at conversions in C# and how they allow for flexibility when using types. Conversions do one thing and one thing alone allow an expression of one type to be treated as another type. Conversions can take one of two forms: Implicit. These are conversions that can occur automatically as required within the code. Explicit. These conversions require a cast to be called.

All conversions in C# must be static and must either take the type that the conversion is defined on or return that type.
int x = 01234; long y = x; // this is an implicit conversion, from int to long int z = (int) y; // this is an explicit conversion, from long to int

In the preceding example, there is a conversion from int to long. This is an implicit conversion, and expressions of the type int can be treated as though they have the type long. However, the reverse, a conversion from long to int, is an explicit conversion, and an explicit cast is needed for this to work.

Implicit Conversions
The following conversions are all considered implicit: Identity conversions Implicit numeric conversions Implicit enumeration conversions Implicit reference conversions Boxing conversions

Chapter 8
Implicit type parameter conversions Implicit constant expression conversions User-defined implicit conversions

There are many situations where an implicit conversion can occur. For example, in: Assignments Function member invocations Cast expressions

Identity Conversions
An identity conversion involves a conversion from one type to the same type. Very little is useful about this. It serves as nothing more than a way of making sure that errors arent generated when trying to convert one type to the same type.

Implicit Numeric Conversions

The following are implicit numeric conversions: From sbyte to decimal, double, float, int, long, and short From long to double, decimal, or float From ulong to double, decimal, or float From char to double, decimal, float, ushort, int, uint, long, or ulong From float to double From byte to decimal, double, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, or float From short to double, decimal, int, long, or float From ushort to double, decimal, int, uint, long, ulong, or float From int to double, decimal, long, or float From uint to double, decimal, long, ulong, or float

Conversions from int, uint, long or ulong to float and from long or ulong to double quite often cause a loss of precision in the resulting value. This should be borne in mind if youre carrying out highprecision technical work. However, such conversions will never cause a loss of magnitude of the value (a number that has a magnitude that is 103 will still retain the same magnitude). No other implicit numeric conversions cause any loss of precision in the resulting value. Its important to bear in mind that no implicit conversion to the char type is possible, and other integral values wont automatically convert to this type (if you think about it, it wouldnt make sense if they did, since character strings would make no sense as any other type).

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Implicit Enumeration Conversions

Implicit enumeration conversions simply allow the decimal integer literal 0 to be converted to any enum type without causing an error. The enum types are:
byte sbyte short ushort int uint long ulong

Implicit Reference Conversions

The following are implicit reference conversions: From any reference type to object From any class type S to any class type T, provided S is derived from T From any class type S to any interface type T, provided S implements T From any interface type S to any interface type T, provided S is derived from T From any array type to System.Array From any delegate type to System.Delegate From any array type to any interface implemented by System.Array From any delegate type to System.ICloneable From the null type to any reference type From an array type S with an element type SE to an array type T with an element type TE, provided all of the following are true:
S and T differ only in element type.

An implicit reference conversion exists from SE to TE.

From a one-dimensional array type S[] to System.Collections.Generic.IList<S> and base interfaces of this interface From a one-dimensional array type S[] to System.Collections.Generic.IList<T> and base interfaces of this interface (if there is an implicit reference conversion from S to T)

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If the type parameter is known to be a reference type, the following implicit references exist: From the null type to T From T to its effective base class C, from T to any base class of C, and from T to any interface implemented by C From T to an interface type I in Ts effective interface set and from T to any base interface of I From T to a type parameter U, provided that T depends on U

Boxing Conversions
A boxing conversion allows any value type to be implicitly converted as follows: To the type object To System.ValueType To any interface type implemented by the value type

It also allows any enum type to be implicitly converted to System.Enum. Boxing a value of a value type consists of: Allocating an object instance Copying the value type value into that instance

A few additional notes: An enum can be boxed to the type System.Enum, because it is the direct base class for all enums. A struct or enum can be boxed to the type System.ValueType, because that is the direct base class for all structs and a base class for all enums.

For any type parameter T that is not a reference type, the following are all considered to be boxing conversions: From T to its effective base class C, from T to any base class C, and from T to any interface implemented by C From T to an interface type I in Ts interface set and from T to any base interface of I

Implicit Type Parameter Conversions

For a type parameter T that is not known to be a reference type, there will be an implicit conversion from T to a type parameter U, provided that the type parameter T depends on U. At runtime, if T is a value type and U is a reference type, the conversion will be carried out as though it is a boxing conversion.

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At runtime, if both T and U are value types, T and U are necessarily the same type, and no conversion will be carried out on either of the types. At runtime, if T is a reference type, U will also be a reference type, and the conversion is carried out as either an implicit reference conversion or an identity conversion.

Implicit Constant Expression Conversions

An implicit conversion expression allows for the following conversions to be carried out: Any constant expression of the type int can be converted to byte, sbyte, short, ushort, uint, or ulong as long as the value of the constant expression is within the range of the resulting type. Any constant expression of the type long can be converted to the type ulong, as long as the value of the constant expression is not negative.

User Defined Implicit Conversions

A user-defined implicit conversion consists of: An optional standard implicit conversion, followed by The execution of a user-defined implicit conversion operator, followed by Another optional standard implicit conversion

Explicit Conversions
Explicit conversions are classed as follows: All implicit conversions Explicit numeric conversions Explicit enumeration conversions Explicit reference conversions Unboxing conversions Explicit type parameter conversions User-defined explicit conversions

Explicit Numeric Conversions

Explicit numeric conversions are conversions from one numeric type to another where an implicit conversion does not exist: From sbyte to byte, ushort, uint, ulong, or char From byte to sbyte or char

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From short to sbyte, byte, ushort, uint, ulong, or char From ushort to sbyte, byte, short, or char From int to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, uint, ulong, or char From uint to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, or char From long to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, ulong, or char From ulong to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, or char From char to sbyte, byte, or short From float to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, or decimal From double to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, or decimal From decimal to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, or double

Because explicit conversions cover all implicit and explicit numerical conversions, it is always possible to convert from one numeric type to anther using a cast expression (covered in greater detail in Chapter 9). Using explicit numeric conversions can sometimes cause a loss of information; bear this in mind if high precision is important. It is also possible for explicit numeric conversions to throw an exception. Explicit numeric conversions are processed depending on the type of conversion being carried out.

Integral Type to Integral Type

This conversion depends on the overflow-checking context in which the conversion takes place, which we will now look at. When carried out in a checked context, the conversion will be successful if the value of the source operand falls within the range of the destination type. A System.OverflowException is thrown if the value of the source operand falls outside the range of the destination type. When carried out in an unchecked context, the conversion will always be successful. The following processes will be carried out: If the source type is larger than the destination type, the source is truncated by discarding significant bits. If the source is smaller, the source value is sign-extended if the source type is signed (simply put, this means that the + or is added) or zero-extended if it is unsigned. If the source type is identical to the destination type, they are treated as equivalent.

Decimal to Integral Type

In conversions that go from decimal to an integral type, the source type is always rounded toward zero to the nearest integral value. This integer becomes the result of the conversion. There is significant loss of precision here. If the resulting integral value falls outside of the range of the destination type, the conversion results in a
System.OverflowException being thrown.

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Float/Double to Int Type
Conversion from float to int and double to int depends on the overflow-checking context in which the conversion takes place. In a checked context, the value is rounded toward zero to the nearest negative integral value. If this resulting integral value falls within the range of the destination type, the value is the result of the conversion. If it falls outside, a System.OverflowException is thrown. In an unchecked context, the conversion will always be successful. The value is rounded toward zero to the nearest integral value. If this value falls within the range of the destination type, this becomes the value of the conversion; otherwise, the result of the conversion is an unspecified value.

Double to Float
In conversions from double to float, the double value is rounded to the nearest float value. Be aware that this rounding may cause a value that is initially nonzero to be rounded to a zero value.
Double values that are too big to be represented as a float will result in a positive infinity or negative

infinity value. If the double value is NaN, the result of this conversion will also be NaN.

Float/Double to Decimal
In conversions from float or double to decimal, the source values will be converted to decimal and then subsequently rounded to the nearest number. This rounding might cause a nonzero number to be rounded to zero, which will result in a significant loss of precision. If the source number is too large to be represented as decimal or if the value is either NaN or infinity, a
System.OverflowException will be thrown.

Decimal to Float/Double
In conversions that involve a conversion from decimal to float or double, the value is rounded to the nearest float or double value as required by the code. If the value being converted does not fall within the range of the destination type, a System.OverflowException is thrown.

Explicit Enumeration Conversions

Explicit enumeration conversions are: From sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, or decimal to any enum type From any enum type to sbyte, byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double, or decimal From any enum type to any other enum type

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Explicit Reference Conversions

Explicit reference conversions are: From object to any reference type From any class type S to any class type T, as long as S is a base class of T From any class type S to any interface type T, as long as S is not sealed and provided S does not implement T From any interface type S to any class type T, as long as T is not sealed or provided T implements S From any interface type S to any interface type T, as long as S is not derived from T From System.Array and the interfaces it implements, to any array type From System.Delegate and the interfaces it implements, to any delegate type From a one-dimensional array type S[] to System.Collections.Generic.IList<T> and its base interfaces, as long as there is an explicit reference conversion from S to T From System.Collections.Generic.IList<T> and its base interfaces to a one-dimensional array type S[], as long as there is an implicit or explicit reference conversion from S[] to
System.Collections.Generic.IList<T>

From an array type S with an element type SE to an array type T with an element type TE, as long as all of the following are true:
S and T differ only in element type.

An explicit reference conversion exists from SE to TE.

For a type-parameter T which is a reference type, the following explicit reference conversions are allowable: From the effective base class C of T to T and from any base class of C to T From any interface type to T From T to any interface type I, as long as there isnt already an implicit reference conversion from T to I From a type parameter U to T, as long as T depends on U

Explicit reference conversions are carried out between reference types that require runtime checks to ensure they are correct. For an explicit reference conversion to be successful during runtime, the value of the source operand must be null, or the runtime type of the object referenced by the source operand has to be a type that can be converted to the destination type by an implicit reference conversion. If an explicit reference conversion is unsuccessful, a System.InvalidCastException is thrown.

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Unboxing Conversions
An unboxing conversion allows: An explicit conversion from type object to System.ValueType to a value type From an interface type to any value type that implements the interface type From the type System.Enum to any enumeration type

An unboxing operation is a two-step process and proceeds as follows: A check is carried out to make sure that the object instance is a boxed value of a given value or enumeration type. The value is copied from the instance.

Explicit Type Parameter Conversions

For a type parameter T that is not known to be a reference type, the following explicit conversions are allowed: From T to any interface type I, provided there is not already an implicit conversion from T to I From a type parameter U to T, provided that T depends on U

User-Defined Explicit Conversions

User-defined explicit conversions are made up of: An optional explicit conversion, followed by The execution of a user-defined implicit or explicit conversion operator, followed by Another optional standard explicit conversion

Standard Conversions
The standard conversions, explained in the following sections, are predefined and can occur as part of a user-defined conversion.

Standard Implicit Conversions

The following conversions are all standard implicit conversions: Identity conversions Implicit numeric conversions Implicit reference conversions Boxing conversions

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Implicit type parameter conversions Implicit constant expression conversions Implicit nullable conversions

Standard Explicit Conversions

The standard explicit conversions are all standard implicit conversions, along with the subset of the explicit conversions for which an opposite standard implicit conversion exists.

User-Defined Conversions
C# allows for predefined implicit and explicit conversions to be augmented by user-defined conversions. This is carried out by declaring conversion operators in class and struct types. It is not possible to redefine a conversion already defined as implicit or explicit.

User-Defined Implicit Conversions

User-defined implicit conversions from type S to type T are carried out as follows: Find the types S0 and T0 that result from deleting the trailing ? modifiers from S and T. Find the set of types, D, from which user-defined conversion operators will be considered. This set consists of S0, which is a class or struct, the base classes of S0 if S0 is a class, and T0 if T0 is a class or struct. Discover the set of applicable conversion operators, U. This is made up of the user-defined and, if S and T are both nullable, lifted implicit conversion operators declared by the classes or structs in D that convert from a type encompassing S to a type encompassed by T.

If U is empty, there is no conversion, and a compile-time error occurs. Work out the most specific source type, SX, of the operators in U. If any of the operators in U convert from S, SX is S; otherwise, SX is the most encompassed type in the combined set of source types of the operators in U. Work out the most specific target type, TX, from the operators in U. If any of the operators in U convert to T, TX is T; otherwise, TX is the most encompassed type in the combined set of target types of the operators in U. Work out the most specific conversion operator. If U contains exactly one user-defined conversion operator that converts SX to TX, this is the most specific; otherwise, if U contains one lifted conversion operator that converts from SX to TX, this is the most specific conversion operator. If the conversion is ambiguous, a compile-time error occurs. Finally, the conversions are applied as follows: If S is not SX, a standard implicit conversion from S to SX is carried out. The most specific conversion is invoked and converted from SX to TX. If TX is not T, a standard implicit conversion from TX to T is carried out.

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Anonymous Method Conversions

An implicit conversion exists from an anonymous method expression to any compatible delegate type. If D is a delegate type and A is an anonymous method expression, D is compatible with A if the following conditions are true: If A does not contain an anonymous method signature, D can have zero or more parameters of any type as long as the out parameter of D is modified. If A has an anonymous method signature, D will have the same number of parameters. Each parameter of A will be compatible with the corresponding parameter on D (this occurs when they are both of the same type and when the presence or absence of the out or ref modifiers on A match those of D).

Method Group Conversions

Method group conversions are implicit conversion methods that transform them to a compatible delegate. This is similar to the implicit anonymous group method. If D is a delegate type and E is an expression classified as a method group, D will be compatible with E if (and only if) E contains at least one method that is applicable in its normal form to any argument list having types and modifiers matching the parameter types and modifiers of D. The compile-time application of this conversion of E to D is identical to the compile-time processing of the delegate creating expression D(E).

Null Type Conversions

An implicit conversion is allowed from the null type to any nullable type. This conversion will produce a null value of the given nullable type.

Nullable Conversions
Before we look at nullable conversions, allow us to introduce two terms: Wrapping. This is a process of packaging a value of type T in an instance of type T?. A value x of type T is wrapped to type T? by evaluating a new expression: T?(x). Unwrapping. This is the process of returning a value of type T contained in an instance of type T?. This is done by evaluating the expression x.Value. Unwrapping null instances will cause a System.InvalidOperationException to be thrown.

Nullable conversions allow for predefined conversions that work on non-nullable values types. Each predefined conversion converts from a nullable value type S to a non-nullable value T.

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For every predefined implicit or explicit conversion that converts from a non-nullable value type S to a non-nullable value T, the following must exist: There must be either an implicit or explicit nullable conversion from S? to T?. There must be an implicit or explicit nullable conversion from S to T?. There must be an explicit nullable conversion from S? to T.

In the preceding, a nullable conversion can be either an implicit or explicit conversion.

Summar y
This chapter looked in detail at both implicit and explicit conversions in C#. As a standalone chapter, the content here might seem complex, which is why its recommended that you read this chapter as part of a bigger reading plan and read the referenced chapters too. In Chapter 9, you look at expressions in C#.

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In this chapter you take a detailed look at expressions in C#. Expressions are at the core of all coding that you will do, so we will take quite some time to work through the different kinds of expressions allowed in C#. Any valid sequence of operators and operands is called an expression. Expressions have a specific order for evaluating of the operands and operators. Also, different expressions will have different meanings.

Classifications of Expressions
There are a number of different classifications of expressions. Each expression falls into one category: Value. Every value will have an associated type. Variable. Every variable will have an associated type, the declared type of the variable. Namespace. Expressions with the namespace classification can only appear on the lefthand side for a member access. Type. Expressions with the type classification can only appear on the left-hand side for a member access. Method group. These are overloaded methods that result from member lookup. Anonymous method. These are expressions used on a delegate creation expression or implicitly converted to a compatible delegate type. Property access. Every property access used has an associated type, which will be the type of the property. Event access. Every event access used has an associated type, which will be the type of the event. Indexer access. Every indexer access used has an associated type, which will be the element type of the indexer.

Chapter 9
When an expression is an invocation of any method with a return type of void, the expression is classified as having no classification at all a nothing.

Results of an Expression
The result of an expression cannot be any of the following: Anonymous method Event access Method group Namespace Type

Instead, these categories are merely intermediates used in specific contexts.

Expression Values
Most expressions invariably end up with a value. Since this is the case, if the expression denotes a namespace, a nothing, or a type, a compiler error is generated. If an expression denotes a variable, indexer, or property access, the value will be implicitly and automatically substituted. Lets take a look at the rules that encompass this: Variables. Values of variables will be the value stored in the variable. Indexers. This value is obtained by invoking the get-accessor of the indexer. If no getaccessor exists, a compiler-time error results.

Property access. This value is obtained by invoking the get-accessor of the property access. If no get-accessor exists, a compiler-time error results.

Expressions and Operators

All expressions are made up of operands and operators. Operands are the inputs to the operators, and the operators are used to indicate what operations should be applied to the operands. The following table provides an example.

operand
2

operator
+

operand
5

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The commonest types of operators are mathematical operators such as +, -, *, and /. The commonest types of operands in C# include variables, constants, and expressions.

Three Kinds of Operator

There are three kinds of operators: Unary. Takes one operand and uses either prefix (-x) or postfix (x++) notation Binary. Takes two operands and all use infix notation (that is, they go between the operands)

x + y y - z

Ternary. There is only one ternary operator, ?:. This takes three operands, and it uses infix notation.

(z ? x : y)

This is a handy shorthand way of saying:

condition ? value if true : value if false

In expressions, the order of evaluation is controlled by both the precedence and associativity of the operators (discussed in more detail in the following section). Operands are processed left to right:
4 + 4 + 3 4 + 4 = 8 + 3 = 11

This order can be overridden using parentheses:

4 + (4 * 3) (4 * 3) = 12 + 4 = 16

Note that this expression:

4 + 4 * 3

Is the same as:

4 + (4 * 3)

Operator Precedence and Associativity

Expressions that contain more than one operator rely on operator precedence to control the order in which the operators are evaluated.

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Here is a table that lists the operator precedence for all operators, from high to low:

Category
Primary

Operators
x.y f(x) a[x] x++ x-new typeof checked unchecked + ! ~ ++x (T)x * / % + << >> < > <= >= is as == != & ^ | && || ??

Unary

Multiplicative

Additive Shift Relational and type-testing

Equality Logical AND Logical XOR Logical OR Conditional AND Conditional OR Null Coalesing

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Category
Assignment

Operators
?: *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=

When operands are between two operators and these two operators have the same precedence value, associativity is used to control the order of processing. These are the rules of associativity: Apart from assignment and null coalescing operators, all other binary operators are left associative. That means that operations are carried out left to right. Assignment, null coalescing, and the single ternary operator (the conditional operator) are right associative. This means that operations are carried out right to left.

Operator Overloading
All unary and binary operators have a predefined set of implementations available by default (that is, the + operator can carry out addition, the subtraction, and so on) in any expression they are used in. To augment these predefined implementations, user-defined implementations can be introduced by including operator declarations in classes and structs. User-defined operator implementations always take precedence over predefined operator implementations. Only when there is no applicable user-defined operator implementation are predefined operator implementations used. Overloadable unary operators are:
+ ! ~ ++ -true false

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Overloadable binary operators are:
+ * / % & | ^ << >> == != > < >= <=

It is important to note that when any binary operator is overloaded, the associated assignment operator, if it exists, is implicitly overloaded. In expressions, operators are referenced using operator notation, but in declarations, operators are referenced using functional notation. The following table shows the relationship between operator and functional notations for unary and binary operators.

Operator notation
op x

Functional notation
operator op(x)

Here op denotes any overloadable unary prefix operator.

x op operator op(x)

Here op denotes the unary postfix ++ and operators.

x op y Here op denotes any overloadable operator op(x,y)

binary operator. User-defined operator declarations require one or more of the parameters to be of the class or struct type that contains the operator declaration.

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User-defined operator declarations cannot modify any of the following aspects of an operator: Associativity Precedence Syntax

Unary Operator Overload Resolution

An operation that takes on the form op x or x op (where op is an overloadable unary operator and x is an expression of type X) is processed using the follow rules: The set of candidate user-defined operators provided by X for the operation operator op(x) is determined using the following rules: Given a type T and an operation operator op(A), where op is an overloadable operator and A is an argument list, the set of candidate user-defined operators provided by T for operator op(A) is determined as follows: Determine the type T0 that results from removing the trailing ? modifiers, if any, from T. For all operator op declarations in T0, if at least one operator is applicable with respect to the argument list A, the set of candidate operators consists of all applicable operator op declarations in T0. The lifted forms of the operators declared in T0 are considered also to be declared by T0. Alternatively, if T0 is object, the set of candidate operators is empty. Alternatively, the set of candidate operators provided by T0 is the set of candidate operators provided by the direct base class of T0.

If the set of candidate user-defined operators is not empty, these are then set as the candidate operators for the operation. Otherwise, the predefined unary operator op implementations become the candidate operators for the operation. If type X is not an enum type, any predefined unary operator with a parameter type that is an enum type is not considered. The following overload resolution rules are applied to the set of candidate operators to select the most appropriate operator with regard to the argument list (x). This operator becomes the result of the overload resolution process. Given a type T and an operation operator op(A), where op is an overloadable operator and A is an argument list, the set of candidate userdefined operators provided by T for operator op(A) is determined as follows: Determine the type T0 that results from removing the trailing ? modifiers, if any, from T. For all operator op declarations in T0, if at least one operator is applicable with respect to the argument list A, the set of candidate operators consists of all applicable operator op declarations in T0. The lifted forms of the operators declared in T0 are considered also to be declared by T0. Alternatively, if T0 is object, the set of candidate operators is empty. Alternatively, the set of candidate operators provided by T0 is the set of candidate operators provided by the direct base class of T0.

If overload resolution fails to select a best operator, a compiler error is generated.

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Binary Operator Overload Resolution
An operation of the form x op y, where op is an overloadable binary operator, x is an expression of type X, and y is an expression of type Y, will be processed according to the following rules: The set of candidate user-defined operators provided by X and Y for the operation operator op(x, y) are determined. The set consists of the union of the candidate operators provided by X and the candidate operators provided by Y, each determined using the rules which follow: Determine the type T0 that results from removing the trailing ? modifiers, if any, from T. For all operator op declarations in T0, if at least one operator is applicable with respect to the argument list A, the set of candidate operators consists of all applicable operator op declarations in T0. The lifted forms of the operators declared in T0 are considered also to be declared by T0. Alternatively, if T0 is an object, the set of candidate operators is empty. Alternatively, the set of candidate operators provided by T0 is the set of candidate operators provided by the direct base class of T0.

If the set of candidate user-defined operators is not empty, this is set as the candidate operators for the operation. If it is empty, the predefined binary operator op implementations become the set of candidate operators for the operation. The overload resolution rules (listed above) are applied to the set of candidate operators to select the best operator with respect to the argument list (x, y), and this operator becomes the result of the overload resolution process. If overload resolution fails to select a best operator, a compiler error is generated.

Lifted Operators
Lifted operators allow predefined and user-defined operators that operate on non-nullable value types to be used with nullable forms of those types. Lifted operators are formed from predefined and user-defined operators. These operators, however, do have to meet certain requirements, discussed as follows.

Unary Operators
The unary operators are:
+ ++ -! ~

An operator exists in a lifted form if the operand and result types are both non-nullable value types. The lifted form is constructed by adding a single ? modifier to the operand and result types (for example, !?). The lifted operator produces a null value when the operand is null.

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Equality Operators
The equality operators are:
== !=

For equality operators, a lifted form of an operator exists if the operand types are both non-nullable value types and if the result type is bool. The lifted forms are created by adding a single ? modifier to each operand type.

Relational Operators
The relational operators are:
< > <= >=

The lifted form of a relational operator exists if the operand types are both non-nullable value types and if the result type is bool. The lifted form is constructed by adding a single ? modifier to each operand type. The lifted operator produces the value false if one or both operands are null.

Member Lookup
A member lookup happens when the meaning of a name in the context of the type must be determined. A member lookup can happen as part of evaluating a simple-name or a member-access in an expression. Member lookup takes into account not only the name of a member but also the number of type parameters the member has. It also looks at whether the member is accessible. For the purposes of member lookup, both generic methods and nested generic types have the number of type parameters that are indicated in their respective declarations and all other members will have zero type parameters. A member lookup of a name N with K type parameters in a type T is processed in the following way: The set of accessible members named N is worked out: If T is a type parameter, then the set is the union of the sets of accessible members named N in each of the types specified as a primary constraint or secondary constraint for T, combined with the set of accessible members named N in object. Alternatively, the set consists of all accessible members named N in T (which includes inherited members and the accessible members named N in object). If T is a constructed type, the set of members is obtained by substituting type arguments. Members that include an override modifier are excluded from the set.

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If the set of accessible members is empty, the member lookup does not produce a match, and no further steps are made. If K is zero, all nested types whose declaration included type parameters are removed. If K is not zero, all members with a different number of type parameters are removed. The members hidden by other members are also removed from the set. For every member S.M in the set, where S is the type in which the member M is declared, the following set of rules is applied: If M is a constant, enumeration member, event, field, property, or type declaration, all members declared in a base type of S will be removed from the set. If M is a method, all nonmethod members declared in a base type of S are removed.

The interface members hidden by class members are next removed from the set. For every member S.M in the set, where S is the type in which the member M is declared, the following rules are applied if S is a class declaration other than object: If M is a constant, event, enumeration member, field, property, or type declaration, all members declared in the interface declaration will be removed from the set. If M is a method, all nonmethod members declared in an interface declaration are removed.

Finally, the result of the lookup is determined: If the set is made up of a single member that is not a method, this member will become the result of the lookup. If the set contains nothing but methods, the group of methods is the result of the lookup. Otherwise, the lookup is ambiguous, and a compiler error is generated.

Base Types
For member lookups, a type T will have the following base types: If T is object, T has no base type. If T is an enum type, the base types of T are the class types System.Enum, System.ValueType, and object. If T is a struct type, the base types of T are the class types System.ValueType and object. If T is a class type, the base types of T are the base classes of T, including the class type object. If T is an interface type, the base types of T are the base interfaces of T and the class type object. If T is an array type, the base types of T are the class types System.Array and object. If T is a delegate type, the base types of T are the class types System.Delegate and object. If T is a nullable type, the base types of T are the class types System.ValueType and object.

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Function Members
Function members contain executable statements, are always members of types, and cannot be members of namespaces. C# defines the following categories of function members: Methods Properties Events Indexers User-defined operators Instance constructors Static constructors Finalizers

Following are tables that summarize the processing that takes place in constructs involving each of the six categories of function members that can be explicitly invoked. Note that e, x, y, and value indicate expressions classified as variables or values, T indicates an expression classified as a type, F is the simple name of a method, and P is the simple name of a property.

Example Method Invocation

F(x,y)

Description

Overload resolution is used to select the best method F in the containing class or struct. The method is invoked with the argument list (x, y). If the method is not static, the instance expression is this.

T.F(x,y)

Overload resolution is used to select the best method F in the class or struct T. A compiler error is generated if the method is not static. The method is invoked with the argument list (x, y).

e. F(x,y)

Overload resolution is used to select the best method F in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e. A compiler error is generated if the method is static. The method is invoked with the instance expression e and the argument list (x, y).

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Example Property Access
P

Description

The get accessor of the property P in the containing class or struct is invoked. A compiler error is generated if P is write-only. If P is not static, the instance expression is this.

P=value

The set accessor of the property P in the containing class or struct is invoked with the argument list (value). A compiler error is generated if P is read-only. If P is not static, the instance expression is this.

T.P

The get accessor of the property P in the class or struct T is invoked. A compiler error is generated if P is not static or if P is write-only.

T.P=value

The set accessor of the property P in the class or struct T is invoked with the argument list (value). A compile-time error occurs if P is not static or if P is read-only.

e.P

The get accessor of the property P in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e is invoked with the instance expression e. A compiler error is generated if P is static or if P is write-only.

e.P=value

The set accessor of the property P in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e is invoked with the instance expression e and the argument list (value). A compiler error is generated if P is static or if P is read-only.

Event Access
E +=value

The add accessor of the event E in the containing class or struct is invoked. If E is not static, the instance expression is this.

E -= value

The remove accessor of the event E in the containing class or struct is invoked. If E is not static, the instance expression is this.

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Example
T.E+=value

Description
The add accessor of the event E in the class or struct T is invoked. A compiler error is generated if E is not static.

T.E-=value

The get accessor of the event E in the class or struct T is invoked. A compiler error is generated if E is not static.

e.E+=value

The add accessor of the event E in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e is invoked with the instance expression e. A compiler error is generated if E is static.

e.E-=value

The remove accessor of the event E in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e is invoked with the instance expression e. A compile-time error occurs if E is static.

Indexer Access
e[x, y]

Overload resolution is used to select the most appropriate indexer in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e. The get accessor of the indexer is invoked with the instance expression e and the argument list (x, y). A compiler error is generated if the indexer is set to write-only.

e[x, y]=value

Overload resolution is used to select the most appropriate indexer in the class, struct, or interface given by the type of e. The set accessor of the indexer is invoked with the instance expression e and the argument list (x, y, value). A compiler error is generated if the indexer is read-only.

Operator Invocation
-x

Overload resolution is used to select the best unary operator in the class or struct given by the type of x. Overload resolution is used to select the best binary operator in the classes or structs given by the types of x and y.

x+y

Instance Constructor Invocation

New T(x,y)

Overload resolution is used to select the most appropriate instance constructor in the class or struct T.

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Argument Lists
Every function member invocation will include an argument list. This list provides the values or variable references used by the parameters of the function member. The syntax used for specifying the argument list will depend on the function member category. The following are rules for determining the argument list: For all the following, arguments are specified as an argument list (detailed later): Delegates Instance constructors Methods

For all properties, the argument list is empty when invoking the get accessor. For events, the argument list will be made up of the expression that appears as the right operand of the += or -= operator. For all indexers, the argument list is made up of the expressions specified between the square brackets ([ and ]) in the indexer access. For any user-defined operators, the argument list will be made up of the single operand of the unary operator or the two operands of the binary operator.

The arguments of the following are always passed as value parameters: Events Properties User-defined operators

Arguments of indexers are passed as value parameters or parameter arrays. Here is the structure of an argument list:
argument-list: argument argument-list , argument argument: expression ref variable-reference out variable-reference

An argument list is made up of one or more arguments. These arguments are separated by commas. Each argument can take one of the following forms: An expression used to indicate that the argument is passed as a value parameter The keyword ref followed by a variable-reference, which indicates that the argument is passed as a reference parameter The keyword out followed by a variable-reference, used to indicate that the argument is passed as an output parameter

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Overload Resolution
Overload resolution is a mechanism used by the C# compiler that allows it to select the most appropriate function member to invoke given an argument list and a set of candidate function members. Overload resolution selects the function member to invoke in the following way: Invocation of a method named in an invocation expression Invocation of an instance constructor named in an object-creation expression Invocation of an indexer accessor through an element access Invocation of a predefined or user-defined operator referenced in an expression

Primar y Expressions
Primary expressions are made up of the simplest types of expression that can be found in C#:
primary-expression: array-creation-expression primary-no-array-creation-expression primary-no-array-creation-expression: literal simple-name parenthesized-expression member-access invocation-expression element-access this-access base-access post-increment-expression post-decrement-expression object-creation-expression delegate-creation-expression typeof-expression checked-expression unchecked-expression default-value-expression anonymous-method-expression

Literals
A primary expression made up of a literal will be classified as a value:
literal:: boolean-literal integer-literal real-literal character-literal string-literal null-literal

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Simple Names
A simple name is made up of an identifier. This identifier can be followed by a type argument list:
simple-name: identifier type-argument-listopt

Parenthesized Expressions
A parenthesized expression is simply enclosed by parentheses:
parenthesized-expression: ( expression )

Theres very little to a parenthesized expression the expression inside the parentheses is evaluated. The expression cannot denote a namespace or a type; otherwise, an error will be generated.

Member Access
A member access consists of either: A primary expression A predefined type Or a qualified-alias-member

These will be followed by A . token An identifier And finally, optionally followed by a type argument list

The following shows the syntax of the code that will be used:
member-access: primary-expression . identifier type-argument-listopt predefined-type . identifier type-argument-listopt qualified-alias-member . identifier type-argument-listopt predefined-type: one of bool byte char decimal double float int

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long object sbyte short string uint ulong ushort

A member access can take on either of the following forms:

E.I E.I<A1, ..., AK>

E is a primary expression, predefined type, or qualified-alias-member; I is a single identifier, and <A1, ..., AK> is an optional type argument list.

Invocation Expressions
Invocation lists are used to invoke methods:
invocation-expression: primary-expression ( argument-listopt )

The primary expression of an invocation expression is either a method group or a value of a delegate type. If the primary expression is a method group, the invocation expression is a method invocation. If the primary expression is a value of a delegate type, the invocation expression is a delegate invocation. In the event that the primary expression is not a method group or a value of a delegate type, a compiler error is generated.

Element Access
An element access is made up of: A primary-no-array-creation-expression, followed by A [ token, followed by An expression list, followed by A ] token.

The expression list consists of one or more expressions, which are separated by commas:
element-access: primary-no-array-creation-expression [ expression-list ] expression-list: expression expression-list , expression

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Array Access
For any array access, the primary-no-array-creation-expression of the element access will always be a value that is an array type. The number of expressions in the expression list has to be the same as the rank of the array type. Each expression has to be of the type:
int uint long ulong

Any type that can be implicitly converted to one or more of the preceding types

The result of evaluating an array access is a variable of the element type of the array.

Indexer Access
When dealing with indexer access, the primary-no-array-creation-expression of the element access will be one of the following: An interface type A struct A variable A value of a class

This Access
A this-access is made up of the reserved word this:
this-access: this

A this-access is only allowed in a code block of one of the following: An instance constructor An instance method An instance accessor

Base Access
A base-access is made up of the reserved word base followed by either: The . token and an identifier and optional type argument list

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Or: An expression list enclosed in square brackets

The syntax is as follows:

base-access: base . identifier type-argument-listopt base [ expression-list ]

new Operator
The new operator is used to create new instances of types. The new expression can take on three forms: Object-creation expressions. Used to create new instances of class types and value types Array-creation expressions. Used to create new instances of array types Delegate-creation expressions. Used to create new instances of delegate types

While the new operator creates a new instance of a type, it does not mean that memory has been allocated, as this is handled automatically by the .NET Framework and will only consume resources when they are required.

typeof Operator
The typeof operator is used to obtain the System.Type object for a type:
typeof-expression: typeof ( type ) typeof ( unbound-type-name ) typeof ( void ) unbound-type-name: identifier generic-dimension-specifieropt identifier :: identifier generic-dimension-specifieropt unbound-type-name . identifier generic-dimension-specifieropt generic-dimension-specifier: < commasopt > commas: , commas ,

sizeof Operator
The sizeof operator is used to return the number of 8-bit bytes occupied by a variable:
sizeof-expression: sizeof ( unmanaged-type )

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For many predefined types, the sizeof operator results in a constant int value, as shown in the following table:

Expression
sizeof(bool) sizeof(byte) sizeof(char) sizeof(decimal) sizeof(double) sizeof(float) sizeof(int) sizeof(long) sizeof(sbyte) sizeof(short) sizeof(uint) sizeof(ulong) sizeof(ushort)

Value
1 1 2 16 8 4 4 8 1 2 4 8 2

checked/unchecked Operators
The checked and unchecked operators are used to set the overflow-checking for integral-type arithmetic operations and conversions:
checked-expression: checked ( expression ) unchecked-expression: unchecked ( expression )

The checked operator is used to evaluate the contained expression in a checked context. The unchecked operator, on the other hand, evaluates the contained expression in an unchecked context.

Default Value Expression

A default value expression obtains the default value of a type. Default value expressions are usually used to type parameters to work out whether they are value types or reference types: default-value-expression: default ( type ) The result at runtime for reference values will be null, while if it is a value type, the result will be the default value of the type.

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Anonymous Methods
An anonymous-method-expression is used to define anonymous methods. They evaluate to a value referencing the method: anonymous-method-expression: delegate anonymous-method-signatureopt block anonymous-method-signature: ( anonymous-method-parameter-listopt ) anonymous-method-parameter-list: anonymous-method-parameter anonymous-method-parameter-list , anonymous-method-parameter anonymous-method-parameter: parameter-modifieropt type identifier

Unar y Expressions
The following is a list of unary expressions:
unary-expression: primary-expression + unary-expression - unary-expression ! unary-expression ~ unary-expression pre-increment-expression pre-decrement-expression cast-expression

Cast Expressions
A cast-expression is used to explicitly convert an expression to a given type:
cast-expression: ( type ) unary-expression

Arithmetic Operators
The following operators are called the arithmetic operators:
* / % +

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The syntax of these expressions is as follows:
multiplicative-expression: unary-expression multiplicative-expression * unary-expression multiplicative-expression / unary-expression multiplicative-expression % unary-expression additive-expression: multiplicative-expression additive-expression + multiplicative-expression additive-expression multiplicative-expression

Shift Operators
The two shift operators (<< and >>) are used to perform bit-shifting operations:
shift-expression: additive-expression shift-expression << additive-expression shift-expression right-shift additive-expression

The << operator shifts a value left by a number of bits specified, while the >> operator shifts a value right by a number of bits specified.

Relational/Type Testing Operators

Six relational and type-testing operators are available in C#:
== != < > <= >=

The syntax of these is as follows:

relational-expression: shift-expression relational-expression relational-expression relational-expression relational-expression relational-expression relational-expression equality-expression: relational-expression

< shift-expression > shift-expression <= shift-expression >= shift-expression is type as type

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equality-expression == relational-expression equality-expression != relational-expression

These are all comparison operators. All predefined comparison operators return a result of the bool type. The following table lists operators, along with the outcome of the operator on operands:

Operator
x == y

Outcome
If x is equal to y, the result is true. If x is not equal to y, the result is false. If x is equal to y, the result is false. If x is not equal to y, then the result is true. If x is less than y, the result is true. If x is greater than y, the result is false. If x is less than y, the result is false. If x is greater than y, the result is true. If x is less than or equal to y, the result is true. If x is greater than or equal to y, the result is false. If x is less than or equal to y, the result is false. If x is greater than or equal to y, the result is true.

x != y

x < y

x > y

x <= y

x >= y

Logical Operators
Three logical operators are available in C#:
& | ^

The & operator computes the bitwise logical AND of the two operands. The logical AND operation compares 2 bits, and if they are both 1, the result is 1; otherwise, the result is 0. The | operator computes the bitwise logical OR of the two operands. The logical OR operation compares 2 bits, and if they are both 1, the result is 1; otherwise, the result is 0. The ^ operator computes the bitwise logical exclusive OR of the two operands. The logical exclusive OR (XOR) operation compares 2 bits, and if exactly one of them is 1 (that is, if they are different values), the result is 1; otherwise (if the bits are the same), the result is 0.

Conditional Logical Operators

There are two logical conditional operators in C#:
&& ||

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The following is the syntax for these operators:
conditional-and-expression: inclusive-or-expression conditional-and-expression && inclusive-or-expression conditional-or-expression: conditional-and-expression conditional-or-expression || conditional-and-expression

The simplest way to think of && and || is as conditional forms of & and |. What do we mean by that? Well, lets look at the following operations:
x && y x || y

These are equivalent to these operations:

x & y x | y

The only difference is that y in:

x && y

is evaluated only if x is true, while for:

x || y y is evaluated only is x is false.

Null Coalescing Operator

The ?? operator is called a null coalescing operator:
null-coalescing-expression: conditional-or-expression conditional-or-expression ?? null-coalescing-expression

The ?? operator allows conditional expressions to be written that are an excellent shorthand way of replacing if statements. They take on the form:
b ? x : y

First, the condition b is evaluated. If b is true, x is evaluated and becomes the result of the operation; otherwise, y is evaluated and this becomes the result of the operation. A conditional expression can never evaluate x and y.

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Assignment Operators
The assignment operators are used to assign a new value to a variable, event, property, or indexer element. Eleven assignment operators are available in C# (most of these you will have come across already):
= += -= *= /= %= &= |= ^= <<= >>=

The = operator is called a simple assignment operator. It is used to assign the value of the right operand to the variable, property, or indexer element given by the left operand. The operators created by prefixing an = character with a binary operator are called the compound assignment operators. These operators carry out operations on the two operands and then assign the resulting value to the variable, property, or indexer element given by the left operand. The += and -= operators with an event access expression as the left operand are called the event assignment operators.

Expression
An expression is either a conditional-expression or an assignment:
expression: conditional-expression assignment

Constant Expressions
A constant expression can be fully and completely evaluated at the point that the code is compiled:
constant-expression: expression

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A constant expression can have any one of the following types:
bool byte char decimal double

enumeration type
float int long null type sbyte short string uint ulong ushort

For more information on these types, check out Chapter 6.

The following constructs are all allowed in constant expressions: Literals Null literals References to const members of class and struct types References to members of enumeration types Cast expressions (as long as the type is one of the following: bool, byte, char, decimal, double, enumeration type, float, int, long, null type, sbyte, short, string, uint, ulong, or ushort) The following unary operators:
+ ! ~

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The following binary operators:
+ * / % << >> & | ^ && || == != < > <= >=

As long as each operand is one of the following:

bool byte char decimal double

enumeration type
float int long null type sbyte short

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string uint ulong ushort

The ?: operator
sizeof expressions

Boolean Expressions
All Boolean expressions will return a result of the type bool:
boolean-expression: expression

The bool type has two possible values:

true false

Boolean expressions are important in a number of other C# statements where a controlling conditional statement is required. These statements are:
Do For If While

Boolean expressions have to be of a type that can be implicitly converted to bool or that implements operator true.

Summar y
In this chapter weve taken a detailed look at expressions in C#. These expressions will form the backbone of a majority of code that a programmer will create. In Chapter 10, you look at C# statements.

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Statements are everywhere in code. Nearly every line that you write is going to be a statement. Statements are a way to take your thoughts and organize them into logical code that the compiler can follow and process. A good understanding of statements in C# is essential to being able to write good code.

What are Statements?

A statement in C# (or almost every other programming language going) can be thought of as equivalent to a complete sentence in the English language. It might seem odd to compare a programming language with a real, living language, but this happens to be the best and easiest analogy. For example, if someone says:
I like C#.

You know exactly what they mean. However, if they said:

I like.

or
I C#.

You would realize that theres something wrong with these sentences. Theyre not complete, and they are ambiguous. The same is true for a statement in C#. A statement in C# is a complete instruction that the compiler understands and can process. The statement has to be valid and make sense to the compiler, and it has to follow syntax rules just as sentences in English must.

Chapter 10
Heres a simple statement in C#:
var1 = 3 + 4;

This is a single statement in C#. Its logical and makes perfect sense to the compiler, which will take the two numbers, add them together, and store the result in a variable called var1. No ambiguities. No problems. C# statements dont end with a period like sentences in English but instead with a semicolon (;). This is used to indicate to the compiler that the statement has ended. Just as sentences in English dont make any sense if the period is missing and they run into one another, C# statements that dont have the terminator at the end are also not valid. Just as sentences build on one another to form paragraphs, statements build to form code blocks. In code blocks, statements are processed one by one:
{ statement1; statement2; statement3; }

In this code block, three statements are processed one after the other, starting with statement1 and ending after statement3. There would be nothing technically wrong with putting all the statements on a single line the compiler can still find the end of each statement because of the semicolon:
{ statement1;statement2;statement3; }

The problem with this kind of layout is that it makes reading the code and future debugging an awful experience. The following layout is looser and makes it easier to read the code:
{ statement1; statement2; statement3; }

So far, all this seems simple enough, but as you can imagine, there are numerous specific rules governing statements, and we will be looking at these rules in the remainder of this chapter.

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C# Statements
A number of different types of statements are possible in C#:
statement: labeled-statement declaration-statement embedded-statement embedded-statement: block empty-statement expression-statement selection-statement iteration-statement jump-statement try-statement checked-statement unchecked-statement lock-statement using-statement yield-statement

An embedded-statement is used within other statements, and these must be placed within code blocks. This is a valid embedded-statement:

public class Test { public static void Main() { bool i = false; if ( i) { int j = 7; } } }

While this is invalid:

public class Test { public static void Main() { bool i = false; if ( i) int j = 7; } }

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End Point and Reachability

There are two other concepts that a programmer needs to be comfortable with: End point Reachability

End Point
Every valid statement has an end point. The end point of a statement is the end of the statement itself. Embedded statements within statements are called composite statements.

Reachability
If a statement can be reached during code execution, this statement is said to be reachable. If that statement cannot be reached, it is said to be unreachable. The following code contains reachable and unreachable statements:
public class Test { public static void Main() { int x = 6; const int y = 7; if ( x == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Reachable); if ( y == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Unreachable); } }

What makes the unreachable statement unreachable? Its that the value of y is defined as a constant and as such cannot change. This is detected by the compiler, and a warning is issued:
C:\WINDOWS\Microsoft.NET\Framework\v2.0.50727>csc test.cs Microsoft (R) Visual C# 2005 Compiler version 8.00.50727.42 for Microsoft (R) Windows (R) 2005 Framework version 2.0.50727 Copyright (C) Microsoft Corporation 2001-2005. All rights reserved. test.cs(10,9): warning CS0162: Unreachable code detected C:\WINDOWS\Microsoft.NET\Framework\v2.0.50727>

In this example, both statements are reachable:

public class Test { public static void Main() {

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int x = 6; const int y = 6; if ( x == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Reachable); if ( y == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Reachable); } }

Take a look at this code, a slight variation of the preceding code:

public class Test { public static void Main() { int x = 7; const int y = 7; if ( x == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Potentially reachable); if ( y == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Unreachable); } }

Even though the value of x makes the if statement that refers to it currently unreachable, it is potentially reachable because the value of x could later be changed. If the unreachable statement is removed (or modified) to make it reachable, the potentially reachable statement now generates a warning.
public class Test { public static void Main() { int x = 7; const int y = 7; if ( x == 6) System.Console.WriteLine(Potentially reachable); if ( y == 7) System.Console.WriteLine(Unreachable); } }

The following is always considered reachable: The block of a function member The block of an anonymous-method-expression

Reachability is determined by the compiler by evaluating each statement in a block. By carrying out this operation successively, the reachability of any statement can be determined.

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There are two scenarios where a compile-time error is generated when the end point of a statement is reachable: If the end point of a function that computes a value is reachable. In this case, the return statement is usually missing. If the end point of the statement list of a switch section is reachable. This is usually the case when a break statement is missing.

Code Blocks
A code block (also called a block) is a way to allow multiple statements to be written in situations where only a single statement is allowed.
block: { statement-listopt }

A code block consists of an optional statement-list. This is enclosed in braces ({ and }). If the statement list is omitted, the code block is said to be empty. A block can also contain declaration statements, and the scope of a local variable or constant declared in a code block is the block itself and no more. A block of code is executed as follows: If the code block is empty, control is passed straight to the end point of the code block. If the block contains statements, control is transferred to the statement list, and the statements are executed. If control reaches the end point of the statement list, control is transferred to the end point of the code block.

The statement list of a code block is always reachable if the block is reachable.

Statement Lists
A statement list consists of one or more statements written and presented in a sequence. Statement lists can be found in code blocks or in switch blocks.
statement-list: statement statement-list statement

Statement lists are executed when the control is transferred to the first statement in the list. If control reaches the end of the statement in the list, control is transferred to the end point of the statement list. For a statement in a statement list to be reachable, the following have to be true: The statement is the first in the statement list, and the statement list is reachable (the first statement in any reachable statement list is reachable). The end point of the statement coming before the current statement is reachable. The statement is labeled, and the label is referenced by a goto statement that is itself reachable.

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For the end point of a statement list to be reachable, the end point of the last statement in the list also has to be reachable.

Empty Statements
An empty statement does nothing. It is used when there are no operations to perform but a statement is required (such as in a while statement).
empty-statement: ;

When executed, an empty statement merely transfers control to the end point of the statement. The end point of an empty statement is always reachable.

Labeled Statements
A labeled statement has been prefixed by a label. This label is used to declare a unique name for the statement. These labeled statements are referenced from goto statements:
labeled-statement: identifier : statement

The scope of a label is limited to the block where the label is declared (this includes any nested blocks that the main block contains).
class Test { static void Main() { goto X; X: Console.Write(Hello, World!); } }

No two labels that share the same scope can have the same name without causing a compiler error, as will happen when compiling the following example:
class Test { static void Main() { goto X; X: Console.Write(Hello, ); X: Console.Write(World!); } }

Note that label names dont interfere with other identifiers in code. This means that you could have a label, a variable, and a parameter all with the same name in the same block of code.

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A labeled statement is reachable if the label is referenced by a goto statement that is itself reachable. The only exception is where the goto statement is inside a try that includes a finally block whose end point is unreachable, and the labeled statement is outside the try.

Declaration Statements
Declaration statements are used to declare either a local variable or a constant. Declaration statements are allowed inside code blocks, but they are not allowed inside any embedded statements:
declaration-statement: local-variable-declaration ; local-constant-declaration ;

Local Variable Declarations

Local variable declarations are used to declare one or more local variables:
local-variable-declaration: type local-variable-declarators local-variable-declarators: local-variable-declarator local-variable-declarators , local-variable-declarator local-variable-declarator: identifier identifier = local-variable-initializer local-variable-initializer: expression array-initializer

The type of declaration specifies the type of the variables brought into existence by the declaration. The type is followed by a list of declarators, each of which specifies a new variable. A declarator consists of an identifier that names the variable and is optionally followed by an = token and an initializer that gives the initial value of the variable. The value of a local variable is retrieved by an expression using a simple name, while the value of a local variable is modified using an assignment. A local variable has to be definitely assigned at each location where its value is retrieved. The scope of a local variable declared in a local variable declaration is the block in which the declaration is found. Code cannot refer to a local variable in a textual position that comes before the local variable declarator of the local variable. Also, you cannot declare another variable or constant within the scope of another variable or constant with the same name.

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Here are two ways to declare and assign a variable:
class Test { static void Main() { int x = 7; } }

And:
class Test { static void Main() { int x; x = 7; } }

The code in these two blocks is functionally equivalent.

Local Constant Declarations

Local constant declarations are used to declare one or more local constants:
local-constant-declaration: const type constant-declarators constant-declarators: constant-declarator constant-declarators , constant-declarator constant-declarator: identifier = constant-expression

The type of declaration specifies the type of the constants brought into existence by the declaration. The type is followed by a list of declarators, each of which specifies a new constant. A declarator consists of an identifier that names the variable and is optionally followed by an = token and an initializer that gives the initial value of the constant. The value of a local constant is retrieved by an expression using a simple name. The scope of a local constant declared in a local constant declaration is the block in which the declaration is found. Also, you cannot declare a constant within the scope of another constant with the same name.

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Expression Statements
Expression statements are used to evaluate an expression. Values that result from expressions are discarded unless they are preserved (by assigning them to variables):
expression-statement: statement-expression ; statement-expression: invocation-expression object-creation-expression assignment post-increment-expression post-decrement-expression pre-increment-expression pre-decrement-expression

It is important to note that some expressions are not permitted. For example, the following are used only to compute values and are not in themselves valid expressions:
x + y + z; x ==7;

Execution of an expression statement evaluates the expression and, after that is completed, transfers control to the end point of the expression statement. The end point of an expression statement is always reachable if that expression statement itself is reachable.

Selection Statements
Selection statements are used to select appropriate statements to run from a list of possible statements. The decision as to what statements to run is based on the outcome of a selection expression:
selection-statement: if-statement switch-statement

The if Statement
The if statement is used to select statements for execution based on the value of a Boolean expression:
if-statement: if ( boolean-expression ) embedded-statement if ( boolean-expression ) embedded-statement else embedded-statement

The if statement also allows for there to be an else clause. The else clause is associated with the lexically nearest preceding if allowed by the syntax. The following code examples show equivalent if statements:
if (x) {

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if (y) { A(); } else { B(); } }

And:
if (x) if (y) A(); else B();

Which style you use is a personal choice. The steps carried out to execute an if statement are as follows: The Boolean expression that the if statement depends on is first evaluated. If the Boolean expression evaluates to true, control is transferred to the first embedded statement. If control reaches the end point of that statement, control is transferred to the end point of the entire if statement. If the Boolean expression evaluates to false and an else clause is present, control is transferred to the second embedded statement. If control reaches the end point of that statement, control is transferred to the end point of the if statement. If the Boolean expression evaluates to false and if an else clause is not specified, control is transferred to the end point of the if statement.

The first embedded statement of any if statement will be reachable if the if statement is reachable and the Boolean expression does not have the constant value false. The second embedded statement of an if statement, if present, will be reachable if the if statement is reachable and the Boolean expression does not have the constant value true. The end point of any if statement will be reachable if the end point of at least one of the embedded statements is reachable. The end point of an if statement with no else part will be reachable if the if statement is reachable and the Boolean expression does not have the constant value true.

The switch Statement

The switch statement selects a statement list for execution that has a switch label that corresponds to the value of the switch expression. A switch statement is a substitute for multiple if statements both work in the same way. It is ultimately a matter of style as to which of them to use. The syntax is as follows:
switch-statement: switch ( expression ) switch-block switch-block: { switch-sectionsopt }

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switch-sections: switch-section switch-sections switch-section switch-section: switch-labels statement-list switch-labels: switch-label switch-labels switch-label switch-label: case constant-expression : default :

The switch statement consists of four parts: At the core of the switch statement is the keyword switch. Following this keyword is a parenthesized expression called the switch expression. This is followed by a switch block. A switch block is made up of zero or more switch sections enclosed in braces.
Switch sections are made up of one or more switch labels followed by a statement list.

Here is an example of a switch statement. We have labeled which statement is executed with the words executed.
public class test { public static void Main() { test a = new test(); a.xyz(1); } void xyz(int i) { switch (i) { case 0: System.Console.WriteLine(not executed); break; case 1: System.Console.WriteLine(executed); break; default: System.Console.WriteLine(not executed); break; } } }

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The governing type of a switch statement is worked out by the switch expression. If the type of the switch expression is any of the following types, that will become the governing type:
byte sbyte char int uint long ulong short ushort string

an enum type

Otherwise, one (and one only) user-defined implicit conversion operator will be present that will convert from the type of the switch expression or a base type of this type to one of the following governing types:
byte sbyte char int uint long ulong short ushort string

If no implicit conversion operator exists or if more than one such implicit conversion operator is present, a compiler error will be generated. Switch statements are executed as follows: The switch expression is evaluated and converted to the appropriate governing type. If one of the constants specified in a case label in the same switch statement matches the value of the switch expression, control is transferred to the statement list that follows the matched case label.

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If none of the constants specified in case labels in the same switch statement is equal to the value of the switch expression and if a default label is present, control is then transferred to the statement list that follows the default label. If none of the constants specified in case labels in the same switch statement is equal to the value of the switch expression and no default label is present, control is transferred to the end point of the switch statement.

In the following code example, the statement list after the default label is run:
public class test { public static void Main() { test a = new test(); a.xyz(7); } void xyz(int i) { switch (i) { case 0: System.Console.WriteLine(not executed); break; case 1: System.Console.WriteLine(not executed); break; default: System.Console.WriteLine(executed); break; } } }

Note that statement lists in a switch section usually end with one of the following statements:
break goto case goto default

However, any statement that makes the end point of the list unreachable is valid (for example, a while statement controlled by a Boolean expression that evaluates to true). Multiple labels are allowed in switch sections:
public class test { public static void Main() {

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test a = new test(); a.xyz(2); } void xyz(int i) { switch (i) { case 0: System.Console.WriteLine(not executed); break; case 1: System.Console.WriteLine(not executed); break; case 2: default: System.Console.WriteLine(executed); break; } } }

The statement lists contained in a switch block are allowed to contain declaration statements. The scope of these local variables or constants will be the switch block in which they are declared. The statement list of a given switch section is reachable if the switch statement is reachable and if one or more of the following are true: The switch expression is a constant value that matches a case label in the switch section. The switch expression is a nonconstant value. The switch expression is a constant value that doesnt match any case label, but the switch section contains the default label. A switch label of the switch section is referenced by a goto case or goto default statement that is itself reachable.

The end point of a switch statement is reachable if one or more of the following are true: The switch statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the switch statement. The switch statement is reachable, the switch expression is a nonconstant value, and there is no default label present. The switch statement is reachable, the switch expression is a constant value that doesnt match any case label, and no default label is present.

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Iteration Statements
Iteration statements are used to execute an embedded statement repeatedly:
iteration-statement: while-statement do-statement for-statement foreach-statement

The while Statement

The while statement is used to conditionally execute an embedded statement zero or more times:
while-statement: while ( boolean-expression ) embedded-statement

All while statements are evaluated as follows: First, the Boolean expression is evaluated. If the Boolean expression evaluates to true, control is transferred to the embedded statement. If control reaches the end point of the embedded statement, control is transferred to the beginning of the while statement. If the Boolean expression evaluates to false, control is transferred to the end point of the while statement.

The embedded statement of a while statement is reachable when the while statement is reachable and the Boolean expression is not set to have the constant value false. The end point of a while statement will be reachable if at least one of the following is true: The while statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the while statement. The while statement is reachable, and the Boolean expression is not set to have the constant value true.

The do Statement
The do statement is used to conditionally execute an embedded statement one (not zero) or more times:
do-statement: do embedded-statement while ( boolean-expression ) ;

All do statements are executed as follows: Control is initially passed to the embedded statement. If control reaches the end point of the embedded statement, the Boolean expression is evaluated. If that Boolean expression evaluates to true, control is transferred to the beginning of the do statement, and another iteration cycle is processed. If the Boolean expression evaluates to false, control is transferred to the end point of the do statement.

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The embedded statement of a do statement is always reachable if the do statement itself is reachable. The end point of a do statement will be reachable if at least one of the following is true: The do statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the do statement. The end point of the embedded statement is reachable, and the Boolean expression does not have the constant value true.

The for Statement

The for statement is used to evaluate a sequence of initialization expressions. While the condition evaluates to true, the for statement repeatedly executes the statement and each time evaluates the iteration expressions.
for-statement: for ( for-initializeropt ; for-conditionopt ; for-iteratoropt ) embedded-statement for-initializer: local-variable-declaration statement-expression-list for-condition: boolean-expression for-iterator: statement-expression-list statement-expression-list: statement-expression statement-expression-list , statement-expression

A for statement is executed as follows: If a for initializer is present, the variable initializers or statement expressions are executed in the order they are written. This step is only carried out once, no matter how many times the statement is executed. If a for condition is present, it is next evaluated. If the for condition is not present or if the evaluation evaluates to true, control is transferred to the embedded statement. If control reaches the end point of the embedded statement, the expressions of the for iterator, if any, are evaluated in sequence, and then another iteration is performed, starting with evaluation of the for condition from the preceding step. If the for condition is present and the evaluation evaluates to false, control is then transferred to the end point of the for statement.

The embedded statement of a for statement is reachable if one of the following is true: The for statement is reachable, and so no for condition is present. The for statement is reachable, and a for condition is present but does not have the constant value false.

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The end point of a for statement will be reachable if at least one of the following is true: The for statement contains a reachable break statement that exits the for statement. The for statement is reachable and a for condition is present but does not have the constant value true.

The foreach Statement

The foreach statement enumerates the elements of a collection, executing an embedded statement for each element of the collection:
foreach-statement: foreach ( type identifier in expression ) embedded-statement

The type and identifier of a foreach statement declare the iteration variable of the statement. The iteration variable is a read-only local variable that has scope that extends over the embedded statement. When the statement is executed, the iteration variable is used to represent the collection element for which an iteration is currently being performed. A compiler error is generated if the embedded statement tries to modify the iteration variable in any way or if an attempt is made to pass the iteration variable as a ref or out parameter.

Jump Statements
Jump statements are used to unconditionally transfer control to another statement in the code. The location to which the jump occurs is called the target of the jump statement:
jump-statement: break-statement continue-statement goto-statement return-statement throw-statement

Jump statements can transfer control from a block of code but not into a block of code.

The break Statement

The break statement is used to exit an enclosing do, for, foreach, switch, or while statements (in fact, break statements have to be enclosed by one of these statements or a compiler error will occur):
break-statement: break ;

In the event that a break statement is enclosed in a nested set of statements, the break statement applies only to the innermost statement. All break statements are processed as follows: If the break statement is used to exit one or more try blocks that have associated finally blocks, control is first transferred to the finally block of the innermost try statement. If control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is then transferred to the finally block

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of the next enclosing try statement. This process is repeated until the finally blocks of all try statements have been executed. Control is then transferred to the target of the break statement.

The end point of a break statement is never reachable.

The continue Statement

The continue statement is used to begin a new iteration cycle of the enclosing do, for, foreach, and while statements:
continue-statement: continue ;

When there are multiple enclosing do, for, foreach, and while statements, the continue statement only applies to the innermost enclosing statement. The end point of the continue statement is never reachable. A continue statement is processed as follows: If the continue statement is used to exit one or more try blocks with associated finally blocks, control is first passed to the finally block of the innermost try statement. If control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is then passed to the finally block of the next enclosing try statement. This process is repeated until the finally blocks of all try statements have been executed. Control is transferred to the target of the continue statement.

The goto Statement

The goto statement is used to transfer control to a statement that has been marked using a label:
goto-statement: goto identifier ; goto case constant-expression ; goto default ;

The target of any goto identifier statement is a statement marked by a label. If a label with the given name does not exist in the current function member, or if the goto statement is not within the scope of the label, a compiler error is generated. A goto statement is executed as follows: If the goto statement is used to exit one or more try blocks with associated finally blocks, control is first passed to the finally block of the innermost try statement. If control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is then transferred to the finally block of the next enclosing try statement. This process is repeated until the finally blocks of all try statements have been executed. Control is transferred to the target of the goto statement.

The end point of a goto statement is always unreachable.

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The return Statement
The return statement is used to return control to the caller of the function member:
return-statement: return expressionopt ;

A return statement is executed as follows: If the return statement is used to specify an expression, the expression is evaluated and the resulting value is converted to the return type of the containing function member using an implicit conversion. The result of the conversion is then set as the value returned to the caller. If the return statement is enclosed by one (or more) try blocks that have finally blocks, control is first passed to the finally block of the innermost try statement. If control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is then transferred to the finally block of the next enclosing try statement. This process is repeated until all the finally blocks of all enclosing try statements have been executed. Control is returned to the caller of the containing function member.

The end point of a return statement is always unreachable.

The throw Statement

The throw statement is used to throw exceptions:
throw-statement: throw expressionopt ;

A throw statement with an expression is used to throw the value produced by evaluating the expression. The expression will indicate a value of the class type System.Exception or a class type derived from System.Exception. If, on evaluation, the expression results in a null, a System.NullReferenceException will be thrown instead. The throw statement can be used with expressions that have a type given by a type parameter only where that type parameter has System.Exception or a subclass of System.Exception as the effective base class. A throw statement with no expression can only be used in catch blocks. Here the statement will rethrow the exception currently being handled by that catch block. The end point of a throw statement is always unreachable.

The using Statement

The using statement is used to obtain one or more resources, execute a statement, and finally dispose of the resources:
using-statement: using ( resource-acquisition ) embedded-statement resource-acquisition: local-variable-declaration expression

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A resource is a class or struct that implements the System.IDisposable interface. The using statement is only useful for objects with a lifetime that does not extend beyond the method in which the objects are constructed. A using statement is translated into three parts: Acquisition Usage Disposal

Usage of the resource will be implicitly enclosed in a try statement that includes a finally clause. This finally clause is used to dispose of the resource when it is finished. Instantiated objects must implement the System.IDisposable interface. Note that the following code snippets are equivalent in function:
using (ResourceType resource = expression) embedded-statement

And:
{ ResourceType resource = expression; try { embedded-statement } finally { } }

The yield Statement

The yield statement is used inside iterator blocks to yield a value to the enumerator object. It is also used to indicate the end of the iteration.
yield-statement: yield return expression ; yield break ;

Note that in order to maintain compatibility, yield is not a keyword. Instead, it has special meaning only when it is used before a return or break keyword. In all other contexts, yield is used as an identifier.

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There are a number of restrictions on the location where a yield statement can appear. A yield statement cannot appear outside any of the following: accessor-body, method-body, or operator-body. A yield statement cannot appear anywhere in a try statement that contains catch clauses. A yield statement cannot appear in the finally clause of a try statement. A yield statement cannot appear inside an anonymous method.

A yield return statement is executed as follows: The expression that appears in the statement is evaluated and implicitly converted to the yield type. This is assigned to the Current property of the enumerator object. Execution of the iterator block is halted. If the yield return statement is within one or more try blocks, the associated finally blocks are not yet executed. The MoveNext method of the enumerator object returns true to the caller. This indicates that the enumerator object has moved on to the next item.

A yield break statement is executed as follows: If the yield break statement is enclosed by one or more try blocks that have finally blocks, control is first transferred to the finally block of the innermost try statement. If control reaches the end point of a finally block, control is then passed to the finally block of the next enclosing try statement. This process is looped until the finally blocks of all enclosing try statements have been executed. Control is then returned to the caller of the iterator block. This is either the MoveNext method or Dispose method of the enumerator object.

The end point of a yield break statement is always unreachable.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at C# statements. The chapter started off by taking a broad look at statements and how they work, before taking at look at specific statements present in C#. In Chapter 11, you look at namespaces and how they are used in C#.

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In this chapter you examine how namespaces are used in C# code to organize programs.

What are Namespaces?

Namespaces are used extensively in C# programs. There are two ways that namespaces are used: To organize classes in the .NET Framework To declare namespaces, which can help control the scope of class and method names used

This can be done through either internal organization (organizing the internal structure of the program itself) or external organization (controlling how program elements are exposed to other programs). Namespaces DO NOT correspond to file or folder names used to store source code. However, if naming folders and files to correspond to namespaces helps you organize your code, you are free to do so; just remember that it is not a requirement.

Organizing Classes
By using namespaces in code, a programmer can have the luxury of writing less code because namespace identifiers do not have to be used. In addition, namespaces reduce conflicts with other libraries and at the same time offer code that is more readable. Take the following example:
System.Console.WriteLine(Hello, ); System.Console.WriteLine(World!);

Chapter 11
Using the using keyword means that the entire name is not required:
using System; Console.WriteLine(Hello, ); Console.WriteLine(World!);

Controlling Scope
Heres a simple example that shows how namespaces can be used to control the scope of class and method names:
namespace MyNamespace { class MyClass { public void MyMethod() { System.Console.WriteLine( MyMethod contained inside MyNamespace); } } }

Lets now take a closer look at namespaces, beginning with compilation units.

Compilation Units
Compilation units define the C# source file. A compilation unit consists of: Zero or more extern-alias-directives, followed by Zero or more using-directives, followed by Zero or more global-attributes, followed by Zero or more namespace-member-declarations:

compilation-unit: extern-alias-directivesopt using-directivesopt global-attributesopt namespace-member-declarationsopt

A C# program is made up of one or more compilation units. Each of these compilation units corresponds to a separate C# source file. When the final C# program is compiled, the compilation units are all processed. The extern-alias-directives of a compilation unit affect the using-directives, globalattributes, and namespace-member-declarations of that particular compilation unit. They have no effect on other compilation units.

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The using-directives of a compilation unit affect the global-attributes and namespace-memberdeclarations of that compilation unit. They have no effect on other compilation units. The global-attributes of a compilation unit allow the specification of attributes for the target assembly. Assemblies act as physical containers for types. The namespace-member-declarations of each compilation unit of a program supply members to a single declaration space called the global namespace.

Namespace Declarations
A namespace declaration consists of: The keyword namespace, followed by A namespace name and body, optionally followed by A semicolon:

namespace-declaration: namespace qualified-identifier namespace-body ;opt qualified-identifier: identifier qualified-identifier . identifier namespace-body: { extern-alias-directivesopt using-directivesopt namespace-member-declarationsopt }

A namespace declaration can occur either: As a top-level declaration in a compilation-unit. Here the namespace becomes a member of the global namespace. As a member declaration within another namespace-declaration. Here the namespace-declaration occurs within another namespace-declaration; the inner namespace becomes a member of the outer namespace.

In both cases, the name of a namespace will be unique within the containing namespace. It is important to note that namespaces are implicitly public and that the namespace declaration cannot include any access modifiers. The optional using-directives import the names of other namespaces and types. This allows them to be referenced directly rather than through the use of qualified names. The optional namespacemember-declarations contribute members to the declaration space of the namespace.

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All extern-alias-directives have to be placed before any using-directives, and all externalias-directives and similarly all using-directives have to appear before any member declarations. The qualified-identifier of a namespace-declaration can be a single identifier or a sequence of identifiers separated by . tokens. Using a sequence of identifiers allows a program to define a nested namespace without having to actually nest several namespace declarations. This means that the following lines of code are equivalent:
namespace NS1.NS2 { class A {} class B {} }

And:
namespace NS1 { namespace NS2 { class A {} class B {} } }

Namespaces are open-ended. This means that two namespace declarations with the same fully qualified name contribute to the same declaration space. Thus, the two code snippets that follow are equivalent:
namespace { class } namespace { class } NS1.NS2 A {} NS1.NS2 B {}

And:
namespace NS1.NS2 { class A {} class B {} }

Extern Alias Directives

An extern-alias-directive is used to define an identifier that acts as an alias for an externally defined namespace.

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The specification of the aliased namespace is external to the source code of the program:
extern-alias-directives: extern-alias-directive extern-alias-directives extern-alias-directive extern-alias-directive: extern alias identifier ;

The scope of an extern-alias-directive covers the following immediately containing compilationunit or namespace-body:
using-directives: global-attributes: namespacemember-declarations

A type is always declared as a member of a single namespace. However, it is possible for a namespace hierarchy referenced by an extern alias to contain types that are also members of other namespaces.

Using Directives
Using directives are used to allow for the use of namespaces and types that are defined in other namespaces. In doing this, however, they do not contribute new members to the declaration spaces of the compilation units or namespaces where they are used. The syntax is as follows: using-directives: using-directive using-directives using-directive using-directive: using-alias-directive using-namespace-directive

There is a subtle difference between the using-alias-directive and using-namespace-directive: A using-alias-directive introduces an alias for a namespace or type. A using-namespace-directive imports the type members of a namespace.

Using Alias Directives

A using-alias-directive is used to define an identifier that acts as an alias for a namespace or type within the enclosing compilation unit or namespace body:
using-alias-directive: using identifier = namespace-or-type-name ;

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Using Namespace Directives
A using-namespace-directive is used to import types contained in a namespace into the immediately enclosing compilation unit or namespace body. This allows the identifier of each type to be used without qualification:
using-namespace-directive: using namespace-name ;

Namespace Members
A namespace-member-declaration is either a:
Namespace-declaration Type-declaration

The syntax is as follows:

namespace-member-declarations: namespace-member-declaration namespace-member-declarations namespace-member-declaration namespace-member-declaration: namespace-declaration type-declaration

Both compilation units or namespace bodies can contain namespace-member-declaration. This means that the namespace-member-declaration adds new members to the underlying declaration space of the compilation unit or namespace body.

Type Declarations
A type declaration is either a:
class-declaration struct-declaration interface-declaration enum-declaration delegate-declaration

The syntax is as follows:

type-declaration: class-declaration struct-declaration interface-declaration enum-declaration delegate-declaration

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It is possible for a type declaration to occur as of the following: Top-level declaration in a compilation unit A member declaration within a namespace, class, or struct

Here are the access modifiers for type declarations: Types that have been declared as part of compilation units or namespace declarations can have either public or internal (default) access. Types declared in classes can have public, protected internal, protected, internal, or private (default) access. Types declared in structs can have public, internal, or private (default) access.

Qualified Alias Member

A qualified-alias-member provides explicit access to the global namespace and to extern or using aliases that might be hidden and made inaccessible by other entities. The syntax is as follows:
qualified-alias-member: identifier :: identifier type-argument-listopt

A qualified-alias-member can be used as either of the following: A namespace-or-type-name As the left operand in a member-access

A qualified-alias-member consists of two identifiers: Left-hand identifiers Right-hand identifiers

These identifiers, described as follows, are separated by the :: token, and this is then optionally followed by a type-argument-list. When the left-hand identifier is global, the global namespace is examined for the right-hand identifier. For any other left-hand identifier, that identifier is looked up as an extern or using alias. A compile-time error results if there is no such alias or the alias references a type. There are two forms that a qualified-alias-member can take:
A::B<G1, ..., GN>

Here A and B are used to represent identifiers, and <G1, ..., GN> is a type argument list.
A::B

Here A and B again represent identifiers.

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Here is how the meaning of a qualified-alias-member is worked out: If A is the identifier global, the global namespace is searched for B: If the global namespace contains a namespace named B and N is zero, the qualifiedalias-member will refer to that namespace.

If the global namespace contains a non-generic type named B and N is zero, the qualified-alias-member will refer to that type. If the global namespace contains a type named B that has N type parameters, the qualified-alias-member will refer to that type constructed with the given type arguments. If the qualified-alias-member is undefined, this will result in a compile-time error.

Beginning with the namespace declaration immediately containing the qualified-alias-member (if any), continuing with each enclosing namespace declaration (if any), and ending with the compilation unit containing the qualified-alias-member, the following steps are followed until an entity is found: If the namespace declaration or compilation unit contains a using-alias-directive that associates A with a type, the qualified-alias-member is undefined. This will cause a compile-time error. Alternatively, if the namespace declaration or compilation unit contains an extern-aliasdirective or using-alias-directive that associates A with a namespace, the following set of rules is followed: If the namespace associated with A contains a namespace named B and N is zero, this means that the qualified-alias-member refers to that namespace. If the namespace associated with A contains a nongeneric type named B and N is zero, this means that the qualified-alias-member refers to that type. If the namespace associated with A contains a type named B that has N type parameters, the qualified-alias-member refers to that type constructed with the given type arguments. Otherwise, the qualified-alias-member is undefined, which will cause a compile-time error.

If, after all this, the qualified-alias-member remains undefined, a compile-time error is generated.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at namespaces in C# and how they allow the programmer to both organize classes in the .NET Framework and control the scope of class and method names used. By being able to organize both internally and externally, the programmer is able not only to write less code to do the same amount of work but also to write code thats easier to follow (and later debug). Namespaces also help reduce the risk of naming conflicts with other libraries. In Chapter 12, we will be looking at classes.

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In this chapter you look at one of the most important concepts of C# the class. Well begin by looking at what a class is and then declaring classes. Then we will take a closer look at specific aspects of classes.

What are Classes?

A class is a programming data structure. Classes can contain the following: Data members (constants and fields) Nested types Function members (events, finalizers, indexers, instance constructors, methods, properties, and static constructors)

All class types support inheritance.

Class Declarations
A class declaration is a type of declaration used to declare new classes:
class-declaration: attributesopt class-modifiersopt partialopt class identifier type-parameter-listopt class-baseopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt class-body ;opt

Chapter 12
Class declarations are made up of: An optional set of attributes, followed by An optional set of class modifiers, followed by An optional partial modifier, followed by The keyword class and an identifier that assigns a name to the class, followed by An optional type-parameter-list, followed by An optional class-base specification, followed by An optional type-parameter-constraints-clauses, followed by A class-body, followed by An optional semicolon

If a type-parameter-constraints-clauses is supplied, a type-parameter-list has to also be supplied.

Class Modifiers
Class declarations can contain a sequence of class modifiers:
class-modifiers: class-modifier class-modifiers class-modifier class-modifier: new public protected internal private abstract sealed static

The new modifier is used to specify that a class hides an inherited member of the same name. A compiler error is generated if a new modifier appears on a class declaration that is not a nested class declaration. The following modifiers control the accessibility of the class:
Internal Access limited to the assembly that defines the class Protected Access limited to the containing class or types derived from the containing class Private Access limited to the containing type Public Access not limited Abstract Used to indicate that the class is not complete and that it should only be used as a

base class

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Sealed Used to prevent derivation from the class (cannot be abstract) Static Cannot be sealed or abstract, cannot include a base-class specification, cannot contain operators, cannot have members that have protected or protected internal accessibility,

and cannot contain static members A compiler error will be generated if the same modifier is used more than once in a class declaration.

Class Base Specification

A class declaration can include a class-base specification. This is used to define the direct base class of the class and the interfaces implemented by the class:
class-base: : class-type : interface-type-list : class-type , interface-type-list interface-type-list: interface-type interface-type-list , interface-type

Base Classes
When a class-type is included in the class-base, it is used to specify the direct base class of the class being declared. If a nonpartial class declaration doesnt have a class-base, or if the class-base lists only interface types, the direct base class is an object. When a partial class declaration includes a base-class specification, that base class will reference the same type as all other parts of that partial type that include a base-class specification. If no part of a partial class includes a base-class specification, the base class is object.

Interface Implementations
A class-base specification can include a list of interface types. In this case, the class implements the given interface types.

Class Body
The class-body of a class is used to define the members of the class:
class-body: { class-member-declarationsopt }

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Partial Declarations
The partial modifier is used when defining a class, struct, or interface type in multiple parts. Note, though, that partial is not a keyword.
partial has to appear immediately before one of the keywords class, struct, or interface.

Each part of a partial type declaration has to include a partial modifier and has to be declared in the same namespace or containing type as the other parts. The partial modifier is used to show that the remaining parts of the type declaration might appear elsewhere in the code, although there might not be any additional code.

Class Members
The members of a class are made up of the members introduced by its class-member-declarations and any members inherited from the direct base class.
class-member-declarations: class-member-declaration class-member-declarations class-member-declaration class-member-declaration: constant-declaration field-declaration method-declaration property-declaration event-declaration indexer-declaration operator-declaration constructor-declaration finalizer-declaration static-constructor-declaration type-declaration

Members of a class fall into the following categories: Constants. Constant values associated with the class Events. Define notifications that may be generated by the class Fields. Class variables Finalizers. Implement the actions performed before class instances are no longer needed Indexers. Allow instances of the class to be indexed like arrays Instance constructors. Implement the actions required to initialize the instances of the class Generic and nongeneric methods. Implement the actions of the class Operators. Define expression operators applied to the class Properties. Define the named characteristics and actions performed by the class

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Static constructors. Implement the actions that initialize the class Types. Represent the local types of the class

Members that contain executable code are known as the function members of the class. The function members of a class include: Events Finalizers Indexers Instance constructors Methods Operators Properties Static constructors

The following rules apply to class-member-declarations: Instance constructors, finalizers, and static constructors must have the same name as the enclosing class. The name of a type parameter in the type-parameter-list of a class declaration has to be different from the names of all other type parameters in the same type-parameter-list. It also has to be different from the name of the class and the names of all members of the class. The name of a type has to be different from the names of all nontype members declared in the same class. The names of any constants, fields, properties, or events have to be different from the names of all other members declared in the same class. The name of a method has to be different from the names of all other nonmethods declared in the same class. The signature of an instance constructor has to be different from the signatures of all other instance constructors declared in the same class. The signature of an indexer has to be different from the signatures of all other indexers declared by the class. The signature of an operator has to be different from the signatures of all other operators declared by the class.

Inheritance
A class will inherit the members of its direct base class. The upshot of inheritance is that a class will implicitly contain all members of its direct base class, except for any instance constructors, finalizers, and static constructors.

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A derived class can add new members to those it inherits, but it cannot remove the definition of an inherited member. Instance constructors, finalizers, and static constructors are not inherited, but all other members are. A class can declare virtual methods, properties, indexers, and events, and derived classes can override the implementation of these function members. Members inherited from a constructed generic type are inherited after type substitution.

new Modifier
If a new modifier is used in a declaration that doesnt hide available inherited members, a warning is generated by the compiler.

Access Modifiers
Five access modifiers can be used on class-member-declarations:
internal private protected protected internal public

Apart from protected internal, only one modifier can be used at a given time.

Static/Instance Members
Members of a class are either static members or instance members. When one of the following declarations includes a static modifier, it declares a static member: Constructor Event Field Method Operator Property

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When one of the following declarations does not include a static modifier, it declares an instance member: Constructor Event Field Finalizer Indexer Method Property

Constants
A constant is a class member used to represent a constant value that will be used during compilation:
constant-declaration: attributesopt constant-modifiersopt const type constant-declarators ; constant-modifiers: constant-modifier constant-modifiers constant-modifier constant-modifier: new public protected internal private constant-declarators: constant-declarator constant-declarators , constant-declarator constant-declarator: identifier = constant-expression

The type specified in a constant declaration can be one of the following:

bool byte char decimal double

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enum type
float int long

reference type
sbyte short string uint ulong ushort

Each constant expression will yield a value that is the same as the target type or a type that can be converted to the target type through implicit conversion.

Fields
A field is a member used to represent a variable associated with an object or class:
field-declaration: attributesopt field-modifiersopt type variable-declarators ; field-modifiers: field-modifier field-modifiers field-modifier field-modifier: new public protected internal private static readonly volatile variable-declarators: variable-declarator variable-declarators , variable-declarator variable-declarator: identifier identifier = variable-initializer

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variable-initializer: expression array-initializer

Static and Instance Fields

When a field declaration includes a static modifier, the fields will be static. When no static modifier is present, the fields are instance. Static fields and instance fields are two of the several kinds of variables supported by C# and are referred to as static variables and instance variables.

readonly Fields
When a field declaration makes use of a readonly modifier, the fields introduced by the declaration are read-only. Any attempt to assign to a readonly field or pass it as an out or ref parameter, other than as a variable declarator or as part of an instance constructor, will result in a compiler error.

Volatile Fields
Volatile fields are declarations that make use of the volatile modifiers. For volatile fields, the optimizations performed by the compiler on standard nonvolatile fields are limited to volatile read and volatile writes. Volatile fields are limited to the following types: Enum type that has one of the following base types: byte int sbyte short uint ushort

Reference types Type parameters One of the following types:

bool byte char

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float int sbyte short uint ushort

Field Initialization
The initial value of a field will be the default value of the fields type, irrespective of whether it is a static field or an instance field.

Variable Initialization
Field declarations can include variable initializers. There are two types: Static fields. The variable initializers correspond to assignment statements executed during class initialization. Instance fields. The variable initializers correspond to assignment statements executed when an instance of the class is created.

Methods
A method, which is declared using a method declaration, is a member that implements code executed by an object or class:
method-declaration: method-header method-body method-header: attributesopt method-modifiersopt return-type member-name type-parameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt method-modifiers: method-modifier method-modifiers method-modifier method-modifier: new public protected internal private static virtual sealed override

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abstract extern return-type: type void member-name: identifier interface-type . identifier method-body: block ;

A method-declaration can include: A set of attributes A valid combination of access modifiers:

public protected internal private

The new modifier The static modifier The virtual modifier The override modifier The sealed modifier The abstract modifier The extern modifier

Method Parameters
The optional parameters of a method are declared by a formal parameter list:
formal-parameter-list: fixed-parameters fixed-parameters , parameter-array parameter-array fixed-parameters: fixed-parameter fixed-parameters , fixed-parameter fixed-parameter: attributesopt parameter-modifieropt type identifier

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parameter-modifier: ref out parameter-array: attributesopt params array-type identifier

The parameter list is made up of one or more comma-separated parameters. Note that only the last parameter can be a parameter array. A fixed-parameter consists of: An optional set of attributes An optional ref or out modifier A type An identifier

There are four kinds of formal parameters: Value parameters. Declared without any modifiers Reference parameters. Declared with the ref modifier. A reference parameter does not create a new storage location and must be initialized before passing to a method. Instead, it represents the same storage location as the variable given as the argument in the method invocation. Output parameters. Declared with the out modifier. An output parameter does not create a new storage location and does not need to be initialized before passing to a method. Instead, it represents the same storage location as the variable given as the argument in the method invocation. Parameter arrays. Declared with the params modifier. Apart from allowing a variable number of arguments during invocation, a parameter array is equivalent to a value parameter.

Static/Instance Methods
When a method declaration includes a static modifier, that method is static. When there isnt a static modifier present, the method is an instance.

Virtual Methods
When an instance method declaration includes a virtual modifier, that method is virtual. When no virtual modifier is present, the method is nonvirtual.

Override Method
When an instance method declaration includes an override modifier, the method is an override. An override method is used to override an inherited virtual method with the same signature.

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A compiler error is generated unless all of the following conditions are true: The overridden base method is virtual, abstract, or override (it cannot be static or nonvirtual). The overridden base method is not sealed. The override declaration and the overridden base method have the same return type. The override declaration and the overridden base method have the same declared accessibility.

Sealed Methods
When an instance method declaration includes a sealed modifier, the method is sealed. A sealed method is used to override an inherited virtual method with the same signature. Using a sealed modifier prevents a derived class from overriding the method.

Abstract Methods
When an instance method declaration makes use of an abstract modifier, that method is abstract. An abstract method declaration creates a new virtual method but doesnt provide an implementation of that method. To compensate for this, nonabstract derived classes have to provide their own implementation by overriding that method.

Method Body
The method body of a method declaration is made up of either a block of code or a semicolon. Since abstract and external method declarations do not provide method implementations, method bodies are made up of simply a single semicolon. For all other methods, the method body is a code block that consists of the statement that needs to be executed when the method is invoked.

Proper ties
A property is a member that allows access to aspects of an object or a class. Properties make use of accessors that specify the statements that should be executed when their values are read or written:
property-declaration: attributesopt property-modifiersopt type member-name { accessor-declarations } property-modifiers: property-modifier property-modifiers property-modifier

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property-modifier: new public protected internal private static virtual sealed override abstract extern

Property declarations include: A set of attributes A valid combination of the access modifiers
public protected internal private

The new modifier The static modifier The virtual modifier The override modifier The sealed modifier The abstract modifier The extern modifier

Static/Instance Properties
When a property declaration uses a static modifier, the property is static. When no static modifier is used, the property is an instance.

Accessors
Accessor declarations of a property specify the statements associated with reading and writing that property:
accessor-declarations: get-accessor-declaration set-accessor-declarationopt set-accessor-declaration get-accessor-declarationopt

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get-accessor-declaration: attributesopt accessor-modifieropt get accessor-body set-accessor-declaration: attributesopt accessor-modifieropt set accessor-body accessor-modifier: protected internal private protected internal internal protected accessor-body: block ;

Accessor declarations are made up of a get-accessor-declaration and/or a set-accessordeclaration. Each accessor declaration is made up of the token get or set, which is followed by an accessor-body. For abstract and extern properties, the accessor-body for each accessor specified will be nothing more than a semicolon. For the accessors of any nonabstract, nonextern property, the accessor-body is a code block that contains the statements to be executed when the corresponding accessor is invoked. A get accessor is the same as a parameterless method with a return value of the property type. When a property is referenced in an expression, the get accessor of the property is invoked to work out the value of the property (except where it is the target of an assignment). Properties are classified as follows: If the property includes both a get accessor and a set accessor, it is a read-write property. If the property has only a get accessor, it is a read-only property. If the property has only a set accessor, it is a write-only property.

Virtual, Sealed, Override, and Abstract Accessors

A virtual property declaration is used to specify that the accessors of the property are virtual. The virtual modifier will apply to every nonprivate accessor of a property. When an accessor of a virtual property has the private accessor-modifier, the private accessor is not virtual. An abstract property declaration is used to specify that the accessors of a property are virtual. However, it doesnt provide any implementations of the accessors. A property declaration that has both the abstract and override modifiers is used to specify that the property is abstract and overrides a base property. Abstract property declarations are only allowed in abstract classes.

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The accessors of an inherited virtual property can be overridden in a derived class through the use of a property declaration that uses an override directive, known as an overriding property declaration. An overriding property declaration can make use of sealed modifiers, which prevent a derived class from further overriding the property.

Events
All events are members that enable an object or class to provide notifications. All events are declared using event declarations:
event-declaration: attributesopt event-modifiersopt event type variable-declarators ; attributesopt event-modifiersopt event type member-name { event-accessor-declarations } event-modifiers: event-modifier event-modifiers event-modifier event-modifier: new public protected internal private static virtual sealed override abstract extern event-accessor-declarations: add-accessor-declaration remove-accessor-declaration remove-accessor-declaration add-accessor-declaration add-accessor-declaration: attributesopt add block remove-accessor-declaration: attributesopt remove block

An event declaration can include: A set of attributes

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A valid combination of access modifiers:
public protected internal private

The new modifier The static modifier The virtual modifier The override modifier The sealed modifier The abstract modifier The extern modifier

Field-Like Events
Some events can be used as fields in code (in any location in the code where fields could otherwise be used). Events used as fields cannot be abstract or extern and cannot explicitly include event accessor declarations. The field will contain a delegate that will refer to the list of event handlers that have been added to the event. If no event handlers have been added, the field contains null.

Static/Instance Events
When an event declaration includes a static modifier, the event is static. When there is no static modifier included, the event is an instance event. A static event is not in any way linked with a specific instance, and referring to this in an accessor of a static event will result in a compiler error.

Virtual, Sealed, Override, and Abstract Accessors

A virtual event declaration is used to specify that the accessors of that event are virtual. The virtual modifier will apply to all accessors of an event. An abstract event declaration is used to specify that any accessors of the event will be virtual, but note that it does not provide any implementation of the accessors. To do this, nonabstract derived classes are needed, which will provide their own implementation for the accessors by overriding the event. Because of this, the accessor body consists of nothing more than a semicolon.

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An event declaration that includes both the abstract and override modifiers is used to specify that the event is both abstract and at the same time overrides a base event. Abstract event declarations are only allowed in abstract classes. Any accessors of an inherited virtual event can be overridden in a derived class when an event declaration that specifies an override modifier is used. This technique is known as an overriding event declaration. The overriding event declaration is not used to declare a new event; rather, it specializes the implementations of the accessors of an existing virtual event. Any overriding event declaration will have exactly the same accessibility modifiers, type, and name as the overridden event. It is possible for an overriding event declaration to make use of the sealed modifier, which will prevent a derived class from further overriding the event. The accessors of a sealed event will also be sealed.

Indexers
An indexer is a member that allows an object to be indexed in the same way that an array can be indexed. All indexers are declared using an indexer declaration:
indexer-declaration: attributesopt indexer-modifiersopt indexer-declarator { accessor-declarations } indexer-modifiers: indexer-modifier indexer-modifiers indexer-modifier indexer-modifier: new public protected internal private virtual sealed override abstract extern indexer-declarator: type this [ formal-parameter-list ] type interface-type . this [ formal-parameter-list ]

An indexer declaration is made up of: A set of attributes A valid combination of the access modifiers:
public protected

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internal private

The new modifier The virtual modifier The override modifier The sealed modifier The abstract modifier The extern modifier

Indexer declarations have to follow the same rules as method declarations regarding the valid combinations of modifiers allowed. The only exception is that the static modifier is not permitted on an indexer declaration. The modifiers virtual, override, and abstract are mutually exclusive, except where the abstract and override modifiers can be used in combination so that an abstract indexer can override a virtual one. At first glance, indexers and properties might look similar. There are, however, a number of differences between the two: All properties are identified by name, while indexers are identified by their signature. Properties can be static members, while indexers are always instance members. Properties are accessed through simple names or member access, while an indexer element is accessed using an element access. If an indexer accessor tries to declare a local variable or local constant with the same name as an indexer parameter, a compiler error will be generated. A get accessor of a property is equivalent to a method with no parameters, while a get accessor of an indexer is equivalent to a method with the same parameter list as the indexer. A set accessor of a property is equivalent to a method with a single parameter named value, while a set accessor of an indexer is equivalent to a method with the same formal parameter list as the indexer, with the addition of a parameter named value.

Operators
Operators are members used to define the meaning of an expression operator applied to instances of a class:
operator-declaration: attributesopt operator-modifiers operator-declarator operator-body operator-modifiers: operator-modifier operator-modifiers operator-modifier

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operator-modifier: public static extern operator-declarator: unary-operator-declarator binary-operator-declarator conversion-operator-declarator unary-operator-declarator: type operator overloadable-unary-operator ( type identifier ) overloadable-unary-operator: one of + ! ~ ++ -true false binary-operator-declarator: type operator overloadable-binary-operator ( type identifier , type identifier ) overloadable-binary-operator: one of + * / % & | ^ << >> == != > < >= <= conversion-operator-declarator: implicit operator type ( type identifier ) explicit operator type ( type identifier ) operator-body: block ;

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There are three categories of operators: Unary Binary Conversion

The following rules apply to all operator declarations: All operator declarations have to include both a public and a static modifier. The same modifier cannot appear multiple times in an operator declaration. All the parameters of an operator will be value parameters. The signature of an operator has to be different from the signatures of all other operators declared in the same class.

Unary Operators
The following unary operators all take a single parameter and are able to return any type:
+ ! ~

The following unary operators can take a single parameter and return the same type:
++ --

The following unary operators can take a single parameter and return the bool type:
true false

Binary Operators
Binary nonshift operators take two parameters and can return any type. The following operators take two parameters, but the second parameter must be an int. These can return any type:
<< >>

The signature of a binary operator is made up of the operator token and the types of the parameters.

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Conversion Operators
A conversion operator declaration is a user-defined conversion operator used to augment the predefined implicit and explicit conversions. A conversion operator declaration that makes use of the implicit keyword creates a user-defined implicit conversion operator. A conversion operator declaration that makes use of the explicit keyword creates a user-defined explicit conversion operator.

Instance Constructors
Instance constructors are members that implement the actions required to initialize an instance of a class:
constructor-declaration: attributesopt constructor-modifiersopt constructor-declarator constructor-body constructor-modifiers: constructor-modifier constructor-modifiers constructor-modifier constructor-modifier: public protected internal private extern constructor-declarator: identifier ( formal-parameter-listopt ) constructor-initializeropt constructor-initializer: : base ( argument-listopt ) : this ( argument-listopt ) constructor-body: block ;

A constructor declaration can include the following: A set of attributes A valid combination of the access modifiers:
public protected

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internal private

An extern modifier

Static Constructors
A static constructor is a member that contains the actions needed to initialize a class:
static-constructor-declaration: attributesopt static-constructor-modifiers identifier ( ) static-constructor-body static-constructor-modifiers: externopt static static externopt static-constructor-body: block ;

A static constructor declaration includes both a set of attributes and an extern modifier. When a static constructor declaration contains an extern modifier, the static constructor is called an external static constructor. Since external static constructor declarations have no implementation, the body of a static constructor consists of just a semicolon.

Finalizers
A finalizer is a member that implements all the actions that need to be carried out to finalize an instance of a class:
finalizer-declaration: attributesopt externopt ~ identifier ( ) finalizer-body finalizer-body: block ;

Because finalizers are automatically invoked, they cannot be invoked explicitly. An instance becomes open for finalization at the point where it is no longer possible for any code to use that instance. After that point, the finalizer can be executed at any time after the instance becomes eligible for finalization. This cannot be controlled in code. Because a finalizer cannot have any parameters, it cannot be overloaded. This means that a class can have only one finalizer. Another word for finalizers is destructors.

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Summar y
In this chapter you looked at classes in C#. A class is a programming data structure and can contain data members, nested types, and functions. All class types support inheritance, and classes form the backbone of a lot of C# coding, considerably improving modularity. In Chapter 13, you look at structs.

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Structs
Any C or C++ programmer is likely to have made use of structs. In C++, a struct is very similar to a class, with the exception of the default accessibility of the members. Things are different in C#, and in this chapter you look at the rules for making use of structs in your code.

What are Structs?

The word structs is short for structure a type of variable. They are called structures because they are constructed of several different pieces of data which may or may not be of the same type. The power of structs comes from the fact that they allow you to define types based on this data structure. What kind of data lends itself to structs? Complex numbers Key-value pairs Points in a coordinate system (direction and distance travelled)

Structs are particularly suited to small data structures. Microsoft recommends keeping the size of structs under 16 bytes. Trying to scale them up leads to a lot of extra overhead. The key to data structures is: They have few data members. They do not need to use inheritance or referential identity. They can be implemented using value semantics where assignment copies the values instead of the reference.

So, why does Java, which is similar to C# in a number of ways, not have structs? The main reason is that it is has the ability to create types with value semantics. These can lead to better performance in a managed environment (if used properly).

Chapter 13
.NET supports the concept of value types and reference types, whereas in Java you have only reference types. All instances of references are allocated to the managed heap and are cleaned up by garbage collection when there are no longer references to them. Value types are not allocated to the managed heap but instead are allocated in the stack, and the allocated memory is recovered when scope ends. In C#, all value types are passed by value, while all reference types are passed by reference (pretty obvious, really). All primitive data types in C# apart from System.String are value types. In C#, structs are always value types, while classes are reference types. Values in C# can be created in one of two ways: Using the enum keyword Using the struct keyword

The benefit of using a value type instead of a reference type is that it results in fewer objects to manage in the heap, which means less work for garbage collection. Structs arent the solution to all situations, though. Passing a big struct is slower and harder on the system than passing a corresponding reference. There is also additional overhead when it comes to boxing and unboxing. The simple types provided by C# (such as int and bool) are all struct types, and it is possible to use struct and operator overloading to implement new primitive types.

Struct Declarations
A struct-declaration is a type-declaration that declares a new struct:
struct-declaration: attributesopt struct-modifiersopt partialopt struct identifier type-parameter-listopt struct-interfacesopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt struct-body ;opt

A struct-declaration consists of: An optional set of attributes, followed by An optional set of structmodifiers, followed by An optional partial modifier, followed by The keyword struct and an identifier that names the struct, followed by An optional type-parameter-list, followed by An optional struct-interfaces specification, followed by An optional type-parameter-constraints-clauses, followed by

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A struct-body Optionally followed by a semicolon

If a struct declaration supplies a type-parameter-constraint-clause, it must also supply a type-parameter-list. If a type-parameter-list is supplied in a struct, this is known as a generic struct declaration.

Struct Modifiers
A struct-declaration can contain a sequence of struct modifiers. These are optional. Here is the syntax:
struct-modifiers: struct-modifier struct-modifiers struct-modifier struct-modifier: new public protected internal private

Using the same modifier multiple times in the struct declaration will cause a compile-time error. Struct declaration modifiers have the same meaning as those found in class declarations.

Struct Interfaces
A struct declaration can also contain a struct-interface specification. When used, the struct will implement a specific interface type:
struct-interfaces: : interface-type-list

Struct Body
The struct body is used to define the members that make up the struct.
struct-body: { struct-member-declarationsopt }

Struct Members
Struct members consist of: Members added using the struct-member-declarations Members inherited from System.ValueType

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The syntax is shown below:
struct-member-declarations: struct-member-declaration struct-member-declarations struct-member-declaration struct-member-declaration: constant-declaration field-declaration method-declaration property-declaration event-declaration indexer-declaration operator-declaration constructor-declaration static-constructor-declaration type-declaration

All of the class-member-declarations are struct-member-declarations, with the exception of finalizer-declarations.

Differences Between Class and Struct

Here is a struct definition in C# code:
public struct Foo { private string fooString; private int fooNumber; public string FooString { get { return fooString; } set { fooString = value; } } public int GetFooNumber() { return fooNumber; } }

This looks very similar to a class. There are, however, a number of key differences between structs and classes. These differences are discussed in the following sections.

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Value Semantics
The following are the key differences between structs and classes: Structs are value types (a value type is either a struct type or an enumeration type) and have value semantics. Struct type variables directly contain the data of the struct. Classes are reference types (a class type, an interface type, an array type, or a delegate type) and have reference semantics. Class type variables contain only a reference to the data (which is known as an object). This leads to a subtle difference in the way that structs and classes work. With a struct, each variable has an independent copy of the data, and operations working on one of copy of the data cannot affect other copies. With classes this is not the case, and operations on one variable affect the object referenced by other variables. This is a key feature, and how you want the code to work will dictate your choice. Because structs are not reference types, they cannot have a value of null.

Inheritance
All struct types implicitly inherit from System.ValueType, while classes derive from System.Object or a descendant. It is true that System.ValueType derives from System.Object, but this does not matter, since: Structs cannot derive from any other class or struct. They cannot specify a base class.

Remember, though, that a struct can implement a number of interfaces, and when a struct is treated as an interface, it is implicitly boxed. Structs cannot be abstract and are always sealed. This means that the following modifiers are not allowed in struct declarations:
abstract sealed

Also, since inheritance is not allowed, the declared accessibility of a struct member cannot be set to:
protected protected internal

Finally, function members cannot be:

abstract virtual

The override modifier can only be used to modify methods inherited from System.ValueType.

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Assignments
As mentioned earlier, when assigning to a struct type variable, a copy of the value being assigned is created. This is a fundamental difference between structs and classes. When a struct is passed as a value parameter or is returned from a function member, a copy is created that preserves the integrity of the original value. Structs are passed by reference to functions using the following parameters:
ref out

Default Values
Several kinds of variables are automatically initialized to their default values: Static variables Instance variables of class instances Array elements

The default value depends on the type of variable: For a variable of a value-type, the default value is the same as the value computed by the value-types default constructor. If the variable is of a reference-type, the default value is null.

However, since structs are a value-type that cannot be set to null, the default value of a struct is the value generated by setting all value type fields to their default value and all reference type fields to null.

Boxing/Unboxing
When a value of a struct is converted to an object type or an interface type implemented by the struct, a boxing operation is carried out. Similarly, when a value of an object or interface type is converted back to a struct type, an unboxing operation is carried out. This boxing or unboxing operation is responsible for copying the struct value into or out of the boxed instance. This means that changes made to the unboxed struct are not made to the boxed one.

this
It is important to understand the meaning of this in regard to structs. Within the instance construct of a struct, this is equivalent to the out parameter of the struct type. Within an instance function member of a struct, this is equivalent to the ref parameter of the struct type. In either case, this is still classified as a variable, and the entire struct can be modified by passing this as a ref or out parameter or assigning to this.

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Field Initializers
The default value of a struct consists of the value that is generated by setting all value type fields to their default value and all reference type fields to null. This is the reason why a struct does not allow instance field declarations to include variable initializers.

Constructors
Although allowed by the CLR, C# itself does not allow structs to have a default parameterless constructor. The reason for this is that, for a value type, compilers by default dont generate a default constructor and dont generate a call to the default constructor. So, even if you define a default constructor, it will never be called. To avoid such problems, the C# compiler prevents definition of a default constructor by the programmer. Because this default constructor is not generated, fields cannot be initialized when defining them, meaning that the following is not allowed:
struct MyFoo { int x = 1; }

Finalizers
Finalizers cannot be declared by a struct.

Static Constructors
Static constructors for structs follow rules very similar to those for classes. Executing static constructors for a struct is carried out by the first occurrence of the following events: An instance member of a struct is referenced. A static member of the struct is referenced. An explicitly declared constructor of a struct is called.

When to Use Structs

The key to using structs is to know when to use them and when not to use them. Heres where structs work great: You want your type to have the look and feel of a primitive type. You create a lot of instances, use them for a short time, and then get rid of them (say, within a loop). The instances you create are not passed much.

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You dont want to derive from other types or let others derive from your type. You want to operate on a copy of your data.

Heres when not to use structs: The size of the struct gets large (that is, the cumulative size of the members). Microsoft recommends that you keep this under 16 bytes. The operations carried out involve a lot of boxing and unboxing.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at structs and how to use them in C#. You saw the type of data best suited to structs and how to declare structs in code before going on to look at struct modifiers, interfaces, bodies, and members. Then you looked at the key differences between classes and structs before looking at when (and when not) to use structs. In Chapter 14, you look at how to leverage arrays in C#.

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Arrays
In this chapter you examine arrays and how you can use them in your C# programs. Well begin by looking at what arrays are before looking at creating arrays and how to use them in your code.

What is an Array?
An array is a data structure commonly used in programming. It is used to hold a number of variables accessed through an index. This index is a number that corresponds to the position of the data within the array (the diagrams that follow will make this clear). Arrays are classified based on their rank. The rank determines the number of indices associated with a particular array. The rank of an array is also known as a dimension, and this is also used when referring to an array. An array that has a rank of one is called a single-dimensional array, while any array with a rank greater than one is called a multidimensional array. Multidimensional arrays of a specific size can be referred to more specifically. For example, an array with two ranks is often called a two-dimensional array, while an array with a rank of three is called a three-dimensional array. The diagrams in Figure 14-1 and 14-2 describe arrays in a visual way.

Figure 14-1

Chapter 14

Figure 14-2

Along with a rank, an array has a length. In fact, each dimension of an array has an associated length. The length of any dimension of an array is always an integer number greater than or equal to zero. It is important to note that these dimension lengths do not form part of the type of any array. Instead, they are determined when the array is created at runtime. This length determines the valid range of indices for that dimension. For a dimension of an array with length N, the indices can range from 0 to N, including 1. See Figure 14-3 for clarification.

2 1 1

1 Figure 14-3

Zero-dimension arrays are not supported. The total number of elements (or vectors) that an array holds is determined by the product of the lengths of each dimension of the array. For example, if you have a three-dimensional array, with each dimension having a length of 4, the total number of elements that the array holds is 64 (444). All this information is included in any signature of the array type and can be marked as statically supplied (that is, fixed) or dynamically supplied (see Figure 14-4). If one or more of the array dimensions have a zero length, the array is said to be empty. The element type of an array can be any type, including an array type. Exact array types are created automatically at runtime as required, and no separate definition is required. An array of any given type can only hold elements of that type.

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x4

x4

x4 Figure 14-4

Array Types
An array type is written as a nonarray type (that is, any type that is not an array type) followed by one or more rank specifiers:
array-type: non-array-type rank-specifiers non-array-type: value-type class-type interface-type delegate-type type-parameter rank-specifiers: rank-specifier rank-specifiers rank-specifier rank-specifier: [ dim-separatorsopt ] dim-separators: , dim-separators ,

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The rank of any array type is determined by the leftmost rank specifier in the array type. A rank specifier indicates that an array has a rank of the number of , tokens in the rank specifier plus one:
int[] SingleDimensional; SingleDimensional = new int[12]; int[,] TwoDimensional; TwoDimensional = new int[12,24]; int[,,] ThreeDimensional; ThreeDimensional = new int[12,24, 36];

An element type of any array type is the type resulting from deleting the rank specifier on the left: T[R] An array with rank R and a nonarray type T T[R][R1]...[RN] An array with the rank R and an element type T[R1]...[RN]

All rank specifiers are read from left to right before the final nonarray element type. For example:
int[,][,,][]

The type in this example is a two-dimensional array of three-dimensional arrays of single-dimensional arrays of int, while the following
int[,,][][,]

is a three-dimensional array of single-dimensional arrays of two dimensional arrays. The value of an array at runtime can be one of the following:
null

A reference to an instance of an array type A reference to an instance of a covariant array type

System.Array Type
System.Array is not an array type; it is a class type from which all array types are derived. System.Array is an abstract type and cannot be instantiated.

The System.Array type is the abstract type base for all array types used in C#. There is an implicit reference conversion from any array type to System.Array and from any interface type implemented by the System.Array type to any array type. The runtime value of System.Array can be either:
null

A reference to an instance of an array type

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Creating Arrays
Instances of arrays are explicitly created using array-creation expressions or by field or local variable declarations that include array initializers. Arrays can also be generated implicitly using a method. After an array is created, the rank and length of all dimensions are fixed and cannot change for the life of the instance. Changes to the rank or length dimensions of any current array are not permitted. An instance of an array will always be an array type. The elements of any array created using an expression will always be initialized to their default values. (In other words, variables of a value type have a default value the same as the value determined by the value types default constructor, while reference type variables have a default value of null.)

Accessing Array Elements

You can access array elements by making use of element-access expressions that follow the form:
A[I1, I2,... IN]

Where A is an array-type expression and each instance of Ix is an expression of the following types:
int uint long ulong

Also any type that can be implicitly converted to one or more of the preceding types

The outcome of accessing any array element is a variable that will itself have the value of the array element selected. The elements of an array are enumerated using a foreach statement:
int[] numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; foreach (int i in numbers) { System.Console.WriteLine(i); }

Array Members
Each array type inherits the members declared by the System.Array type.

Array Covariance
Array covariance can be somewhat difficult to grasp. Lets take two reference types, A and B. If an explicit or implicit reference conversion exists from A to B, the same reference conversion also exists

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from A[R] to B[R], where R is a rank specifier. That is array covariance. Array covariance means that a value of an array of type A[R] can be a reference to an instance of array type B[R] if an implicit reference exists from B to A. Because array covariance exists, assignments to array elements incorporate a runtime check to make sure that the value being assigned to the array element is valid (either null or an instance of a type compatible with the element type of array).
class Test { static void Fill(object[] array, int index, int count, object value) { for (int i = index; i < index + count; i++) array[i] = value; } static void Main() { string[] strings = new string[100]; Fill(strings, 0, 100, Undefined); Fill(strings, 0, 10, null); Fill(strings, 90, 10, 0); // Fail System.ArrayTypeMismatchException thrown } }

In the preceding examples, the assignment to array[i] and Fill methods include the runtime check.

Array Initializers
Array initializers can be specified in the following locations within C# code: Field declarations Local variable declarations Array creating expressions

The syntax of array initializers is shown as follows:

array-initializer: { variable-initializer-listopt } { variable-initializer-list , } variable-initializer-list: variable-initializer variable-initializer-list , variable-initializer variable-initializer: expression array-initializer

Array initializers are made up of a sequence of variable initializers. The variable initializers are enclosed by { and } tokens and separated using , tokens. The variable initializers are themselves expressions, except in the case of multidimensional arrays, where they are nested array initializers. The context of array initializers is used to determine the type of the array initialized. The array type immediately precedes the initializer in array-creating expressions, while in field or variable declarations, the array type is the field or variable being declared.

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Array initializers used in field or variable declarations are purely a shorthand form of an array-creating expression. For example, this:
int[] a = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};

Is shorthand for the following:

int[] a = new int[] {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};

For single-dimensional arrays, the array initializer consists of a sequence of expressions compatible with the type of the elements contained in the array. Expressions initialize the array elements in increasing order, starting with the element at the index zero. The number of expressions used in the array initializer gives the length of the array being created. The following example creates an int[] instance that has the length 5.
a[0] = 5; a[1] = 4; a[2] = 3; a[3] = 2; a[4] = 1;

This expression also initializes the instance with the values specified. When dealing with multidimensional arrays, the array initializer has levels of nesting equivalent to the number of dimensions in the array. The outermost nesting level corresponds to the leftmost array dimension, while the innermost nesting level corresponds to rightmost array dimensions. The length of the dimensions of the array is controlled by the number of elements at the appropriate nesting level in the initializer. Take a look at the following example:
int[,] b = {{8, 9}, {6, 7}, {4, 5}, {2, 3}, {0, 1}};

The preceding expression creates a two-dimensional array with a length of 5 for the leftmost dimension and a length of 2 for the rightmost dimension (a 5 by 2 array):
int[,] b = new int[5, 2];

The expression also initializes the array with the following values:
b[0, b[0, b[1, b[1, b[2, b[2, b[3, b[3, b[4, b[4, 0] 1] 0] 1] 0] 1] 0] 1] 0] 1] = = = = = = = = = = 8; 9; 6; 7; 4; 5; 2; 3; 0; 1;

If an array creating expression contains both explicit dimension lengths and an array initializer, then the lengths will be a constant expressions and the number of elements at the nesting levels will have to match the appropriate nesting length.const int i = 5; int[] x = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; int[] y = new int[i] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

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This line of code does not compile, because the number of initializers exceeds the dimension length:
int[] z = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};

The same is true of the following lines of code:

int i int[] int[] int[] = x y z 2; = new int[5] {1, 2}; = new int[i] {1, 2}; = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, };

These two lines of code are valid:

int[] x = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; int[] x = new int[2] {1, 2};

These two lines of code generate a compiler error because the dimension length expression is not a constant:
int[] y = new int[i] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; int[] y = new int[i] {1, 2};

These two lines of code generate a compiler error because there is a discrepancy between the number of elements used and the length specified.
int[] z = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; int[] z = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, };

Trailing Commas
Note that just like C++, C# allows you to have trailing commas present at the end of an array initializer in your source code. For example, both of the following are valid examples of array initializers:
int[] x = new int[5] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}; int[] x = new int[2] {1, 2,};

This provides you with far greater flexibility when you are adding or deleting members. You can, for simplicity, add members and their respective commas in pairs. This is particularly useful when you want to write code that will generate such lists or array members automatically.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at how to create arrays in C#. You examined what arrays are, arrays of different dimensions, and the array types that can be used. You also examined array elements (also known as vectors) and looked at how they can be accessed using the foreach statement, before moving on to look at array members, array covariance, and array initializers. In Chapter 15, we will look at interfaces and how to use them in C#.

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Interfaces
In this chapter you look at a misunderstood and often neglected aspect of C# programming interfaces. Knowing how to make use of interfaces can allow you to create components that can be interchanged easily.

What is an Interface?
The C# specification defines an interface as a defined contract. In addition, structs of classes that implement the interface have to adhere to the contract. This is a somewhat vague description of an interface. In code, an interface looks very much like a class. The main difference is that it doesnt have any implementations. The only things that an implementation contains are definitions of events, indexers, methods, and/or properties. Why do interfaces provide only the definitions? They are inherited by classes and structs, which provide the implementation for derived interface members. So, why use interfaces? The main benefit of using interfaces is that programmers can create situations where components in a program can be interchangeable. These will all implement the same interface, so no extra coding is needed to make this work. By using interfaces, the component will expose only certain public members that can be made use of. Because interfaces must be defined by inheriting classes and structs, they define a contract. But what does this contract stuff mean? For instance, if class ExClass inherits from the IDisposable interface, it is making a contract where it guarantees it has the Dispose() method (which is the only member of the IDisposable interface). Any code that wishes to use class ExClass can check to see if class ExClass inherits IDisposable. When the answer is true, the code knows that it can call ExClass.Dispose().

Chapter 15

Defining an Interface
Heres how an interface is defined in code:
interface IExampleInterface { void InterfaceMethods(); }

This code defines an interface called IExampleInterface. Note that it is common practice to prefix interface names with I. This interface contains a single method: InterfaceMethods(). However, note here that the method doesnt have any implementations (no code between curly braces), and also note that it ends with a semicolon. Heres how that interface could be implemented:
class Implementer : IExampleInterface { static void Main() { Implementer iImpInt = new Implementer(); iImpInt.InterfaceMethods(); } public void InterfaceMethods() { Console.WriteLine(Hello, World!); } }

Lets now take a closer look at the rules and syntax of using interfaces.

Interface Declarations
Interface declarations are type declarations that declare new interface types:
interface-declaration: attributesopt interface-modifiersopt partialopt interface identifier typeparameter-listopt interface-baseopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt interface-body ;opt

An interface-declaration consists of: An optional set of attributes, followed by An optional set of interface-modifiers, followed by

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An optional partial modifier, followed by The keyword interface and an identifier that names the interface, followed by An optional type-parameter-list, followed by An optional interface-base specification, followed by An optional typeparameter-constraints-clauses, followed by An interface-body, optionally followed by A semicolon

An interface declaration cannot supply a type-parameter-constraints-clauses unless it also supplies a type-parameter-list. An interface declaration that provides a type-parameter-list is generic.

Modifiers
An interface-declaration can optionally include a sequence of interface modifiers:
interface-modifiers: interface-modifier interface-modifiers interface-modifier interface-modifier: new public internal protected private

You cannot have the same modifier appear multiple times in an interface declaration without generating a compiler error. Also, the new modifier is permitted only on nested interfaces. Four modifiers (public, protected, internal, and private) are used to control accessibility to the interface.

Explicit Base Interfaces

An interface can inherit from one or more other interfaces. These are called the explicit base interfaces of the interface that inherits from them. When an interface has one or more explicit base interfaces, the interface identifier has a colon added at the end and a comma-separated list of the base interfaces in the interface declaration:
interface-base: : interface-type-list

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Interface Body
The interface body is used to define the members of an interface:
interface-body: { interface-member-declarationsopt }

Interface Members
The members of an interface consist of the members inherited from the base interfaces and the members declared by the interface itself (an interface declaration can validly consist of zero members):
interface-member-declarations: interface-member-declaration interface-member-declarations interface-member-declaration interface-member-declaration: interface-method-declaration interface-property-declaration interface-event-declaration interface-indexer-declaration

All interface members implicitly have public access, and it will result in a compiler error if interface member declarations include any modifiers.

Interface Methods
Interface methods are declared using interface-method-declarations:
interface-method-declaration: attributesopt newopt return-type identifier type-parameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt ;

The following all have the same meaning as for a method declaration in a class (which is not surprising, given that interfaces are almost identical to classes):
attributes return-type identifier formal-parameter-list

Interface Properties
Interface properties are declared using interface-property-declarations:
interface-property-declaration: attributesopt newopt type identifier { interface-accessors }

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interface-accessors: attributesopt get attributesopt set attributesopt get attributesopt set ; ; ; attributesopt set ; ; attributesopt get ;

The following all have the same meaning as for property declarations in a class:
attributes type interface

Interface Events
Interface events are declared using interface-event-declarations:
interface-event-declaration: attributesopt newopt event type identifier ;

The following all have the same meaning as for event declarations in a class:
attributes type interface

Summar y
This chapter has taken a brief look at interfaces in C#. The chapter started by looking at what interfaces are and how they help the programmer write code that is easier to compartmentalize and replace. You also looked at the differences among interfaces, classes, and structs. Finally, you looked at defining interfaces and also at explicit base interfaces and how they work. In Chapter 16, you look at enums.

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Enums
In this chapter we are going to examine enums, which are strongly typed constants. They are unique types that allow the programmer to assign a name of integral values in code. Since enums are strongly typed, this means that an enum of one type cant be assigned to an enum of another type. The purpose of enums is to declare a set of constants in the code. Declaring constants is done as follows:
enum Fruit { Apple, Orange, Pineapple Banana }

This declares an enum called Fruit that has four members: Apple Orange Pineapple Banana

Here is another example of enums in action. In the following code, we have a switch statement controlled by the value of the enum:
using System; public enum Lights { Red, Green, Blue }

Chapter 16
class EnumSwitch { static void Main() { Lights myLights = Lights.Green; switch (myLights) { case Lights.Red: Console.WriteLine(The light has been changed to red.); break; case Lights.Green: Console.WriteLine(The light has been changed to green.); break; case Lights.Blue: Console.WriteLine(The light has been changed to blue.); break; } Console.ReadLine(); } }

Enum Declarations
Enum declarations are used to declare new enum types. An enum declaration begins with the keyword enum and defines the following: Name Accessibility Underlying type Members

The following shows the syntax for using enum:

enum-declaration: attributesopt enum-modifiersopt enum identifier enum-baseopt enum-body ;opt enum-base: : integral-type enum-body: { enum-member-declarationsopt } { enum-member-declarations , }

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Every enum has an integral type called an underlying type. This is used to represent all the enumerator values defined by the enum. Using explicit declaration, the following underlying types can be declared:
byte sbyte int uint long ulong short ushort

Declarations that are not explicit will have the underlying type of int. The char type cannot be used as an underlying type. The following declares an enum with an underlying type of long:
enum Fruit: long { Apple, Orange, Banana }

Note that a trailing comma is allowable in enum declarations, as they are in array initializers:
enum Fruit: long { Apple, Orange, Banana, }

Enum Modifiers
Enum declarations can contain one or more optional enum modifiers:
enum-modifiers: enum-modifier enum-modifiers enum-modifier enum-modifier: new public protected internal private

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Entering the same modifier more than once into an enum declaration will cause a compile-time error. The following are access modifiers for enum declarations: Public. Access to the member is not limited. Protected. Access to the member is limited to the containing class or types derived from the containing class. Internal. Access is limited to the classes contained in the assembly. Private. Access is limited to the containing type.

Neither the abstract nor sealed modifiers are allowed in an enum type.

Enum Members
The body of an enum type declaration can contain zero, one, or more enum members. These are named constants of the enum type. As such, no two members can have the same name:
enum Fruit: long { Apple, Orange, Banana, Orange } enum-member-declarations: enum-member-declaration enum-member-declarations , enum-member-declaration enum-member-declaration: attributesopt identifier attributesopt identifier = constant-expression

Each enum member will have an associated constant value. The type of this value will be the underlying type for the containing enum. The constant value for each enum member must fall in the range of the underlying type for the enum:
enum Fruit: uint { Apple = 5, Orange = -8, Banana = 5 }

It is possible for members to share the same associated values, as shown below:
enum Fruit { Apple = 5,

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Enums
Orange = -8, Banana = 5, orangeFruit = Orange yellowFruit = Banana }

Here orangeFruit and Orange will have the same value, as will yellowFruit and Banana. The associated value of an enum member can be assigned either implicitly or explicitly. If the declaration of the enum member has a constant-expression initializer, the value of that constant expression is the associated value of the enum member. If the declaration of the enum member doesnt have an initializer, its associated value is set implicitly using the following rules: If the enum member is the first one declared, the associated value is zero. If it is not the first, the value is the value of the previous enum value increased by one.

Beware Circular References

When using enums, one thing to be wary of is creating circular references between members. These arent allowed and will result in a compile-time error:
enum Fruit { Banana = yellowFruit, yellowFruit }

In the preceding example, there is an explicit dependency between Banana and yellowFruit and an implicit dependency between yellowFruit and Banana.

System.Enum
The abstract base class of all enum types is the type System.Enum (which is a class type rather than an enum type). Members inherited from this class are available to all enum types. There is a boxing conversion from any enum type to System.Enum and a corresponding unboxing conversion from System.Enum to any other enum type.

Enum Values and Operations

Each and every enum type defines a distinct type, and an explicit enumeration conversion is required to convert between different enum types or between enum types and integral types. The values that an enum type can take on are restricted only by the enum members.

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Enum members have the type of their containing enum type. The value of an enum member declared in enum type E with the associated value v is (E)v. The following operators can be used on enum type values:
== != <= >= < > + ^ & | ~ ++ -sizeof

Summar y
In this chapter you examined enums and how they can be used to declare a set of constants in C# code. Enums are extremely simple to use yet extremely powerful and useful. The main thing to beware of when using them is making a circular reference between members this is by far the most common error made when using enums. In Chapter 17, you look at delegates and how to use them in C#.

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Delegates
This is a short chapter on delegates on C#, because they are quite a complex and difficult aspect of C# and are used primarily when dealing with the user interface for Windows Forms. As such, most of this topic is beyond the scope of this book. Delegates in C# (and in other programming languages such as Java) allow you to do things that other languages do through leveraging function pointers. In C++ there is a feature called a callback function that uses pointers to functions to pass them as parameters to other functions. The main difference between delegates and function pointers is that delegates are both object-oriented and type-safe, and the delegate encapsulates both the object instance and a method (this encapsulation protects data from corruption by other functions because of errors in programming). A delegate can hold references to one or more functions and invoke them as needed. Delegates differ in other ways from function pointers: Delegates are dynamic and are declared at runtime. In C++ you had to know the function name before you were able to use the function pointer. Delegates dont just point to one function. Instead, they point to an ordered set of functions.

Delegates in Action
A delegate declaration defines a class that is itself derived from the class System.Delegate. As is pointed out in the chapters introduction, the delegate instance encapsulates one or more than one method, and each of these is called a callable entity. The contents of a callable entity depend on the type of method: Instance methods Here the callable entity consists of an instance and a method on that instance. Static methods Here the callable entity consists of a method alone.

Chapter 17
With an instance of a delegate and an appropriate set of arguments, it is possible to invoke all the instance methods of the delegate.

Delegate Declarations
A delegate declaration is a type declaration that allows the declaration of a new delegate type:
delegate-declaration: attributesopt delegate-modifiersopt delegate return-type identifier typeparameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt ; delegate-modifiers: delegate-modifier delegate-modifiers delegate-modifier delegate-modifier: new public protected internal private

You should not have multiple instances of the same delegate modifier in a delegate declaration. If you allow this to happen, you will be reminded to correct this oversight by the compile-time error that will be generated. Note that you can only use the new modifier on delegates that have been declared within another type. When you do this, the delegate will hide all inherited members by the same name.

Modifiers
Four modifiers control the accessibility of the delegate type:
Public This declares that access is not limited in any way. Private Here access is limited to the containing type. Protected Here access is limited to the containing class or types derived from the containing

class.
Internal Access is limited to the classes defined in the same assembly as the delegate.

Depending on the context of the delegate declaration, some of these modifiers might not be allowed. The formal-parameter-list is optional. This specifies the parameters of the delegate, while return-type is used to indicate the delegates return type. In other words, the signatures of the functions assigned to the delegates must be identical.

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The method and delegate type are consistent if, and only if, the following is true: For each of the parameter methods: If the parameter has no out or ref modifier, the corresponding parameter has no out or ref modifier either. Also, there must exist an identity conversion or implicit reference conversion from the appropriate delegate parameter to the method parameter type. If the parameter does have an out or ref modifier, the corresponding parameter of the delegate type has the same modifier. The corresponding delegate parameter type must be the same as the method parameter type.

There must be an implicit reference conversion or identity conversion from the return type of the method to the return type of the delegate.

It is important to remember that delegate types in C# are name equivalent, not structurally equivalent. This means that you can have two delegate types that have the same parameter lists and return types still considered different delegate types.

Declaring Delegates
Delegate types can only be declared using a delegate declaration. All delegate types are derived from the System.Delegate, and they are implicitly sealed. This means that a type cannot be derived from any delegate type. It is also not possible to derive nondelegate class types from System.Delegate. (It is not a delegate type but rather a type class.)

Invocation List
Weve already mentioned that delegates are used to encapsulate methods. The set of methods encapsulated is called an invocation list. If the delegate is created from a single method, the invocation list creates only one entry. When two or more non-null delegate instances are combined, their invocations lists will be concatenated to form a new invocation list. This list will contain two or more entries. An invocation list cannot be empty. Two invocation lists are concatenated in the order of left operand followed by right operand to form a new invocation list. Delegates are combined using both binary + and += operators. Delegates can be removed using the binary - and -= operators. Delegates can also be checked for equality. The following code snippet shows the delegates in action:
delegate void D(int x); class DelEx { public static void M1(int i) {...} public static void M2(int i) {...} } class Demo {

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static void D ex1 = D ex2 = D ex3 = D ex4 = D ex5 = D ex6 = D ex7 = } } Main() { new D(DelEx.M1); new D(DelEx.M2); ex1 + ex2; ex2 + ex1; ex3 + ex1; ex4 + ex3; ex5 -= ex1;

The preceding is an example where invocation lists are combined and also where a method is removed. After ex1 and ex2 have been instantiated, each one encapsulates a single method (M1 and M2, respectively). When ex3 is then instantiated, it contains two methods in the invocation list (M1 and M2, in that order). Next, ex4 is instantiated, and this again, like ex3, contains two methods, only in a different order (M2 and M1). When ex5 is instantiated, it now contains three methods (M1, M2, and M1) through combining the invocation lists of ex3 (containing M1 and M2) and ex1 (containing M1). Instantiating ex6 combines the invocation lists of ex4 (M2 and M1) and ex3 (M1 and M2) to encapsulate M2, M1, M1, and M2, respectively. Instantiating ex7 takes the invocation list of ex5 (M2, M1, M1, and M2) and removes from this the invocation list of ex1 (M1) to leave M2, M1, and M2.

Delegate Instantiation
Instances of delegates are created using a delegate-creation expression or through an implicit conversion from a method group or anonymous method to a delegate type. The delegate then refers to one or more: Static methods Non-null target objects and instance methods

The following shows delegate instantiation in action:

delegate void D(int x); class DelEx { public static void M1(int i) {...} public void M2(int i) {...} } class Test { static void Main() { D ex1 = new D(DelEx.M1); Test t = new DelEx(); D ex2 = new D(t.M2); D ex3 = new D(ex2); } }

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In the preceding code, the following are created: A static method D ex1 = new D(DelEx.M1); An instance method D ex2 = new D(t.M2); A new delegate D ex3 = new D(ex2);

Once instantiated, an instance of a delegate always refers to the same list of target objects and methods.

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at a special feature of C# called delegates and at how these are used to encapsulate methods to make C# coding both easier and less time consuming. You looked at how to declare delegates and also how methods are encapsulated into an invocation list. You looked at how to combine invocation lists, as well as at how to remove methods from a list. Finally, you looked at how to instantiate delegates, which is done through a delegate-creation expression or through an implicit conversion from a method group or anonymous method to a delegate type. In Chapter 18, you look at exceptions and how they are handled in C#.

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Exceptions
Exceptions are a fact of life. Any time you are going to write code, you are going to encounter some mistakes. Even if you write 100-percent, totally error-free code, that doesnt mean you dont need to think about exceptions and exception handling if you write a program that performs some numerical calculations and the user inputs characters that arent numbers into the program, the program will run into trouble, and you need to plan for it. To handle potential problems, C# makes use of exceptions. If you are accustomed to using C++, the exception-handling abilities of C# will be familiar to you. In fact, there are only three important differences: Exceptions in C# are represented by an instance of a class derived from System.Exception, as opposed to being any value of any type. System-level exceptions such as divide-by-zero have well-defined exception classes. Finally, a block can be used to write code that executes both normally and under conditions of exception.

Exceptions allow the programmer to cater to system-level and application-level errors in C# in a structured, type-safe, and standardized way.

Throwing Exceptions
There are two ways that an exception can be thrown: Using a throw statement. This throws an exception both immediately and unconditionally. With a throw statement, control is never passed to the statement that follows the throw. An exceptional condition arises. A common example is the divide-by-zero where the system throws a System.DivideByZeroException when the denominator of a division is zero.

Chapter 18

System.Exception
The base class for all exceptions is the System.Exception class. There are two properties of this class that all exceptions thrown have in common:
Message This is a read-only property that contains a human-readable string (of the type string) that describes the exception. InnerException This is a read-only property of the type Exception. If the value is not null, it refers to the exception that caused the exception. If the value is null, this means that the

exception was not caused by another exception. The specific values of these properties can be specified in calls to the constructor for System.Exception.

Common Exception Classes

The following table shows a list of common exception classes that can be used in C# programs:

Class
System.ArithmeticException

Description
Base class for exception for arithmetic operations Thrown when the type of an element is not compatible with the runtime type of the array Thrown when a division by zero is carried out Thrown when trying to index an array that is less than zero or out of bounds Thrown when an explicit conversion is from a base or interface to a derived class fails (at runtime) Thrown when a null is used but a referenced object is needed Thrown when memory allocation fails Thrown when a checked context arithmetic operation overflows Thrown when an execution stack has too many pending method calls (usually as a result of recursion) Thrown when a static constructor throws an exception but there is no catch available

System.ArrayTypeMismatchException

System.DivideByZeroException

System.IndexOutOfRangeException

System.InvalidCastException

System.NullReferenceException

System.OutOfMemoryException System.OverflowException

System.StackOverflowException

System.TypeInitializationException

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Handling Exceptions
All exceptions in C# (as with C++) are handled by try statements. The roadmap for handling exceptions is as follows: An exception occurs. The system searches to locate the appropriate catch clause to handle the exception. The current method is searched for a try statement. If found, the catch clauses are processed in order. If the preceding doesnt yield an appropriate try statement, the method that called the method that threw the exception is examined for a try statement. This process continues until a catch clause that can handle the exception is discovered (an exception that is of the same class, or a base class, of the runtime exception). If a catch clause does not name an exception class, it can handle any exception.

The system executes any clauses associated with the try clause. When a matching catch clause is found, the system gets ready to transfer control to the statements in the clause (in order).

What If No Catch Clause Is Found?

At the end of the search outlined above, what if no appropriate catch clause is found? Where at all possible, you want to try to avoid having uncaught exceptions, because the behavior of such exceptions will be unspecified. If the search for a matching catch clause encounters either a static constructor or static field initializer, a System.TypeInitializationException is thrown. The inner exception of the System.TypeInitializationException will contain the exception that was initially thrown. If the search for a matching catch clause encounters the code that initially began the thread, execution of the thread will be terminated.

Summar y
In this short chapter you looked at exceptions. The chapter began by looking at some of the major differences between C# exceptions and exceptions in C++. The chapter then covered throwing exceptions, the System.Exception class, common exception classes in C#, and how exceptions are handled. In Chapter 19, you look at C# attributes.

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Attributes
One of the most powerful features of the .NET language is the ability it offers to define custom attributes in the source code (such as methods, classes, and so on). This allows for a concise yet powerful metaprogramming syntax. In this chapter we are going to look at how to use attributes in C# by first introducing you to attributes before looking at a number of different attributes and how to use them in code.

Introduction to Attributes
Attributes in C# provide a system for defining declarative tags. These are placed on certain entities in the source code to specify additional information. This information can later be retrieved at runtime using a technique called reflection. Two kinds of attributes can be used: Predefined attributes Custom attributes

Attributes are defined using attribute classes (covered in the following sections) that can have both positional and named parameters. These attributes are attached to entities using attribute specifications. These can subsequently be retrieved at runtime using attribute instances. Here is how you declare an attribute in C#:
public class MyNewAttribute : System.Attribute

Attribute Classes
Any class that derives directly or indirectly from the abstract class System.Attributes is an attribute class.

Chapter 19
The declaration of an attribute class defines a completely new attribute that can be placed in a declaration. It is convention for attribute classes to have the suffix Attribute. In coding, this may or may not be included.

Positional vs. Named Parameters

Attribute classes can have both positional and named parameters: Positional parameters. Each public instance constructor of an attribute class defines a sequence of positional parameters for that attribute class. Named parameters. Each nonstatic public read-write field and property of an attribute defines a named parameter of the attribute class.

Attribute Usage
The attribute used to describe how an attribute can be used is AttributeUsage. This attribute has a positional parameter that enables an attribute class to specify the types of declarations that can be used. The syntax of the code is shown as follows:
using System; [AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class | AttributeTargets.Interface)] public class ExampleAttribute: Attribute { ... }

The preceding sample code defines an attribute class called ExampleAttribute. This can be placed on class declarations and interface declarations. Here is another example:
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class | AttributeTargets.Constructor | AttributeTargets.Field | AttributeTargets.Method | AttributeTargets.Property, AllowMultiple = false)] AttributeUsage has a named parameter called AllowMultiple. This is used to indicate whether the

attribute can be specified more than once for a given entity. If AllowMultiple for an attribute class is true, that attribute class is set as a multiuse attribute class and can be specified once or more than once on an entity. If AllowMultiple for an attribute class is false or unspecified, that attribute class is set as a single-use attribute class and can be specified no more than once on an entity.

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AttributeUsage has another named parameter, called Inherited, used to indicate whether the attribute, when used on a base class, is also inherited to classes derived from that base class.

There are two possible values: If Inherited is set to true, the attribute is inherited. If Inherited is set to false, the attribute is not inherited.

Types of Attribute Parameters

The types of both positional and named parameters for attribute classes are confined to attribute parameter types. The attribute parameter types are: One of the following types:
bool byte char double float int long short string

The System.Type type The object type An enum type (as long as it is set to have public accessibility, along with any nested types) A single-dimensional array of any of the preceding

Attribute Specification
Attribute specification is where a previously defined attribute is used in a declaration. Attributes can be specified at the following: global scope
type-declarations struct-member-declarations interface-member-declarations class-member-declarations enum-member-declarations

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accessor-declarations event-accessor-declarations

elements of formal-parameter-lists elements of type-parameter-lists

All attributes are specified in attribute sections. A valid attribute section is made up of an opening and closing square bracket ([ and ]), inside of which is a list of attributes separated by commas (the list can contain one or more attributes). For example:
[A ,B]

It is important to note that neither the order in which the attributes are specified nor the order in which the sections in a program entity are arranged has any significance whatsoever. This means that the following are equivalent:
[A, B] [B, A] [A] [B] [B][A]

The syntax of attribute specification is shown as follows:

global-attributes: global-attribute-sections global-attribute-sections: global-attribute-section global-attribute-sections global-attribute-section global-attribute-section: [ global-attribute-target-specifier attribute-list ] [ global-attribute-target-specifier attribute-list , ] global-attribute-target-specifier: global-attribute-target : global-attribute-target: identifier keyword attributes: attribute-sections attribute-sections: attribute-section attribute-sections attribute-section attribute-section: [ attribute-target-specifieropt attribute-list ] [ attribute-target-specifieropt attribute-list , ]

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attribute-target-specifier: attribute-target : attribute-target: identifier keyword attribute-list: attribute attribute-list , attribute attribute: attribute-name attribute-argumentsopt attribute-name: type-name attribute-arguments: ( positional-argument-listopt ) ( positional-argument-list , named-argument-list ) ( named-argument-list ) positional-argument-list: positional-argument positional-argument-list , positional-argument positional-argument: attribute-argument-expression named-argument-list: named-argument named-argument-list , named-argument named-argument: identifier = attribute-argument-expression attribute-argument-expression: expression

An attribute is made up of: An attribute-name An optional list of positional and named arguments

Any positional attributes must be listed before any named arguments. A positional attribute is made up of: An attribute-argument-expression, followed by A name, followed by An equal sign, followed by An attribute-argument-expression

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The order of named arguments is not important and does not convey any significance. When an attribute is placed at the global level, a global-attribute-target-specifier is mandatory. The only standardized global-attribute-target name is assembly. The only standardized attribute-target names are:
event An event field A field method A constructor, finalizer, method, operator, property get and set accessors, the event add and remove accessors param A property set of accessors, event add and remove accessors, and a parameter in a constructor, method, or operator property A property return A delegate, method, property, or operator type A class, delegate, enum, interface, or struct typevar A type parameter

An expression E is only considered an attribute-argument-expression if all of the following statements are true: The type of E is an attribute parameter type. If, when a compile-time error occurs, the value of E can be resolved to: A typeof-expression A constant value A one-dimensional array consisting of attribute-argument-expressions

Attribute Instances
An attribute instance is used to represent an attribute during runtime. An attribute is defined with: An attribute class Positional arguments Named arguments

An attribute instance is an instance of the attribute class that has been initialized with positional and named arguments.

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Attribute Compilation
The compilation of an attribute with attribute class T, positional-argument-list P and namedargument-list N, is made up of the following steps: Follow the compile-time processing steps for compiling an object-creation-expression of the form new T(P). These steps will either determine an instance constructor C on T that can be invoked at runtime or result in a compile-time error. If C does not contain any public accessibility, this will result in a compile-time error. For each named-argument Arg in N:
Name will be the identifier of the named-argument Arg. Name must identify a nonstatic read-write public field or property on T. If no such field or

property exists, this results in a compile-time error. Keep the following information in mind for runtime instantiation of the attribute: Attribute class T Instance constructor C on T The positional-argument-list P The named-argument-list N

Runtime Retrieval of Attribute Instances

Here are the steps necessary to retrieve an attribute instance represented by T, C, P, and N and associated with E at runtime from an assembly A: Follow the runtime processing steps for executing an object-creation-expression of the form new T(P), using the instance constructor C as determined at compile time. This will result in an instance O of T or in a compile-time error. For each named-argument Arg in N, the following are carried out in order:

1.

Let Name be the identifier of the named-argument Arg. If Name does not identify a nonstatic public read-write field or property on O, this will result in an exception being thrown. Let Value be the result of evaluating the attribute-argument-expression of Arg. If Name identifies a field on O, this field should be set to Value. Else, Name identifies a property on O and this should be set to Value. The result is O, an instance of the attribute class T that has been initialized that has positional-argument-list P and named-argument-list N.

2. 3. 4. 5.

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Reser ved Attributes

The following attributes have the stated effect on the code:
System.AttributeUsageAttribute Used to describe the ways an attribute class can

be used
[AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.Class, Inherited=true)]

System.ObsoleteAttribute Used to mark a member obsolete

[AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.Class| AttributeTargets.Struct| AttributeTargets.Enum| AttributeTargets.Constructor| AttributeTargets.Method| AttributeTargets.Property| AttributeTargets.Field| AttributeTargets.Event| AttributeTargets.Interface| AttributeTargets.Delegate, Inherited=false)]

System.Diagnostics.ConditionalAttribute A multiuse attribute class used to define

conditional attribute classes and conditional methods

[AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.Class| AttributeTargets.Method, AllowMultiple=true)]

The Conditional Attribute

The attribute Conditional enables the definition of: Conditional methods Conditional attribute classes

Conditional Methods
A method that has a Conditional attribute is known as a conditional method. Every conditional method is linked with the conditional compilation symbols declared by the Conditional attributes. A conditional method has the following constraints: The conditional method has to be a method in a class-declaration or struct-declaration; otherwise, a compile-time error is generated. A conditional method cannot have an override modifier. A conditional method cannot be an implementation of an interface method. The conditional method has to have a return type of void.

A compile-time error will be generated if any conditional methods are used in a delegate-creationexpression.

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Conditional Attribute Classes
An attribute class that has one or more Conditional attributes is known as a conditional attribute class. It therefore stands to reason that a conditional attribute class is associated with the conditional compilation symbols (looked at in Chapter 4) declared in its Conditional attributes.
[Conditional(.DEBUG.)] public static void Help(String str) { Console.WriteLine(str); }

The Obsolete Attribute

The Obsolete attribute is used to mark any types or members that shouldnt be used. When a type or member is marked with the Obsolete attribute, using it generates a warning at compile time. The compiler also generates a warning if: No error parameters are supplied. The error parameter provided has the value false.

The compiler will generate an error if: An error parameter is specified, and it has the value true.

Here is an example of the Obsolete attribute in action:

Using System; Namespace MyExample { Class MyAttribute { [Obsolete()] public static void Test(string str) { Console.WriteLine(str); } public static void Test2(string str) { Console.WriteLine(str); } static void Main() { Test(This is a test); Console.ReadLine(); } } }

To get a custom message displayed, we would use the following code:

Using System; Namespace MyExample {

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Class MyAttribute { [Obsolete(The Test() method obsolete. Instead use Test2())] public static void Test(string str) { Console.WriteLine(str); } public static void Test2(string str) { Console.WriteLine(str); } static void Main() { Test(This is a test); Console.ReadLine(); } } }

Summar y
This chapter has looked at how to use a powerful feature of C# called attributes. Attributes are a way of defining declarative tags within the source code of a program. The chapter began with a look at what attributes are and where they can be used, before looking at specifics of attributes, such as: Attribute classes Positional parameters Named parameters Attribute usage Specifying attributes Attribute instances Reserved attributes

In Chapter 20, you move on to look at generics.

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Generics
In this chapter we are going to look at generics and how they allow programmers to write clearer code that performs better. Well start by comparing generics in C# with templates in C++ before going on to look at the advantages of generics, followed by a detailed look at them. Generics are, without a doubt, the most powerful feature introduced into C# 2.0, enabling the programmer to define type-safe data structures without having to define an actual data type. This has a number of advantages: Greater performance Code that is more readable

C# Generics vs. C++ Templates

A number of comparisons can be drawn between generics in C# and templates in C++. Here is a good way to think of the two: Think of generics in C# as classes, except the former are a type parameter. Think of C++ templates as macros, except the code for templates looks like the code for classes.

There are a couple of other important differences: With C#, the instantiation of generics is done during runtime (when the program is being run) by the JIT compiler. The runtime is creating native code specifically for the type in question when it is needed. With templates in C++, all this is carried out at compile time or link time. C# carries out strong type-checking when a generic is compiled, which guarantees that any operation carried out on a type parameter will work. With C++, there is none of this, which can lead to very generic error messages. In this way, C# generics can be thought of as strongly typed, whereas C++ templates are untyped or, at best, loosely typed.

Chapter 20

Advantages of Generics
There are a number of advantages to using generics, some of which weve touched on already: Generics allow the specification of types at runtime. There is no need for boxing (the name given to converting a value to a reference type) or casting (explicitly converting between data types), which means greater performance. Fewer cryptic error messages and less debugging time Clearer, easier-to-understand code

Here is an example of generics in action. Here we have a generic call, Compare, that compares two items that have the same type and returns the largest or smallest, depending on which method is called in the code:
public class Compare<ItemType, ItemType> { public ItemType Larger(ItemType info1, ItemType info2) { // Code goes here } public ItemType Smaller(ItemType info1, ItemType info2) { // Code goes here } }

Generic Class Declarations

A generic class declaration needs type arguments to be supplied so that runtime types can be formed when the MSIL code is processed by the JIT compiler. The syntax for generic class declarations is shown as follows:
class-declaration: attributesopt class-modifiersopt partialopt class identifier type-parameter-listopt class-baseopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt class-body ;opt

A class declaration cannot provide type-parameter-constraints-clauses unless the declaration also supplies type-parameter-list. The rules governing generic classes are similar to those that govern nongeneric classes, and it is possible for generic class declarations to be nested within nongeneric class declarations.

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Generic classes are referenced using a constructed type. For example, take the following generic class:
class List<T> {}

This could be accessed by a number of constructed types:

List<int> List<T> List<List<string>>

There are two types of constructed types: Open constructed types. These use one or more type parameters. For example:

List<T>

Closed constructed type. These use no type parameters:

List<int>

Type Parameters
Type parameters are supplied in a class declaration, and each type parameter is a simple identifier that acts as a placeholder for a type argument supplied to create a constructed type. The actual type for the type parameter is supplied later in the code. Compare this to a type argument that is a runtime type later substituted for the type parameter when a constructed type is created. The syntax of type parameter lists is shown as follows:
type-parameter-list: < type-parameters > type-parameters: attributesopt type-parameter type-parameters , attributesopt type-parameter type-parameter: identifier

Each type parameter found in a class declaration defines a specific name in the declaration space of that class. This means that a type parameter cant have the same name as another type parameter or a member declared in the class. In addition, a type parameter cannot have the same name as the type itself. The scope of a type parameter on a class covers:
class-base type-parameter-constraints-clauses class-body

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Be aware, though, that this scope does not extend to derived classes (which differs from the behavior of class members).

Type Parameter Differences

Because of the way type parameters work (in that they can be instantiated with different runtime arguments), they differ from other types in a few key ways. Here are a few examples of these differences: A type parameter cannot be used to declare a base class or interface. The rules for member lookup on type parameters depend on any constraints that might have been applied to the type parameter: During member lookup, members declared in a class other than object hide members declared in interfaces. During overload resolution of methods and indexers, if any applicable member was declared in a class other than object, all members declared in an interface are removed from the set of considered members.

The literal null cannot be converted to a type given by a type parameter, unless the type parameter is known to be a reference type (note that it is possible to use a default value expression). A new expression can only be used with a type parameter when the type parameter is constrained by a constructor-constraint or the value type constraint. The available conversions for a type parameter depend on any constraints that might have been applied to the type parameter. A type parameter cannot be used anywhere within an attribute. A type parameter cannot be used in a member access or type name to identify either a static member or a nested type. In unsafe code, a type parameter cannot be used as an unmanaged type.

Instance Type
Every class declaration has an associated constructed type called an instance type. For generic class declarations, the instance type is created by forming a constructed type from the type declaration, with each type argument being a corresponding type parameter. Because instance types use type parameters, they can only be used in code locations where the parameters are in scope (inside the class declaration itself). The following code shows several class declarations:
class A<T> { class B {} class C<X> {} } class D {}

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The table that follows shows classes with their associated instance types:

Class
class A<T> class B {} class C<X> {} class D {}

Instance Type
A<T> A<T>.B A<T>.C<X> D

Generic Class Members

All members of a generic class can make use of type parameters from any enclosing class. This can be done either directly or as part of a constructed type. When a closed constructed type is used, each use of a type parameter is replaced with the runtime type argument supplied to the constructed type at runtime. Here is an example of generic class members in action:
using System; class C<T> { private static int m_NCount = 0; public C() { m_NCount++; } public int NCount { get { return m_NCount; } } } class Program { static void Main() { C<int> c1 = new C<int> c2 = new C<string> c3 = new C<string> c4 = new C<string> c5 = new C<object> c6 = new Console.WriteLine( Console.WriteLine( Console.WriteLine( } }

C<int>(); C<int>(); C<string>(); C<string>(); C<string>(); C<object>(); C<int> : + c1.NCount.ToString() ); C<string>: + c3.NCount.ToString() ); C<object>: + c6.NCount.ToString() );

The output from this program is as follows:

C<int> : 2 C<string>: 3 C<object>: 1

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Static Fields in Generic Classes

A static variable in a generic class declaration is shared with all instances of the same closed constructed type. It is not shared among instances of different closed constructed types. These two rules apply whether the type of the static variable involves any type parameters or not.

Static Constructors in Generic Classes

A static constructor in a generic class is used to initialize static fields. It is also used to carry out initialization for each different closed constructed type resulting from that generic class declaration. The type parameters of the generic type declaration are in scope within the body of the static constructor. A new closed constructed class type is initialized the first time that one of the following conditions exists: An instance of the closed constructed type is created. Any of the static members of the closed constructed type are referenced.

New closed constructed type fields are created as follows: A new set of static fields for the closed constructed type is created. The static fields are initialized with default values. The static field initializers are executed. Finally, the static constructor is executed.

Access to Protected Members

Inside a generic class declaration, access to inherited, protected instance members is allowed through an instance of any class type constructed from the generic class.

Overloading in Generic Classes

The following in generic classes can be overloaded: methods constructors indexers operators

Here is an example of an overloaded method:

Public void functionName(int x, params int[] varParam); Public void functionName(int x);

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When overloading, declared signatures have to be unique. However, even when signatures are unique, this doesnt mean that substitution of type arguments cant result in identical signatures.

Operators in Generic Classes

Generic class declarations can also define operators. The rules are the same as for nongeneric class declarations. The instance type of the class declaration is used to declare operators. The rules for this are as follows: A unary operator will take a single parameter of the instance type. Both unary ++ and -- operators will return the instance type or a type derived from the instance type. A minimum of one of the parameters of a binary operator has to be of the instance type. Either the parameter type or the return type of a conversion operator has to be an instance type.

No rule prevents you from declaring operators that will specify conversions that already exist as predefined conversions for some argument types. However, if conversions are specified where there are predefined conversions between two types, conversions specified by the code will be ignored, and predefined conversions will be used.

Generic Struct Declarations

A struct declaration can be used to define type parameters and their associated constraints:
struct-declaration: attributesopt struct-modifiersopt partialopt struct identifier type-parameter-listopt struct-interfacesopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt struct-body ;opt

Generic Interface Declarations

An interface declaration can be used to define type parameters and their associated constraints:
interface-declaration: attributesopt interface-modifiersopt partialopt interface identifier type-parameter-listopt interface-baseopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt interface-body ;opt

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Each type parameter in an interface declaration defines a name in the declaration space of the interface in question. The scope of a type parameter on an interface includes:
interface-base type-parameterconstraints-clauses interface-body

A type parameter can be used as a type wherever it has scope.

Explicit Interface Member Implementations

Explicit interface member implementations work with constructed interface types in much the same way as they do with simple interface types. An explicit interface member implementation will be qualified by an interface type used to indicate which interface is being implemented. This type can be either a simple interface or a constructed interface.

Generic Delegate Declarations

A delegate declaration can be used to define type parameters and their associated constraints:
delegate-declaration: attributesopt delegate-modifiersopt delegate return-type identifier type-parameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt ;

Each type parameter in a generic delegate declaration is used to define a name in a declaration space that will be associated with that delegate declaration. The scope of a type parameter in a delegate declaration includes the following:
return-type formal-parameter-list type-parameter-constraints clauses

Like all other generic type declarations, type arguments are used to create a constructed delegate type.

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Constructed Types
A generic type declaration on its own is an unbound generic type. This is used as a template from which many different types can be created by applying type arguments. The type arguments, described in the following section, are written inside angle brackets (< and >), which immediately follow the name of the generic type declaration. Any type named by one or more type argument is called a constructed type.

Type Arguments
Every argument that appears in a type argument list is merely a type:
type-argument-list: < type-arguments > type-arguments: type-argument type-arguments , type-argument type-argument: type

Type arguments can be either constructed types or type parameters.

Open and Closed Types

Every type can be classified as either an open type or a closed type. An open type uses type parameters: A type parameter defines an open type. An array type is an open type only if the element types are an open type. A constructed type is an open type only if one or more of the type arguments are an open type.

An example of open types is:

Stack<T>

A closed type is not an open type. Examples of closed types are:

Stack<int> Stack<Stack<int>>

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Members of Constructed Types

The noninherited members of any constructed type can be derived by substituting each type parameter in the member declaration for the corresponding type argument of the constructed type. The inherited members of any constructed type can be obtained in a similar way. To do this, all the members of the immediate base class have to be determined. If the base class is itself a constructed type, this might mean that the current rule has to be applied recursively. After this, each of the inherited members is transformed by substituting, for each type parameter in the member declaration, the corresponding type argument of the constructed type.

Using Alias Directives

Aliases can name a closed constructed type, but they cannot name a generic type declaration without supplying type arguments.

Generic Methods
A generic method is a method where the declaration includes a type-parameter-list. Generic methods can be declared inside the following declarations:
class struct interface

These declarations can be either generic or nongeneric. Here is a code example of a generic method:
public T Test<T>(T val1, T val2) where T : IComparable T retVal = val2; if (val2.CompareTo(val1) < 0) retVal = val1; return retVal; } {

When a generic method is declared inside a generic type declaration, the body of the method can refer both to the type parameters of the method and the type parameters of the containing declaration. The type-parameter-list and type-parameter-constraints-clauses of a generic method declaration have the same syntax and purpose as in a generic type declaration.

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The methods type parameters are in scope throughout the method declaration and can be used to form types throughout that scope in the following:
return-type method-body type-parameter-constraints-clauses

The name of a method type parameter cannot be the same as the name of an ordinary parameter in the same method.

Generic Method Signatures

For the purposes of signature comparisons, any type-parameter-constraints-clauses present are ignored. Similarly, the names of the methods type parameters are also ignored. Not ignored are the number of generic type parameters and the ordinal positions of type parameters in left-to-right ordering.

Virtual Generic Methods

Generic methods can be declared using the following modifiers:
abstract virtual override

Signature matching rules are used when matching methods to a particular override and interface implementation. Whenever a generic method is used to override another declared in a base class, that method cannot specify any type-parameter-constraints-clauses, because constraints are inherited from the method being overridden. The same is true of interface implementation.

Calling Generic Methods

A generic method can either specify an argument type list itself or can instead fall back on type inference, described in the following section, and allow that to determine type arguments. Be mindful that allowing generic methods to use type inference can sometimes lead to the code being hard to follow and understand.

Inference of Type Arguments

When a generic method is called without type arguments, the process called type inference is used to infer the type arguments for the particular calling of the method. This is carried out at compile time. The advantage of using type inference is that it enables code to be written that is more concise. It is important to note that if type inference fails, a compiler error will not occur during compilation, but the method will not take part in any overload resolution and this can cause a compiler error later when no methods are found.

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Lets assume this argument has type T and the corresponding parameter has type P. Type inferences are worked out as follows: No inference is made if any of the following are true:
P does not involve any method type parameters.

The argument is an anonymous method. The argument is a method group. The argument has the null type.

If P and A are array types of the same rank, replace A and P with the element types of A and P, and repeat this step. If P is a method type parameter, type inference succeeds for this argument, and A is the type inferred for that type parameter. If P is an array type and A is not an array type of the same rank or an instantiation of IList<>, ICollection<>, or IEnumerable<>, type inference fails for the generic method. If P is an array type and A is an instantiation of IList<>, ICollection<>, or IEnumerable<>, replace A and P with the element types of A and P, and repeat this step. Otherwise, P will be a constructed type: If, for each method type parameter MX found in P, one type (and only one type) TX can be determined so that replacing each MX with each TX produces a type to which A can be changed by a standard implicit conversion, inferencing succeeds for this argument, and each TX is the type inferred for each MX. Method type parameter constraints, if any, are ignored for the purpose of type inference. If, for a particular MX, no TX exists, or there is more than one TX, type inference will fail for the generic method.

Type inference is said to have been successful if both of the following are true: Each type parameter of the method had a type argument inferred for it. For every type parameter, all of the inferences for that type parameter infer the same type argument.

Where Generics Arent Used

The following dont have type parameters: Constructors Events Finalizers Indexers Operators Properties

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While the preceding items dont have type parameters, this doesnt stop them from appearing as generic types, and they can use any type parameters from the enclosing type.

Constraints
Generic type and method declarations can also optionally specify one or more type parameter constraints by including a type-parameter-constraints-clauses in the declaration:
type-parameter-constraints-clauses: type-parameter-constraints-clause type-parameter-constraints-clauses type-parameter-constraints-clause type-parameter-constraints-clause: where type-parameter : type-parameter-constraints type-parameter-constraints: primary-constraint secondary-constraints constructor-constraint primary-constraint , secondary-constraints primary-constraint , constructor-constraint secondary-constraints , constructor-constraint primary-constraint , secondary-constraints , constructor-constraint primary-constraint: class-type class struct secondary-constraints: interface-type type-parameter secondary-constraints , interface-type secondary-constraints , type-parameter constructor-constraint: new ( )

Each type-parameter-constraints-clauses consists of: The token where, followed by The name of a type parameter, followed by A colon and the list of constraints for that type parameter

There can be no more than one where clause for each type parameter, and where clauses can be listed in any order. Note that the where token is not a keyword.

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The list of constraints given in a where clause can include any of the following components, in this order: A single primary constraint One or more secondary constraints Finally, the constructor constraint, new()

A primary constraint can be any of the following: A class type The reference type constraint class The value type constraint struct

A secondary constraint can be either: A type parameter An interface type

The reference type constraint specifies that a type argument used for the type parameter has to be a reference type. The following all satisfy this constraint: Array type Class type Delegate type Interface type Type parameters that are reference types

The value type constraint specifies that a type argument used for the type parameter has to be a value type. The following all satisfy this constraint: Enum type Any non-nullable struct types A type parameter having the value type

If a constraint is a class type, a type parameter, or an interface type, it is a type that specifies a minimal base type that every type argument used for that type parameter will be able to support. A class-type constraint has to satisfy the following rules: The type has to be a class type. The type cannot be sealed. The type cannot be one of the following:
System.Array System.Delegate

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System.Enum System.ValueType

The type cannot be object. Only one constraint for any specified type parameter can be a class type.

A type specified as an interface-type constraint has to satisfy the following rules: The type has to be an interface type. A type cannot be specified more than once in a given where clause.

The constraint can use any of the type parameters of the associated type or method declarations as part of the constructed type. It can also use the type being declared. A type specified as a type-parameter constraint has to fulfill the following rules: A type cannot be specified more than once in any given where clause. The type has to be a type parameter.

The effective base class of a type parameter T is defined as follows: If T doesnt have any primary constraints or type parameter constraints, its effective base class is object. If T has the value type constraint, its effective base class is System.ValueType. If T has a class-type constraint C but doesnt have any type-parameter constraints, its effective base class is C. If T doesnt have a class-type constraint but has one or more type-parameter constraints, its effective base class is the most encompassed type in the set of effective base classes of its type-parameter constraints. If T has both a class-type constraint and one or more type-parameter constraints, its effective base class is the most encompassed type in the set that consists of the class-type constraint of T and the effective base classes of the type-parameter constraints.

The effective interface set of a type parameter T is defined as follows: If T doesnt have any secondary constraints, its effective interface set is empty. If T has interface-type constraints but doesnt have type-parameter constraints, its effective interface set is its set of interface-type constraints. If T doesnt have any interface-type constraints but does have type-parameter constraints, its effective interface set is the union of the effective interface sets of its type-parameter constraints. If T has both interface-type constraints and type-parameter constraints, its effective interface set is the union of its set of interface-type constraints and the effective interface sets of its type-parameter constraints.

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Summar y
In this chapter you looked at one of the most powerful features of C# generics. This new feature is similar to templates in C++, but there are some key differences: Instantiation of generics is performed during runtime. C# carries out strong type-checking when a generic is compiled.

This allows for a number of advantages, including specification of types at runtime and the reduced need for boxing and casting operations that can be system intensive. In Chapter 21, you look at iterators and how they are used in C#.

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In this chapter we are going to take a look at how iterators are used in C#. An iterator provides C# with a way of implementing a function whose return type is either: An enumerator interface An enumerable interface

The difference between these is described later in this chapter. The function member then returns an ordered sequence of values yielded by the operator. Take a look at the following code:
using System; using System.Collections; public class Months : IEnumerable{ string[] m_Names; public Months(params string[] Names){ m_Names = new string[Names.Length]; Names.CopyTo(m_Names, 0); } public IEnumerator GetEnumerator(){ foreach (string s in m_Names) yield return s; } } class Program{ static void Main(string[] args){ Months arrMonths = new Months(Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May, Jun,

Chapter 21
Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec); foreach (string s in arrMonths) Console.WriteLine(s); Console.ReadLine(); } }

The output of the preceding code is as follows:

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Iterators are implemented using yield statements. These yield statements can only be used with methods where the return type is an enumerator interface. In the preceding example, the GetEnumerator makes the m_Names that you see in the foreach loop an enumerable type.

Iterator Block
An iterator block is a block of code that will, when processed, yield a sequence of values ordered in a particular fashion. You can spot an iterator block in code and tell it apart from ordinary statements by looking for the yield statement that will appear one or more times in the block. Following is an example of an iterator block:
public class Months : IEnumerable{ string[] m_Names; public Months(params string[] Names){ m_Names = new string[Names.Length]; Names.CopyTo(m_Names, 0); } public IEnumerator GetEnumerator(){ foreach (string s in m_Names) yield return s; } }

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There are two types of yield statements: The yield return statement. This statement produces the next value of the iteration:

public IEnumerable GetEnumerator() { for (int x=0; x<itemArray.Length; x++) yield return itemArray[x]; }

The yield break statement. This statement indicates that the iteration is complete:

public IEnumerable GetShortEnumerator(int l) { for (int x=0; x<itemArray.Length; x++) { yield return itemArray[x]; if (x==l) yield break; } }

Iterator blocks are, grammatically speaking, just normal blocks of code. While they have an effect on code semantics, iterator blocks should not be considered different from other blocks of code.

Iterator Blocks and Compile-time Errors

Doing the following will result in a compile-time error: Having a function member implemented where the parameter list specifies any ref or out parameters Having a return statement appear in the iterator block (yield return is allowed, though) Having any iterator block that contains an unsafe context (see Chapter 22 for more details)

Enumerator Interfaces
Enumerator interfaces are the nongeneric interface System.Collections.IEnumerator. The System.Collections.IEnumerator interface also includes all instances of the generic interface System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerator<T>.

Enumerable Interfaces
Enumerable interfaces are the nongeneric interface System.Collections.IEnumerable. The System.Collections.IEnumerable interface also includes all instances of the generic interface System.Collections.Generic.IEnumerable<T>.

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Yield Type
An iterator block will output a sequence of values. These values will all have the same type. The type is called the yield type of the iterator block. Function members that return IEnumerator or IEnumerable will have the yield type of object. Function members that return IEnumerator<T> or IEnumerable<T> will have the yield type of T.

This
When placed inside an instance member of a class, a this expression is classed as a value. The type of this value will be the class within which it is found. The value is a reference to the object for the member that was invoked. When this is found within an iterator block of an instance member of a struct, it is classed as a variable. The type of the variable is the struct where it occurs.

Enumerator Objects
Function members in iterator blocks that return enumerator interface types behave differently from standard function members. When the function member is invoked, the code inside the iterator block is not executed straight away. Instead, an enumerator object that encapsulates the code contained in the iterator block is created and returned. Execution of the code occurs when the MoveNext method of the object is invoked. The following are characteristics of the enumerator object: The enumerator object implements IEnumerator and IEnumerator<T> (where T is the yield type). Enumerator objects implement System.IDisposable. Enumerator objects are initialized with a copy of any argument values and instance values passed to the function members. There are four states for enumerator objects: Before (the initial state) Running Suspended After

The MoveNext Method

The MoveNext method is used to encapsulate the code of the iterator block. By invoking the MoveNext method, you are executing the code that is inside the iterator block. Invoking the code with MoveNext also sets the Current property of the enumerator object as appropriate.

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What happens when MoveNext is invoked depends on the state of the enumerator before it is invoked. State = before: The state is changed to running. The parameters of the iterator block are initialized to the argument values and instance value saved when the enumerator object was initialized. The iterator code block is executed, and this continues until interrupted.

State = running: Action is unspecified.

State = suspended: The state is changed to running. All local variables and parameters (including this) are reset to the values saved when the execution was suspended. Execution of the code that immediately follows the yield return that caused the suspension in the iteration block is resumed, and the code execution continues until interrupted.

State = after:
MoveNext returns false.

Heres an example of the MoveNext method in action:

public bool MoveNext() { index++; if (index >= x.strings.Length) { return false; } else { return true; } }

Execution Interruptions
There are four ways that execution of the iteration block with MoveNext can be interrupted: When the yield return is encountered: The expression in the statement is evaluated and implicitly converted to the yield type. It is then assigned to the current property of the enumerator object. The execution of the code in the iterator is then suspended. All local variables and parameters are saved (including this). The location of the yield return statement is also saved. The state of the enumerator object is changed to suspended. The MoveNext method returns a true to the caller, which signals that the iteration has advanced to the next value.

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When a yield break statement is encountered: If the yield break statement appears inside a try block, any associated finally blocks are executed. The state of the enumerator object is changed to after. The MoveNext method returns a false to the caller to indicate that iteration has completed.

When the iteration body ends: The state of the enumerator object is changed to after. The MoveNext method returns a false to the caller to indicate that iteration has completed.

An exception is thrown that propagates out of the iteration code block: Any finally blocks are executed as the exception propagates. The state of the enumerator object is changed to after. Exception propagation continues to the caller of the MoveNext method.

The Current Property

The Current property of an enumerator object is affected by yield return statements in the iterator block. The value of Current is dependant on the state of the object: When an enumerator object is in the suspended state, the value of Current is the value set by the previous call to MoveNext. When an enumerator object is in the before, running, or after states, the result of accessing Current will be unspecified.

Here is an example of the Current property in action:

public class MyEnumerator<T> : IEnumerator<T> { public T Current { get { // code goes here } } }

The Dispose Method

Dispose is used as a clean-up method and takes the enumerator object to the after state.

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The state of the Dispose method depends on the enumeration object as detailed below: State of enumeration object = before: Invoking Dispose changes state to after.

State of enumeration object = running: Invoking Dispose is unspecified.

State of enumeration object = suspended: State is changed to running. Any finally code blocks are executed (if the last yield return statement was a yield break statement). Any exceptions thrown will propagate out to the caller of the Dispose method and the state is changed to after. State is changed to after.

State of enumeration object = after: Invoking Dispose will have no effect.

Here is an example of the Dispose method in action:

{ if(x != null) ((IDisposable)x).Dispose(); }

Enumerable Objects
When a function member that returns an enumerable interface type is implemented using an iterator block, invoking the function member does not execute the code in the iterator code block. Instead, an enumerable object is created, and this is returned. The iterator code block is encapsulated by the enumerable objects GetEnumerator method. The execution of the code inside the iterator block happens when the MoveNext method of the enumerator object is invoked. The following are characteristics of the enumerable object: The enumerator object implements IEnumerable and IEnumerable<T> (where T is the yield type). Enumerator objects are initialized with a copy of any argument values and instance value passed to the function members.

GetEnumerator Method
An enumerable object provides an implementation of the GetEnumerator methods of both the IEnumerable and IEnumerable<T> interfaces.

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The two GetEnumerator methods both acquire and return an available enumerator object. The enumerator object is initialized with the argument values and instance value saved when the enumerable object was initialized. The following example shows the GetEnumerator method in action. Here the method will return either an enumerator or an enumerable class for an ordered list of items. The order is preserved using a yield statement:
public IEnumerable GetEnumerator() { for (int x=0; x<itemArray.Length; x++) yield return itemArray[x]; }

This next example uses a yield break to indicate that the last item has been yielded:
public IEnumerable GetShortEnumerator(int l) { for (int x=0; x<itemArray.Length; x++) { yield return itemArray[x]; if (x==l) yield break; } }

Summar y
In this chapter you examined iterators in C# and how they can be used to return an ordered sequence of values. You looked in some detail at how the yield return and yield break statements offer flexibility in coding and how the four states of the enumerator objects provide great flexibility when coding. In Chapter 22, you examine safe and unsafe code.

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If youve come from a C++ background, you might have noticed one feature of C++ that has so far been absent in C# pointers. In C#, the majority of memory management tasks that a C++ programmer would need to worry about are taken care of automatically. The thorough garbage collection in C# (and the .NET Framework), along with the extensive use of references, means that the C# programmer can write powerful code yet remain totally oblivious to memory management. However, there are times when it would be useful to have direct access to the memory in order to be able to write code that is more powerful and versatile than regular code. This kind of code is known as unsafe code.

What is Unsafe Code?

While it is true that every pointer type construct found in C++ (or C, for that matter) has a comparable reference type in C#, there are times when direct access to a pointer type is either useful or needed for example, when you want to write code that interacts with the operating system or want to access a device that has been mapped in memory. C# was designed to be a safe and easy-to-use language. One of the goals of C# was to eliminate the need to write code that might cause problems (for example, in C++ it was possible to have variables that werent initialized or to write code that indexed arrays out of bounds). C# was designed with safe code in mind. However, its designers also recognized that there are times when a programmer might want to write unsafe code. In unsafe code, it is possible for the programmer to both declare and operate on pointers. Also possible is conversion between pointers and integral types, to retrieve the address of a variable and much more. Unsafe code is not executed under the full management of the Common Language Runtime. Its important to note that unsafe code is still safe. But to be safe, all unsafe code has to be clearly marked with the unsafe modifier. This way, unsafe features of C# cannot be used accidentally. This safety feature is used by C# to control how it is used.

Chapter 22

Advantages and Disadvantages of Unsafe Code

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to using unsafe code in C#. The following sections provide a brief rundown of the pros and cons.

Advantages of Unsafe Code

There are a number of advantages to using unsafe code. First and foremost, the main advantages are performance and flexibility. Using pointers is the fastest and more efficient way to access and manipulate data. Using unsafe code allows you to retrieve the memory addresses of data by using pointers. There is no way to do this using safe code. Unsafe code also allows C# programs to maintain compatibility with old Windows APIs or third-party DLL files that make use of pointers. There are ways of accomplishing this without pointers (such as using DLLImport declarations), but its usually simpler to use pointers.

Disadvantages of Unsafe Code

Using unsafe code isnt all advantages. There are some big disadvantages too. Using unsafe code leads to code that is more complex than regular C# code. Unsafe code is harder to use than safe code. Using unsafe code makes it easy to do things that arent good, like overwrite variables, access memory areas that dont contain data, or cause a stack overflow. Unsafe code is a lot harder to debug. Pointers are not forgiving. Code that makes use of pointers is much more likely to hang or crash than safe code.

Unsafe Code Contexts

Unsafe code is present in C# in certain contexts only, called unsafe contexts. The unsafe modifier has to be used in the declaration of the type or member. Following are the rules governing unsafe contexts: Declarations of a delegate, class, interface, or struct can include an unsafe modifier. Declarations of an event, field, finalizer, indexer, instance constructor, method, operator, property, or static constructor can include an unsafe modifier.

266

Unsafe Code
An unsafe-statement is a way that the programmer can specify an unsafe context within a block:

class-modifier: ... unsafe struct-modifier: ... unsafe interface-modifier: ... unsafe delegate-modifier: ... unsafe field-modifier: ... unsafe method-modifier: ... unsafe property-modifier: ... unsafe event-modifier: ... unsafe indexer-modifier: ... unsafe operator-modifier: ... unsafe constructor-modifier: ... unsafe finalizer-declaration: attributesopt externopt unsafeopt ~ identifier ( ) finalizer-body attributesopt unsafeopt externopt ~ identifier ( ) finalizer-body static-constructor-modifiers: externopt unsafeopt static unsafeopt externopt static

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Chapter 22
externopt static unsafeopt static static externopt static unsafeopt unsafeopt externopt unsafeopt externopt

embedded-statement: ... unsafe-statement unsafe-statement: unsafe block

Pointer Basics
Lets cover some pointer basics. If youre already familiar with C++, you can skip this introduction. Pointers are variables that hold the addresses of other variables. A simple example is if variable x contains the address of y, then x is said to point to y. Once a pointer points to a variable, the value of the variable can be changed or retrieved through the pointer. Operations carried out through pointers are sometimes referred to as indirection. The general form that a pointer variable declaration takes is:
type* varname

Here type is the pointers base type, which must be a nonreference type, which means that you cant declare a pointer to a class object. Note that * must follow the type name. Also, varname is the name of the pointer variable. To declare a variable var1 to be a pointer to an int, the following declaration is used:
int* var1;

A declaration statement, following a type name with a *, creates a pointer type. In C#, the * is distributive and is the declaration. The following declaration declares two variables:
int* var1, var2;

Void Pointers
If you want to declare a pointer but not specify a type for it, it needs to be declared as a void pointer.
void *var1;

Pointer Operators
Lets take a look at two operators used with pointers the & and * operators.

268

Unsafe Code
& is a unary operator used to return the memory address for the operand: int* var1; int num = 7; var1 = &num;

In this example, var1 contains the memory address for the variable num. This address will be the location of the variable in the computers memory. Its important to note that this variable has nothing at all to do with the value of the variable num. The operations carried out by & can be thought of as returning the memory address of the operand. The * operator is the compliment of the & operator. It is a unary operator that refers to the value of the variable located at the address specified by the operand.
int var2 = *num;

Here the value of num is placed into the variable var2.

* can also be used on the left side of the assignment: *num = 7:

Here the value 7 is put into the address for num.

Unsafe in Action
Any code that makes use of pointers has to be marked unsafe. This is done using the unsafe keyword. Individual statements can be marked unsafe, or entire methods can be marked unsafe, depending on how much unsafe code is used. Take a look at the following example:
using System; class UnsafeClass { unsafe public static void Main() { int var1 = 7; int* var2; var2 = &var1; Console.WriteLine( Initial value is + *var2 ); *var2 = 10; Console.WriteLine( New value is + *var2); Console.ReadLine(); } }

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Chapter 22
This code contains some interesting points worth highlighting. Here Main() is marked as unsafe:
unsafe public static void Main()

Here a pointer is created:

int* var2; The address of var1 is placed in the pointer var2: var2 = &var1;

The initial value output is assigned:

Console.WriteLine( Initial value is + *var2 );

Now the value 10 is assigned to the variable via the pointer created:
*var2 = 10;

A new value is output:

Console.WriteLine( New value is + *var2);

If this code were compiled and run, the output would be as follows:
Initial value is 7 New value is 10

Using the fixed Modifier

The fixed modifier is often used when working with pointers. It is used to prevent a managed variable from being moved by the garbage collector. This is needed, for example, when a pointer refers to a field in a class object. Since the pointer has no knowledge of the actions of the garbage collector, if the object is moved, the pointer will point to the wrong object. The fixed modifier is a way to prevent this from happening. Here is a general form of fixed:
fixed ( type* p = &var1 ) { // use fixed object }

Here, p is a pointer being assigned the address of a variable. The object will remain at the current memory location until the block of code has executed. Note that the fixed keyword can be used only in an unsafe context. You can declare more than one fixed pointer at a time using a comma-separated list.

270

Unsafe Code
Here is an example of fixed in action:
using System; class Test { public int number; public Test(int x) { number = x; } } class FixedExample { unsafe public static void Main() { Test test=new Test(21); fixed ( int* pointer1 = &test.number) { Console.WriteLine( Initial value is + *pointer1); *pointer1 = 7; Console.WriteLine( New value is + *pointer1); Console.Read(); } } }

In this example, fixed prevents test from being moved. Because the pointer points to test.number, if test were moved, the pointer would point to an invalid location. Lets take a look at the highlights of this code. Here we are declaring a class called Test for use.
class Test { public int number; public Test(int x) { number = x; } } unsafe public static void Main()

Here fixed is used to put the address of test.number into the pointer:
fixed ( int* pointer1 = &test.number)

We now output the initial value to the screen:

Console.WriteLine( Initial value is + *pointer1);

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Chapter 22
A new number is now assigned via the pointer that was created:
*pointer1 = 7;

An altered value is now displayed:

Console.WriteLine( New value is + *pointer1);

The output from this program will be as follows:

Initial value is 21 New value is 7

sizeof Operator
The sizeof operator is interesting to use. It can be used to return the number of bytes occupied by a data type. The following is an example of the sizeof operator in action:
unsafe { Console.WriteLine(bool: {0}, sizeof(bool)); Console.WriteLine(byte: {0}, sizeof(byte)); Console.WriteLine(sbyte: {0}, sizeof(sbyte)); Console.WriteLine(short: {0}, sizeof(short)); Console.WriteLine(ushort: {0}, sizeof(ushort)); Console.WriteLine(int: {0}, sizeof(int)); Console.WriteLine(uint: {0}, sizeof(uint)); Console.WriteLine(long: {0}, sizeof(long)); Console.WriteLine(ulong: {0}, sizeof(ulong)); Console.WriteLine(char: {0}, sizeof(char)); Console.WriteLine(float: {0}, sizeof(float)); Console.WriteLine(double: {0}, sizeof(double)); Console.WriteLine(decimal: {0}, sizeof(decimal)); }

The output from this code is as follows:

bool: 1 byte: 1 sbyte: 1 short: 2 ushort: 2 int: 4 uint: 4 long: 8 ulong: 8 char: 2 float: 4 double: 8 decimal: 16

272

Unsafe Code

Using stackalloc
The keyword stackalloc instructs the runtime to allocate a portion of memory on the stack. It requires two things: The type The number of variables youre allocating to the stack

For example, if you want to allocate enough memory to store five floats, you can write the following:
float *pointerfloat = stackalloc float [5];

To allocate enough memory to store 21 shorts:

short *pointershort = stackalloc short [21];

It is important to remember that stackalloc simply allocates memory. It doesnt initialize it to any value. The advantage of stackalloc is the ultrahigh performance it offers, and it is left up to you to initialize the memory locations that were allocated. One useful application of stackalloc is in creating arrays directly in the stack, which is far more efficient than arrays that are objects instantiated from System.Array, which are stored in the heap.

Compiling Unsafe Code

If youve tried to compile any of the preceding unsafe code, you will have received an error like this:
error CS0227: Unsafe code may only appear if compiling with /unsafe

To compile unsafe code using the command-line compiler, you will need to add the /unsafe argument:
csc test.cs /unsafe

This will allow the code to be compiled. To compile the code under Visual Studio .NET, you will need to go to the project property page and set Allow Unsafe Code Blocks to True in Configuration properties > .

Summar y
In this chapter you looked at unsafe code in C# and how it allows you to use pointers in C# in a way that C++ programmers will be comfortable and familiar with. You also looked at what unsafe code is and the advantages and disadvantages of using unsafe code in programs.

273

Chapter 22
You then moved on to look at the contexts where unsafe code can be used, before looking at the basics of using pointers in code. Finally, you looked at some unsafe code in action and were introduced to a number of examples before finally looking at how to compile unsafe C# code.

274

C# Grammar
In this appendix we are going to take a whirlwind tour of both the lexical and syntactic grammar of the C# language.

Lexical Grammar
input:: input-sectionopt input-section:: input-section-part input-section input-section-part input-section-part:: input-elementsopt new-line pp-directive input-elements:: input-element input-elements input-element

Appendix A
input-element:: whitespace comment token

Comments
comment:: single-line-comment delimited-comment single-line-comment:: // input-charactersopt input-characters:: input-character input-characters input-character input-character:: Any Unicode character except a new-line-character new-line-character:: Carriage return character (U+000D) Line feed character (U+000A) Next line character (U+0085) Line separator character (U+2028) Paragraph separator character (U+2029) delimited-comment:: /* delimited-comment-textopt asterisks /

276

C# Grammar
delimited-comment-text:: delimited-comment-section delimited-comment-text delimited-comment-section delimited-comment-section:: not-asterisk asterisks not-slash asterisks:: * asterisks * not-asterisk:: Any Unicode character except * not-slash:: Any Unicode character except /

Identifiers
identifier:: available-identifier @ identifier-or-keyword available-identifier:: An identifier-or-keyword that is not a keyword identifier-or-keyword:: identifier-start-character identifier-part-charactersopt identifier-start-character:: letter-character _ (the underscore character U+005F)

277

Appendix A
identifier-part-characters:: identifier-part-character identifier-part-characters identifier-part-character identifier-part-character:: letter-character decimal-digit-character connecting-character combining-character formatting-character letter-character:: A Unicode character of classes: Lu Ll Lt Lm Lo Nl A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of classes: Lu Ll Lt Lm Lo Nl combining-character:: A Unicode character of classes Mn or Mc A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of classes Mn or Mc decimal-digit-character:: A Unicode character of the class Nd A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of the class Nd

278

C# Grammar
connecting-character:: A Unicode character of the class Pc A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of the class Pc formatting-character:: A Unicode character of the class Cf A unicode-escape-sequence representing a character of the class Cf

Keywords
keyword:: one of abstract as base bool break byte case catch char checked class const continue decimal default delegate

279

Appendix A
do double else enum event explicit extern false finally fixed float for foreach goto if implicit in int interface internal is lock long namespace new

280

C# Grammar
null object operator out override params private protected public readonly ref return sbyte sealed short sizeof stackalloc static string struct switch this throw true try

281

Appendix A
typeof uint ulong unchecked unsafe ushort using virtual void volatile while

Line Terminators
new-line:: Carriage return character (U+000D) Line feed character (U+000A) Carriage return character (U+000D) followed by line feed character (U+000A) Next line character (U+2085) Line separator character (U+2028) Paragraph separator character (U+2029)

Literals
literal:: boolean-literal integer-literal

282

C# Grammar
real-literal character-literal string-literal null-literal boolean-literal:: true false integer-literal:: decimal-integer-literal hexadecimal-integer-literal decimal-integer-literal:: decimal-digits integer-type-suffixopt decimal-digits:: decimal-digit decimal-digits decimal-digit decimal-digit:: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 integer-type-suffix:: one of U u L l UL Ul uL ul LU Lu lU lu hexadecimal-integer-literal:: 0x hex-digits integer-type-suffixopt 0X hex-digits integer-type-suffixopt hex-digits:: hex-digit hex-digits hex-digit

283

Appendix A
hex-digit:: one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F a b c d e f real-literal:: decimal-digits . decimal-digits exponent-partopt real-type-suffixopt . decimal-digits exponent-partopt real-type-suffixopt decimal-digits exponent-part real-type-suffixopt decimal-digits real-type-suffix exponent-part:: e signopt decimal-digits E signopt decimal-digits sign:: one of + real-type-suffix:: one of F f D d M m character-literal:: character character:: single-character simple-escape-sequence hexadecimal-escape-sequence unicode-escape-sequence single-character:: Any character except (U+0027), \ (U+005C), and new-line-character simple-escape-sequence:: one of \ \ \\ \0 \a \b \f \n \r \t \v

284

C# Grammar
hexadecimal-escape-sequence:: \x hex-digit hex-digitopt hex-digitopt hex-digitopt string-literal:: regular-string-literal verbatim-string-literal regular-string-literal:: regular-string-literal-charactersopt regular-string-literal-characters:: regular-string-literal-character regular-string-literal-characters regular-string-literal-character regular-string-literal-character:: single-regular-string-literal-character simple-escape-sequence hexadecimal-escape-sequence unicode-escape-sequence single-regular-string-literal-character:: Any character except (U+0022), \ (U+005C), and new-line-character verbatim-string-literal:: @ verbatim-string-literal-charactersopt verbatim-string-literal-characters:: verbatim-string-literal-character verbatim-string-literal-characters verbatim-string-literal-character verbatim-string-literal-character:: single-verbatim-string-literal-character quote-escape-sequence

285

Appendix A
single-verbatim-string-literal-character:: Any character except quote-escape-sequence:: null-literal:: null

Operators/Punctuators
operator-or-punctuator:: one of { } [ ] ( ) . , : ; + * / % & |

286

C# Grammar
^ ! ~ = < > ? ?? :: ++ -&& || -> == != <= >= += -= *= /= %= &= |=

287

Appendix A
^= << <<= right-shift:: > > right-shift-assignment:: > >=

Pre-Processing Directives
pp-directive:: pp-declaration pp-conditional pp-line pp-diagnostic pp-region pp-pragma conditional-symbol:: identifier Any keyword except true or false pp-expression:: whitespaceopt pp-or-expression whitespaceopt pp-or-expression:: pp-and-expression pp-or-expression whitespaceopt || whitespaceopt pp-and-expression

288

C# Grammar
pp-and-expression:: pp-equality-expression pp-and-expression whitespaceopt && whitespaceopt pp-equality-expression pp-equality-expression:: pp-unary-expression pp-equality-expression whitespaceopt == whitespaceopt pp-unary-expression pp-equality-expression whitespaceopt != whitespaceopt pp-unary-expression pp-unary-expression:: pp-primary-expression ! whitespaceopt pp-unary-expression pp-primary-expression:: true false conditional-symbol ( whitespaceopt pp-expression whitespaceopt ) pp-declaration:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt define whitespace conditional-symbol pp-new-line whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt undef whitespace conditional-symbol pp-new-line pp-new-line:: whitespaceopt single-line-commentopt new-line pp-conditional:: pp-if-section pp-elif-sectionsopt pp-else-sectionopt pp-endif pp-if-section:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt if whitespace pp-expression pp-new-line conditional-sectionopt

289

Appendix A
pp-elif-sections:: pp-elif-section pp-elif-sections pp-elif-section pp-elif-section:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt elif whitespace pp-expression pp-new-line conditional-sectionopt pp-else-section:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt else pp-new-line conditional-sectionopt pp-endif:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt endif pp-new-line conditional-section:: input-section skipped-section skipped-section:: skipped-section-part skipped-section skipped-section-part skipped-section-part:: whitespaceopt skipped-charactersopt new-line pp-directive skipped-characters:: not-number-sign input-charactersopt not-number-sign:: Any input-character except # pp-line:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt line whitespace line-indicator pp-new-line

290

C# Grammar
line-indicator:: decimal-digits whitespace file-name decimal-digits identifier-or-keyword file-name:: file-name-characters file-name-characters:: file-name-character file-name-characters file-name-character file-name-character:: Any character except (U+0022), and new-line-character pp-diagnostic:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt error pp-message whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt warning pp-message pp-message:: new-line whitespace input-charactersopt new-line pp-region:: pp-start-region conditional-sectionopt pp-end-region pp-start-region:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt region pp-message pp-end-region:: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt endregion pp-message pp-pragma: whitespaceopt # whitespaceopt pragma pp-pragma-text

291

Appendix A
pp-pragma-text: new-line whitespace input-charactersopt new-line

Unicode Escape Characters

unicode-escape-sequence:: \u hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit \U hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit hex-digit

White Space
whitespace:: whitespace-characters whitespace-characters:: whitespace-character whitespace-characters whitespace-character whitespace-character:: Any character with Unicode class Zs Horizontal tab character (U+0009) Vertical tab character (U+000B) Form feed character (U+000C)

Syntactic Grammar
compilation-unit: extern-alias-directivesopt using-directivesopt global-attributesopt namespace-member-declarationsopt namespace-name: namespace-or-type-name

292

C# Grammar
type-name: namespace-or-type-name namespace-or-type-name: identifier type-argument-listopt qualified-alias-member namespace-or-type-name . identifier type-argument-listopt

Arrays
array-type: non-array-type rank-specifiers non-array-type: value-type class-type interface-type delegate-type type-parameter rank-specifiers: rank-specifier rank-specifiers rank-specifier rank-specifier: [ dim-separatorsopt ] dim-separators: , dim-separators ,

293

Appendix A
array-initializer: { variable-initializer-listopt } { variable-initializer-list , } variable-initializer-list: variable-initializer variable-initializer-list , variable-initializer variable-initializer: expression array-initializer

Attributes
global-attributes: global-attribute-sections global-attribute-sections: global-attribute-section global-attribute-sections global-attribute-section global-attribute-section: [ global-attribute-target-specifier attribute-list ] [ global-attribute-target-specifier attribute-list , ] global-attribute-target-specifier: global-attribute-target : global-attribute-target: identifier keyword attributes: attribute-sections

294

C# Grammar
attribute-sections: attribute-section attribute-sections attribute-section attribute-section: [ attribute-target-specifieropt attribute-list ] [ attribute-target-specifieropt attribute-list , ] attribute-target-specifier: attribute-target : attribute-target: identifier keyword attribute-list: attribute attribute-list , attribute attribute: attribute-name attribute-argumentsopt attribute-name: type-name attribute-arguments: ( positional-argument-listopt ) ( positional-argument-list , named-argument-list ) ( named-argument-list ) positional-argument-list: positional-argument positional-argument-list , positional-argument

295

Appendix A
positional-argument: attribute-argument-expression named-argument-list: named-argument named-argument-list , named-argument named-argument: identifier = attribute-argument-expression attribute-argument-expression: expression

Classes
class-declaration: attributesopt class-modifiersopt partialopt class identifier type-parameter-listopt class-baseopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt class-body ;opt class-modifiers: class-modifier class-modifiers class-modifier class-modifier: new public protected internal private abstract sealed static

296

C# Grammar
class-base: : class-type : interface-type-list : class-type , interface-type-list interface-type-list: interface-type interface-type-list , interface-type class-body: { class-member-declarationsopt } class-member-declarations: class-member-declaration class-member-declarations class-member-declaration class-member-declaration: constant-declaration field-declaration method-declaration property-declaration event-declaration indexer-declaration operator-declaration constructor-declaration finalizer-declaration static-constructor-declaration type-declaration

297

Appendix A
constant-declaration: attributesopt constant-modifiersopt const type constant-declarators ; constant-modifiers: constant-modifier constant-modifiers constant-modifier constant-modifier: new public protected internal private constant-declarators: constant-declarator constant-declarators , constant-declarator constant-declarator: identifier = constant-expression field-declaration: attributesopt field-modifiersopt type variable-declarators ; field-modifiers: field-modifier field-modifiers field-modifier field-modifier: new public protected

298

C# Grammar
internal private static readonly volatile variable-declarators: variable-declarator variable-declarators , variable-declarator variable-declarator: identifier identifier = variable-initializer variable-initializer: expression array-initializer method-declaration: method-header method-body method-header: attributesopt method-modifiersopt return-type member-name type-parameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt method-modifiers: method-modifier method-modifiers method-modifier method-modifier: new public

299

Appendix A
protected internal private static virtual sealed override abstract extern return-type: type void member-name: identifier interface-type . identifier method-body: block ; formal-parameter-list: fixed-parameters fixed-parameters , parameter-array parameter-array fixed-parameters: fixed-parameter fixed-parameters , fixed-parameter

300

C# Grammar
fixed-parameter: attributesopt parameter-modifieropt type identifier parameter-modifier: ref out parameter-array: attributesopt params array-type identifier property-declaration: attributesopt property-modifiersopt type member-name { accessor-declarations } property-modifiers: property-modifier property-modifiers property-modifier property-modifier: new public protected internal private static virtual sealed override abstract extern

301

Appendix A
accessor-declarations: get-accessor-declaration set-accessor-declarationopt set-accessor-declaration get-accessor-declarationopt get-accessor-declaration: attributesopt accessor-modifieropt get accessor-body set-accessor-declaration: attributesopt accessor-modifieropt set accessor-body accessor-modifier: protected internal private protected internal internal protected accessor-body: block ; event-declaration: attributesopt event-modifiersopt event type variable-declarators ; attributesopt event-modifiersopt event type member-name { event-accessor-declarations } event-modifiers: event-modifier event-modifiers event-modifier

302

C# Grammar
event-modifier: new public protected internal private static virtual sealed override abstract extern event-accessor-declarations: add-accessor-declaration remove-accessor-declaration remove-accessor-declaration add-accessor-declaration add-accessor-declaration: attributesopt add block remove-accessor-declaration: attributesopt remove block indexer-declaration: attributesopt indexer-modifiersopt indexer-declarator { accessor-declarations } indexer-modifiers: indexer-modifier indexer-modifiers indexer-modifier

303

Appendix A
indexer-modifier: new public protected internal private virtual sealed override abstract extern indexer-declarator: type this [ formal-parameter-list ] type interface-type . this [ formal-parameter-list ] operator-declaration: attributesopt operator-modifiers operator-declarator operator-body operator-modifiers: operator-modifier operator-modifiers operator-modifier operator-modifier: public static extern

304

C# Grammar
operator-declarator: unary-operator-declarator binary-operator-declarator conversion-operator-declarator unary-operator-declarator: type operator overloadable-unary-operator ( type identifier ) overloadable-unary-operator: one of + ! ~ ++ -true false binary-operator-declarator: type operator overloadable-binary-operator ( type identifier , type identifier ) overloadable-binary-operator: one of + * / %

305

Appendix A
& | ^ << right-shift == != > < >= <= conversion-operator-declarator: implicit operator type ( type identifier ) explicit operator type ( type identifier ) operator-body: block ; constructor-declaration: attributesopt constructor-modifiersopt constructor-declarator constructor-body constructor-modifiers: constructor-modifier constructor-modifiers constructor-modifier constructor-modifier: public protected

306

C# Grammar
internal private extern constructor-declarator: identifier ( formal-parameter-listopt ) constructor-initializeropt constructor-initializer: : base ( argument-listopt ) : this ( argument-listopt ) constructor-body: block ; static-constructor-declaration: attributesopt static-constructor-modifiers identifier ( ) static-constructorbody static-constructor-modifiers: externopt static static externopt static-constructor-body: block ; finalizer-declaration: attributesopt externopt ~ identifier ( ) finalizer-body finalizer-body: block ;

307

Appendix A

Delegates
delegate-declaration: attributesopt delegate-modifiersopt delegate return-type identifier type-parameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt ; delegate-modifiers: delegate-modifier delegate-modifiers delegate-modifier delegate-modifier: new public protected internal private

Enums
enum-declaration: attributesopt enum-modifiersopt enum identifier enum-baseopt enum-body ;opt enum-base: : integral-type enum-body: { enum-member-declarationsopt } { enum-member-declarations , } enum-modifiers: enum-modifier enum-modifiers enum-modifier

308

C# Grammar
enum-modifier: new public protected internal private enum-member-declarations: enum-member-declaration enum-member-declarations , enum-member-declaration enum-member-declaration: attributesopt identifier attributesopt identifier = constant-expression

Expressions
argument-list: argument argument-list , argument argument: expression ref variable-reference out variable-reference primary-expression: array-creation-expression primary-no-array-creation-expression

309

Appendix A
primary-no-array-creation-expression: literal simple-name parenthesized-expression member-access invocation-expression element-access this-access base-access post-increment-expression post-decrement-expression object-creation-expression delegate-creation-expression typeof-expression checked-expression unchecked-expression default-value-expression anonymous-method-expression simple-name: identifier type-argument-listopt parenthesized-expression: ( expression ) member-access: primary-expression . identifier type-argument-listopt predefined-type . identifier type-argument-listopt qualified-alias-member . identifier type-argument-listopt

310

C# Grammar
predefined-type: one of bool byte char decimal double float int long object sbyte short string uint ulong ushort invocation-expression: primary-expression ( argument-listopt ) element-access: primary-no-array-creation-expression [ expression-list ] expression-list: expression expression-list , expression this-access: this

311

Appendix A
base-access: base . identifier type-argument-listopt base [ expression-list ] post-increment-expression: primary-expression ++ post-decrement-expression: primary-expression -object-creation-expression: new type ( argument-listopt ) array-creation-expression: new non-array-type [ expression-list ] rank-specifiersopt array-initializeropt new array-type array-initializer delegate-creation-expression: new delegate-type ( expression ) typeof-expression: typeof ( type ) typeof ( unbound-type-name ) typeof ( void ) unbound-type-name: identifier generic-dimension-specifieropt identifier :: identifier generic-dimension-specifieropt unbound-type-name . identifier generic-dimension-specifieropt generic-dimension-specifier: < commasopt >

312

C# Grammar
commas: , commas , checked-expression: checked ( expression ) unchecked-expression: unchecked ( expression ) default-value-expression: default ( type ) anonymous-method-expression: delegate anonymous-method-signatureopt block anonymous-method-signature: ( anonymous-method-parameter-listopt ) anonymous-method-parameter-list: anonymous-method-parameter anonymous-method-parameter-list , anonymous-method-parameter anonymous-method-parameter: parameter-modifieropt type identifier unary-expression: primary-expression + unary-expression - unary-expression ! unary-expression ~ unary-expression

313

Appendix A
pre-increment-expression pre-decrement-expression cast-expression pre-increment-expression: ++ unary-expression pre-decrement-expression: -- unary-expression cast-expression: ( type ) unary-expression multiplicative-expression: unary-expression multiplicative-expression * unary-expression multiplicative-expression / unary-expression multiplicative-expression % unary-expression additive-expression: multiplicative-expression additive-expression + multiplicative-expression additive-expression multiplicative-expressionshift-expression: additive-expression shift-expression << additive-expression shift-expression right-shift additive-expression relational-expression: shift-expression relational-expression < shift-expression relational-expression > shift-expression

314

C# Grammar
relational-expression <= shift-expression relational-expression >= shift-expression relational-expression is type relational-expression as type equality-expression: relational-expression equality-expression == relational-expression equality-expression != relational-expression and-expression: equality-expression and-expression & equality-expression exclusive-or-expression: and-expression exclusive-or-expression ^ and-expression inclusive-or-expression: exclusive-or-expression inclusive-or-expression | exclusive-or-expression conditional-and-expression: inclusive-or-expression conditional-and-expression && inclusive-or-expression conditional-or-expression: conditional-and-expression conditional-or-expression || conditional-and-expression

315

Appendix A
null-coalescing-expression: conditional-or-expression conditional-or-expression ?? null-coalescing-expression conditional-expression: null-coalescing-expression null-coalescing-expression ? expression : expression assignment: unary-expression assignment-operator expression assignment-operator: one of = += -= *= /= %= &= |= ^= <<= right-shift-assignment expression: conditional-expression assignment constant-expression: expression

316

C# Grammar
boolean-expression: expression

Generics
type-parameter-list: < type-parameters > type-parameters: attributesopt type-parameter type-parameters , attributesopt type-parameter type-parameter: identifier type-argument-list: < type-arguments > type-arguments: type-argument type-arguments , type-argument type-argument: type type-parameter-constraints-clauses: type-parameter-constraints-clause type-parameter-constraints-clauses type-parameter-constraints-clause type-parameter-constraints-clause: where type-parameter : type-parameter-constraints type-parameter-constraints: primary-constraint secondary-constraints

317

Appendix A
constructor-constraint primary-constraint , secondary-constraints primary-constraint , constructor-constraint secondary-constraints , constructor-constraint primary-constraint , secondary-constraints , constructor-constraint primary-constraint: class-type class struct secondary-constraints: interface-type type-parameter secondary-constraints , interface-type secondary-constraints , type-parameter constructor-constraint: new ( )

Interfaces
interface-declaration: attributesopt interface-modifiersopt partialopt interface identifier type-parameter-listopt interface-baseopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt interface-body ;opt interface-modifiers: interface-modifier interface-modifiers interface-modifier

318

C# Grammar
interface-modifier: new public protected internal private interface-base: : interface-type-list interface-body: { interface-member-declarationsopt } interface-member-declarations: interface-member-declaration interface-member-declarations interface-member-declaration interface-member-declaration: interface-method-declaration interface-property-declaration interface-event-declaration interface-indexer-declaration interface-method-declaration: attributesopt newopt return-type identifier type-parameter-listopt ( formal-parameter-listopt ) type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt ; interface-property-declaration: attributesopt newopt type identifier { interface-accessors }

319

Appendix A
interface-accessors: attributesopt get ; attributesopt set ; attributesopt get ; attributesopt set ; attributesopt set ; attributesopt get ; interface-event-declaration: attributesopt newopt event type identifier ; interface-indexer-declaration: attributesopt newopt type this [ formal-parameter-list ] { interface-accessors }

Statements
statement: labeled-statement declaration-statement embedded-statement embedded-statement: block empty-statement expression-statement selection-statement iteration-statement jump-statement try-statement checked-statement unchecked-statement lock-statement

320

C# Grammar
using-statement yield-statement block: { statement-listopt } statement-list: statement statement-list statement empty-statement: ; labeled-statement: identifier : statement declaration-statement: local-variable-declaration ; local-constant-declaration ; local-variable-declaration: type local-variable-declarators local-variable-declarators: local-variable-declarator local-variable-declarators , local-variable-declarator local-variable-declarator: identifier identifier = local-variable-initializer local-variable-initializer: expression array-initializer

321

Appendix A
local-constant-declaration: const type constant-declarators constant-declarators: constant-declarator constant-declarators , constant-declarator constant-declarator: identifier = constant-expression expression-statement: statement-expression ; statement-expression: invocation-expression object-creation-expression assignment post-increment-expression post-decrement-expression pre-increment-expression pre-decrement-expression selection-statement: if-statement switch-statement if-statement: if ( boolean-expression ) embedded-statement if ( boolean-expression ) embedded-statement else embedded-statement switch-statement: switch ( expression ) switch-block

322

C# Grammar
switch-block: { switch-sectionsopt } switch-sections: switch-section switch-sections switch-section switch-section: switch-labels statement-list switch-labels: switch-label switch-labels switch-label switch-label: case constant-expression : default : iteration-statement: while-statement do-statement for-statement foreach-statement while-statement: while ( boolean-expression ) embedded-statement do-statement: do embedded-statement while ( boolean-expression ) ; for-statement: for ( for-initializeropt ; for-conditionopt ; for-iteratoropt ) embedded-statement

323

Appendix A
for-initializer: local-variable-declaration statement-expression-list for-condition: boolean-expression for-iterator: statement-expression-list statement-expression-list: statement-expression statement-expression-list , statement-expression foreach-statement: foreach ( type identifier in expression ) embedded-statement jump-statement: break-statement continue-statement goto-statement return-statement throw-statement break-statement: break ; continue-statement: continue ; goto-statement: goto identifier ;

324

C# Grammar
goto case constant-expression ; goto default ; return-statement: return expressionopt ; throw-statement: throw expressionopt ; try-statement: try block catch-clauses try block catch-clausesopt finally-clause catch-clauses: specific-catch-clauses specific-catch-clausesopt general-catch-clause specific-catch-clauses: specific-catch-clause specific-catch-clauses specific-catch-clause specific-catch-clause: catch ( class-type identifieropt ) block general-catch-clause: catch block finally-clause: finally block checked-statement: checked block unchecked-statement: unchecked block

325

Appendix A
lock-statement: lock ( expression ) embedded-statement using-statement: using ( resource-acquisition ) embedded-statement resource-acquisition: local-variable-declaration expression yield-statement: yield return expression ; yield break ; namespace-declaration: namespace qualified-identifier namespace-body ;opt qualified-identifier: identifier qualified-identifier . identifier namespace-body: { extern-alias-directivesopt using-directivesopt namespace-member-declarationsopt } extern-alias-directives: extern-alias-directive extern-alias-directives extern-alias-directive extern-alias-directive: extern alias identifier ; using-directives: using-directive using-directives using-directive

326

C# Grammar
using-directive: using-alias-directive using-namespace-directive using-alias-directive: using identifier = namespace-or-type-name ; using-namespace-directive: using namespace-name ; namespace-member-declarations: namespace-member-declaration namespace-member-declarations namespace-member-declaration namespace-member-declaration: namespace-declaration type-declaration type-declaration: class-declaration struct-declaration interface-declaration enum-declaration delegate-declaration qualified-alias-member: identifier :: identifier type-argument-listopt

Structs
struct-declaration: attributesopt struct-modifiersopt partialopt struct identifier type-parameter-listopt struct-interfacesopt type-parameter-constraints-clausesopt struct-body ;opt

327

Appendix A
struct-modifiers: struct-modifier struct-modifiers struct-modifier struct-modifier: new public protected internal private struct-interfaces: : interface-type-list struct-body: { struct-member-declarationsopt } struct-member-declarations: struct-member-declaration struct-member-declarations struct-member-declaration struct-member-declaration: constant-declaration field-declaration method-declaration property-declaration event-declaration indexer-declaration operator-declaration constructor-declaration

328

C# Grammar
static-constructor-declaration type-declaration

Types
type: value-type reference-type type-parameter value-type: struct-type enum-type struct-type: type-name simple-type nullable-type simple-type: numeric-type bool numeric-type: integral-type floating-point-type decimal integral-type: sbyte byte short

329

Appendix A
ushort int uint long ulong char floating-point-type: float double enum-type: type-name nullable-type: non-nullable-value-type ? non-nullable-value-type: enum-type type-name simple-type reference-type: class-type interface-type array-type delegate-type class-type: type-name object string

330

C# Grammar
interface-type: type-name array-type: non-array-type rank-specifiers non-array-type: value-type class-type interface-type delegate-type type-parameter rank-specifiers: rank-specifier rank-specifiers rank-specifier rank-specifier: [ dim-separatorsopt ] dim-separators: , dim-separators , delegate-type: type-name

Variables
variable-reference: expression

331

Appendix A

Extensions for Unsafe Code

class-modifier: ... unsafe struct-modifier: ... unsafe interface-modifier: ... unsafe delegate-modifier: ... unsafe field-modifier: ... unsafe method-modifier: ... unsafe property-modifier: ... unsafe event-modifier: ... unsafe

332

C# Grammar
indexer-modifier: ... unsafe operator-modifier: ... unsafe constructor-modifier: ... unsafe finalizer-declaration: attributesopt externopt unsafeopt ~ identifier ( ) finalizer-body attributesopt unsafeopt externopt ~ identifier ( ) finalizer-body static-constructor-modifiers: externopt unsafeopt static unsafeopt externopt static externopt static unsafeopt unsafeopt static externopt static externopt unsafeopt static unsafeopt externopt embedded-statement: ... unsafe-statement unsafe-statement: unsafe block

333

Appendix A
type: value-type reference-type type-parameter pointer-type pointer-type: unmanaged-type * void * unmanaged-type: type primary-no-array-creation-expression: ... sizeof-expression primary-no-array-creation-expression: ... pointer-member-access pointer-element-access unary-expression: ... pointer-indirection-expression addressof-expression pointer-indirection-expression: * unary-expression pointer-member-access: primary-expression -> identifier type-argument-listopt

334

C# Grammar
pointer-element-access: primary-no-array-creation-expression [ expression ] addressof-expression: & unary-expression sizeof-expression: sizeof ( unmanaged-type ) embedded-statement: ... fixed-statement fixed-statement: fixed ( pointer-type fixed-pointer-declarators ) embedded-statement fixed-pointer-declarators: fixed-pointer-declarator fixed-pointer-declarators , fixed-pointer-declarator fixed-pointer-declarator: identifier = fixed-pointer-initializer fixed-pointer-initializer: & variable-reference expression local-variable-initializer: expression array-initializer stackalloc-initializer stackalloc-initializer: stackalloc unmanaged-type [ expression ]

335

Naming Conventions
Consistent naming is important in coding because it adds to the level of predictability and discoverability in managed class libraries. The more you adopt a standardized naming convention, the easier the code is to read and follow and the fewer issues you should encounter. For the hobbyist this means fewer problems; for the professional this means that they can get more done in less time and that saves money. This appendix provides a naming convention for .NET Framework types. For each type, attention should be paid to capitalization, case, and word choice.

Capitalization
There are three conventions to use for naming identifiers: Pascal Case Camel case Uppercase

Pascal Case
The first letter in the identifier and then the first letter of each subsequent concatenated word are capitalized (with no spaces added). Use Pascal case for identifiers of three or more characters.
ButtonStyle

Appendix B

Camel Case
The first letter of an identifier is lowercase, and then the first letter of each subsequent concatenated word is capitalized (with no spaces added).
buttonStyle

Uppercase
All the letters in the identifier are capitalized. Use this for identifiers that consist of two or fewer letters.
System.IO

In the following table, the capitalization rules are summarised for different identifiers.

Identifier
Class Enum type Enum value Event Excepion class Read-only Static field Interface Method Namespace Parameter Property Protected instance field Public instance field

Case
Pascal Pascal Pascal Pascal Pascal Pascal Pascal Pascal Pascal Camel Pascal Camel Pascal

Case Sensitivity
The following are the rules for case sensitivity and help to ensure cross-language interoperability: Do not use names that require case sensitivity. Do not create two or more namespaces that differ by case alone. Do not create a function with a parameter name that differs only in the case of the parameter.

338

Naming Conventions
Do not create a namespace with type names that differ only by case. Do not create a type with property names that differ only by case. Do not create a type with method names that differ only by case.

Abbreviations
The following are the rules for case sensitivity and help to ensure cross-language interoperability. Do not use abbreviations or contractions as parts of identifier names. Do not use obscure acronyms. Use well-known acronyms to replace long phrases. Use the appropriate case rules for acronyms (Pascal, camel, and uppercase). Do not use abbreviations in identifiers or parameter names. If abbreviations must be used, always use camel case.

Keywords to Avoid
Avoid using any class names that duplicate commonly used .NET Framework namespaces. Also, avoid using identifiers that conflict with the following keywords listed in the following table.
AddHandler And Assembly Boolean ByVal Catch CChar CDbl Class Const CStr AddressOf Ansi Auto ByRef Call CBool CDate Char CLng CShort CType Alias As Base Byte Case CByte Cdec CInt CObj CSng Date

339

Appendix B
Decimal Delegate Double ElseIf Erase Exit Finalize For Get Handles Imports Integer Let Long Mod MustOverride Namespace Not NotOverridable Option Overloads ParamArray Property RaiseEvent Region Declare Dim Each End Error ExternalSource Finally Friend GetType If In Interface Lib Loop Module MyBase New Nothing Object Optional Overridable Preserve Protected ReadOnly REM Default Do Else Enum Event False Float Function Goto Implements Inherits Is Like Me MustInherit MyClass Next NotInheritable On Or Overrides Private Public ReDim RemoveHandler

340

Naming Conventions
Resume Set Short Step Structure Then True Unicode When WithEvents eval package Return Shadows Single Stop Sub Throw Try Until While WriteOnly Extends Var Select Shared Static String SyncLock To TypeOf volatile With Xor instanceof

Namespace Naming
As a rule, namespace names should be composed of the company name followed by the technology name and then optionally the feature and design.
CompanyName.TechnologyName[.Feature][.Design]

Always use Pascal class for naming and separate logical components with periods. Use plurals where appropriate. Do not use the same name for namespace and class.

Class Naming
Use the following rules for naming classes: Use a noun (or noun phrase) to name a class. Use Pascal case. Use abbreviations sparingly and with care to avoid confusion. Do not use type prefixes as class names.

341

Appendix B
Do not use the underscore character (_). Use compound words to name a derived class where appropriate. At times it might be necessary to have class names that begin with the letter I even when the class is not itself an interface (that is, the class has a name beginning with the letter I).

Interface Naming
Use the following rules for naming interfaces: Use a noun (or noun phrase) or an adjective that describes behavior. Use Pascal case. Use abbreviations sparingly and with care to avoid confusion. Do not use the underscore character (_). Prefix interfaces with the letter I.

Attribute Naming
Use the following rules for naming attributes: Always add the suffix Attribute to custom attribute classes.

Enumeration Type Naming

Use the following rules for naming enumerations: Use Pascal case. Use abbreviations sparingly and with care to avoid confusion. Do not use the Enum suffix on Enum type names. Use singular names except for Enum types that are bit fields. Always add the FlagAttributes to a bit field Enum type.

Static Field Naming

Use the following rules for naming static fields: Use Pascal case. Do not use Hungarian Notation (this is a common notation style, but it is not recommended for .NET programming). Use nouns (or noun phrases) or abbreviation of nouns.

342

Naming Conventions

Parameter Naming
Use the following rules for naming parameters: Use camel case. Use descriptive parameter names. Do not use reserved parameters. Do not prefix with Hungarian Notation (again, this notation is not recommended for .NET programming).

Method Naming
Use the following rules for naming methods: Use Pascal case. Use verbs (or verb phrases).

Proper ty Naming
Use the following rules for naming properties: Use a noun (or noun phrase). Use Pascal case. Do not use Hungarian Notation. Consider creating a property that has the same name as the underlying type.

Event Naming
Use the following rules for naming events: Do not use Hungarian Notation. Use Pascal case. Use the EventHandler suffix on event handler names. Specify two parameters sender, which represents the object that raised the event, and e, which is the state associated with the event encapsulated in an instance on an event class. Give event argument classes the EventArgs suffix. Name events with a verb where possible. Do not use a prefix or suffix on the event declaration.

343

Standard Library
A conforming C# implementation has to provide a minimum set of types that have a specific semantic. These types, along with their corresponding members, are listed below. All type names that start with System are for the use of the standard library. Those currently not in use might be used in the future. The standard library is the minimum set of types and members required by conforming to a C# implementation. This listing contains only the members required by the C# language. This is not a complete listing; any C# implementation will supply a much more comprehensive library. For example: Adding namespaces Adding types Adding members to noninterface types Struct and class types implementing additional interfaces Adding more attributes to types and members The following is included for reference. For the full text, refer to the ECMA 334 C# language specification:

namespace System { public class ApplicationException : Exception { public ApplicationException(); public ApplicationException(string message); public ApplicationException(string message, Exception innerException); } } --------------------------------------------

Appendix C
namespace System { public class ArgumentException : SystemException { public ArgumentException(); public ArgumentException(string message); public ArgumentException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class ArithmeticException : SystemException { public ArithmeticException(); public ArithmeticException(string message); public ArithmeticException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public abstract class Array : IList, ICollection, IEnumerable { public int Length { get; } public int Rank { get; } public int GetLength(int dimension); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class ArrayTypeMismatchException : SystemException { public ArrayTypeMismatchException(); public ArrayTypeMismatchException(string message); public ArrayTypeMismatchException(string message, Exception innerException); } } --------------------------------------------

346

Standard Library
namespace System { [AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.All, Inherited = true, AllowMultiple = false)] public abstract class Attribute { protected Attribute(); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public enum AttributeTargets { Assembly = 1, Module = 2, Class = 4, Struct = 8, Enum = 16, Constructor = 32, Method = 64, Property = 128, Field = 256, Event = 512, Interface = 1024, Parameter = 2048, Delegate = 4096, ReturnValue = 8192, GenericParameter = 16384, All = 32767 } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { [AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.Class, Inherited = true)] public sealed class AttributeUsageAttribute : Attribute { public AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets validOn); public bool AllowMultiple { get; set; } public bool Inherited { get; set; } public AttributeTargets ValidOn { get; } } } --------------------------------------------

347

Appendix C
namespace System { public struct Boolean { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Byte { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Char { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Decimal { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public abstract class Delegate { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class DivideByZeroException : ArithmeticException

348

Standard Library
{ public DivideByZeroException(); public DivideByZeroException(string message); public DivideByZeroException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Double { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public abstract class Enum : ValueType { protected Enum(); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class Exception { public Exception(); public Exception(string message); public Exception(string message, Exception innerException); public sealed Exception InnerException { get; } public virtual string Message { get; } } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public interface IDisposable { public void Dispose(); } } --------------------------------------------

349

Appendix C
namespace System { public sealed class IndexOutOfRangeException : SystemException { public IndexOutOfRangeException(); public IndexOutOfRangeException(string message); public IndexOutOfRangeException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Int16 { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Int32 { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Int64 { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class InvalidCastException : SystemException { public InvalidCastException(); public InvalidCastException(string message); public InvalidCastException(string message, Exception innerException); } }

350

Standard Library
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------namespace System { public class InvalidOperationException : SystemException { public InvalidOperationException(); public InvalidOperationException(string message); public InvalidOperationException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public abstract class MemberInfo { protected MemberInfo(); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class NotSupportedException : SystemException { public NotSupportedException(); public NotSupportedException(string message); public NotSupportedException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Nullable<T> { public bool HasValue { get; } public T Value { get; } } } --------------------------------------------

351

Appendix C
namespace System { public class NullReferenceException : SystemException { public NullReferenceException(); public NullReferenceException(string message); public NullReferenceException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class Object { public Object(); ~Object(); public virtual bool Equals(object obj); public virtual int GetHashCode(); public Type GetType(); public virtual string ToString(); } } namespace System { [AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.Class | AttributeTargets.Struct | AttributeTargets.Enum | AttributeTargets.Interface | AttributeTargets.Constructor | AttributeTargets.Method | AttributeTargets.Property | AttributeTargets.Field | AttributeTargets.Event | AttributeTargets.Delegate, Inherited = false)] public sealed class ObsoleteAttribute : Attribute { public ObsoleteAttribute(); public ObsoleteAttribute(string message); public ObsoleteAttribute(string message, bool error); public bool IsError { get; } public string Message { get; } } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class OutOfMemoryException : SystemException

352

Standard Library
{ public OutOfMemoryException(); public OutOfMemoryException(string message); public OutOfMemoryException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class OverflowException : ArithmeticException { public OverflowException(); public OverflowException(string message); public OverflowException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct SByte { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct Single { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public sealed class StackOverflowException : SystemException { public StackOverflowException(); public StackOverflowException(string message); public StackOverflowException(string message, Exception innerException); } } --------------------------------------------

353

Appendix C
namespace System { public sealed class String : IEnumerable<Char>, IEnumerable { public int Length { get; } public char this[int index] { get; } } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public class SystemException : Exception { public SystemException(); public SystemException(string message); public SystemException(string message, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public abstract class Type : MemberInfo { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public sealed class TypeInitializationException : SystemException { public TypeInitializationException(string fullTypeName, Exception innerException); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct UInt16 { } }

354

Standard Library
-------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct UInt32 { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public struct UInt64 { } } -------------------------------------------namespace System { public abstract class ValueType { protected ValueType(); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections { public interface ICollection : IEnumerable { public int Count { get; } public bool IsSynchronized { get; } public object SyncRoot { get; } public void CopyTo(Array array, int index); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections { public interface IEnumerable { public IEnumerator GetEnumerator(); } }

355

Appendix C
-------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections { public interface IEnumerator { public object Current { get; } public bool MoveNext(); public void Reset(); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections { public interface IList : ICollection, IEnumerable { public bool IsFixedSize { get; } public bool IsReadOnly { get; } public object this[int index] { get; set; } public int Add(object value); public void Clear(); public bool Contains(object value); public int IndexOf(object value); public void Insert(int index, object value); public void Remove(object value); public void RemoveAt(int index); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections.Generic { public interface ICollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> { public int Count { get; } public bool IsReadOnly { get; } public void Add(T item); public void Clear(); public bool Contains(T item); public void CopyTo(T[] array, int arrayIndex); public bool Remove(T item); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections.Generic { public interface IEnumerable<T> : IEnumerable

356

Standard Library
{ public IEnumerator<T> GetEnumerator(); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections.Generic { public interface IEnumerator<T> : IDisposable, IEnumerator { public T Current { get; } } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Collections.Generic { public interface IList<T> : ICollection<T> { public T this[int index] { get; set; } public int IndexOf(T item); public void Insert(int index, T item); public void RemoveAt(int index); } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Diagnostics { [AttributeUsageAttribute(AttributeTargets.Method | AttributeTargets.Class, AllowMultiple = true)] public sealed class ConditionalAttribute : Attribute { public ConditionalAttribute(string conditionString); public string ConditionString { get; } } } -------------------------------------------namespace System.Threading { public static class Monitor { public static void Enter(object obj); public static void Exit(object obj); } }

357

Portability
This appendix covers portability issues with C# programs.

General Por tability Issues

One of the biggest benefits in terms of portability that C# offers is how it leverages the Common Language Runtime (CLR). When .NET programs are compiled, the source code produces both metadata and Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) code. The metadata contains a complete specification for the program, including all the types. Not included are the implementations of the functions though. The CLR then uses this information to activate a .NET program at runtime.

Platform/OS Portability
Because of this reliance on the CLR at runtime, programs can be run without the need for recompilation on any operating system or processor (or combinations thereof) that supports the Common Language Runtime. This is because the CLRs Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler compiles the MSIL code into native code that can be run on the platform.

Simplified Deployment
The assembly produced is a completely self-describing package. This package contains all the metadata and MSIL for the program in question. This means that deployment is as easy as copying the assembly to the desired PC.

Interoperability with Legacy Code

The Common Type System (CTS) that is part of the CLR defines the types that can be expressed in both the metadata and the MSIL, along with the operations that can be carried out on these types. The CTS supports a variety of different languages, both Microsoft and third-party. For example: C# Visual Basic .NET

Appendix D
Visual C++ .NET COBOL Eiffel Mercury ML Pearl Python Smalltalk

The Microsoft CLR makes interoperability with a wide range of existing software written in COM and C easy. The CLR provides PInvoke, a mechanism that enables C functions, structs, and callbacks to be used from within .NET programs. .NET types can also be exposed as COM types, and COM types can be imported as .NET types.

Undefined Behavior
A program that does not contain an occurrence of the unsafe modifier cannot exhibit any undefined behavior. A behavior is undefined as follows: The initial content of memory when allocated by stackalloc When attempting to allocate a negative number of items using stackalloc When trying to dereference the result of converting one pointer type to another when the resulting pointer is not correctly aligned for the pointer-to type When applying the unary operator (*) to a pointer containing an invalid value When subscripting a pointer to access an out-of-bounds element Modifying the objects of a managed type using fixed pointers

Implementation-Defined Behavior
A conforming implementation is required to document the choice of behavior in each of the areas listed below. The following are all implementation-defined: The purpose of a line-indicator with an identifier-or-keyword whose value does not equal default The interpretation of the input-characters in the pp-pragma-text of any #pragma directive The value of any application parameter passed to main by the host environment before the application has started

360

Portability
When a System.ArithmeticException (or a subclass) is thrown or an overflow goes unreported when the resulting value is a left operand When in an unchecked context and the left operand of the division on any integer is the maximum negative int or long value and the right operand is set to -1 When a System.ArithmeticException (or a subclass) is thrown during a decimal remainder operation Linkage to an external function Thread termination when there is no matching catch clause and the code that started the thread is reached The purpose of any attribute target specifies other then those defined by the standard The mapping between any pointers and integers The effect of applying a unary operator (*) to a null pointer Any behavior when the pointer arithmetic overflows the domain of the pointer type The result of the sizeof operator for any non pre-defined value types Any behavior of the fixed statement if the array expression is null or if the array contains zero elements Any behavior of a fixed statement if the string expression is null The value returned when a stack allocation of zero size is made

Unspecified Behavior
The following is considered unspecified behavior: The time at which the finalizer for an object is run (once the object has become eligible for finalization) The value of a result when converting out-of-range values from float or double values to an integral type in an unchecked context The layout of arrays (except in an unsafe context) Whether there is any way to execute the block on an autonomous method other than through the evaluation and invocation of the autonomous-method-expression The invocation list of a delegate produced from the autonomous-method-expression which contains a single entry. The exact target object and target methods of the delegate are unspecified. The exact timing of static field initializations The behavior of any uncaught exceptions that occur during finalizer execution The attributes of a type declared in multiple parts will be determined by combining the attributes of each part in an unspecified order. The order in which members are placed into a struct

361

Appendix D
When an enumerator object is in the running state, the result of invoking MoveNext is unspecified. When an enumerator object is in the before, running or after states, the result of invoking Current is unspecified. When an enumerator object is in the running state, the result of invoking Dispose is unspecified.

Miscellaneous Issues
Here are a few final issues: The precise results of floating-point expression evaluations can vary from one implementation to another. This is because different implementations are allowed to evaluate floating-point with varying degrees of precision. The CLI (Common Language Infrastructure) reserves certain signatures to maintain crosscompatibility with other programming languages.

362

XML Documentation Comments

There is a mechanism in C# that allows programmers to document their code using a specific comment syntax that contains XML. These comments are called documentation comments, and the tool used to generate the XML is called the documentation generator, which may or may not be the compiler used to compile the C# source code. The resulting output is called the documentation file, and any viewer used to display the information contained in this file is called the documentation viewer. It is important to note that a C# compiler (even one conforming to the specification) does not have to check the syntax of the documentation comments for validity (much in the same way that a compiler doesnt check the syntax of any other comment you put in the source code). However, it is perfectly acceptable for a conforming compiler to do this.

Syntax
XML documentation comments can be added to the source code by using special single line and delimited comment tags, as shown in the following code lines:
/// single line document comment /** multi-line delimited document comment */

These comments need to immediately precede a user-defined type (for example, a class, delegate, or interface) or a member (for example, event, property, or method) that they are annotating. Since attribute selections are part of the declarations, document comments must come before attributes applied to a type of member. When using single line comments, if there is a whitespace character following the ///, this will not be included in the XML output. This means that both:
/// Document comment goes here

and

Appendix E
///Document comment goes here

return the same output. When using delimited document comments, if the first nonwhitespace character on the second line is an asterisk and the same pattern of optional whitespace characters and asterisk characters is repeated at the beginning of each line within the delimited comments, these are not included in the output. Note that this repeated pattern can include whitespace characters both before and after the asterisk character. The following shows a valid comment block for code written in C#:
/** * * * * * * */

Comments can be included anywhere inside the block, for example:

/** Comments * comments * comments * comments * comments * comments * comments */

However, note that the following is invalid:

/** * * * * * * */ Comments cant go here!

All XML documentation comments must be well formed, as laid out in the XL rules at the W3C (http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml). Although developers are free to create their own tags for marking up the documentation, a few recommended tags have a special meaning.
<param> This tag is used to describe parameters. If this tag is used, the document generator

must verify that the specified parameters exist. It must also check to see if all of the parameters are described in the documentation. If the checks fail, a warning should be issued.

364

XML Documentation Comments

cref This attribute is attached to tags that provide a reference to code elements. Code elements

that contain code that makes use of generics cannot make use of the generic syntax. For example:
List<T>

The preceding would be invalid and curly braces would need to be used:
List{T}

or the XML escape syntax:

List&lt;T&gt;

<summary> This is intended for use by the documentation viewer to display additional information about types or members.

Recommended Tags
The following table lists tags that provide commonly used functionality in user documentation.

Tag
<c> <code>

Purpose
Sets text in a code-like proportional font Sets one or more lines of source code or program output in a code-like proportional font Indicates an example Identifies an exception Creates a list or table Allows structure to be added to text output Describes a parameter Identifies a word that is a parameter name Documents the security accessibility of a member Describes a type Describes the return value of a method Specifies a link Generates a See Also entry Describes the member of a particular type Describes a type parameter for a method or generic type Identifies a word that is a type parameter name Describes a property

<example> <exception> <list> <para> <param> <paramref> <permission> <remark> <returns> <see> <seealso> <summary> <typeparam> <typeparamref> <value>

365

Index

Index

SYMBOLS
&& (double ampersand) expression, 9697 || (double pipe) expression, 97 ! (exclamation point) expression, 97 ? (question mark) expressions, rules for, 98

A
abbreviations, naming conventions for, 339 abstract accessor events, 185 properties, 183 abstract (keyword), 279 abstract methods, 181 access modifiers, 174 accessibility, 28 accessors, 182185 additive operators, 25, 114 advantages of C#, 12, 5 alias directives, 250 alternative text editors, 15 ambiguities in grammar, 3738 and operators, 112119 anonymous method conversions, 109

anonymous methods, 131 Antechinus C# Editor, 15 application startup, 5758 application termination, 58 argument lists, 124 arithmetic operators, 131132 array covariance, 205206 array types, 2223, 79, 203204 arrays access, 128 accessing array elements, 205 creating, 205 elements, 8586 initializers, 206208 jagged arrays, 2223 members, 62, 205 overview, 201203 rectangular arrays, 2223 syntactic grammar, 293294 System.Array type, 204 trailing commas, 208 as (keyword), 279 assignment operators, 26, 115, 135 assignments, 198

Index

attributes
attributes compilation, 237 Conditional attribute, 238239 global attributes, 36 instances, 236 named parameters, 232 naming, 342 Obsolete attribute, 239240 overview, 231232 parameter types, 233 positional parameters, 232 reserved attributes, 238 runtime retrieval of attribute instances, 237 specification, 233236 syntactic grammar, 294296 usage of, 232233

C
calling generic methods, 251252 Camel case, 338 capitalization, 337 case (keyword), 279 case sensitivity, 338339 cast expressions, 131 catch clause, not finding, 229 catch (keyword), 279 char (keyword), 279 char type, 20, 7475 character literals, 4849 checked (keyword), 279 checked operator, 130 checked statements, rules for, 91 circular references, avoiding, 219 class (keyword), 279 class type, 79 class-base specification, 171 class-body, 171 classes. See also specific classes access modifiers, 174 attributes, 231232 base-class specification, 171 class-base specification, 171 class-body, 171 class-member-declarations, 172173 constants, 175176 declarations, 169170, 242243 exception classes, 228 finalizers, 191 inheritance, 173174 instance constructors, 190191 instance members, 175 instance variables in, 86 interface types, 171 namespaces, organizing classes with, 161162 naming, 341342 new modifier, 174 overview, 2728, 169

B
base (keyword), 279 base types, 120 base-access, 128129 base-class specification, 171 binary operator overload resolution, 118 overview, 113, 189 block statements, rules for, 91 body interfaces, 212 structs, 195 bool (keyword), 279 bool type, 20, 77 Boolean expressions, 138 Boolean literals, 47 boxing conversion, 80, 102, 198 break (keyword), 279 break statement overview, 156157 rules for, 93 byte (keyword), 279 byte type, 20, 7475

370

Current property
partial declarations, 172 static constructors, 191 static members, 174 structs compared, 196197 syntactic grammar, 296307 classifications of expressions, 111112 class-member-declarations, 172173 closed constructed types, 243 closed type, 249 CLR (Common Language Runtime), 2, 359360 code blocks, 144 comments delimited comments, 4042 lexical grammar, 276277 nesting comments, 43 overview, 40 single-line comments, 4243 syntax in XML documentation comments, 363365 tags in XML documentation comments, 365 Common Type System (CTS), 359 compilation attributes, 237 conditional compilation directives, 54 conditional compilation symbols, 53 unsafe code, 273 compilation units, 3537, 162163 compile-time errors, 259 conditional AND operator, 25, 114 Conditional attribute, 238239 conditional attribute class, 239 conditional compilation directives, 54 conditional compilation symbols, 53 conditional logical operators, 133134 conditional methods, 238 conditional operator, 25 conditional OR operator, 25, 114 const (keyword), 279 constant expressions, 135138 constants, 28, 175176 constraints, 253255 constructed types alias directives, 250 closed type, 249 generics, 249250 members, 250 open type, 249 overview, 249 type arguments, 249 constructors, 199 continue (keyword), 279 continue statement overview, 157 rules for, 93 conversion operators, 190 conversions anonymous method conversions, 109 explicit conversions, 22, 103107 implicit conversions, 22, 99103 method group conversions, 109 null type conversions, 109 nullable conversions, 109110 overview, 99 standard conversions, 107108 user-defined conversions, 108 cost of using C# bare minimum to start with C# programming, 710 free tools, 1013 high-end tools, 1516 .NET Framework, 910 overview, 7 text editor, 89 UltraEdit, 1315 Windows Notepad, 89 Crimson Editor, 15 CTS (Common Type System), 359 Current property, 262

371

Index

decimal (keyword)

D
decimal (keyword), 279 decimal type to float/double type conversion, 105 to integral type conversion, 104 overview, 20, 77 declaration directives, 54 declaration statements local constant declarations, 147 local variable declarations, 146147 overview, 146 rules for, 91 declarations class declarations, 169170, 242243 delegate declarations, 222, 223, 248 enums, 216217 interface declarations, 210211, 247248 local constant declarations, 147 local variable declarations, 146147 namespace declarations, 5860, 163164 overview, 5860 struct declarations, 247 type declarations, 166167 declared accessibility, 6263 default constructors, 72 default (keyword), 279 default value expression, 130 default values, 89, 198 defining interfaces, 210 definite assignment block statements, rules for, 91 break statements, rules for, 93 checked statements, rules for, 91 continue statements, rules for, 93 declaration statements, rules for, 91 do statements, rules for, 9293 double ampersand (&&) expressions, rules for, 9697 double pipe (||) expressions, rules for, 97 exclamation point (!) expressions, rules for, 97 expression statements, rules for, 91 foreach statements, rules for, 94

goto statements, rules for, 93 if statements, rules for, 9192 initially assigned variables, 90 initially unassigned variables, 90 lock statements, rules for, 9495 overview, 8990 question mark (?) expressions, rules for, 98 return statements, rules for, 93 rules for determining, 9098 simple expressions, rules for, 9596 statements, general rules for, 91 switch statements, rules for, 92 throw statements, rules for, 93 try-catch statements, rules for, 9394 try-finally statements, rules for, 94 unchecked statements, rules for, 91 using statements, rules for, 94 while statements, rules for, 92 yield statements, rules for, 98 delegate (keyword), 279 delegate type, 79 delegates declarations, 222, 223, 248 instantiation, 224225 invocation list, 223224 members, 62 modifiers, 222223 overview, 31, 221222 syntactic grammar, 308 delimited comments, 4042 destructors. See finalizers diagnostic directives, 54 directives conditional compilation directives, 54 conditional compilation symbols, 53 declaration directives, 54 diagnostic directives, 54 line directives, 55 overview, 5153 pragma directives, 55 preprocessing expressions, 53

372

examples
region control directives, 5455 using, 36 Dispose method, 262263 do (keyword), 280 do statement overview, 154155 rules for, 9293 DotGNU, 3 double ampersand (&&) expression, 9697 double (keyword), 280 double pipe (||) expression, 97 double type to decimal type conversion, 105 to float type conversion, 105 to int type conversion, 105 overview, 20 enterprise tools overview, 15 Visual C#, 16 Visual Studio, 1516 entry point, 18, 57 enum (keyword), 280 enumerable interfaces, 259 enumerable objects, 263 enumeration members, 61 enumeration types, 77 enumerator interfaces, 259 enums circular references, avoiding, 219 declarations, 216217 members, 218219 modifiers, 217218 naming, 342 operators, 220 overview, 31, 215216 syntactic grammar, 308309 System.Enum, 219 values, 219220 equality operators, 25, 114, 119 European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA), 3 event access, 122123 event (keyword), 280 events abstract accessor, 185 field-like events, 185 instance events, 185 interfaces, 213 naming, 343 override accessor, 186 overview, 29, 184185 sealed accessor, 186 static events, 185 virtual accessor, 185 examples sample C# code, 35 of unsafe code, 269270

E
ECMA-334 C# Language Specification, 1, 3 ECMA (European Computer Manufacturers Association), 3 EditPad Lite, 15 EditPad Pro, 15 element access array access, 128 base-access, 128129 checked operator, 130 indexer access, 128 new operator, 129 overview, 127 sizeof operator, 129130 this-access, 128 typeof operator, 129 unchecked operator, 130 else (keyword), 280 empty statements, 145 end point, 142

373

Index

exception classes
exception classes, 228 exceptions catch clause, not finding, 229 handling, 229 overview, 227 System.ArithmeticException, 228 System.ArrayTypeMismatchException, 228 System.DivideByZeroException, 228 System.Exception, 228 System.IndexOutOfRangeException, 228 System.InvalidCastException, 228 System.NullReferenceException, 228 System.OutOfMemoryException, 228 System.OverflowException, 228 System.StackOverflowException, 228 System.TypeInitializationException, 228 throwing, 227 exclamation point (!) expression, 97 execution interruptions for MoveNext method, 261262 explicit base interfaces, 211 explicit conversions explicit enumeration conversions, 105 explicit numeric conversions, 103105 explicit reference conversions, 106 explicit type parameter conversions, 107 overview, 103 standard explicit conversions, 108 unboxing conversions, 107 user-defined explicit conversions, 107 explicit enumeration conversions, 105 explicit interface member implementations, 248 explicit (keyword), 280 explicit numeric conversions decimal type to float/double type conversion, 105 decimal type to integral type conversion, 104 double type to float type conversion, 105 float/double type to decimal type conversion, 105 float/double type to int type conversion, 105 integral type to integral type conversion, 104 overview, 103104 explicit reference conversions, 106 explicit type parameter conversions, 107 expression statements overview, 148 rules for, 91 expressions anonymous methods, 131 arithmetic operators, 131132 assignment operators, 135 Boolean expressions, 138 cast expressions, 131 classifications of, 111112 conditional logical operators, 133134 constant expressions, 135138 default value expression, 130 function members, 121125 logical operators, 133134 member lookup, 119120 null coalescing operator, 134 and operators, 112119 overview, 2426, 111 primary expressions, 125130 relational/type testing operators, 132133 results of, 112 shift operators, 132 syntactic grammar, 309317 unary expressions, 131 values for, 112 extern (keyword), 280 extern-alias-directive, 164165

F
false (keyword), 280 field initialization, 178, 199 field-like events, 185 fields field initialization, 178 instance fields, 177 overview, 24, 28, 176177 readonly fields, 177 static fields, 177 variable initialization, 178 volatile fields, 177178

374

identity conversions
finalizers overview, 29, 191 structs, 199 finally (keyword), 280 fixed (keyword), 280 fixed modifier, 270272 float (keyword), 280 float type to decimal type conversion, 105 to int type conversion, 105 overview, 20 floating-point types, 7677 for (keyword), 280 for statement, 155156 foreach (keyword), 280 foreach statement overview, 156 rules for, 94 format standardization, 3 free tools, 1013 function members argument lists, 124 event access, 122123 indexer access, 123 instance constructor invocation, 123 method invocation, 121 operator invocation, 123 overload resolution, 125 overview, 121 property access, 122 class members, 245 constraints, 253255 constructed types, 249250 delegate declarations, 248 explicit interface member implementations, 248 instance type, 244245 interface declarations, 247248 operators in generic classes, 247 overloading in generic classes, 246247 overview, 3132, 241 protected members, access to, 246 static constructors, 246 static fields, 246 struct declarations, 247 syntactic grammar, 317318 templates in C++ compared, 241 type parameters, 243244 where not to use, 252253 GetEnumerator method, 263264 global attributes, 36 goto (keyword), 280 goto statement overview, 157 rules for, 93 grammar ambiguities, 3738 lexical grammar, 37, 3940, 275292 syntactic grammar, 37, 292331 unsafe code, extensions for, 332335

G
generic methods calling, 251252 inference of type arguments, 251252 overview, 250251 signatures, 251 virtual generic methods, 251 generics advantages of, 242 class declarations, 242243

H
Hajlsberg, Anders (C# principal designer), 2 Hello, World! program, 35, 1718 high-end tools, 1516 history of C#, 2

I
IDE (Integrated Development Environment), 35 identifiers, 4445, 277279 identity conversions, 100

375

Index

if (keyword)
if (keyword), 280 if statement overview, 148149 rules for, 9192 implementation-defined behavior, 360361 implementations in development for C#, 3 implicit constant expression conversions, 103 implicit conversions boxing conversions, 102 identity conversions, 100 implicit constant expression conversions, 103 implicit enumeration conversions, 101 implicit numeric conversions, 100 implicit reference conversions, 101102 implicit type parameter conversions, 102103 overview, 99100 standard implicit conversions, 107108 user defined implicit conversions, 103 user-defined implicit conversions, 108 implicit enumeration conversions, 101 implicit (keyword), 280 implicit numeric conversions, 100 implicit reference conversions, 101102 implicit type parameter conversions, 102103 in (keyword), 280 index signatures, 63 indexer access, 123, 128 indexers overloading, 64 overview, 29, 186187 inference of type arguments, 251252 inheritance overview, 30, 173174 structs, 197 initializers, 206208 initially assigned variables, 90 initially unassigned variables, 90 instance constructors invocation, 123 overloading, 64 overview, 29, 190191 signatures, 63 instance events, 185 instance fields, 177 instance members, 175 instance methods, 180 instance properties, 182 instance type, 244245 instance variables in classes, 86 overview, 86 in structs, 87 instantiation, 224225 int (keyword), 280 int type, 20, 7475 integer literals, 47 integral types byte type, 7475 char type, 7475 int type, 7475 to integral type conversion, 104 long type, 7475 overview, 7476 sbyte type, 7475 short type, 7475 uint type, 7475 ulong type, 7475 ushort type, 7475 Integrated Development Environment (IDE), 35 interface (keyword), 280 interface types, 171 interfaces body, 212 declarations, 210211, 247248 defining, 210 events, 213 explicit base interfaces, 211 members, 62, 212 methods, 212 modifiers, 211 naming, 342 overview, 3031, 209 properties, 212213 structs, 195 syntactic grammar, 318320 internal (keyword), 280

376

keywords
interoperability with legacy code, 359360 invocation expressions, 127 invocation list, 223224 is (keyword), 280 ISO/IEC 23270 standard, 3 iteration statements do statement, 154155 for statement, 155156 foreach statement, 156 overview, 154 while statement, 154 iterator block, 258259 iterators compile-time errors, 259 Current property, 262 Dispose method, 262263 enumerable interfaces, 259 enumerable objects, 263 enumerator interfaces, 259 execution interruptions for MoveNext method, 261262 GetEnumerator method, 263264 iterator block, 258259 MoveNext method, 260262 overview, 32, 257258 this, 260 yield break statement, 262 yield return statement, 261 yield type, 260

K
keywords abstract, 279 as, 279 to avoid, 339341 base, 279 bool, 279 break, 279 byte, 279 case, 279 catch, 279 char, 279 checked, 279 class, 279 const, 279 continue, 279 decimal, 279 default, 279 delegate, 279 do, 280 double, 280 else, 280 enum, 280 event, 280 explicit, 280 extern, 280 false, 280 finally, 280 fixed, 280 float, 280 for, 280 foreach, 280 goto, 280 if, 280 implicit, 280 in, 280 int, 280 interface, 280 internal, 280 is, 280 lexical grammar, 279282 lock, 280

J
jagged arrays, 2223 jump statements break statement, 156157 continue statement, 157 goto statement, 157 overview, 156 return statement, 158 throw statement, 158

377

Index

keywords
keywords (continued) long, 280 namespace, 280 new, 280 null, 281 object, 281 operator, 281 out, 281 override, 281 overview, 46 params, 281 private, 281 protected, 281 public, 281 readonly, 281 ref, 281 return, 281 sbyte, 281 sealed, 281 short, 281 sizeof, 281 stackalloc, 281 static, 281 string, 281 struct, 281 switch, 281 this, 281 throw, 281 true, 281 try, 281 typeof, 282 uint, 282 ulong, 282 unchecked, 282 unsafe, 282 ushort, 282 using, 282 virtual, 282 void, 282 volatile, 282 while, 282

L
labeled statements, 145146 language structure attributes, 36 comments, 4043 compilation units, 3537 directives, 36, 5155 global attributes, 36 grammar, 3740 line terminators, 40 namespace member declarations, 36 source files, 3537 tokens, 36, 4351 whitespace, 43 learning C#, 5 lexical grammar comments, 276277 identifiers, 277279 line terminators, 282 literals, 282286 operators/punctuators, 286288 overview, 36, 3940, 275276 pre-processing directives, 288292 unicode escape characters, 292 white space, 292 lexical grammar (keyword), 279282 lifted operators equality operators, 119 overview, 118 relational operators, 119 unary operators, 118 line directives, 55 line terminators, 40, 282 literals Boolean literals, 47 character literals, 4849 integer literals, 47 lexical grammar, 282286 null literal, 49 overview, 46

378

namespaces
real literals, 48 string literals, 49 local constant declarations, 147 local variable declarations, 146147 local variables, 8889 lock (keyword), 280 lock statements, rules for, 9495 logical AND operator, 25, 114 logical operators, 133134 logical OR operator, 25, 114 logical XOR operator, 25, 114 long (keyword), 280 long type, 21, 7475 naming, 343 overloading, 64 override methods, 180181 overview, 28, 178179 parameters, 179180 sealed methods, 181 signatures, 6364 static methods, 180 virtual methods, 180 Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL), 36, 359360 modifiers delegates, 222223 enums, 217218 interfaces, 211 overview, 170171 structs, 195 Mono, 3 MoveNext method, 260262 multiplicative operators, 25, 114

M
member access, 62, 126127 member lookup base types, 120 overview, 119120 members array members, 62, 205 class members, 6162 constructed types, 250 delegate members, 62 enumeration members, 61, 218219 interface members, 62, 212 namespace members, 61 overview, 6061, 172173, 245 struct members, 61, 195196 memory management, 6667 method group conversions, 109 methods abstract methods, 181 body, 181 instance methods, 180 interfaces, 212 invocation, 121 method body, 181

N
the name C#, explanation of, 1 named parameters, 232 namespace (keyword), 280 namespace-member-declaration, 36, 166 namespaces compilation units, 162163 declarations, 5860, 163164 extern-alias-directive, 164165 members, 61 namespace-member-declaration, 166 naming, 341 organizing classes with, 161162 overview, 66, 161 qualified-alias-member, 167168 scope controlled with, 162 type declarations, 166167 using directives, 165166

379

Index

naming conventions
naming conventions abbreviations, 339 attribute naming, 342 Camel case, 338 capitalization, 337 case sensitivity, 338339 class naming, 341342 enumeration type naming, 342 event naming, 343 interface naming, 342 keywords to avoid, 339341 method naming, 343 namespace naming, 341 overview, 337 parameter naming, 343 Pascal case, 337 property naming, 343 static field naming, 342 uppercase, 338 nesting comments, 43 .NET, 23 .NET Framework, 910 new (keyword), 280 new modifier, 174 new operator, 129 Notepad ++, 15 NoteTab, 15 null coalescing operators, 114, 134 null (keyword), 281 null literal, 49 null type, 79 null type conversions, 109 nullable conversions, 109110 nullable types, 32, 8081 operator (keyword), 281 operators. See also unary operators additive operators, 25, 114 assignment operators, 115 binary operator, 113, 189 binary operator overload resolution, 118 conditional AND operator, 25, 114 conditional operator, 25 conditional OR operator, 25, 114 conversion operators, 190 enums, 220 equality operators, 25, 114, 119 and expressions, 112119 in generic classes, 247 invocation, 123 lifted operators, 118119 list of, 286288 logical AND operator, 25, 114 logical OR operator, 25, 114 logical XOR operator, 25, 114 multiplicative operators, 25, 114 null coalescing operators, 114 overloading, 64, 115118 overview, 29, 112113, 187189 pointers, 268269 precedence, 113115 primary operators, 25, 114 relational operators, 119 relational/type-testing operators, 25, 114 shift operators, 25, 114 signatures, 64 ternary operator, 113 tokens, 5051 types of, 113 out (keyword), 281 out parameter, 70 output parameters, 24, 88, 180 overload resolution, 125 overloading in generic classes, 246247 indexers, 64 instance constructors, 64

O
object (keyword), 281 object type, 21, 79 objects, how types are treated as, 70 Obsolete attribute, 239240 open constructed type, 243, 249

380

private (keyword)
methods, 64 operators, 64, 115118 overview, 64 override accessor events, 186 properties, 183184 override (keyword), 281 override methods, 180181 overview of C# accessibility, 28 advantages of C#, 12, 5 classes, 2728 constants, 28 delegates, 31 enums, 31 events, 29 expressions, 2426 fields, 24, 28 finalizers, 29 generics, 3132 Hello, World! program, 1718 history of C#, 2 implementations in development for C#, 3 indexers, 29 inheritance, 30 instance constructors, 29 interfaces, 3031 iterators, 32 learning C#, 5 methods, 28 nullable types, 32 operators, 29 parameters, 24 properties, 2829 source code, examining, 18 standardization, 3 statements, 2627 static classes, 30 static constructors, 30 structs, 30 types, 1923 variables, 2324

P
parameters arrays, 24, 180 attribute parameters, 233 for methods, 179180 naming, 343 output parameters, 24 overview, 24 reference parameters, 24 value parameters, 24 params (keyword), 281 parenthesized expressions, 126 partial declarations, 172 Pascal case, 337 platform/OS portability, 359 pointers, 268269 portability implementation-defined behavior, 360361 interoperability with legacy code, 359360 overview, 359, 362 platform/OS portability, 359 simplified deployment, 359 undefined behavior, 360 unspecified behavior, 361362 positional parameters, 232 pragma directives, 55 precedence, 2426, 113115 predefined reference types, 19, 21 predefined types, 1921 predefined value types, 2021 pre-processing directives, 288292 preprocessing expressions, 53 primary expressions element access, 127130 invocation expressions, 127 literals, 125 member access, 126127 overview, 125 parenthesized expressions, 126 simple names, 126 primary operators, 25, 114 private (keyword), 281

381

Index

Programmers Notepad
Programmers Notepad, 15 properties abstract accessor, 183 access, 122 accessors, 182184 instance properties, 182 interfaces, 212213 naming, 343 override accessor, 183184 overview, 2829, 181182 sealed accessor, 184 static properties, 182 virtual accessor, 183 protected (keyword), 281 protected members, access to, 246 public (keyword), 281 punctuators list of, 286288 overview, 5051 overview, 78 string type, 79 unboxing, 80 value types compared, 6970 region control directives, 5455 relational operators, 119 relational/type-testing operators, 25, 114, 132133 reserved attributes, 238 return (keyword), 281 return statement overview, 158 rules for, 93 runtime retrieval of attribute instances, 237

S
sbyte (keyword), 281 sbyte type, 21, 7475 scope controlled with namespaces, 162 overview, 6466 sealed accessor events, 186 properties, 184 sealed (keyword), 281 sealed methods, 181 selection statements if statement, 148149 overview, 148 switch statement, 149153 shift operators, 25, 114, 132 short (keyword), 281 short type, 21, 7475 signatures generic methods, 251 index signatures, 63 instance constructor signatures, 63 method signatures, 6364 operator signatures, 64 and overloading, 64 overview, 63 simple expressions, rules for, 9596

Q
qualified-alias-member, 167168 question mark (?) expressions, rules for, 98

R
reachability, 142144 readonly fields, 177 readonly (keyword), 281 real literals, 48 rectangular arrays, 2223 ref (keyword), 281 ref parameter, 70 reference parameters, 24, 8788, 180 reference types array type, 79 boxing, 80 class type, 79 delegate type, 79 null type, 79 object type, 79

382

switch statement
simple names, 126 simple types, 73 simplified deployment, 359 single-line comments, 4243 sizeof (keyword), 281 sizeof operator, 129130, 272 source code, examining, 18 source files, 3537 specification, 233236 stackalloc, 273 stackalloc (keyword), 281 standard conversions, 107108 standard explicit conversions, 108 standard implicit conversions, 107108 standard library, 345357 standardization, 3 statement lists, 144145 statements code blocks, 144 declaration statements, 146147 empty statements, 145 end point, 142 expression statements, 148 general rules for, 91 iteration statements, 154156 jump statements, 156158 labeled statements, 145146 overview, 2627, 139141 reachability, 142144 selection statements, 148153 statement lists, 144145 syntactic grammar, 320327 types of, 141 using statement, 158159 yield statement, 159160 static classes, 30 static constructors generics, 246 overview, 30, 191 structs, 199 static events, 185 static fields naming, 342 overview, 177, 246 static (keyword), 281 static members, 174 static methods, 180 static properties, 182 static variables, 85 string (keyword), 281 string literals, 49 string type, 21, 79 struct declarations, 247 struct (keyword), 281 struct members, 61 struct types, 7273 struct-declaration, 194195 structs assignments, 198 body, 195 boxing, 198 class compared, 196197 constructors, 199 default values, 198 field initializers, 199 finalizers, 199 inheritance, 197 instance variables in, 87 interfaces, 195 members, 195196 modifiers, 195 overview, 30, 193194 static constructors, 199 struct-declaration, 194195 syntactic grammar, 327329 this variable, 198 unboxing, 198 when to use, 199200 switch (keyword), 281 switch statement overview, 149153 rules for, 92

383

Index

syntactic grammar
syntactic grammar arrays, 293294 attributes, 294296 classes, 296307 delegates, 308 enums, 308309 expressions, 309317 generics, 317318 interfaces, 318320 overview, 37, 292293 statements, 320327 structs, 327329 types, 329331 variables, 331 syntax in XML documentation comments, 363365 System.ArithmeticException, 228 System.Array type, 204 System.ArrayTypeMismatchException, 228 System.DivideByZeroException, 228 System.Enum, 219 System.Exception, 228 System.IndexOutOfRangeException, 228 System.InvalidCastException, 228 System.NullReferenceException, 228 System.OutOfMemoryException, 228 System.OverflowException, 228 System.StackOverflowException, 228 System.TypeInitializationException, 228 System.ValueType class, 7172 throwing exceptions, 227 tokens identifiers, 4445 keywords, 46 literals, 4649 operators, 5051 overview, 43 punctuators, 5051 Unicode escape sequences, 4344 trailing commas, 208 transformation, 36 true (keyword), 281 try (keyword), 281 try-catch statements, rules for, 9394 try-finally statements, rules for, 94 typeof (keyword), 282 typeof operator, 129 types arguments, 249 array types, 2223, 79 bool type, 20, 77 boxing, 80 byte type, 20, 7475 char type, 20, 7475 class type, 79 conversions, 22 decimal type, 20 declarations, 166167 double type, 20 float type, 20 instance type, 244245 int type, 20, 7475 long type, 21, 7475 names, 66 object type, 21 objects, how types are treated as, 70 out parameter, 70 overloading, 22 overview, 19, 1923, 7476 parameters, 243244 predefined reference types, 19, 21 predefined types, 1921 predefined value types, 2021

T
tags in XML documentation comments, 365 templates in C++ compared to generics, 241 ternary operator, 113 text editor, 89 this (keyword), 281 this variable, 198, 260 this-access, 128 throw (keyword), 281 throw statement overview, 158 rules for, 93

384

value types
ref parameter, 70 reference types, 19, 6970, 7880 sbyte type, 21, 7475 short type, 21, 7475 string type, 21 syntactic grammar, 329331 types of, 69 uint type, 21, 7475 ulong type, 21, 7475 unboxing, 80 ushort type, 21, 7475 using, 76 value types, 19, 6977, 8081 sizeof operator, 272 stackalloc, 273 unsafe contexts, 266268 unsafe contexts, 266268 unsafe (keyword), 282 unspecified behavior, 361362 unwrapping, 109 uppercase, 338 user-defined conversions, 103, 107, 108 user-defined explicit conversions, 107 user-defined implicit conversions, 103, 108 ushort (keyword), 282 ushort type, 21, 7475 using directives overview, 165 using-alias-directive, 165 using-namespace-directive, 166 using (keyword), 282 using statement overview, 158159 rules for, 94 using-alias-directive, 165 using-namespace-directive, 166

U
uint (keyword), 282 uint type, 21, 7475 ulong (keyword), 282 ulong type, 21, 7475 UltraEdit, 1315 unary expressions, 131 unary operators lifted operators, 118 overload resolution, 117 overview, 25, 113, 189 precedence, 114 unboxing conversions, 80, 107, 198 unchecked (keyword), 282 unchecked operator, 130 unchecked statements, rules for, 91 undefined behavior, 360 unicode escape characters, 4344, 292 unsafe code advantages of, 266 compilation, 273 disadvantages of, 266 example, 269270 extensions for, 332335 fixed modifier, 270272 overview, 265 pointers, 268269

V
value parameters, 24, 87, 180 value types bool type, 77 boxing, 80 decimal type, 77 default constructors, 72 enumeration types, 77 floating-point types, 7677 integral types, 7476 nullable types, 8081 overview, 7071 reference types compared, 6970 simple types, 73 struct types, 7273 System.ValueType class, 7172 unboxing, 80

385

Index

variable initialization
variable initialization, 178 variables array elements, 8586 categories of, 8485 default values, 89 definite assignment, 8998 instance variables, 8687 local variables, 8889 output parameters, 88 overview, 2324, 8384 reference parameters, 8788 static variables, 85 syntactic grammar, 331 value parameter, 87 virtual accessor events, 185 properties, 183 virtual generic methods, 251 virtual (keyword), 282 virtual methods, 180 Visual Studio, 1516 void (keyword), 282 void pointers, 268 volatile (keyword), 282 volatile fields, 177178

W
while (keyword), 282 while statement overview, 154 rules for, 92 whitespace, 43, 292 Windows Notepad overview, 89 writing code in, 1013 wrapping, 109 writing code with free tools, 1013 in Windows Notepad, 1013

X
XML documentation comments overview, 363 syntax, 363365 tags, 365

Y
yield break statement, 262 yield return statement, 261 yield statement overview, 159160 rules for, 98 yield type, 260

386

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