by Pietro Bellini Ferruccio Bonetti Ester Franzetti giuseppe Rosace Sergio Vago

Ente Morale dell'Associazione Costruttori Italiani di Macchinario per lIndustria Tessile

Moral body of the Italian Association of Textile Machinery Producers

Via Tevere 1, 20123 Milano (Italia) Tel. +39 024693611, fax +39 0248008342 e-mail: [email protected], http//www.acimit.it

First edition: November 2001 Third edition: improved, November 2002

All reproduction, even partial and using any means, is prohibited by law and in accordance with relevant international agreements.

English translation: Studio Trevisan Vigevano (PV)

Foreword
I am pleased to present the second in a series of four textile machinery technology handbooks that the ACIMIT Foundation is publishing for use in Italys institutes of textile technology. This handbook looks at machinery, accessories, auxiliary equipment and technologies relating to finishing, another segment in which Italy boasts companies of international prominence and advanced know-how. Naturally, the volume also contains references (as plentiful as they are essential) to textile chemistry. This handbook on finishing follows the one on weaving, published in October 2000 (2,000 copies of this latter volume, which has also been translated into English for overseas readers, have already been distributed) and the knitwear one, published in October 2001. The fourth handbook in the series, on spinning, is due to be come out in Spring 2002. The need to publish these books emerged in the course of a series of meetings that ACIMIT had with principals and teachers in the context of various initiatives designed to promote relations between the industry and schools. We were told that the textbooks currently in use do not reflect the continued and rapid technological evolution the sector has seen in recent years. With the precise aim of publishing handbooks that respond, as far as possible, to students learning needs, the ACIMIT Foundation decided, in agreement with the schools principals, to entrust a group of teachers from the schools themselves with the task of realising the series of books. The teachers involved accepted this challenge enthusiastically. Thanks therefore go, on behalf of Italys textile machinery manufacturers, to the principals and teachers whose schools are source of valuable human resources, essential for the development of their industrial concerns. Since no job is ever done to perfection the first time round, we will be grateful to anyone (students, teachers, company engineers and technicians, etc.) who sends us suggestions and corrections that might enable us to improve this publication and increase the value of the whole enterprise.

Alberto M. Sacchi, President of the ACIMIT Foundation

Acknowledgements
The ACIMIT Foundation wishes to thank the principals and teachers of the following schools without whose willing and energetic collaboration this book could not have been published: ITIS Buzzi Prato ITIS Carcano Como ITIS Casale Turin ITIS Facchinetti Busto Arsizio (Varese) ITIS Leonardo da Vinci Carpi (Modena) *** The finishing handbook was written by the following teachers: Pietro Bellini Pietro Bellini graduated in chemistry from the University of Milan in 1974; from 1977 to 1994, he taught textile chemistry and textile finishing at the technical college I.T.I.S. Carcano in Como where, since 1994, he has taught dyeing chemistry. He also works with the association Tessile di Como. Ferruccio Bonetti Ferruccio Bonetti is a graduate in chemical engineering (Polytechnic of Milan, 1975). From 1983 to 1999, he taught textile dyeing and finishing technology at the technical college I.T.I.S. Paleocapa in Bergamo. Since 1999, he has lectured in textile chemistry at the University of Bergamo (for the degree course in textile management engineering) Ester Franzetti A graduate in chemistry and pharmaceutical technologies (University of Milan), Ester Franzetti has, since 1985, taught chemistry, textile chemistry and textile finishing at the technical college I.T.I.S. of Varese. Giuseppe Rosace In 1991,Giuseppe Rosace graduated in chemistry from the University of Messina; four years later, he received a PhD in chemical sciences from the University of Bologna. From 1996 to 2001, he taught textile chemistry at the technical college I.T.I.S. Paleocapa in Bergamo, and since 2001 he has lectured in logistic and production engineering (textile sector) at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Bergamo. Sergio Vago Sergio Vago graduated in chemical engineering from the polytechnic of Milan in 1976 and began his teaching career two years later. He has been at the technical college I.T.I.S. Carcano of Como since 1991, teaching dyeing chemistry since 1998. The ACIMIT foundation wishes to thank all these individuals for the time and enthusiasm invested in the project. ITIS Leonardo da Vinci Naples ITIS Marzotto Valdagno (Vicenza) ITIS Paleocapa Bergamo ITIS Sella Biella ITIS Varese Varese

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... pag.
The Textile Finishing Stage ....................................................................................... Wool Finishing Processes .......................................................................................... Cotton Finishing Processes......................................................................................... Silk Finishing Processes ............................................................................................. Synthetic Fibres Finishing Processes..........................................................................

1
2 3 5 6 7

PRE-DYEING TREATMENTS..........................................................................................
Singeing ...................................................................................................................... Desizing ..................................................................................................................... Scouring...................................................................................................................... Bleaching .................................................................................................................... Mercerising................................................................................................................. Chlorination ................................................................................................................ Carbonising................................................................................................................. Oiling.......................................................................................................................... Fulling and Washing-milling Treatments ................................................................... Silk Weighting............................................................................................................ Heat Setting ................................................................................................................ Decortication .............................................................................................................. Elastic Fabrics............................................................................................................. Washing ...................................................................................................................... Drying.........................................................................................................................

8
8 9 10 10 12 13 14 16 16 20 22 23 23 24 29

PRE-DYEING TREATMENTS.......................................................................................... 40
Exhaust Dyeing .......................................................................................................... Preparation and Dyeing Machines .............................................................................. Autoclaves .................................................................................................................. Hanks.......................................................................................................................... Arm Dyeing Machines ............................................................................................... Winch Dyeing Machines ............................................................................................ Jet Dyeing Machines................................................................................................... Overflow Dyeing Machines........................................................................................ Air-flow (Air Jet) Dyeing Machines........................................................................... Jiggers......................................................................................................................... Beam Dyeing Machines.............................................................................................. Garment-dyeing Machines ......................................................................................... Colour Kitchens.......................................................................................................... Pad Dyeing ................................................................................................................ 41 49 51 55 56 57 59 62 66 69 70 71 73 75

PRINTING ........................................................................................................................... 81
Printing Methods ......................................................................................................... 82 Printing Machines ....................................................................................................... 85 Steaming Machines ..................................................................................................... 93 Washing Machines for Printed Fabrics ...................................................................... 96 Developments in Screen and Cylinder Engraving Techniques and in Textile Printing........................................................................................................ 102 Ink-jet Printing ........................................................................................................... 104

FUNCTIONAL FINISHING .............................................................................................. 107

Mechanical Finishing Treatments ............................................................................... Calendering ................................................................................................................ Embossing ................................................................................................................... Sueding........................................................................................................................ Raising (Napping) ...................................................................................................... Wool Glazing Machine ............................................................................................... Shearin......................................................................................................................... Stabilisation ................................................................................................................ Decating ...................................................................................................................... Steaming...................................................................................................................... Chemical Finishing Treatments................................................................................... Softening ..................................................................................................................... Crease-proof Treatments ............................................................................................. Flame-retardant Treatments......................................................................................... Hydrophobic, Oil-proof and Water-proof Treatments ................................................ Anti-soil Treatments.................................................................................................... Anti-static Treatments ................................................................................................. Anti-mildew Treatments.............................................................................................. Antimicrobial Treatments............................................................................................ Plasma Treatments....................................................................................................... Enzyme Treatments ..................................................................................................... The Influence of Finishing Treatments on Dyed Goods.............................................. 108 109 112 112 114 119 120 121 123 125 129 136 139 144 147 152 155 155 156 159 160 168

ACCESSORIES ................................................................................................................... 173 AUTOMATION IN TEXTILE ........................................................................................... 179

Foreword ..................................................................................................................... Colour analysis and control ......................................................................................... Process controllers....................................................................................................... Production management systems................................................................................. Automated colour kitchens.......................................................................................... Automated storage....................................................................................................... Handling and robotisation systems.............................................................................. Machine monitoring systems....................................................................................... 179 180 183 184 186 192 193 197

INTRODUCTION
The aim of this book is to supply the most comprehensive and global insight into textile finishing processes. Since the subject is exceptionally extensive and complex, this book may appear limited to the experts working in this sector. As far as students are concerned, we hope that this book will offer them an essential background, a basis to be extended by further studies. Textile finishing usually includes treatments such as scouring, bleaching, dyeing and/or printing, the final mechanical or chemical finishing operations, that during this stage are carried out on textile products (staple, sliver or top, yarns or filaments, woven or knitted fabrics) to enhance their basic characteristics like dye penetration, printability, wettability, colour, hand, and appearance. By textile finishing, we also mean all the processing operations that, though included in the socalled finishing stage, are generally applied to the fabrics to improve their appearance, hand and properties, at times in accordance with their field of application. The finishing stage plays a fundamental role in the excellency of the commercial results of textiles, which strictly depend on market requirements that are becoming increasingly stringent and unpredictable, permitting very short response times for textile manufacturers. The latest machines on the market used for finishing operations generally offer multi-purpose applications; the flexibility and versatility features of these machines are uninterruptedly evolving to grant excellent consistency of the results. Finishing operations can be carried out by means of discontinuous, continuous and semicontinuous systems. - Discontinuous or batch-type systems: all the operations are carried out on a single machine; it is therefore necessary to load the machine, carry out the treatments following a predetermined cycle, unload the machine and finally wash it thoroughly before starting a new cycle. This working process is extremely flexible and is suitable for processing small lots: for example, it is possible to a carry out a scouring treatment on a single machine, then a bleaching one followed by a dyeing process. For the production of large lots, the discontinuous process is labour-intensive, i.e. it requires many operators to load and unload the material; it also entails long processing times and results that can vary from one batch to another. - Continuous systems: the operations are carried out by means of a series of machines; every machine carries out always and solely the same process. Every machine is assembled according to specific production requirements. A system like this entails high start-up costs and a complex setup but once the system has started, it requires a smaller staff and grants excellent repeatability and high output rates; continuous systems are therefore suitable for manufacturing large lots of products with the highest cost-efficiency. - Semi-continuous systems: in these mixed systems several operations are carried out with both continuous and discontinuous machines. For example, a continuous pad-batch machine is used to wet the fabric and a discontinuous system is then used for other treatments. These mixed systems are suitable for processing small and medium lots; they require reasonable start-up costs and grant quite good reproducibility.

The textile finishing stage:

Staple, tow and top

Preparation and dyeing of staple, tow, sliver

Production of yarn and ply yarn in package, warp beam or hank

Preparation and dyeing of package, beam or hank

Large diameter circular knits

Weaving

Flat and small diameter circular knits

Inspection and rolling

Eventual piece dyeing

Pre-treatment (cotton, wool or silk)

Piece dyeing and/or printing

Wet or dry finishing (cotton and wool)

Final inspection, winding and packing

Wool Finishing Processes

The sequence of the treatments undergone by wool fibres in various forms (staple, sliver, yarn, woven and knitted fabric) varies according to the modification process of the fibre structure, according to the type of processing system used and according to the experience of the operator (these criteria are valid for all fibres). Therefore the wool processing cycle can vary accordingly: an example is shown in the following.

Worsted cycle:

Greasy wool

Scouring

Oiling Carding Drawing Combing

Sliver predyeing treatments

Staple dyeing Dyeing Vigoureux Printing

Recombing Drawing Spinning

Weaving, knitting

Yarn pre-dyeing operations

Dyeing and/or Printing

Finishing and inspection

Woollen cycle:

Short staple wool

Carbonising

Staple washing and dyeing

Oiling Carding Drawing Weaving

Weaving, knitting

Yarn pre-dyeing operations

Dyeing and/or printing

Finishing and final inspection

Cotton Finishing Processes

Staple

Yarn

Fabric

Eventual Singeing and Mercerising

Eventual Singeing

Scouring Bleaching

Desizing (not for knitted fabrics)

Yarn Dyeing

Eventual Mercerising

Scouring Bleaching Eventual Desizing (not on ply and knitting yarns)

Dyeing and/or Printing

Steaming (after printing)

Washing after dyeing and/or printing

Crabbing and inspection

Silk Finishing Processes

Yarn

Fabric

Scouring or Degumming (eventual weighting) Scouring or Degumming

Yarn dyeing in package or in hank

Bleaching

Dyeing and/or Printing

Finishing and inspection

Synthetic Fibres Finishing Processes

Filament Yarn

Woven or knitted fabric

Texturising Scouring and Bleaching

Scouring and/or dyeing Heatsetting

Decortication (only PES)

Dyeing and/or Printing

Finishing and inspection

PRE-DYEING TREATMENTS
The pre-dyeing stage includes a series of operations that prepare the textile product for subsequent finishing treatments such as dyeing, printing and finishing. These operations vary according to the type of fibre on which they have to be carried out, to the structure of the textile product (staple, top, sliver, yarn, fabric) and also depend on the subsequent treatments to be carried out, which may change according to various factors such as market demands, customer requirements, staff experience, and availability of machines. The pre-dyeing stage includes for example desizing, singeing, mercerising, scouring, and bleaching. Each process varies according to the processing conditions and the above-mentioned specific situations. Some of these processes (for example bleaching and mercerising) can be considered either preliminary operations or finishing treatments; this depends on the type of the downstream processes to be carried out on yarns or fabrics.

Singeing
With this treatment fuzz and fibre ends are burnt off in order highlight the fabric weave. It is generally carried out on gray pieces and the residues are removed by a further washing process. An oxidising flame, which does not leave any trace of sooty residue on fibres, is used to carry out this operation. The flame can be perpendicular to the fabric, and only rarely tangential; the fabric is positioned at a distance of 1.5 - 4 mm from the end of the flame and the machine is equipped with a suction device under the fabric, which attracts the flame and concentrates the heat on the fabric. The fabric speed can range from 60 to 120 metres per minute. The singeing process with perpendicular flame is the most common one, while the process with tangential flame is used for fine fabrics (light singeing).

Picture 1 - Fabric singeing with

perpendicular flame

Picture 2 - Fabric singeing with tangential flame

Singeing is carried out rarely on knitted fabrics and frequently on yarns and woven fabrics. Instead of the traditional singeing process, it is possible to apply an enzymatic treatment (for cotton and lyocell fabrics), for example with cellulase, which uses chemical agents to corrode the fibre surface and remove the fuzz from the fabric.

Desizing
This treatment is carried out on woven fabrics to remove the sizing substance from the warp. The size must be totally eliminated since the fabric must absorb the liquor of subsequent processes homogeneously. Since amylaceous sizes are generally used for cotton yarns, it is possible to apply amylolytic enzymes (enzymatic desizing), which carry out a biological degradation process of the starch, transforming it into soluble by-products which can be then eliminated by washing. The enzymatic process depends on the quantity of enzyme molecules per gram of fabric, while the thermal stability of the enzyme depends on the bacteria strain from which it originates. The amylases only react with starch molecules and do not affect the other glucose polymer (cellulose), since they attack the 1.4 alpha-glucoside bond of starch and not the 1.4 betaglucoside bond of cellulose. This reaction makes the use of amylases profitable (when applying starchy sizes) compared to other desizing agents such as alkali and oxidising agents (oxidising desizing), which attack both starch and cellulose. The oxidising desizing process is used to remove non-starchy sizes that do not dissolve in water or to eliminate starchy sizes combined with polyvinyl alcohol (this treatment is carried out before the singeing process). This last treatment requires accurately controlled operating conditions to solubilise only sizes and avoid any possible fibre degradation. Enzymatic desizing can be carried out in discontinuous systems (jigger) but semi-continuous or continuous techniques are more frequent after the pad-batch wetting of the fabric. The most frequently used processes are pad-roll and pad-steam. If the size is water-soluble, it can be eliminated by hot washing.

Scouring
On cotton fibres, this treatment removes fatty and pectic substances, softening motes and preparing the material to absorb the subsequent treatment agents. Scouring is usually carried out in soft water additivated with textile auxiliaries such as absorbing agents, detergents, emulsifying agents, caustic soda and/or Solvay lye and sequestering agents. Alkali make the fibre swell and enhance the action of surfactants. This treatment can be carried out on filaments, yarns and fabrics. Instead of the traditional scouring process, it is also possible to carry out an enzymatic scouring process (bioscouring) to remove non-cellulosic material from cotton fibres, to make them more easily wettable and enhance the subsequent absorption of finishing liquors. The scouring of pure silk is a degumming process used to remove sericin (silk gum) from fibroin floss. Sericin is the gummy element which keeps together the fibroin floss and gives the silk a hard hand and dull appearance. It is carried out on yarn, on dyed yarn, piece-dyed fabric or on products ready for printing. The treatment, which causes a loss of weight ranging between 24 and 28%, gives the degummed silk a lustrous appearance and a soft hand; the treatment is carried out with soapy solutions or with buffer dissolving agents. It is also possible to use enzymes (protease), which hydrolyses sericin. Recently, a treatment with H2O at 120C has also been successfully applied especially on yarns. On wool, the scouring process removes oils and contaminants accumulated during upstream processing steps and can be carried out on slivers, yarns and fabrics with solutions containing sodium carbonate with soap or ammonia, or anionic and non-ionic surfactants, which carry out a softer washing to avoid any damage to the fibres. The scouring process applied to synthetic fibres removes oils, lubricants and anti-static substances, dust, contaminants and can be carried out on yarns and fabrics (when warp yarns have been bonded, the treatment is called debonding). It is carried out by means of surfactants, detergents and emulsifying agents. Scouring is usually carried out by means of continuous or discontinuous systems, with the same machines used for downstream treatments; temperature, processing time, pH, concentration of reagents, depend on the fibre and on the machine used. Incomplete scouring processes usually originate dyeing and printing defects due to different degrees of wettability and to inconsistent affinity for dyes of the material.

Bleaching
Bleaching treatments are applied to eliminate any impurity and obtain a pure white tone, to prepare substrates for low-density dyes or prints and to level off undesired tone variations. Bleaching agents mainly used for cellulosic fibres are sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide. They both require the addition of sodium hydroxide in the bleaching liquor to make it alkaline it by favouring the formation of the bleaching ion, which in the first case is the hypochlorite ion and in the second one is the perhydroxyl ion. When using hypochlorite the pH must range between 9 and 11 and the temperature must not exceed 30 C. In fact, as far as the pH is concerned, pH values below 4 give rise to the formation of chlorine while pH values ranging between 4 and 9 give rise to the formation of hypochlorous acid: these chemical substances affect the fibre negatively and do not perform a bleaching action. After the bleaching with hypochlorite it is necessary to carry out an antichlor treatment. Fibres must be treated with hydrogen peroxide, which completely removes the chlorine and avoids the formation of chloramines, which, in drying machines, could generate HCl dangerous for cellulose. With hydrogen peroxide, in the presence of alkali, little motes can be eliminated and the autoclave scouring can therefore be avoided. 10

The optimum temperature ranges between 80 and 90 C and the pH between 10.7 and 10.9. Hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of 1-2 vol can be used also for silk after degumming, with a pH of 8 9, at 70-80 C for 1-2 hours. On wool, it is possible to improve whiteness with a bleaching process using hydrogen peroxide, with a vol. range of 1 to 3, stabilised with pyrophosphate with a pH value between 8 and 9, at a temperature of 45-50 C for a time which can vary from 30 minutes to 3-4 hours. In alternative, it is possible to carry out a treatment with a pH value of 3-4, in acid environment for HCOOH at ambient temperature; in this case, the formic acid reacts with peroxide, generating performic acid, which carries out the bleaching action. This method slightly damages the wool but gives good results. From an environmental point of view, hydrogen peroxide is more suitable than hypochlorite since it has a lower impact on the environment and effluents can be decontaminated with simpler operations. It is recommended to add sequestering agents to the bleaching liquors. Another bleaching agent used in textile processing is sodium chloride (suitable for synthetic fibres) that takes advantage of the oxidising action of chlorine dioxide generated as a result of the hot acidification of the solution of this salt. Unfortunately, chlorine dioxide is a toxic substance and attacks stainless steels; therefore it is necessary to work in hermetically closed units equipped with suction systems with resistant materials such as stoneware. Bleaching operations can be carried out on yarns, fabrics and knitting with continuous and discontinuous process in circulating liquor machines (autoclaves, jigger, paddle wheel, jet, overflow), semi-continuous (pad-batch, pad-roll).

Picture 3 A J-box Continuous bleaching can be carried out on knitted fabrics using a J-box (Picture 3). The products to be used on the fabric are applied by means of suitably positioned mangles; the fabric is introduced in the machine where it remains for the time necessary to complete the bleaching process. Temperature, speed, pressure and pH are controlled automatically. It is also possible to carry out optical bleaching using substances that do not perform a chemical action on the fibre but obtain a whitening effect by means of an optical compensation process of physical nature. These substances release a blue light compensating white and grey, and giving a dazzling white effect. For example an optical bleaching on wool can be carried out after chemical bleaching, using 0,2-0,6 g/l optical bleaching agent at pH 4-5 for acetic acid, at a temperature of 50-60 C for 30 minutes.

11

Mercerising
This is a typical treatment for cotton yarns and fabrics, which improves the fabric luster and wettability, ensures a covering effect for dead cotton, improves dimensional stability and dyeing efficiency. This treatment is carried out using caustic soda (28 - 30 B), which determines the contraction and swelling of the fibres; they become translucent and increase their tensile strength, but reduce their flexural and torsion strength. The bean-like section of the fibre becomes first elliptic and then circular, allowing a better reflection of light with a consequent increase of luster. The treatment is usually carried out under tension, with caustic soda at 28- 30 B (approx. 270- 330 g/l). If the concentration is lower than 24 B, the treatment is called causticization and aims at enhancing the dyeing liquor penetration into the fabric. The liquor temperature usually ranges between 15-20 C and its uniform absorption is assured by adding mercerising wetting agents stable in alkaline environment. Once the operation has been carried out, alkalinity must immediately be neutralised by means of a diluted acid solution. From a chemical point of view, alkalicellulose is the first material to form; the next material, which forms after repeatedly water washing is hydrocellulose, which is more reactive than natural cellulose. Cotton wetting entails shrinkage of the material, which must be kept under tension, to avoid a fuzzy and woollen appearance. Mercerising is carried out on yarns, fabrics or open or tubular knits. As far as yarns are concerned, before the mercerising process in special machines, they undergo a singeing treatment to remove the fuzz and end fibres which could otherwise prevent the perfect reflection of light after mercerising. There are two different types of machines to be used for woven fabrics: a chain system and a cylinder system. Chain mercerising: with the chain mercerising process the fibres achieve perfect brightness thanks to optimum tension control. This system runs slowly and allows no flexibility when the width of the fabric varies. Cylinder mercerising: this is a more compact and faster system compared to the previous one; cylinder mercerising does not allow the contraction of the warp because the fabric is drawn in on the cylinders. The contraction of the filling yarns is also prevented thanks to the tension produced by the simultaneous action of the cylinders and of the fabric wetting. Cylinder mercerising machines are also used for flat knits. Mercerising process can also be carried out on tubular knitted goods: after the wetting process, the fabric is left reacting in a padding mangle. The withdrawal of the fabric width is controlled by means of an adjustable ring spreader while the withdrawal of the fabric length is controlled by slowing down the fabric before the final squeezing. The sodium hydroxide concentration is brought down to approximately 4 B by means of a circular shower. The fabric is then washed, neutralised and rinsed. Another well-proven mercerising agent is liquid ammonia, which has to be applied for very short times (about half a second). There are very few systems based on liquid ammonia due to the difficulties connected to the use of liquid NH 3 (toxicity, formation of blends that can explode in presence of air and very strict regulations concerning the welding of steel sheets used to build these systems that operate at very high pressures since the boiling point of ammonia is usually 33C).

12

Engineers have recently developed continuous mercerising cycles and machines for combined mercerising and bleaching process.

Picture 4 - Continuous mercerising and bleaching system for tubular knitted fabrics 1. entry 2. wetting with NaOH 3. exposing 4. spreader 5. stabiliser 6. exit 7. neutralisation and bleaching

Chlorination
This specific treatment applied to wool enhances its dimensional stability to shrinking; it can also be used as finishing or preparation process before dyeing or printing. Thanks to the reduction of the cuticle thickness, with the consequent disappearing of scales (which are rounded off and made thinner), wool looses its felting capacity and therefore minimises shrinkage (dimensional stability). The result is that a chlorinated wool garment can undergo repeated machine washing cycles (delicate cycle). The process can be carried out at any stage of the fibre processing; chlorinated wool is particularly lustrous and has higher affinity for dyes. From an operational point of view, the best results can be obtained with the combination of two different and complementary treatments: the first one is an oxidising treatment followed by a special treatment with cationic resins. The first treatment is the traditional chlorination process, carried out using: - NaClO in presence of strong inorganic acids (sulphuric acid) - Cl 2 gas - Chlorine organic salts (sodium salt of dichloroisocyanuric acid) which, in acid solution, releases chlorine. The second treatment is carried out by applying special resins enhancing the anti-felting effect (PA epichlorohydrin or cationic resins polysiloxanes). An antichlor treatment with NaHSO 3 must be carried out subsequently to eliminate any residue of Cl 2 that might remain on fibres. New treatments to be carried out on tops or fabrics (plasma treatment) are now being studied as an alternative to chlorination. Process and systems used: circulating liquor units are used for tops; autoclaves are preferred for yarn packages and overflow systems are used for woven or knit fabrics.

13

Carbonising
In the worsted wool cycle, the foreign matter (mainly of cellulosic origin) included in long-fibre wool is removed almost completely by the combing machine. The combed sliver contains very small quantities of foreign particles, which do not affect the subsequent treatments, and above all the dyeing process. A different approach must be however applied in the woollen cycle, where the quantity of contaminants requires a specific treatment with sulphuric acid, to avoid any possible problems during the dyeing process. Carbonising is also essential when the raw stock is mainly composed of rags or waste (dry carbonising with HCl gas at 80C). In fact, with this type of material the carbonising process eliminates any vegetal residue in the staple after scouring, due to the good resistance of wool to the action of acids which, on the contrary, destroy cellulose, and to the strong dehydrating action of the acid which provokes a weight loss that cannot be exactly evaluated in advance. Carbonising can be carried out also on staple fibres, yarns and fabrics. Washed and sometimes piece-dyed fabrics as well as gray fabrics can also be carbonised. The operating conditions necessary for the carbonising process are the following: the fibres are soaked with H 2 SO 4 (2,5 4 B or 4 6 %), squeezed by means of two cylinders and then dried in a stenter at 85 90C, for 30 60 minutes. Hot air concentrates the acid by evaporation, as a result dehydrating and hydrolysing the cellulosic matter. Finally fibres are carefully washed to remove completely any residual acidity, which could affect the fibre and subsequent operations. A series of washing processes also includes a neutralisation treatment with sodium acetate. During the fabric process, a dry beating process to remove the carbonised vegetal residues from the fabric texture precedes the washing phase. Process and systems used: wetting vessels, squeezing cylinders, stenter, dry fulling unit.

Picture - 6 Traditional carbonising process for fabrics 1) wetting vessel; 2) squeezing unit; 3) drying unit; 4) carbonising unit.

14

Solvent/water combined process This process bases its efficacy on the fact that perchloroethylene, thanks to its low surface tension, can soak textile fibres deeper and faster than an aqueous solution. On the contrary, since vegetal impurities contained in the fabric are highly hydrophilic, their affinity for the solvent is lower than the fabrics; the solvent is contained only in the surface of vegetal particles. When the fabric soaked with solvent comes in contact with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, the aqueous solution cannot remove the solvent from the wool and replace it. On the contrary, the aqueous solution is absorbed by vegetal hydrophilic particles. In practice, with this system vegetal impurities absorb the acid solution selectively, and the acid carries out only a gentle action on wool. The benefits of this process are lower pollution, considerable reduction of damage to the wool and the possibility of by-passing the acid removal step (or if necessary, this step is considerably easier and faster).

Picture 7-8 - Diagram and picture of a solvent carbonising plant

15

Oiling
The oiling process aims at minimising resistance during the various operations that transform staple into yarn and then yarn into fabric. Operating conditions: staple is sprayed with oil emulsions in water stabilised with surfactants (favouring the subsequent elimination).

Fulling and Washing-milling Treatments

During the traditional milling operation, fabrics of combed, carded or blended wool (nonscoured, scoured or carbonised and neutralised), at about 40C, are soaked and in presence of special surfactants, are subjected to continuous pressure both in weft and warp direction. Under these conditions, wool fibres tend to felt, thus causing fabric shrinkage and a subsequent dynamic compacting. After this operation, the material must be washed to remove dirty water and the chemicals used. Temperature and mechanic stress must be carefully controlled during all the processing steps; the operation is completed when the desired shrinkage degree has been obtained. Obviously, it is necessary to avoid rope wrinkling or irregular shrinkage on the fabric. When the process is carried out with older fulling units, before loading, the ropes are sewn in a tubular structure to favour the wrinkle movement, and avoid irregular tensions on both selvedges; in the process, an air pocket forms inside the cylinder of wet material thus favouring the wrinkle movement. The percentage shrinkage in warp direction (lengthwise) is controlled from the beginning by means of markers positioned on the centre of the piece in warp direction, at one-metre distance. In newly designed machines the fabric milling process is often combined with a washing process (sometimes milling is combined with a quick washing process). Here are some components which usually make up a milling machine: Jaws: vertical parallel steel plates, positioned in the front part of the machine that make the fabric shrink in the weft direction by squeezing the fabric. Pressure cylinders: adjustable-pressure cylinders that make the fabric shrink in the weft direction and push the fabric inside the box. Box: square section tube where the fabric is packed, slowed down by means of the adjustable plate. In this section the fabric shrinks in warp direction. Plate: hinged plate on top of the box; it can be lowered by reducing progressively its section, slowing down the fabric. Washing-milling machines also include: Squeezing cylinders: to favour the change of the washing liquor. Vessel: placed below the squeezing cylinders to collect polluted water and drain it. When the vessel is open, water is poured directly into the liquor. Many machine manufacturers have studied custom-made solutions to enhance the milling and/or washing effect or to increase the machine flexibility and improve its output capacity. These machines can generally process fabrics whose weight ranges between 80 and 800-1200 g/metre. The following examples show some of these solutions:

16

Milling step: the air jets move the wrinkles of the incoming rope (some machines can also do the same on the delivery side); the plate is lowered and the jaws are closed. Machines with this particular structure can run at a maximum speed of 250-300 m/min (Picture 9).

Jaws

Plates Grid

Fan

Pictures 9/14 Schemes of milling machines showing the different operating steps Gentle washing step: the air jets move the rope wrinkles; the plate is lifted up while the liquor is uninterruptedly fed on the fabric. This type of machine can run at a maximum speed of 200-220 m/min. (Picture 10).

Picture 10

17

Fast washing step: the air jets can remain open. The fabric, drenched with liquor, moves at a speed ranging between 400 and 600 m/min. with the plate open, and runs into the grid. Beating, combined with high speed, causes a slight felting on the surface and the yarn swells, as a result hiding the comb marks (Picture 11).

Picture 11 Alternatively, the fabric can be taken up by a toothed cylinder helped by the lower part of the plate, thus increasing the milling effect (Picture 12).

Toothed cylinder

Picture 12

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Some machine manufacturers have adopted two upper cylinders for feeding the fabric, with a lower rubber cylinder with a rough surface (Picture 13).
Driving rollers Plate

Jaws

Trough

Picture 13 Split-flow milling and washing step: on some machines it is possible to carry out one or two treatments on fabrics of different weight. The shrinkage of each fabric cloth and the machine settings can be selectively and individually controlled. In these machines, the fabric is exposed to powerful air jets while falling down from the milling box; this changes continuously the rope position.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Fabric guide Fabric driving roller Jaws Rollers of steel and seasoned oak

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Plate Air jet Vat drain Trough drain Front glass door Rear door Fabric delivery roller

Picture 14 On these machines too, the expertise of machine manufacturers and the application of the latest electronics have allowed the introduction of some devices that increase the output capacity and permit more accurate controls, ensuring excellent repeatability. 19

Some of these new devices are for example fabric-skid control devices; independent split-duct milling machines that allow to process different fabrics in different conditions with consequently different results; non-stop seam position detector for each separated duct, with individual stop of each single rope; front positioning of the seams of all ropes when the machine stops.

Silk Weighting
The weighting process is carried out to increase the silk weight, providing fuller hand, more luster and bulk, and making the fibre suitable for the manufacturing of fabrics to be used, for example, for ties. The weight increase is expressed as percentage weighting above or below the parity. Parity weighting means that the fibre regains the original weight it had before the degumming process: Percentage weighting = (weight after weighting raw weight) x 100/ raw weight. There are many types of weighting; till some years ago, a few mills still carried out mineral weighting, but now this process has been abandoned definitively. Today, the most frequently applied type of weighting is synthetic weighting (or chemical linking). Synthetic weighting Chemical principle for weighting with methacrylamide: The monomer used for synthetic weighting is often derived from acrylic or methacrylic acid. The silk weighting with acrylonitrile and methymethacrylate has been studied and described thoroughly; in this process, starters are formed by a redox system based on iron salts (Fe++) and hydrogen peroxide, persulphates and other substances. The diagram shows the starting of synthetic weighting reaction by the formation of radicals
reaction carried out with N2

in presence of O2 or oxidising agent (14) silk amino acid methacrylamide weighted silk

polymethacrylamide homopolymer

The weighting reaction can occur on the alpha carbon atom of the amino acids which make up fibroin (1), or on lateral chains, such as for example the methyl group of alanine. 20

In the meantime, we can have a competing weighting reaction with the methacrylamide homopolymerisation, as shown in diagram (2). Once formed, these homopolymers cause a significant hardening of silk and, even if not covalently bonded to the fibre, they cannot be eliminated with further and repeated washing. Basically the real weighting process is carried out by means of a MAA (metha acryl amide) based resin. Good swelling and a high-luster finish of the fibre can be obtained with this method but the quality of the hand achieved is poorer than the one obtained with mineral weighting and the affinity for dyes is of inferior quality, even if hand is usually harder, thanks to good fibre swelling. To achieve parity weighting it is necessary to use 50% of MAA calculated on the total fabric weight, 3.5% of ammonium persulphate (catalyst) calculated on the resin weight, 2 ml/l of formic acid and 0,2 g/l of nonionic surfactants. Starting from 40C, the temperature must be brought to 80C in 20 minutes, and kept at this level for 60 minutes. The temperature is then decreased to 60 and the liquor is drained; after a 10-minute washing with 2 g/l of soap at 80 C, the silk is finally rinsed. Now, more and more frequently milling facilities tend to carry out weighting operations with different unsaturated monomers featuring different performance and used in limited quantities; these unsaturated monomers work according to the same weighting principle, but give silk unique effects and distinctive characteristics of dimensional stability and crease-proof properties. We indicate below some examples of monomers and catalysts used: Vinyl monomers used for copolymer weighting of silk fibres
Vinyl monomer -Methyl methacrylate (MMA) Formula CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CO 2 CH 3 Starter 1-KPS, APS 2-TBB 3-Syst. metal redox 4-Syst. non-metal redox 5-Syst. complex transf. 6-Irradiation 1-KPS, APS 1-KPS 1-APS 1-NaPS 1-APS 1-APS 3-Syst. metal redox 3-Syst. metal redox 6-Irradiation 6-Irradiation 1-KPS

-Methacrylamide (MMA) -Styrene (St)-2-Hydroxy ethyl -methacrylate (HEMA) -Methacrylonitrile (MAN) -N(n-Butoxymethyl)- Methacrylamide (nBMAA) -Ethoxyethyl-Methacrylate (ETMA) -Acrylamide (AA) -N,N'-Methylenbis acrylamide (N,N'-MBA) -Ethyl Methacrylate (EMA) -Buthyl Methacrylate (BMA)

CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CONH 2 6-Irradiation CH 2 =CH-C 6 H 5 CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CO 2 CH 2 CH 2 OH CH 2 =C(CH 2 )CN CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CONH(CH 2 OC 4 H 9 ) CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CO 2 CH 2 CH 2 OC 2 H 5 CH 2 =CHCONH 2 (CH 2 =CHCONH) 2 CH 2 CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CO 2 C 2 H 5 CH 2 =C(CH 3 )CO 2 C 4 H 9

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1) KPS = potassium persulphate; APS = ammonium persulphate; NaPS sodium persulphate. 2) TBB = tri-n-butylborane. 3) Vanadium (V); Cerium (4); Crhomium (VI); Thallium (III); Manganese (III)-oxalic acid; Complexes of manganese acetyl acetonate (III), Vo (II), Co (III). 4) Hydrogen peroxide-sodium thiosulphate; Peroxidiphosphate-thiourea; potassium peroxidiphosphate; Bromate-thiourea; Potassium peroxidiphosphate-fructose; Permanganate-oxalic acid. 5) Lutidine-bromine; Isoquinoline-sulphur dioxide. 6) X Rays.

Heat Setting
This operation is crucial for fabrics made of synthetic fibres (PE, PA, elastomers), for triacetate, and partly for PAC fibres (setting), since it grants excellent dimensional stabilisation and creaseproof properties, maintained till the fabric is exposed (by air blowing) to temperatures exceeding the heat setting one (after being treated with water at a temperature above the second order glass transition temperature, i.e. 80-85C for acrylics). Heat setting is carried out on gray fabrics (scarcely applied), on scoured fabrics (frequently applied) and on dyed fabrics (scarcely applied). The process grants excellent dimensional stability and good crease-proof properties. As far as operating conditions are concerned, the fabric must be treated in accurately controlled moisture and temperature conditions. Fibre Polyester (PE) Polyamide PA 6.6 Polyamide PA 6 Triacetate Acrylic (PAC) Elastomers Min T. C 170 170 160 160 160 170 Max. T. C 210 210 180 180 180-200 180-200 Time (in seconds) 15-50 15-40 15-40 15-40 15-40 15-40

Machines used: stenters. Fluctuating temperatures inside the stenter cause a consistent variation of crystallinity in the fibre structure, which leads to different affinity for dyes. The moisture in the fibre produces soft hand, but variable moisture percentages in the different fabric sections create the above mentioned defect (variable crystallinity). Too low temperatures do not allow a good setting while too high temperatures and too long setting times cause yellowing (PA and elastic fibres), stiff hand (acrylics), and loss of elasticity (elastic fibres). The presence of combustion gas (NOx) produces a yellowing of the elastomers. The heat setting process carried out before scouring could fix the stains on the fabric or make the scouring process more difficult due to the modification of the lubricating products (cracking with emission of polluting gas). Heat setting after dyeing could lead to the sublimation of disperse dyes (if not accurately selected).

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Decortication (only for polyester)

This treatment is aimed at providing a silky-smooth hand to polyester fabrics (till a few years ago this process was also used to obtain microfilaments by increasing the fibre fineness), a lustrous effect and an enhanced drapability. The best results can be obtained with fabrics produced with coarser yarns. The open-width decortication process can be carried out on jiggers or beam dyeing machines; rope decortication is performed on jet or overflow systems (batch systems). Decortication is carried out after scouring and heat setting; it is better to carry out a heat setting treatment also after the decortication process. Operating conditions applied: the process is carried out at a temperature varying from 90-95C to 120-130 C for 20-35 minutes, with 30-50 g/l of NaOH 36B. Once the process has been completed, the fabric is washed and neutralised. Processes and machines used: open-width process on jiggers or beam dyeing machines (batch systems) or special tensionless open-width continuous machines.

Elastic Fabrics
For elastic fibres, treatments depend on the chemical composition, which can be extremely variable. As far as the fabrics containing segmented polyurethane fibres are concerned, the suggested treatments to be carried out are the following: - relaxation - heat setting - scouring - bleaching/dyeing/printing - finishing Relaxation: before carrying out any further treatment, it is recommended to relax woven or knitted goods to obtain a uniform shrinkage and avoid stitch distortion or fabric deformation, creases or wrinkles. The fabric relaxation is a crucial step to allow good shrinkage and give excellent elasticity since the fabric width on looms is always bigger than the finished one (tensioned yarns on the loom). Many techniques are used but here are some of the most frequently used ones: table steaming, steaming carried out at the entry of the stenter, scouring carried out with hot solvents, relaxation in hot water with tensionless scouring; these techniques give poorer stabilisation results and do not provide permanent crease resistance to textiles and fabrics. Heat setting: this process is crucial to give the fabric an optimum dimensional stability. It is recommended to carry out a heat setting treatment before any further wet treatment in order to avoid the formation of possible creases and folds. An optimum heat setting requires a temperature ranging between 180-200C, which must be maintained constant for at least 45 minutes. An optimum heat setting also requires the use of an indirect-air heating stenter, allowing more uniform temperatures and no-gas conditions, which could lead to fibre yellowing. The fabric is weighed at the entry of the stenter and then subjected to steaming. Since the fabric shrinks during the heat setting treatment, the fabric width on the stenter must exceed the desired width by 5-10%. An excessive heat setting could decolorise the fabric while an insufficient heat setting will result in poor fabric stability.

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Scouring: it is necessary to carefully consider the characteristics of the fibre combined with the polyurethane elastomer. Bleaching: this treatment is carried out using sodium hydrosulphite; a suitable optical bleaching agent can also be added.

Washing
Rinsing and washing are the operations carried out most frequently during a complete textile finishing cycle. They are almost always connected to key treatments and aimed at removing from the fabric insoluble matters, matters already in solution or an emulsion of other impurities. During the fabric preparation process, for example, washing is carried out after desizing, boiling and other bleaching and mercerising processes; in dyeing, the washing stage is necessary to complete the dyeing process itself or to eliminate the dyestuff which has not been fixed; during the printing stage, washing performs a finishing action. When using vat dyes or disperse dyes, the washing process aims at removing insoluble pigment substances from the fibre surface by means of wetting or dissolving agents. This could therefore be considered a crucial treatment in the whole textile process, because of the frequent use and strong economic impact. Manufacturers increasingly focus their attention on reducing water consumption, which leads to subsequent energy and hot water saving as well as a reduction in wastewater. Together with traditional washing systems with vats equipped with "vertical cylinders" the market offers horizontal washing units, which reduce the liquor ratio and the energy and water consumption for each kilogram of washed material. Washing includes a chemical-physical process, which removes the dirt from the substrate, and a series of physical operations aiming at improving the "feedback action". The sequence of the various washing steps is the following: a. formation of the detergent liquor (transfer of matter + energy by mixing); b. reaching of the process temperature and wetting (transfer of the liquor to the material); c. separation of impurities and emulsification (transfer of matter from one step to the other); d. removal of the liquor from the fibre (transfer of macroscopic matter); e. drying (interstage transfer of heat and matter). Often these steps occur simultaneously. The use of surfactants (detergents) during the washing stage is extremely important to speed up the wetting of the textile material, to facilitate the removal of dirt from the substrate, thus keeping the emulsion inside the liquor and preventing the particles laying down again on the fibre. Crucial factors are water (which must be quite soft to avoid precipitation of Ca and Mg salts which could give a rough and coarse hand to the textile) and chemical products to be used (emulsifying agents, softening agents and surfactants). Contaminants to be eliminated Obviously the use of detergents, as well as operating conditions, depends on the nature of the chemical substances to be eliminated, which need to be generally classified. A general classification is shown here below:

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l) spinning oils. We must distinguish between fabrics made with yarns spun from combed or carded fibres, which are extremely different in terms of quantity (5 and 1 % respectively) and the nature of the substances added: as far as nature is concerned, the substances most frequently used are in both cases synthetic or mineral oils. These oils are usually made selfemulsifiable by means of suitable additives (materials must always be accurately evaluated since a wide range or products and prices are now available on the market); olein can be used for woollens (oleic acid) while for worsteds a good alternative can be represented by vegetal oils; 2) Sizes. For treating wool (opposite to cotton, where it is possible to use finish, which requires a special treatment), the stuffs now used (carboxymethyil cellulose or polyvinyl alcohol) can be easily eliminated and do not give particular problems; 3) oily stains. It is very difficult to eliminate these types of stain due to their characteristics and to their deep degree of penetration in the fabric; oily stains usually require a pretreatment with solvents sprayed directly on the stain (by means of a special "spray gun"). They can also be removed using special expensive detergents containing solvents, or by means of dry washing; 4) solid residues of various nature (dust, non-fixed dyestuffs, etc.), usually fixed on the fabric by means of fatty substances. To eliminate these residues, general cleansing rules must be observed and applied and special attention must be given to the mechanical action of friction. It is worth specifying that the above mentioned discussion is not at all exhaustive; in particular, it is not a text relating to the treatment and elimination of severe stains (colors, metals, microbiological attacks, etc.), which cannot be treated with standard cleansing processes. Readers are recommended to consult the specific literature available on this subject. Washing machines The scheme below shows all the categories of machines now in use; washing-milling machines are not included (combined washing and milling machines):
Traditional washing Conventional washing Fast washing Nozzle washing Conveyor belt Rope washing Delicate washing Drum Combined with air Washing-milling Washing Traditional Batch-type washing Beating hammer washing Conveyor Hydroplus Open-width washing Series washing Continuous washing Continuous system Vibrocompact Solvent

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Washing can be performed on fabrics either in open-width or in rope form. Rope washing is more effective than open-width washing thanks to a stronger mechanic action, which favors the cleansing, and the relaxation of the fabric structure; for delicate fabrics an open-width washing must be preferred to avoid marks and creases. Open-width washing is also the best choice for processing huge lots. Rope washing Substantially, batch piece washing machines are made up of a couple of squeezing cylinders, which make the fabric swell (the fabric is previously sewn on top and bottom and takes the shape of a continuous ring); these cylinders are assembled inside a vessel, whose lower part contains the detergent liquor. It is possible to wash a fabric inside this vessel, by feeding it into restricted area without laying it stretched out. The efficiency of this operation is enhanced by the mechanic action, which facilitates both detergency and tension relaxation. This operation is highly cost-efficient because open-width washing allows only one working position and therefore only limited loads can be processed (max. 180 kg) while a rope washing machine can include from one to eight ropes, with an overall weight exceeding 600 kg. Furthermore rope washing machines grant reduced operating times thanks to a more effective mechanic action. Picture 15 - Rope washing machine Open-width washing An open-width washing machine is usually a system featuring a vertical path washing with driven cycle of multiple action baths, with a resulting 30/40% water and steam saving. This operating unit is manufactured in several versions (10-15-30 meters) and can be used for every kind of preparation and finishing treatment. Four different washing actions alternate inside this machine: 1) washing on rising paths; 2) washing on sloping-down paths, carried out by means of spray nozzles, which atomise on both face and back of fabrics, performing a strong penetration action; 3) "vibraplus" effect washing, which removes from the fabric the threadlike elements (fibrils) that do not dissolve in water; 4) extraction washing by means of vessel intermediate squeezing. The longitudinal tension of the fabric remains perfectly unchanged on the whole path; it can be adjusted between 5 and 20 kg by means of upper cylinders equipped with self-adjusting control system which generates a sliding motion crease-and-fold proof also on extremely delicate fabrics. Plush fibrils are removed from the vessel with no need for brushes or liquor dilutions. Another type of machine divides the washing process into single steps, which are systematically repeated. In this way the whole process can be not only constantly monitored but also accurately calculated. Picture 16 - Open-width washing machine

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Inside every separated washing unit, an exchange takes place between the washing liquor and the chemicals-mixed-with-impurities on the fabric in a percentage ranging between 50 and 80%. The washing liquor absorbs both impurities and chemicals. Thanks to a squeezing step carried out by means of squeezing drums assembled at the exit of each unit, the dirty liquor does not leave the unit with the fabric. In the next unit the liquor exchange process repeats once more, but the washing liquor contains always-lower quantities of dirty particles. The repeatability of the process together with the addition of fresh water, are basic elements to estimate in advance the efficiency of the washing process. High-performance washing units, equipped with double-rope system and upper supporting cylinders made of rubber, recommended above all for medium and heavy Picture 17 - Open-width fabrics, allow the maximum washing efficiency. washing unit Upper cylinders, individually driven and equipped with supporting squeezing cylinders, grant an accurate system control. In each washing unit the fabric is soaked twice in the liquor, which washes the fabric by passing through it, and squeezed by the cylinders. The powerful liquor exchange in the fabric is also enhanced by the synergic crosswise flow of the bath. Continuous washing systems From an output point of view, the continuous treatment of fabrics for open-width washing allows operating speeds of at least 25 m/minutes: these speeds are extraordinarily higher than the one obtained with batch open-width or batch rope washing. The output is also strictly related to the overall dimension of the system (quantity of washing and rinsing units) and can be substantially increased. From a technical point of view, the main problems to be solved in a continuous-system plant, are detergency and relaxation of internal tensions, essentially related to washing processes, above all when carried out with open-width systems. We sketch here below the example of an up-to-date plant, including: 1. a prewashing unit, where the fabric is sprayed with a detergent solution atomized by 7 nozzles: the treatment takes place outside the bath. The solution is collected into the cavity created by the slanting path of the fabric and is forcedly driven through it (Idropress system); the alternating direction of the solution passage allows the treatment on both sides and the particular design of the driving rollers (the roller inside part is driven by a motor and the outside by the fabric) allows a minimum tension on the fabric;

Picture 18 - Continuous washing range 27

2. a soapingwashing unit (working when the fabric is not immersed in the bath), whose capacity (25 and 50 meters respectively) determines the output speed of the plant, since the time needed for the operation cannot be changed (1 min); 3. two or three rinsing units, by means of Idropress system. An extremely innovative machine features a basic element made up by 8 vibrating fabric guides, which push the water under pressure against both fabric sides, beating them alternatively against the fabric guides; since the flow follows the fabric motion, the effect of the driving tension is also contrasted; this is crucial to allow fabric relaxation in the direction of the warp (obviously, also in all the other machine versions, manufacturers pay the maximum attention to keep tension as low as possible).

Picture 19 - Idropress system

Picture 20 - Continuous washing: detail of the vibrating system Some machines feature special water blade devices (replacing spray nozzles) which convey a huge quantity of water, homogeneously and at high speed, on the whole width of the fabric, thus performing a really efficient wash. The system includes a pipe with a special nozzle releasing water jets similar to blades; these water blades perform a powerful action on the fabric and remove filaments, thickening agents, non-fixed dyestuff, etc. Many of these machines have modular structures, and therefore can be adapted to specific operating requirements.

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Picture 21 - Water-blade washing system Among all the possible solutions, manufacturers offer also counterflow washing systems where the fabric flows from the dirtiest section of the washing bath to the cleanest. Through a series of recycling processes it is possible to use the washing liquor many times.

Drying
The frequency of processes, requiring impregnation of the textile substrate (washing, impregnation in dyeing or finishing liquor, desizing and so on), consequently leads to the need of subsequent drying processes, with a high impact on processing costs. Depending on their nature and structure, textile fibres absorb greater or lower quantities of water; the water absorbed by the textile material is partly retained between the fibres and in the pores of the fabric and partly more deeply in the fabric by the swollen fibres. The water between the fibres or on the fabric surface can be eliminated mechanically while the water in the swollen fibres can be eliminated with a drying processes. General remarks on drying techniques The drying process aims at eliminating exceeding water and achieving the natural moisture content of the fibre. Excessive drying can negatively affect the final appearance and the hand of the textile. It is possible to adjust automatically the drying process by means of modern electric gauges. When choosing a drying technique, the cost efficiency of the drying system must be carefully evaluated: the cost-efficiency of a drying process includes many factors such as the quantity of steam, water and energy required to evaporate one kilogram of water as well as the evaporation capacity of a machine, expressed in kilograms of water evaporated in one operating hour.

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Adjustment of the moisture content in the drying process The drying speed is determined by the difference between the tension of water steam on the textile surface and the tension of the water steam in the drying unit: it increases proportionally to the decrease of the moisture content in the air of the unit. In order to keep this content on low levels it is necessary to blow in the drying units huge quantities of heated air at the same temperature of the drying unit, which leads to huge energy consumption. When setting the desired moisture degree of the air in the drying unit, it is worth considering that the best degree results from a correct proportion between efficient output speed and costeffective energy consumption. Adjustment of the drying speed The optimum time a fabric spends within a drying unit must correspond exactly to the time necessary to eliminate the moisture on the surface and between the free spaces of the fibres; the stay time must not exceed the optimum drying time (this would cause an extra drying) since the "natural" moisture of the textile must not be eliminated. The feeding speed of the fabric is adjusted by means of the special devices assembled at the exit of the drying unit, which vary proportionally to the moisture of the fabric leaving the unit. Heating of the drying unit The drying units are usually heated by means of steam with an average thermal efficiency of about 64%. Better thermal efficiency is granted by dryers heated with thermal fluid (about 80%). Highly efficient heating is obtained by means of direct gas combustion, with an efficiency of almost 95%. The operating temperature can be reached in very short times and heating can be stopped simultaneously with the machine. Hydroextraction This process removes the water (the water quantity varies according to the type of fibre) dispersed in the fibres by mechanical action; this process aims at reducing energy consumption and is carried out before the final fabric drying or between the various wet processing stages (washing, dyeing). It can be carried out in the following ways: - squeezing: the water dispersed on the surface and in the spaces of the fabric is removed by means of the pressure applied by two cylinders. - centrifugation: this process eliminates the greatest quantity of water dispersed on the surface of the textile by centrifugal force. It is applied above all to resistant yarns, knitted goods and fabrics. - steam pressure: a high-speed steam jet blown on the whole width of the stretched fabric passes through the cloth and eliminates the water in excess. Extracted water and steam are condensed and reused.

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- vacuum: this method applies vacuum technology and is used to dry very wet fabrics or delicate fabrics that do not stand up to the pressure of the cylinders of a squeezing unit, which could negatively affect the surface structure. The stretched fabric slides open-width above the opening of a cylinder-shaped structure connected to a suction system. The air drawn from outside removes the exceeding water when passing through the textile cloth.

TO THE COLLECTION TROUGH

1 = wet folded material 2 = spreader 3 = vacuum slot 4 = pre-dried fabric roller

Picture 22 - Vacuum drying machine Drying systems The water dispersed in a textile material by chemical-physical process is generally eliminated by the action of hot air, which makes the water evaporate; during the drying process, it is very important to carefully consider the way heat is directed on the fabric. The drying process can be carried out: - by heat convection - by contact with heated metal surfaces - by infrared radiation - by means of microwaves or high-frequency waves - by combustion Yarns and textile materials in bulk are generally dried inside hot air compartments. For the drying of piece fabrics, manufacturers have designed different drying units, which apply different principles, briefly described here below. Drying by heat convection The heat diffusion onto the wet fabric is carried out by means of hot air circulating inside the drying unit. There are two different types of dryers applying this operating principle: compartment dryers and tunnel dryers. 1 Compartment dryers Suspended fabric dryer: it is made up of hot air compartments where the folded fabric with a maximum width of 3 meters is suspended on a series of rotating cylinders leading the fabric toward the exit. The circulating air is blown slowly downward. This system is suitable for light and medium-weight fabrics that can withstand the stress of mechanical feeding.

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Short-loop dryer: this system eliminates almost completely the tension applied by the fabric weight; it also avoids the risk of possible downward migration of dyestuff or finish. Hot-flue dryer: the vertically folded fabric is guided through a hot air compartment. The feeding motion is determined by means of different sets of rollers, while special cylinders separate the fabric folds. The drying temperature ranges between 80 and 100 C. This drying system is suitable for printed fabrics, above all for light and medium-weight fabrics, as well as the intermediate drying after printing, after impregnation in general, and after the application of background dyes and other similar operations.

Picture 23 - A hot-flue 1 Fabric; 2 Heatersblowing units; 3 Hot air blow; 4 Exhausted air blow The use of belt or perforated-drum dryers is often extremely effective to cut costs and increase output rates in continuous drying processes on fabrics and yarns in various forms. Thanks to suction effect of the hot air drawn into the cylinder through the holes, the fabric perfectly adheres to the external side of the rotating cylinders, moving forward inside the drying unit where it is dried gradually. 2 Tunnel dryers Supporting nozzles dryers: the fabric is suspended on an air cushion generated by blowing nozzles arranged in proper layout. Stenter: it is made up of modular elements (arranged lengthwise and heated by means of forced hot air circulation) where the fabric passes horizontally, supported by a belt, by supporting nozzles or by air cushion. When the hot air comes into contact with the fabric, it cools down and removes the evaporated moisture. The air is partly drained and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh air. The remaining air is recycled, added to with fresh air and passed again through the heating element.

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Picture 24 Air flows inside a stenter featuring a hot air convection drying system This machine is extensively used in the fabric drying sector, but is also used for the heat setting and polymerisation of finishing or bonding agents in pigment printing processes; it includes an entry area for the fabric provided with a pad-batch, where finishes and finishing products are applied or where the fabric is simply squeezed. The use of a drum coated with porous material, which dehydrates the fabric before the drying step, proves particularly efficient. The unit is equipped with a stretching system to keep the fabric stretched and also with a special device that controls the perpendicularity of the weft to the warp. All the drying systems are assembled in the second section; they include a feeding system equipped with a fabric guiding system and the drying unit. The endless chains, with clips or pins for fastening the fabric, are positioned all along the front part, the drying compartment and the exit section; they guide the fabric by the selvedge. At the exit the fabric is released automatically from the fastening devices and wound up.

1- fabric 2- weft straightener 3- spreader 4- pad-batch

5- exhaust pipe 6- grids C1, C2.-sections B- Heater/blowing system

Spreading section

Fabric path

Belts

Picture 25 - A stenter

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Picture 26 - Multi-level stenter with fabric entry and exit on the same side

Picture 27 - Multi-level stenter used for coating processes and incorporated on an existing operating line

Picture 28 - Longitudinal section of a multi-level stenter with internal exhaust channels In the latest generation of stenters, manufacturers have tried to improve the quality of the fabrics with more rational fabric feeding systems and innovative solutions for heat treatment and reproducibility of the various processing stages. Together with an increased output in continuous operating conditions, manufacturers also aim at improving the machine utilization, reducing maintenance to a minimum and cutting energy consumption.

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Multi-level stenter Thanks to an excellent ratio between capacity and overall size, the multi-level stenter is also particularly cost effective for treatments requiring a certain standby time, such as for example the heat setting of synthetic fibres, chemical treatment setting and carbonising. The diagram shows a comparative evaluation of production costs with a flat stenter and with a multi-layer stenter: drying kges vary according to gw fabric weight.

kges (fabric pfennig/m)

flat stenter multi-level stenter

Gw(gm )

Advantages of the multi-level stenter: - Compact structure: thanks to the multi-level design, the overall space required for the installation of the stenter is smaller than the one required for a standard flat stenter with the same output rates. - High-performance drying process: for heavy textiles the efficiency of the machine does not depend on the evaporation on the surface but on the time required for the drying process. Powerful ventilation, generally applied to flat stenters, could cause an excessive drying of the textile surface and damage the material, while fibres inside the fabric could remain wet. The internal moisture migrates very slowly to the surface. - Delicate drying: in a multi-level stenter, the drying process does not affect the material negatively and eliminates the moisture in the best possible way. In fact, we know that a delicate treatment, e.g in a drying or heat setting process, can be ensured only with a slow ventilation of the material. Furthermore a longer treatment time, even at lower temperatures, gives a better appearance to the finished material, compared to tougher treatment conditions. The result is a bulky fabric with a softer hand, which gives the sensation of more weight. - Lower operating costs: thanks to reduced number of operators, smaller space required, slight reduction of the yield for heavy textiles and reduced consumption of energy with the same output rate of a flat stenter. Limits of multi-level stenters: - only a few multi-level stenter models can be equipped with pin chains. - in the path between one level and the next one, the fabric must be sustained to avoid the formation of wrinkles and therefore deformation. Telescopic drums are used to convey the piece of cloth by moving forward the whole fabric width thus sustaining it from one selvedge to the opposite one; unfortunately with delicate textiles, such as raised velvets and very lustrous viscose fabrics, this system causes evident and unpleasant stripes and marks on the surface.

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Picture 29 - Flat stenter Contact drying Drum dryer: with this system, the fabric moves forward arranged on several heated drums. The drying temperature ranges between 120-130 C and the cylinders are heated by means of steam at a pressure of 1-3 atm. This very efficient and low-cost drying system is particularly suitable for flat fabrics, with slightly evidenced structure, which cannot be easily affected by tension during feeding. Used for intermediate drying and for light finishes; this system is not suitable for durable thermosetting resin finishes.

Picture 30 - Drawing of a drum dryer Infrared radiation drying Infrared radiation (near and medium infrared field) can be absorbed by the fabric and transformed into heat by energy "degradation". In fact their absorption intensity is proportional to the vibration levels "excited" by the bonds of the atomic groups from which the passage to the basic level takes place by means of energy release. Therefore only radiation with a wavelength corresponding to the absorption levels of the textile material is absorbed by the textile material and therefore transformed into heat. The capacity of a large amount of radiation to penetrate deeply corresponds to its capacity to develop heat inside the material.

36

This can be highlighted for example with cellulosic fibres, whose absorption spectrum in the near infrared field being such as to: a) radiation with wavelength = 2.5 m is only partially absorbed; it releases a small quantity of heat and passes through a very thick textile. b) radiation with wavelength = 3 m is highly absorbed by the fabric and therefore it does not penetrate the surface, to which it releases all its energy in the form of heat. c) radiation with wavelength = 3,4 m corresponds to a medium absorption; it partially penetrates the material and creates a heat source inside. Also water absorbs infrared radiation (its maximum absorption is equal to 3 5 m). If we consider that this is the absorption wavelength for almost all the textile materials (cellulosic, polyamide and protein fibres) as well as water, the same area can be considered the most important section of the infrared field for the drying process. In fact these degrees of radiation feature, in almost all the textile materials, an excellent absorption coefficient on the surface and therefore a quick heating potential, which leads to an excellent thermal efficiency. This section represents only a small part (from 3 to 7%) of the infrared radiation emitted by a standard source. 3 m radiation is also absorbed by water vapour, while that with a lower passes through the water vapour with insignificant absorption levels. The infrared radiation sources, generally used, are characterised by a different emission spectrum and can be divided into three main categories: a) short infrared radiation lamps; b) incandescent emitters (for medium infrared radiation) c) no-light infrared emitters (for long radiation). The presence of bonding agents, dyes and finishing products on the fabric does not modify the absorption spectrum and therefore has slight impact in most cases.

Microwave drying The application of microwaves and high frequencies in fabric drying The heat transfer in the fabric, from the surface toward the inner part, takes place with a certain difficulty due to the poor thermal conductivity of the fabric with subsequent problems to obtain a temperature uniformity in the whole heated mass, in relatively short times. By means of radio frequency waves, heat develops inside the material in a quantity that is proportional to the water dispersed in it. In fact, water molecules subject to an electric field are polarised in the direction of the electric field: in an alternated electric field, each field displacement corresponds to an inversion of the polarisation direction. Water molecules in an alternated electric field are forced to displace by oscillating with the same frequency of the field, thus dissipating energy by effect of molecular friction.

37

Picture 31 - Action of the electromagnetic field P = K . E2 . f . s Dipole molecule Electromagnetic field vector The energy produced by oscillation heats the material (with no need to heat by contact or convection) and the heat quantity developed is determined by the frequency and the intensity of the electric field as well as by the oscillation power of polar molecules. This potential of nonconductive molecules is expressed by means of dielectric quantity, called loss or dissipation factor: P=K.E2.f. where K = numerical constant E = intensity of the electromagnetic field f = frequency of the electromagnetic field = material loss factor Only polar or polarisable materials with specific translational and/or rotational freedom can be heated, while textile polymers with stiffly linked long chains do not have a suitable structure to vibrate and therefore to absorb energy. For this reason the water dispersed in a textile material, thanks to its polarity and to its mobility, has a loss factor about 100 times higher that the dry fibres one. Therefore a wet material can absorb a quantity of energy proportional to the water dispersed in it: the more the moisture decreases, the more the dissipated energy reduces. Furthermore, if the moisture is dispersed irregularly in the fabric, a greater quantity of heat will develop in the areas with higher water content, with a consequent higher evaporation. This leads to a fast and homogeneous thermal action, which stops the drying once the desired moisture content has been reached by simply controlling the dissipated power. The unit includes a feeding belt running in an area with a strong magnetic field with a quick transition from one polarity to the other, resulting in a quicker system compared to standard warm-air dryers with a smooth final drying and accurate residual moisture values. The design of special electrodes allows the transfer of radio frequency energy simultaneously with the delivery of warm air. Considering that the penetration depth of electromagnetic waves is inversely proportional to their frequency and in order to avoid signals interfering in telecommunications, the international frequency bands assigned to these drying systems are the following: Radio frequency: 13.56 and 27.12 MHz. Microwaves: 915 and 2,450 MHz. Usually high frequency is applied to very thick fabrics (hanks, packages, bales) or to produce fast binding of latex layers, while microwaves are used for high-speed thermal treatments of yarns and fabrics. A drying unit includes the following elements: a) generator; b) electrodes; c) drying compartment;

38

High frequency drying 1 Source of electric current 2 Condenser plate 3 Fabric

Picture 32 - Picture and operating scheme of a radio frequency drying unit 1 fabric 2 feeding belt 3 - electrodes 4 - generator 5 steam exhaust Combustion drying (Remaflan process) Fabrics are dried by exploiting the combustion heat of an organic solvent spread over the fabric. The application of the finishing products is carried out by means of padders, which apply a solution of finishing products in a hydroalcoholic mixture, 36% of which is made of methyl alcohol. The fabric enters vertically in the drying unit, on the vertical axis of the pad-batch, where a short path through infrared heaters give rise to the evaporation of the methyl alcohol and to the ignition of the vapours (the ignition temperature ranges between 31 and 37C, according to alcohol concentration; the ignition temperature of anhydrous methyl alcohol is 11C). Since the size of the drying tunnel is very small, the temperature in the combustion area reaches 600-750C; if we consider that a liquid evaporates by heat absorption, the treated fabric, when releasing its moisture, maintains a temperature ranging between 45 and 70C, which allows delicate and fast drying.

Picture 33 Combustion drying

The fabric feeding speed, depending on its characteristics, is adjusted by means of automatic devices according to the residue moisture desired (in medium-weight fabrics the speed is of about 40m/min). Since the evaporation of methyl alcohol requires less energy than the evaporation of water and since only CO 2 and water originate from its combustion, Remaflan process proves to be not only a cost-efficient but also a pollution preventing drying method.

39

DYEING
The dyeing process is aimed at giving woven or knitted fabric its intended colour, crucial to its ultimate use. The dyeing process can be carried out at different stages of fibre processing, i.e. in different forms: staple, yarn, fabric (rope or open-width), and piece. When the dyeing process is carried out during the first processing stages, for example on staple fibres, a better colour fastness can be achieved; bulk dyeing refers to the system used to dye a staple fibre before it is spun, this process is carried out in perforated baskets and although there may be areas where the dye does not penetrate completely, in subsequent spinning operations these areas are mixed with the thoroughly dyed fibre, thus ensuring an overall even colour. Yarn dyeing is carried out after the fibre has been spun into yarn. Yarn dyeing is preferred for manufacturing Jacquard or striped fabrics; this dyeing method grants a good colour fastness since the dye penetrates the fibres and reaches the yarn core. Skeins are dyed in hanks, spools are dyed in autoclaves and warp yarns are dyed in perforated beams loaded in autoclaves. Piece dyeing is carried out on several types of machines and the material can be open-width or rope dyed. A good dyeing strictly depends on different parameters and conditions that can be evaluated immediately (such as good consistency of the dye and repeatability) or which require specific fastness evaluation (manufacturing, use, dry or wet processing) that can be controlled only by means of subsequent laboratory tests. The machines used are chosen according to the material to be processed. The crucial requisites are the following: - protection of the substrate - repetitiveness of the results - cheapness of the process (depending on process time, machine automation degree, liquor ratio, cost of the products used and wastewater purification). To carry out a dyeing process it is necessary to: - Dissolve or disperse the dye in a water bath (with manual, semiautomatic and automatic colour kitchens according to specific preset rules). - Feed the dye solution in the machine after suitable filtering (automatic colour kitchen, supplementary vats, pumps and filters). - Transfer the dye from the liquor to the fibre (process and machine). - Distribute the dye homogeneously on the fibre (process and machine). - Let the dye penetrate in the fibre structure and fix it (time and temperature). - Wash or rinse the material to remove the dye on the surface or the unfixed dyeing liquor. There are two different methods to transfer the dye from the liquor to the fibre: Exhaust dyeing (discontinuous systems). The dye is dissolved or dispersed in the dyeing liquor. The material is immersed in the dyeing liquor and is removed only when the dye has mostly transferred onto the textile to be dyed, distributed homogeneously, well penetrated into the fibre and fixed. At the end of the process the material is washed or rinsed to remove the unfixed dye Pad dyeing (continuous or semi-continuous systems). This process is carried out using mechanical means (pad-batch wetting). The dyeing liquor is distributed homogeneously onto the fabric (i.e. also the dye is distributed homogeneously). In a second stage the dye penetrates into the fabric and is then fixed. At the end of the process the material is washed. 40

Some operations must be carried out for both exhaust or pad dyeing: dissolve or disperse the dye in water and filter. achieve an homogeneous contact between the dyeing liquor and the fibre. make the dye penetrate into the fibre. fix the dye in the core of the fibre. final washing.

Exhaust Dyeing
This process can be used for staple fibre, yarns and fabrics. The dye dissolved in the liquor is first adsorbed, i.e. the material is dyed only on the surface (dyeing result depends on the liquor turbulence), then penetrates in the core of the fibre (the dye diffusion is affected by temperature and dyeing time), and finally migrates thus allowing good dyeing uniformity and consistency (the process is affected by operating temperature and time). During the process, kinetic and thermodynamic reactions interact. Dyeing Theory (exhaust dyeing) The dyeing process is a chemical reaction occurring between the dye and the fibre: V1 Dye(s) + Fibre Dye - Fibre V- 1 We can examine both the kinetics (process speed) and thermodynamic (balance) relationships. Kinetics and thermodynamics applied to dyeing The dyeing process is in reality a complex chemical reaction, which occurs between the disperse dye and the fibre immersed in the solution. This process is carried out at different process stages (Picture 34): crystallinisation dissolving dyeing adsorption precipitation migration

penetration

Picture 34 - Dyeing process steps

41

For a better understanding of the dyeing theory, it is fundamental to divide it into several stages (even if sometimes there is a time overlapping) and study each of them individually from various points of view: Kinetics (study of the reaction speed). Thermodynamics (study of reaction balance). Hydrokinetics (influence on kinetics of the liquor and/or material turbulence, depending on the dyeing machine used). This is an important aspect not only for exhaust dyeing. First stage (dissolving and dispersion of the dye) In this first stage, the dye, in solid form, is equilibrated according to the dye dissolved in molecular form or in micellar form (aggregates of many molecules with good solubility), or in form of dispersed micropowder (microcrystals of dye molecules poorly soluble) (Picture 35).
dissolving

solid dye hydration micelle or disperse dye temperature increase, agitation, auxiliaries, p.h., low molecular weight electrolytes, high molecular weight, ph dissolved dye

Picture 35 - Disperse dye solution As previously pointed out, dyes must be soluble or dispersible in water; it would be therefore suitable to make a distinction between soluble (a) and dispersed (b) dyes. a) Ionic dyes can be divided into two main categories: - anionic dyeing agents, made of sodium salts from phenols, carboxylic acids, sulphuric esters, metal groups, or, most frequently, from sulphonic acids; - cationic dyeing agents, generally made of salts where the anion is chloride, sulphate, acetate or others, and the cation is the dye containing one atom of O, S or, most frequently an atom of N, with positive charge. All these dyes create a balance between the dye dissolved in molecules and the dye in micellar form (aggregates of several molecules with ionic groups partially salified and therefore provided with smaller unit charge); in this case, the solubility will depend on the ratio between the dimensions of the organic hydrophobic part and the type and quantity of hydrophilic groups: dyes with large-size molecules (high molecular weight) are generally poorly soluble; the presence of a bigger quantity of ionic groups (sulphonic), or the simultaneous presence of hydrophilic groups (hydroxyl, amino, amide, etc.), increases the solubility with the same molecular weight. An increase of the temperature allows a quicker achievement of the balance and increases the solubility of the dyes (greater kinetic energy increases the disintegration of micelles). Also agitation favours a quick disintegration of micelles. The addition of sodium salts (chlorides or sulphates) in considerable quantities increases the aggregation in micelles of anionic dyeing agents, thus reducing the solubility. Also pH can affect solubility; it increases the solubility of anionic agents in a basic environment and the solubility of cationic agents in an acid environment (by the effect of acid or basic dissociation constants).

42

Hard waters can produce precipitation of anionic dyeing agents, by formation of the respective insoluble calcium salts. An increase in the concentration of the solution dye (intense shades dyeing, poor LIQUOR RATIO) favours the aggregation in micelles. The speed established for the balance between solid dye-micelles-dissolved dye (in standard dyeing conditions) is generally sufficient to produce no effect on the dyeing speed. Unsuitable conditions can cause precipitation and therefore different colour shading or reduce the exhaust of the dyes. b) Disperse dyes have an extremely reduced solubility (0.05-50 mg/l), which increases proportionally to the temperature. A balance between dissolved and dispersed molecules is anyway produced (dispersed molecules are covered with a coating made of dissolving agent molecules). Dyes with large-size molecules (high molecular weight) are less soluble in water; the presence of hydrophilic groups increases their solubility and dispersion capacity. Protective-colloid dissolving agents increase the stability of dispersions, which are generally more stable at pH 4-5. Excessive agitation (mechanical breaking of the coating of dissolving agents), temperature variations (breaking of the bounds between dissolving agent / dye or dissolving agent / water), long stay-times (2-4 hours) at high temperatures, presence of electrolytes, can facilitate the aggregation of the molecules dissolved or of the small crystals, not coated with the dissolving agent, in bigger crystals, with a subsequent increase of their size and their precipitation on the fibre and in the liquor. Second stage (adsorption) During this stage, by the effect of the dye-fibre affinity, the dye is adsorbed at the surface of the fibre, thus forming chemical bonds with it. Affinity, temperature, (sometimes pH and/or auxiliaries) affect the thermodynamic interactions (a) and therefore the balance of the reactions, thus determining the exhaustion degree of the dyeing liquor. The same factors influence also the rising speed of the dye and therefore its smooth dispersion. Obviously this can partly affect the dyeing speed, which, during this stage, is also affected by hydrokinetic factors connected with the machines used (b). a) The affinity between the dye and the fibre is the ability of both dye and fibre to form a permanent bond. The greater the affinity, the stronger and higher are the fibre-dye bonds and the smaller is the dye for the solvent (water). Generally it is also directly proportional to the molecular weight (molecular size) of the dye. Affinity is therefore a condition strictly related to the chemical composition of the dye and the fibre. As far as thermodynamics aspect is concerned, the same above mentioned criteria must be applied and in general an increase of the dyeing temperature causes a change of the balance towards the solution dye, with a reduction of the exhaust, and therefore a reduction of the dye-fibre affinity. In particular for disperse dyes, considering the Nernst distribution coefficient: K (T)= C(f)/C(b) C(f) is the maximum solubility (saturation value) of the dye dispersed in the fibres at T temperature. C(b) is the maximum solubility of the dye dispersed in the dyeing aqueous solution at T temperature. Both C(b) and C(f) increase as T increases; as the temperature increases, the solubility in water increases more rapidly than the solubility in the fibre. 43

Therefore, at higher temperatures the saturation value of the fibre increases (the fibre absorbs more dye and more intense colour shades can be obtained), but the dyeing balance changes towards the solution dye, thus reducing the exhaust degree of the liquor (Graph 1 - A and B lines). Since the dye that is adsorbed by the fibre is the one dissolved in molecules, the adsorption speed increases at higher temperatures. Dyes with large-size molecules (high molecular weight) are less soluble in water, produce a greater quantity of bonds with the fibre and therefore, by effect of the temperature increase, they exhaust liquors more deeply and more quickly than dyes with a lower molecular weight. Graph 1 Balance between the dye on the fibre and the dye in the liquor
[Dye] on fibre [Dye] on fibre

[Dye] in liquor g/l

[Dye] in liquor g/l

IONIC DYES Curve A = T1 B = T2 Balance conditions T1 < T2 T2 > T1 Line C = T1 D = T2

DISPERSE DYES Balance conditions T1 < T2 T2 > T1

For ionic dyes: - Amphoteric fibres (wool, silk, PA) below the isoelectric point have positive charge, with an increase of the affinity towards anionic dyeing agents; at pHs corresponding to the isoelectric point they have zero charge, while above the isoelectric point they have negative charge and therefore reject dyes; this allows an accurate control of the affinity and consequently of rising speeds and dye exhaust, by suitably adjusting the pH value. (Picture 36). For cationic dyeing agents the affinity changes in the opposite direction to the one described above. - Cellulosic fibres in zero charge environment take negative electrostatic charges, thus reducing the adsorption of anionic dyeing agents; by adding electrolytes to the solution, the adsorbed cations can neutralise negative charges on the fibres, thus facilitating the adsorption of the dyes (Picture 36).

44

fibre dye concentration

anionic dye

protein fibre ph < isoelectric point

dye charges

protein fibre ph = isoelectric point cellulosic fibre with electrolytes protein fibre ph > isoelectric point

fibre charges

cellulosic fibre no electrolytes

Picture 37 - Dye concentration in the liquor near the fibre - Dyes with large-size molecules (high molecular weights) are less soluble in water, form more bonds with the fibre and therefore tend to exhaust liquors more quickly. - With ionic dyes, opposite to the disperse ones, the saturation point of the fibre is reached gradually, and therefore the relationship between the dye concentration in the liquor and on the fibre is no longer linear. High temperatures reduce the dye-fibre affinity and also the exhaust (Graph 1 - C, D curves), but the adsorption speed will be higher (Graph 2) Graph 2

Tempo min. Min. time

CURVE A B C

T High Medium Low

Exhaust speed Too high Correct Too low

Exhaust % Poor Good Excellent

During this step the exchange between the material and the liquor, and therefore the hydrokinetic condition, are crucial factors (consequence of the motion of the liquor and the material to be dyed).

45

The most favourable conditions are created with machines where both the material and the liquor move and with a low material/liquor ratio (more cycles/min. of the liquor with the same pump flowrate). A quick adsorption of the dye on the surface of the fabric reduces the dye concentration near the fibre, thus reducing the adsorption speed. A correct speed of the liquor change in contact with the fibre allows the maximum concentration of the dyeing solution near the fibre, and consequently the correct speed. (Picture 37). At the same time, the liquor flow in contact with the material is spread homogeneously and allows a good distribution of the dye in all the areas of the textile surface; this enhances the dye consistency with the same operating times. The adsorption reaction is usually sufficiently quick not to affect the dyeing speed, and often it must be slowed down or adjusted (T, pH, auxiliaries) on optimum values to avoid an irregular distribution of the dye.

flow speed depending on the distance from the fibre dyeing liquor concentration depending on the distance from the fibre and on the flowrate

distance from the fibre

dye concentration

distance from the fibre

Picture 37 - Dye concentration in the liquor near the fibre depending on the hydrokinetic condition

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Third stage (Diffusion) During this stage the dye, adsorbed in molecular form by the surface, by breaking and restoring the bonds many times tends to penetrate into the bulk of the fibre through amorphous areas, to spread homogeneously and fix steadily. The slowest stage of the dyeing process is extremely important, since it sets the times for a good penetration, essential for optimum fastness, and consequently for good cost-efficiency and excellent quality. Fundamental factors are: - Crystallinity of the fibre: the dyes penetrate the fibres through amorphous areas and therefore the higher the crystallinity, the lower the diffusion speed. - Molecular size of the dye: the bigger the dimensions of the dye molecules, the more difficult the diffusion through amorphous areas. - Strength or dye-fibre bonds (affinity): the stronger the bond, the more difficult the diffusion. - Dyeing temperature: the temperature increase facilitates the breaking of dye-fibre bonds and releases the intramolecular bonds the fibre. This leads to a swelling of the fibre and makes the diffusion quicker but simultaneously reduces the affinity and therefore the exhaust (Picture 38).
dye molecule diffusion paths crystalline areas amorphous areas

Picture 38 Dye penetration and migration A higher concentration gradient accelerates the diffusion: the maximum dyeing speed can be obtained only by keeping the fibre surface saturated with dye (thus keeping the highest possible concentration gradient), by means of a suitable exchange speed of the liquor on the surface of the fibre (hydrokinetic condition - Picture 37). The presence of auxiliaries, facilitating the fibre swelling or increasing the concentration of dye near the fibre (swelling agents), tends to increase the diffusion speed. The operating time must be adequate to allow a good penetration of the dyes, since this is a prerequisite for developing the maximum fastness (Picture 39).

47

poor penetration

good penetration

fibre section

Picture 39 - Dye penetration Fourth stage (migration) Stages 2 and 3 are reversed in this fourth migration stage; the dye must diffuse toward the external layers of the fibre, and then come back always in solution and migrate in areas of the fibre where there is a lower concentration of dye, thus enhancing the colour consistency. Low affinity, poor crystallinity of the fibre, small molecular size of the dye will favour this stage, though negatively affecting dyeing solidity and liquor exhaustion. On the other hand, a high concentration of electrolytes would facilitate the aggregation of anionic dyeing agents, above all in the core of the fibre, where the dye is more concentrated, improving the exhaustion and reducing the migration phenomenon. Migration is facilitated by long dwelling times at high temperatures, which leads to higher costs; a good control of the adsorption and diffusion stages, with a smooth dispersion of the dye in every moment of the dyeing process, can make the migration stage superfluous, with a subsequently higher cost efficiency and quality. For disperse dyes, considerable thermal variations and lack of suitable colloid-protective dissolving agents can effect the growth of the dye crystals, which lay on the material or precipitate, originating dyeing defects and low fastness to rubbing. An excessive agitation (pumps), or a wrong pH, can cause instability of the dispersion. Anionic dyeing agents tend to precipitate at excessively low pHs, and also in the presence of hard water or large-size cations; cationic dyeing agents could precipitate in neutral or basic environment, and in the presence of large-size anions.

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Preparation and Dyeing Machines

There is a wide variety of machines used for finishing processes (pre-dyeing, dyeing and finishing treatments). As far as dyeing machines are concerned, the most important aspect to be considered is the consistency of the dye distribution (or of other chemicals) that the machine must ensure in the shortest possible time. Generally, the systems allowing a homogeneous distribution of the dye also allow a good removal of dirt, and a uniform contact of bleaching reactants with the material; therefore what we say about dyeing, in most cases can be also applied to pre-dyeing and finishing treatments that require the application of chemicals. The machines used for preparation and dyeing processes can be classified as follows: Classification according to the textiles to be processed: The machines to be used are chosen according to the type of material to be processed. - Machines for dyeing staple or yarn (in skeins, packages or beams) - Machines for dyeing woven-knitted fabrics or rope knits (the width is not spread) - Machines per dyeing open-width fabrics (the fabric is opened and flattened) - Machines for dyeing made-up garments. Classification according to the processing method: The processing method to be applied depends on the quantity of materials to be processed and on the type of finishing process. - Discontinuous (batch) systems. - Semicontinuous systems. - Continuous systems. Classification according to the operating principle: The system to be used depends on the elements that make up the material (fibre and eventual weave), as well as on the type of treatment to be carried out. - Circulating liquor systems. - Systems moving the material. - Systems moving both the dyebath and the material. Classification according to the process conditions: The system to be used depends on the type of material (fibre form) and on the process to be carried out. - Systems that can work under pressure at high temperatures (HT autoclaves) - Open systems, or, systems that run at a max. temperature of 100C. Here below the reader will find a brief description of the (A) category; each system is described in detail hereinafter.

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Machines to process staple, sliver and yarn (General remarks) These machines are used for dyeing staple fibres (and also for carrying out other treatments such as bleaching, scouring or finishing) and more frequently for dyeing yarn fibres in different forms (packages, cheeses, etc). With the use of modular and interchangeable carriers it is possible to carry out loading and dyeing processes using packages of different diameters. These machines are equipped with automated systems, such as automatic loading and unloading racks positioned above the machine, centrifugation and drying systems, to best satisfy the growing demand for system optimisation. Open-width dyeing machines (General remarks) These systems are used for dyeing open-width and well-flattened fabrics. These systems can be used also for carrying out pre-dying treatments (for example upgrading, bleaching, mercerising), dyeing treatments and wetting operations for both types of treatment. Among the systems used for open-width treatments it is worth pointing out mercerising machines, jiggers, pad dyeing machines, beam dyeing machines, continuous washing systems, stenters. Rope dyeing machines (General remarks) These machines process the fabric fed and driven lengthwise to form a rope. The hydrodynamic effect is obtained by means of the motion of the fabric rope, or by means of the simultaneous rope-and-dyebath motion, which ensures a homogeneous contact of the material with the dyeing liquor and a quick exchange of the dyeing liquor dispersed in the material. Machines running according to these operating principle are suitable for treating almost all the fabrics made up of extremely different fibres, woven or knitted fabrics, during preparation and dyeing stages, with only some problems occurring with loose-weave fabrics. During the treatments the fabrics run freely weft-wise and therefore can freely shrink and set thus eliminating almost all tensions. Suitable operating conditions and technical adjustments also reduce to the minimum warp-wise tensions, and continuously move the wrinkles of the rope. An unquestionable benefit obtained with these machines is the extremely soft and fluffy hand, particularly suitable for fabrics to be used for garments. Possible problems are connected to the formation of permanent wrinkles on the fabric, or to uneven dyeing shades, always connected to the problem of the rope wrinkles; for fabrics made up with very delicate or short staple fibres, mechanical stresses can cause losing or extraction of the hair on the surface. Piece dyeing machines (General remarks) These are discontinuous processing systems; the most modern machines are equipped with rotating systems, which apply low liquor ratios; the material is packed in a perforated basket, which rotates at variable speed. Once the dyeing process has been completed, the system removes the liquor in excess from the fabric by centrifugation before unloading. These machines are equipped with automated systems to optimise the process.

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Autoclaves
These machines are used for dyeing staple and yarns in different forms (package, cheese, beam etc.). These systems are essentially made up of: - Vertical or horizontal autoclaves, made of stainless steel, where interchangeable carriers are placed for dyeing different textiles at any stage of their development (baskets for staple dyeing, package carriers, cheese carriers, fabric beams, etc.) - Circulating liquor pump (with flow reversal system) - Expansion vat to balance the increase in liquor volume, where the necessary dyes and auxiliaries can be added without stopping the operating cycle. - Static pressure pump (which can be introduced whatever the operating temperature) - Sample heater - Control board for partially or completely automated dyeing cycle.

Exhaust / Vacuum breaking valve Expansion tank Sample heater Pressure vessel

Yarn

Yarn

Liquor circulation pump Heating / Cooling coil Drain valve

Pressurization Pump

Picture 40 - Vertical autoclave (section)

* Some passages and pictures of this chapter have been taken from the book Nobilitazione dei Tessili by Franco Corbani, published by Centro Tessile e Abbigliamento (Textile and Clothing Centre) in 1994.

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All manufacturers can now supply these machines equipped with microprocessor or PLC programming system for controlling and setting all the operating functions (filling / exhaust / heating / cooling / stage / dosing etc.) of the whole production cycle and, in specific cases, for adjusting the pump flow according to preset parameters. Some autoclaves are also equipped with Air Pad pressurizing system, which offers the opportunity to reduce the liquor ratio and the energy consumption; when the machine is running only the carrier, the heat exchanger and the circulation pump are completely immersed in the liquor, while the free space is filled with compressed air. Systems equipped with volume or air reducers are actually used to satisfy the increasing demand for machines where batches with different weights can be loaded and treated (thus keeping a steady nominal liquor ratio). Thanks to these systems, the machine can process from 1 to an infinite quantity of packages for each shaft entailing considerable energy saving, cutting plant and production costs, as well as a considerable reduction of delivery times. In the past, the reduction of the loading capacity thanks to the air cushion could only be ensured with vertical autoclaves; now it can also be obtained with horizontal units.

Picture 41 Horizontal autoclave for packages An autoclave model used only for packages includes many small horizontal heaters (basically coils) instead of a single heated vat; each small heater can be loaded with a single package carrier shaft. This autoclave allows working with an extremely low liquor ratio. The material to be dyed must always be accurately arranged to avoid possible disproportion in the liquor forced under pressure through it, in both directions alternately, from the core to the outer surface and vice versa, according to programmable times (for example from 2 to 4 cycles per minute).

52

Picture 42 - Package carrier

Picture 43 - Staple carrier

In all these autoclaves, the dyeing liquor is kept circulating by means of centrifugal or helical pumps: these pumps must keep the liquor circulating through the mass of fibre, so that the fibre surface is saturated with the dye. To do that, the liquor must overcome all the resistive forces generated by pipes and by the textile mass (pressure drop) and reverse the direction of the liquor circulation at different times to obtain an overall even colour; in specific cases, the speed of the pump impeller can be set by means of inverters (frequency inverters) which adjust the flow of the liquor through the fibre mass. These machines, built and tested according to the European PED standards, can operate at a maximum operating pressure of 5-6 bar, and are statically pressurized by means of a pump or of a compressed air cushion; they are suitable for treating synthetic fibres up to an operating temperature of 145C, avoiding load-carrying drops due to cavitation of the liquor circulation pump. The average liquor ratio is approximately 1-10. Automated dyeing cycles grant excellent quality and reproducibility of results. Some autoclaves also integrate dyeing, centrifugation and drying systems. These machines, used for dyeing various types of fabrics or blends can also be employed for scouring and bleaching tasks. We describe below several carriers made of two overlapping levels, which can be separated for easier loading and unloading. In fact these machines, besides packages, cheeses, tops, etc, which can be loaded in single-level machines or in machines equipped with horizontal heating vat, can be loaded with fabric beams; they also allows cutting the loading capacity in two (see drawings of the different carriers) thus increasing the operating flexibility.

53

Cones

Cylindrical packages

Cheeses

Tops

Picture 60 Different types of two-level overlapping carriers With reference to the drawings above, we only need to add some detailed information about package yarn dyeing. This dyeing system is more popular than staple and hank dyeing (cheeses are no longer used) since it is more cost efficient and environment friendly. The diameter, and therefore the weight, of each single package greatly varies according to the type of fibre, to the count, to the final use and to the different classes of the dyestuffs used. Packages can be prepared by winding the yarn on perforated taper or cylindrical tubes of different height and diameter; the weight can range between 700 grams for very fine cotton yarns for shirts and knitted goods to 3.5-4 kilograms for large polyester packages. The dyeing sector has recently undergone a very incisive improvement in automation and robot control. Particularly, the handling of the packages is reduced to a minimum; simple and reliable robots load and unload the package carriers and carry out the subsequent dehydrating step by means of automatic hydroextractors and drying by means of fast dryers with forced air circulation or high-frequency heated tunnels (see chapter on drying).

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Hanks
Hanks are used for the dyeing of skeins; a hank is made up of a parallelepiped-shape vat divided into compartments by perpendicular partitions. The skeins are arranged on special carriers, which can be locked in special grooves inside the machine; the liquor circulates in both directions (up-and-down flow) and the yarn mass makes only a moderate resistance since it not very tightly packed. The machine operates with reduced liquor ratios and the liquor itself is kept circulating by means of major flow axial pumps (suitable for delicate yarns), assembled in the front part of the machine. The liquor flow inversion is obtained by reversing the rotation direction of the motor; the liquor is generally heated by means of serpentines assembled inside the machine or by means of heat exchangers. The hank can also run under pressure at a maximum temperature of 110 C and at pressures of 0.5 kg/cm2. If the pressurisation is obtained by means of an air cushion, it is possible to avoid the external circulation of the liquor in a lateral extension vat. As a result, the liquor can be maintained at a constant temperature, reducing energy, steam and cooling water consumption. The only negative aspect is the need to unload and load the machine each time it is used. Hanks can also be used for washing and bleaching treatments.

1 central wall; 2 perforated separators; 3 perforated supports; 4 skeins; 5 circulation pump; 6 expansion vat; 7 auxiliary pump; 8 serpentines. Picture 43 - A skein dyeing system (hank).

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Arm Dyeing Machines

This is the most suitable machine for dyeing delicate yarns (silk, Bemberg, etc.) since it prevents the material being too tightly packed; in fact other skein dyeing systems frequently produce an excessive packing of the dyed material. The machine is equipped with horizontal arms perforated in the upper part; skeins are stacked and suspended on this rack. The liquor, forced through the arm holes, penetrates the skeins and is then collected in an underlying vat. Standard machines are equipped with a rod which moves the skeins at preset times, changing the bearing point to obtain a more uniform dyeing. During the skein motion, the flow of the liquor is stopped to avoid the formation of tangles in the yarn; since yarns are not fixed to rigid supports, they can thoroughly shrink. This machine does not run under pressure. It is possible to dye at steady temperatures since the liquor is contained in a separate tank. The operating costs of this machine are generally very high because it require a very high liquor ratio (1:15 1:25 1:30 ). Standby times for loading and unloading operations are also very high and the arms must be often cleaned. This machine can be used also for scouring and finishing processes. Some machine manufacturers have designed machines with slant covers to avoid unwanted liquor dripping on the skeins; the skein rotation is determined by the perforated arms, and not by the rotation of the skein-lifting device when the arm is stopped; it is therefore possible to eliminate the sliding contact with the skeins and preserve them perfectly. There are also package dyeing machines with triangle-shape arms, arranged radially on a variable-speed rotor. When the dyeing process has terminated, the material can be centrifuged and dried, by forcing a hot air flow into the arms and through the skeins.

Picture 44 A skein dyeing machine. This machine is equipped with triangle-shape arms, arranged radially on a variable speed rotor

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Picture 45 Modular skein dyeing machine with pullout arms. Pullout arms also allow the loading and unloading of skeins far from the dyeing machine, without manually intervening in the intermediate dyeing, squeezing and drying operations. It can be used for silk, cotton, viscose and Cashmere yarns.

Winch Dyeing Machines

This is a rather old dyeing machine for fabrics in rope form with stationary liquor and moving material. The machine operates at a maximum temperature of 95-98C. The liquor ratio is generally quite high (1:20-1:40). The system includes a vat with a front slant side acting as chute for the folded rope, while the rear side is entirely vertical. A perforated separating compartment, positioned at a distance of 15-30 cm from its vertical side, creates an interspace for heating and for adding reagents. Heating can be supplied by means of direct or indirect steam heating. The fabric motion is driven by a circular elliptic winch coated with a special blanket to avoid the fabric slipping during the dyeing operation with subsequent possible fabric scratches. The rope to be dyed then passes through a rack on the vertical perforated divider, which ensures the separation of the various folds of the rope and avoids possible entangling; the rope is then transferred onto a cylinder, which guides the fabric during the lifting from the vat carrying out a partial squeezing with subsequent liquor exchange. The rope (carried by the winch) folds while passing through the liquor. Obviously when the fabric is loaded into the machine it is necessary to sew the tail with the head of the rope (the fabric must be sewn according to the grain direction). The maximum motion speed of the fabric must be approx. 40 m/min., since higher speeds could cause peeling; an excessive stretch during the lifting stage could cause deformation while high circulation speed could cause excessive rope beating with subsequent entanglement. The fabric must not remain folded and kept stationary inside the vat for more than 2 minutes to avoid possible defects or wrinkles; therefore the rope must be relatively short. The winch dyeing method is suitable for all fabrics, except those which tend to originate permanent creases or which could easily distort under the winch stretching action (due to their fibre or structure composition).

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This machine is used preferably for pre-dyeing treatments (scouring, washing, bleaching) since the high liquor ratio ensures excellent results; when used for dyeing treatments this system requires high energy consumption, extensive use of auxiliaries, dyes and water, which leads to high operating costs; furthermore, an inaccurate temperature control (the liquor does not move and the heating system is assembled only on one end) and the limited freedom of the rope folds could negatively affect the dyeing results. This is one of the oldest systems used for finishing treatments, but it proves to be still extremely functional thanks to its flexibility, above all for scouring and bleaching treatments to be carried out on small production runs. This system can also be used for carrying out continuous washing processes; the fabric is loaded from one side (A side, Picture 47), driven through the machine with a spiral motion (by means of the rack) and then unloaded from the opposite side (B side).

side A

side B

1 Winch 2 Guide cylinder 3 Fabric rope 4 Perforated separator

5 Heating coils 6 Liquor 7 Rack

Picture 46 and 47 - A winch dyeing machine

Picture 48 - Winch dyeing machine

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Jet Dyeing Machines

These machines, where both liquor and material move, are used for rope dyeing and preparation; the fabric is carried over and driven through the machine only by the fluid force. These systems run with high temperatures (maximum temperature ranges between 135 and 140C), with very limited liquor ratio (1:5-1:15). We can divide these machines in different categories: for example, there are machines only partially filled with liquor, suitable for treating PL or PA fabrics and for synthetic filament fabrics and machines completely filled with liquor, used for more delicate fabrics (the fabric is carried over more delicately and is always immersed in the liquor). Now the trend goes towards the production of machines with a more delicate fabric drive, which adds to the hydraulic drive of the jet system a mechanic drive carried out by means of a large-size reel; this makes this multi-purpose system more flexible and therefore suitable for treating a steady wider range of fabrics. Partially filled jet system (Picture 49): The external part of the machine is made up of an autoclave, generally horizontal and cylinder-shaped, with a turret on one side, provided with an access door and glass window; the jet nozzle from which a tube starts, is usually assembled inside the turret. The tube passing over or under the autoclave fits on the opposite lower side of the autoclave, thus assuring a continuous connection The folded rope fabric moves slowly in the autoclave inside a special vat, partially immersed in the liquor, till reaching the lifting compartment (the turret). Inside the turret the rope is lifted up and, running on an idle or power-driven cylinder (reel), it is immersed in the jet nozzle. The rope moves along the return tube and is sent back (folded) to the opposite side of the vat to begin the cycle again. The liquor circulated by means of a centrifuge or axial multi-step pump passes through a heat exchanger before being sent to the jet nozzle.

Picture 49 Drawing of a partially filled jet system 1- jet 6- auxiliary pump 2- guide roller 7- vat for adding liquor 3- transport tube 8- fabric and dwelling vat 4- heat exchanger 9- magnet signal system 5- liquor circulating pump 10- by-pass valve

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The external part of the jet transport system (applying the Venturi principle) (Picture 50), is made up by an external funnel (nozzle) for fabric passage assembled in a position coaxial with the tube; the liquor, forced through the tube with a specific pressure, is progressively accelerated in the smaller section of the funnel (Sections A and B in Picture 1A), until it reaches very high speeds (500-1400 m/min., depending on the flow and on the diameter). The liquor flow is powerfully directed toward the fabric inside the transport tube. The friction generated by the rapid liquor flow between the dye solution and the rope makes the fabric float through the tube; at the same time, the powerful motion of the flow facilitates the removal of creases on the rope.

Picture 50 Ejector 1 Jet system 4 Fins 2 Fabric 5 Neck 3 - Transport tube The circulation speed of the fabric can be adjusted: in older machines, a by-pass provided with an adjustable valve controls the liquor flow to the nozzle and consequently the transport speed of the fabric; in more recent models this adjustment can be carried out by means of variableflow pumps equipped with inverters and/or adjustable nozzles. Generally the liquor must be recirculated at least every 30-60 seconds: at each recirculation the liquor passes through the heat exchanger thus performing an excellent control of the temperature also for fast heating or cooling; this allows a fast and uniform dyeing. The fabric rope must carry out a complete cycle every 1-2 min. (to avoid wrinkles due to excessive dwelling times inside the vessel). The type of nozzle and its size also determine the weight range of the fabrics to be treated. Some machines are particularly suitable for light, medium- or heavy-weight fabrics while others can process fabrics of different weights by replacing or adjusting the nozzle. The operating conditions of this type of machine ensure a fast and uniform distribution of the dye (or of other chemicals) on the fabric and therefore short process times; the cloth is moved along the tube at very high speeds (up to 400-600 m/min) and short staple and delicate fabrics can be negatively affected by scratches or the formation of hairiness on the surface. The great difference of speed between the liquor and the fabric rope flowing inside the tube as well as the lifting of the fabric from the collection vat can cause possible distortions on stretch-sensitive fabrics.

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Picture 51 A jet dyeing machine Completely filled jet machines: the shape can vary depending on the manufacturers design; the access door is generally positioned in the upper part of the machine, near the nozzle, which is always immersed, as well as the processed fabric. The transport principle of the rope is similar to the principle of external-nozzle jet systems, but in complete filling jet systems the flow directed on the rope in the Venturi tube (nozzle) is more delicate; this avoids excessive tensions, stretches during the lifting and frictions with metal parts. Also the maximum fabric circulation speeds are limited (200-230 m/min.) if compared to those of partially filled jet systems. As a result, it is possible to treat delicate fabrics, more subjected to peeling or the formation of hairiness on the surface. In reality, these machines have been working in mills for years, but they run with high liquor ratios (1:15-1:25) at high costs deriving from huge energy consumption (heating, maximum demand for pumps), from considerable water, chemicals and therefore effluent treatment costs, and finally from long process times (lower number of cycles per minute). Completely filled jet dyeing machines now available on the market have been designed to run with limited liquor ratios (1:10-1:12) which allow the processing of delicate wool or blend fabrics, with short process times and low costs. Picture 52 shows a completely filled jet system, which can work with a liquor ratio of 1:12, and three cycles per minute; this provides a non-stop control of the temperature and ensures an excellent exchange between the liquor and the material. A special device including two jet systems has been designed to allow cloth motions in both directions, thus enhancing the dye consistency and preventing ropes from entangling.

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Picture 52 - Drawing and picture of a completely filled jet machine

Overflow Dyeing Machines

This dyeing machine is used for pre-treatment and dyeing of rope fabrics, with both liquor and materials moving (Picture 53); the architecture and the design of the system and the liquor ratios are similar to the jet machine ones. The main difference is the fabric transport system, driven partly by a motorised reel, and partly by the sequential flow of the liquor. The jet system nozzle, based on a Venturi tube, is replaced by a vessel containing the liquor; the liquor enters the straight pipe section and then flows through the transport channel, together with the fabric rope. During this stage, the fabric is subjected to slight tensile stresses and to small friction forces, due to the progressive acceleration caused by the drop of the liquor and to the limited speed on one side and to high liquor flow and to the large-size transport tube on the other one. This machine is therefore suitable for delicate fabrics, too provided they are not wrinkle-sensitive. The transport speed of the fabric is adjusted by the reel speed and by the water flow that the pump forces into the fabric transport tube (60-250 m/min.).
Reel Width Feeding vat Transport tube

Fabric collection vat

Fig 53 - An overflow dyeing machine

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Picture 54 Drawing of a four-rope overflow system The builders of overflow systems supply machines working at high temperatures (from 130 to 140C), particularly suitable for processing synthetic fibres and synthetic fibre blends, and machines running at atmospheric pressure, particularly suitable for treating natural fibres (these machines generally reach operating temperatures from 98 to 108 C and are slightly pressurised to avoid cavitation effects in circulation pumps when working with temperatures near 100C. Now different types of jet and overflow systems are available on the market and manufacturers have designed special devices to make them even more versatile and suitable to meet the everchanging customer needs. The most interesting solutions are: - Flow-jet systems: to transport the fabric these machines apply a system based on the Venturi principle also known as drop principle and a motorised reel (Picture 55 B and D). - Jet system with adjustable nozzle to allow a non-stop change of the transport effect (when the nozzle is closed the jet effect is very powerful while when the nozzle is open the machine runs in the overflow technique) (Picture 55 A and C Variable nozzle in Picture 56). - Vertical machines where the fabric is lifted at 1-1.5 m. from the liquor level, with a certain stress on the fabrics (these machines ensure high transport speeds, suitable above all for continuous artificial and synthetic fibres) (Picture 55 A, B and D). - Horizontal machines, where the fabric is slightly lifted from the liquor level, with subsequent low tensile stresses and transport speeds (suitable for delicate fabrics) (Picture 55 C). - Machines with long (Picture 55 A and C) or short transport tubes (Picture 55 A and D) or with differently shaped tubes to better suit the various types of fabric (Picture 55 A, B and C).

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Picture 55 Various types of jet and overflow systems

Dyebath feeding 1.5 1 bar

Closed nozzle/Jet system

Funnel-shaped fabric loading Open nozzle/Overflow system

Picture 56 - Jet/flow variable-position nozzle

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- Machines with slant or Teflon-coated collecting vats to improve the sliding of the folded fabric and reduce the problems of fibrillation, abrasion and/or projecting yarns (Picture 55 C). - Transport tubes slightly leaning upward to reduce the friction of the rope with metal surfaces (the fabric is drawn always immersed in the liquor) (Picture 55 C). - Air blowing in the nozzle or in the flow to improve the shifting of the rope folds - Air jets blowing under the reel to reduce possible abrasions on the fabric. - Separation of part of the rope liquor in the last part of the transport tube, to reduce the speed of the fabric when entering the collecting vat, thus avoiding irregular folding and entangling (Picture 55 C). - Hydraulic system to improve a uniform folding/plaiting of the fabric without entangling (Picture 55 D). - Possibility to drain the liquor at temperatures exceeding 100 C (if possible, in order to reduce the process times) (Picture 55 D). To optimise either output capacity and production flexibility, builders have studied different solutions. It is worth remembering that the loading capacity (in kgs) of the machine depends on the maximum liquor volume that can be used and on the liquor ratio; the weight of the fabric (as previously stated, the process time of one rope cycle must not exceed 2 minutes) can affect the maximum width of the rope and therefore the maximum load in kgs Briefly, to process lots of different sizes (from 50-60 kgs to 800-1200 kgs) the manufacturers can build machines that can load many ropes (with separated collection vats - Picture 58, Overflow - Picture 54), or machines with only one rope and variable path (Picture 55 D). To increase process flexibility, the machines (with 1, 2, 3 or more ropes) can be twin-type; two identical machines that can work two different lots separately; if needed, the two machines can be linked and process simultaneously the same lot with the same liquor and the same operating conditions, thus doubling the loading capacity (Picture 57).

Picture 57 Twin flow systems

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Both jet and overflow systems are equipped with a motorised reel for loading/and/or unloading the fabric (Picture 58).

Picture 58 Picture of a 3-rope flow system

Air-flow (Air Jet) Dyeing Machines

These are the most modern rope dyeing machines currently available on the market. The operating principle is similar to the jet dyeing system, but the fabric, guided by a motorised reel, is exposed inside the nozzle to a stream of forced air, blowing from one or two turbines (or fans) which take the air from inside. During the transport stage, or at the exit of the transport section, or, if necessary in both areas, the rope is sprayed with a controlled quantity of dyeing liquor; the atomised quantity of liquor slightly exceeds the one that the fibre can actually absorb. When the fabric folds in the perforated collection vat, it releases the excess liquor, which is recirculated by the special pump. The fabric transport speed can be also very high (between 250 and 1000 m/min) while the liquor ratio could be, in theory, 1:1 to 1:2; in standard processing conditions the liquor ratio is 1:3-1:8. This machine usually allows high temperature process. The high speed of the fabric fed, together with the reduced liquor ratio, guarantee optimum dyeing results in very short times; it also reduces water consumption and the quantities of auxiliaries and dyes necessary for an optimum dyeing process, thus leading to considerable cost reduction (also with regard to wastewater treatment costs). This applies particularly to dyeing, above all in the case of dyes with low affinity for fibres and low exhaustion percentages. However, sometimes the low liquor ratio could cause problems due to the poor solubility of some dyes and/or during subsequent post-dyeing washing process, when higher liquor ratios would be more helpful. These machines have been designed for dyeing fabrics made of synthetic fibres, blends of manmade and elastic fibres, and microfibre fabrics; in reality these machines have proved to be extremely suitable for dyeing man-made filament. While air feeding facilitates the continuous motion of the fabric and reduces possible defects due to rope folding, the fabric tends to pack on the bottom of the machine for the extremely reduced quantity of liquor, thus leading to permanent wrinkles.

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This problem becomes clear above all for fabrics made of synthetic fibres, particularly when they have not been efficiently heatset, and sometimes it is amplified by the water blade beating the fabric at the exit of the nozzle. These systems can process lots from 100 to 600-800 kgs, depending on the size of the machine and of the ropes. Many solutions applied to jet and overflow systems are suitable also for air jet systems: Teflon-coated vats, folding control, forced liquor drain, multi-tunnel (or rope) machines. In detail, the machine shown in Picture 59 is equipped with: 1Reel for feeding the fabric at variable speed ranging from 250 to 700 m/min. (1,000 with a pressurised machine). 2Air blower feeding the ejector by taking the air from inside. 3Machines internal washing system. 4Transport tunnel facilitating the progressive rope opening. 5Spraying of the liquor atomised at the tube exit side (it reduces the impact of the fabric against the grid). 6Adjustable contact grid. 7Liquor spraying nozzle in the transport tube. 8 Air blower at the centre of the machine (for improved soundproofing). 10Teflon-coated collection basket of gradually larger section. 11Fabric collection system with external control.

Picture 59 - Air jet dyeing machine The application of electronics and IT systems has allowed the introduction of devices specifically aimed at storing dyeing programs and continuously keeping all the operating conditions under strict control, displaying them on the control screen and eventually storing them in a central computer:

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- Devices for detecting the passage of the magnet introduced in the sewn fabric, with consequent calculation of the average rope circulation speed and stoppage of the sewn fabric near the door for quick sampling strategies. - Electronically controlled pumps, reels and variable-speed air blowers. - Devices for measuring the transport tension of the fabric, and the subsequent adjustment of the rope feeding speed (if the tension exceeds preset values, it slows down the reel and reduces the pump flow, to avoid possible deformations and abrasions). - Setting, storage, control and recording of the dyeing cycle (temperatures, operating times, dyestuff additions, etc.) feeding of additions from the automatic colour kitchen (or from the addition vat), and light and/or acoustic alarms for the operator. - Security systems for door opening in pressurised machines. - Possibility of recovering heat by preheating fresh water with the exhausted liquor. Operations to be carried out during the process cycle: - The process cycle is programmed or a previously stored one is retrieved - The water is poured in (cold/preheated/softened /hard water) and the level is controlled. - The fabric is fed into the machine: unwound from a beam, or folded on a carrier, by means of jet or flow system. - The head of the fabric is recovered from the collection vat and the piece head is sewn with its tail. - A magnet is introduced in the sewn section (for machines working with high temperatures). - The cycle is started. - Possible addition of chemicals/dyes (automatically from colour kitchen, semiautomatically or manually from addition vats). - The variable process conditions are monitored by means of control board; visual control is carried out from the glass window. - In dyeing processes, colour matching must be controlled at the end of the process cycle. The door is opened and a sample is taken near the top/bottom sewing (if necessary a re-dyeing cycle must be started). - The fabric is eventually washed and/or rinsed. - Once the cycle has been terminated, the sewing is removed and the fabric is unloaded by means of the motorised reel. - Washing machine. Picture 60 - Example of a dyeing diagram, as displayed on the monitor of a dyeing machine

Addition of dyeing substances

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Washing and eventual

fixation agents

Dwelling

Salt addition

Salt addition

Salt addition

Dwelling

Jiggers
These machines have been used for a long time to treat medium-size lots of woven with an open-width exhaust dyeing process. The fabric moves while the liquor stands still, except for the very latest machines, which are also equipped with a circulation pump.

Picture 61 - A jigger The fabric pieces are sewn together tail-to-head, forming a sort of ribbon. At the head and at the tail of the ribbon two cloths are added (45 m long) to allow the regular dyeing of the whole pieces, also leaving the machine drawn-in once the dyeing process has come to an end. The assembled pieces are taken down from a roll, pass through the liquor (they are kept in the correct position by means of transport cylinders and a tension equaliser, which avoids the formation of wrinkles). The fabric is then wound on a takeup roll until the dyeing process has ended. The piece through speed and tensions are adjusted by special devices to avoid any change in dimensional stability, above all when treating lightweight fabrics and/or delicate fibres. The maximum diameter of the roller can be 1,450 mm with a width of the piece of cloth ranging between 1,400 and 3,600 mm. The piece through speed is adjusted between 30 and 150 m/min. and kept constant during the whole operation. Also the tension must be constant and it can be adjusted between 0 and 60 kg. Since the passage time is very short, dyeing occurs above all on the fabric wound on the rolls. The composition of the liquor absorbed must be as uniform as possible on the whole width and length of the fabric piece; for big lots, many additions may be necessary to avoid the so-called head-tail defects. Lightweight fabrics (viscose, nylon) that are stretched excessively during the takeup step can show shading defects. Jiggers work with a quite low liquor ratio (from 1:1 to 1:6). Together with standard atmospheric systems, builders also offer HT jiggers inside autoclaves working at high pressure. Jiggers are suitable for dyeing all type of fibres.

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Picture 62 - A HT jigger

Beam Dyeing Machines

The discovery of polyester - a material requiring very high dyeing temperatures (up to 140C) in the 1960s led to the extensive application of beam dyeing machines; they essentially included a dyeing autoclave with circulating liquor, with the open-width fabric lying on a perforated beam provided with plates. Nowadays, in order to increase 1- fabric 2- perforated beam the output capacity and further 3- sleeves 4- covers reduce the liquor ratio, 5- circulation pump 6 addition pump manufacturers have begun to 7- addition vat 8- heat exchange provide their beam dyeing 9 by-pass valve 10- autoclave systems with large-diameter 11 door perforated beams, equipped with internal plenum chambers to reduce idle spaces. Sleeves are used to equalise the liquor flow in the selvedge section

1 - correctly fitted sleeve correct liquor flow 2 - loose sleeve excessive liquor flow in (a) 3 - sleeve too tight poor liquor flow in (b)

12-

liquor circulation plenum chamber

3- perforated beam

Fig 63 - Drawing of a beam dyeing machine

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The liquor, forced by a circulation pump, flows out through the holes and passes through the fabric forcing the dye into the fabric. The liquor path can be reversed. If the fabric is shorter than the beam, the holes not covered with fabric are closed by means of covers fixed under the fabric. The fabrics must be wound with the correct tension; if the fabric is excessively stretched, the liquor cannot pass and the dye is not forced into the fabric. On the contrary, if the fabric winding tension is not uniform, a moir effect will originate (the surface resembles water ripples). The control of pressure changes (internal/external), which must range between 0.1 and 0.5 kg/cm2, allows the control of winding accuracy; several photocells monitor possible fabric unwinding. This machine, which was very popular during the 1960s and the 1970s, is still widely used today, and is even experiencing a sort of revival. The liquor ratio varies between 1:10 and 1:15, but the use of internal plenum chambers allows the optimisation of the required liquor volumes. It can be used for both preparation and dyeing operations.

Picture 64 Picture of a beam dyeing machine

Garment-dyeing Machines
During the last decade, the market has been forcing textile companies to supply sports- and leisurewear in extremely reduced times and in the trendiest colours of the moment. Obviously the standard textile production cycle, contemplating a dyeing process followed by make-up and distribution, which does not run with very short times, leads to a considerable loss of sales. The piece dyeing process ensures very short times from the customers demand to the fulfilment of market needs for cool colours and stylish finishing processes. To meet large or small demands for a given colour as fashion requires, machine manufacturers now offer many garment dyeing and finishing machines. These are generally rotating machines, similar to large-size industrial washing machines; the garments are loaded in special baskets for finishing operations. The machine size and equipment allow the maximum flexibility to meet the most different needs as described in the following.

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1- Sizes: from sampling machines with a 50cm basket and a capacity of 90-110 litres to dye and finish small lots of garments, to manufacturing machines with 2.8 m basket and capacities ranging from 8,000 to 8,500 litres, but with similar liquor ratios (to facilitate reproducibility). 2- Baskets: with different shapes depending on the type of materials to be dyed and finished (jeans, linen garments, knitwear, etc.) and on the different effects (ageing, delav, enzymatic treatments for cotton, linen or Tencel) 3- Perforated steel sheet metals and beater covers to avoid damage to the basket when treating the fabrics with pumice (stone-wash, ageing). 4- Delta or star-shaped separators for treating very delicate garments. 5- Automatic systems for distributing and dissolving dyes and auxiliaries. 6- PLC to program, store and monitor the treatment cycles. 7- Loading and unloading systems provided with robotised shuttle or tilting optional devices. 8- Automatic pumice separation devices during the unloading stage Picture 66 Garment dyeing machine equipped with tilting device for unloading.

Picture 65 - Garment dyeing machine equipped with PLC and robotised shuttle loading

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Picture 67- Basket detail

Picture 68 Pumice separator

It is worth mentioning that most machines can even work at high temperature, thus allowing the dyeing of PE or PE-blend garments.

Colour Kitchens
Colour kitchens were once manual systems used for weighing dyestuffs and auxiliaries and dyebath preparation (dyestuff dissolving) carried out by operators who manipulated the colour kitchen directly. However, this created several problems, both in terms of reproducibility (matching and consistency of the dye, weight, dissolving procedure) and operators safety and health. The first development, concerning the second problem, was the use of special hoods (protective coverings, usually providing special ventilation to evacuate noxious vapours, dusts, and gases) introduced by manufacturers of granule or liquid dyestuffs. Wrong results due to human mistakes (or even to the actions of different operators) have been then corrected by introducing automated colour kitchens equipped with dispenser systems which can reproduce the recipes established by the operator by means of a computer-controlled system which weights, mixes and dissolves the dyes and auxiliaries. The second development instead concerned the production of semi-automated colour kitchens, which retrieve the recipe to be reproduced, move the dye bins automatically and send the operator the required mix. Another step forward has been brought about by automated colour kitchens: the dyestuffs are stored inside special containers and the operator, using a keyboard and a computer, retrieves the recipe to be sent to the production process. A container on a special weighing device moves every time under the screw conveyor, distributing the powders of the various dyes taken from the relevant container; this process is controlled by a PLC. Once the weighing operation has finished, the necessary quantity of water is added at the temperature established by the dissolving procedure, the dyes are dissolved by agitation and the solution is sent to a special stand-by vat, before being poured into the dyeing machine. The container where the dissolving process is carried out is washed and dried automatically for the next cycle. Modern vacuum systems halve the powder dyestuff treatment and dissolving times

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(previously, 20 to 25 minutes were necessary to prepare 200-300 litres of dyeing liquor): the previously weighed container (three or four dyestuffs) is sent to the vat for dissolving (the capacity ranges from 30 to 100 litres) by means of a liquid piston rotary vacuum pump, which can deliver from 150 to 350 g/sec of products. The vacuum effect makes the dye dissolve and avoids the formation of undesired adhesion of granular particles. This technique requires extremely reduced water volumes (the remaining quantity is added afterward), the mixing does not produce foams and is carried out at low temperatures and in half the time required by traditional systems. The vacuum effect facilitates the tube and hose cleaning. By using a 10 kW pump, it is possible to feed a system of four dissolving devices feeding twenty dyeing machines.

Picture 69 Dispensers for liquids and automatic feeding of dyestuffs and auxiliaries to the various dyeing machines. Dyeing machines can be fed directly by automatic systems, which dose and forward chemicals and auxiliaries; these systems are controlled by microprocessors using only one line for transferring operations, with distribution mistakes ranging between 10 and 15 ml. The pump motors are equipped with variable-speed drives; the draining of fluids is carried out by means of ball valves and materials are generally stored in small suspended containers.

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Picture 70 Detail of an automatic dispenser

Pad Dyeing
This dyeing process can be applied on open-width pieces, on fabrics that are particularly sensitive to creases and crush marks. Pad dyeing differentiates from exhaust dyeing in the dyebath application and fixation processes. Very reduced water quantities are required, resulting in lower energy consumption. For dye application, the fabric is conveyed to spreading and stretching units which prevent the formation of creases, then into becks containing the dyebath and finally to heavy rollers which squeeze out the excess liquor. The fabric feeding speed must be constant. It is important to add, to the dyebath, an impregnating agent allowing the efficient impregnation of the fabric in a short time; the dyestuffs used must also have the least possible affinity for the fibres to avoid head-tail defects. Pad dyeing dyestuffs must also be very soluble to avoid dotting defects due to precipitation when dyes are used in high concentrations. It is necessary to use highest possible temperature, to facilitate the penetration of the liquor into the fabric (this is particularly important for particularly dense fabrics) according to the affinity for dyes of the fabric and the stability of the dyebath. The impregnation vat must be so shaped to allow the fabric an adequate contact time for absorbing the dyebath, even with a reduced capacity of the vat and a high through speed of the fabric; the reduced liquor volume facilitates a fast exchange of the liquor itself in the impregnation vat thus reducing possible head-tail defects due to the dye-fibre affinity. The liquor absorbed by the fabric is constantly replaced in the impregnation vat thanks to a special tank and a distribution pump; this ensures that a constant level of the liquor is maintained in the vat while providing a uniform impregnation.

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1 - Fabric 2 - Guide cylinders 3 - Impregnation vat 4 - Dyebath 5 - Squeezing cylinders 6 - Guide squeezing cylinders

Picture 71 - Pad dyeing The squeezing drums generally have a more or less flexible rubber coating wound on a stiff core (made of steel). High operating speeds, the use of aggressive products (for example, finishing process with or in presence of organic solvents), high pressures and temperatures require that the elastic material used for coating the rollers ensures high resistance levels that cannot be granted by one material only.

Picture 72 Different types of pad dyeing machines It is therefore necessary to choose the material more suitable to the different operating conditions. For this reason a wider range of materials is now used: natural rubber, more or less cured, and various types of synthetic resins, whose excellent elasticity is due to the curled shape (or spiral shape) of their macromolecules and their mechanical and chemical resistance to intermolecular cross-linking levels obtained which complies with its elasticity (elastomers).

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The quantity of monomers from which elastomers are obtained is very limited (approx. 10) and the characteristics of the materials used for the coating are obtained by aggregating particular chemical groups to these basic components. During the dyeing process, the elastic material, which makes up the pad dyeing rollers, is constantly subjected to contact with aqueous solutions (sometimes alkali or acid solutions), with emulsions of solvents or with organic solvents. It is therefore necessary to know the resistance of the materials used for coating the cylinders to the chemicals to be applied. A crucial factor, which must be carefully taken into account during the pad dyeing process, is the pressure exerted on the cylinders, which is applied on the pins at the roller sides. The bending moment, acting on the cylinder and on its stiff core, produces a stress on its centre: the greater is the bending, the longer the cylinder and the smaller its diameter. Therefore the core of the fabric will be less powerfully squeezed; this problem can be avoided by means of a camber cylinder, i.e. whose diameter in its central area is larger than at its edges. The central bending of the cylinders can also be reduced by increasing their diameter: when the diameter of a cylinder exceeds its length by 1/4, the bending is almost insignificant (an increase of the diameter increases the cylinder contact area and therefore reduces the pressure per units of area). The pressure changes the shape of the squeezing NIP AREA cylinders in the contact point, thus generating a contact area, or nip area. In the nip area, the pressure reaches the highest value in the central area. The result is a function with the typical parabolic curve shown in the picture. The nip area formed by two elastic cylinders is wider (cylinders have the same diameter and pressure) than the one formed by stiff cylinders. Therefore the pressure per unit of area will be lower, but the area where the pressure is applied will be wider and consequently the squeezing time will be longer. By using the new-concept cylinders (for example the "ROBERTO" cylinder) the removal of water on the surface and subsurface water is carried out more completely than with traditional cylinders with flat surface. Picture 73 - Nip area between the squeezing cylinders. The elastic coating is made up of a thick layer of fibres, individually coated with a thin sheet of rubber. The result is a porous material allowing the solution easy draining from the compression area with an alternate action of compression and expansion of the pores of the elastic coating. This cylinder works against a "hard metal or hard rubber cylinder. In standard dyeing pads equipped with smooth cylinders, the maximum squeezing effect is reached at the centre of the nip area, where the pressure is at its maximum level: in order to leave the fabric, water must however overcome the resistance to slipping of the fabric which compressed in the nip area. By using these porous cylinders, water is compressed in the porous coating of the cylinder and can be easily removed. Furthermore, once gone beyond the centre of the nip area, the pressure decreases and the expansion of the pores of the elastic coating determines a vacuum effect, which produces the aspiration of residual water.
PRESSURE

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The elastic coating of the cylinders is less subjected to permanent deformations: selvedge marks, signs of knots, wrinkles in the material, etc. are levelled after some revolutions. Evident defects may require a grinding treatment.

Picture 74 Removal of water from the fabrics by means of cylinders with smooth and porous surface: the arrows show the water flow direction An ideal condition for pad dyeing is that neither the substances dissolved (or dispersed) nor the solvent have any affinity with the material to be processed. Bearing this principle in mind, the quantity of the solute deposited on the material depends only on the liquor concentration and on the squeezing degree. Since the composition of the liquor left on the fabric is the same as the one inside the pad vessel, it can be restored during the application process by adding a solution with the same composition. When solutions of dyes or finishing products have some affinity for the fibre, a better absorption of the solute is achieved, while, with other products (for example finishes), a better absorption of the solvent is achieved. As for the application of dyestuffs, also during the finishing process, this better absorption is expressed by "D.P.F." (Dye Pick-up Factor) which is the ratio between the quantity of compound successfully deposited on the fabric and the quantity that should be deposited, according to the concentration of the liquor and to the squeezing ratio (expressed in per cent value). As the pad dyeing speed increases, the D.P.F. gets closer to 100, since the material remains for a shorter time in contact with the dissolved substances. The concentration of the finishing products in the storage container feeding the dyeing pad vat will compensate the concentration variations of these products in the impregnation vat if they have a D.P.F. significantly different from 100. Another factor to be taken into account is the so-called pick-up or squeezing degree which represents the quantity (expressed by the weight) of liquor dispersed in 100 kg of fabric, after impregnation and pad squeezing; the lower the value, the better the squeezing effect. A high squeezing level is generally preferred since it reduces the quantity of liquor dispersed between one thread and the next one, enhances the penetration of finishing products, allows significant energy savings during the drying process and reduces the migration phenomenon during drying. The poor mechanical resistance of the fabric or the limited solubility of the finishing products could suggest high pick-up values. The pick-up depends on characteristics, on the fibre composition of the fabric and on following parameters: pressure exerted by the cylinders; hardness of the roller coating; liquor viscosity; roller size; operating speed; fabric preparation; presence of auxiliaries.

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Once the treatment has come to an end, it is necessary to eliminate the pressure immediately and "release" the cylinders to avoid the formation of foulings and deposits. Also: - avoid working with saturated or almost saturated solutions, which could deposit crystals on cylinders by evaporation of the solvent; - protect the cylinders from light, ozone, chlorine vapours and from the heat (radiant heat from heat-generating media, hot air convection, etc.) above all at the end of the treatments; - pay attention to the aggressiveness of solvents and chemical reactants used; - store the cylinders horizontally on their pins. After the application of the dyebath on a pad dyeing machine, the dye is ultimately fixed on the fibre. For this purpose we can indicate semi-continuous and continuous processes. More precisely: pad-batch process; pad-roll process; pad-jig process; pad-steam process; pad-dry process.

Semi-continuous processes In pad-batch processes, a cold pad dyeing cycle is carried out using auxiliaries and dyestuffs. The fabric is then wound up in rolls and covered with a plastic sheet to prevent the drying and oxidation of the outer layers. It is then rotated slowly for 8 to 24 hours to avoid percolation due to the gravitational effect on the liquid, which could distort the roll and create dyeing defects. The fabric is finally washed with auxiliaries (continuous or discontinuous systems).
Soaping bath Pump Dye NaOH

Pump

Picture 75 - Drawing of a pad-batch system With the pad-roll system, after being soaked and heated with steam or infrared rays to obtain uniformity of dye application, the fabric is kept inside hot steaming chambers at 60-80 C, for 2 to 8 hours, depending on the dye used and on the desired colour intensity. The pad-jig is used for direct and reduction dyes. After pad impregnation, the fabric is wound on rollers and then passed through the jigger for the fixation treatment. In the jigger dyebath, 510% of the pad dyebath is added to withstand dye bleeding. The fabric is then washed and rinsed.

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Continuous processes The pad-steam process is carried out by first impregnating and subsequently pad-squeezing the fabric; after that the wet or pre-dried fabric is fed into a special steaming machine for fixing the dye. The steaming time depends on the temperature and dyes used.
Dye Alkali

Infra-red field Steaming machine

Picture 76 - A pad-steam system In pad-dry system, after impregnation and squeezing, the fabric is directly dried or pre-dried with infrared rays, and fed into a hot flue to fix the dye. Finally the fabric is washed and rinsed with a continuous system.
Dosing pump

Pump Dye NaOH Hot-flue

Infra-red field

Picture 77- Pad-dry system The three drawings above refer to dyeing processes of cellulosic fibres with reactive dyes.

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PRINTING
Printing could be referred to as a sort of selective dyeing that makes an important contribution to fabric decoration thanks to the combination of colours and dyeing methods. To obtain sharply defined, precise and reproducible patterns, the dyebaths traditionally used are not sufficient, because of the capillarity and/or hygroscopicity of fibres and migration of dyes that cannot grant sharp and well-defined colour patterns. It is therefore necessary to use special liquids, conventionally called "printing pastes", whose main characteristic is a high degree of viscosity (improperly called density); in other words these printing pastes colours are fluids which oppose a high resistance or friction to sliding or motion. As a consequence, the dyestuff applied on the fabric in well-defined areas to reproduce the desired pattern cannot migrate to other areas of the fabric. It is also worth considering that the high viscosity of printing pastes will make the dye adhere to the surface of the fabric and the fibres, but not penetrate into and fix on them. These operations (which may be referred to as diffusion and fixation during the dyeing process) will be carried out afterward with a steaming process. The application of the print dye on the fabric is carried out by forcing it through the gray fabric on special printing blocks or perforated hollow rollers applied onto the fabric; the dye is then generally fixed by means of a steaming process. Now we will briefly outline the main operations resulting in a printed and finished fabric:

screens or rollers

fabrics

printing pastes

a) pattern b) colour selection c) photoengraving

Dyeing operations (depending on the fibre)

According to a a) dye colour class b) printing method

study of pattern varying

printing

polymerisation finishing

drying

steaming

washing

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Printing Methods
There are different types of prints, depending upon the printing method, the desired colour pattern and the results to be obtained. Another approach to the printing classification can depend upon the process and therefore upon the machine used (manual screen printing, conveyor belt, hand printing, hollow roller printing). Direct printing This method involves the following steps: printing, drying, steaming and washing. This type of printing is generally used for white or dyed cloths (usually dyed in pastel shades), by applying the sequence of all the colours, until the original pattern has been reproduced. This is the most common printing method and can be used with all the main colour classes of dyes and on fabrics produced with any kind of fibre (some problems may only arise with blends). The technical limits of this printing method appear with endless design patterns (particularly those obtained with screen printing methods, while no problems occur for roller printing). Some problems may also arise when printing on backgrounds dyed with pastel shades: in fact, this could create problems on several areas of the design to be printed in light shades, thus limiting the number of reproducible pattern variants. Pigment printing represents an alternative to direct printing With pigment printing there is no need to carry out a steaming process, as steaming is replaced by polymerisation (generally carried out simultaneously with drying). This type of printing process is very simple, low-cost and can be carried out easily on all types of fabrics, particularly on blends, since pigments can adhere to all fibres; there is no need to use dyes of different colour classes. On the other hand, the adhesives, which bind the pigments to the fabric, can give serious problems when the fabric hand varies. For prints with a low coverage ratio, the hand variation can be acceptable but it is not acceptable when the coverage ratio is high, or at least for all uses. Furthermore, the pigment lies on the surface and has low fastness to friction (this depends mainly upon the type and quantity of binding agent and upon the polymerisation degree). Some valid alternatives to this type of printing can give special effects such as printing with swelling agents (generally synthetic polyurethane-base pastes are used), with covering pigments and glitter (metal powders or particles of plastic materials) etc. Four-colour printing In the four-colour printing process, primary colours (magenta, yellow and cyan, plus black) are used. The different shades are obtained by applying dots of the primary colours in variable densities: this technique also takes advantage of the ability of the eye to combine colours when observing them from a certain distance. Design patterns with different hues and tones can be obtained by using only four printing plates. This method however limits significantly the possibility of pattern varying. This technique is used only for fixed patterns and pure saturated colours cannot be reproduced.

Discharge printing

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Basic steps are printing, drying, steaming and washing. This technique is used on dyed fabrics (usually in dark shades). The fabric is dyed in the piece and then printed with a chemical that destroys the colour in designed areas. Sometimes the base colour is removed and another colour is printed in its place; but usually a white area is desirable to brighten the overall design. This printing method is generally used to obtain designs with tiny details, sharp and welldefined edges on coloured backgrounds, patterns with low coverage ratio on coloured backgrounds, and to avoid pattern matching problems on endless design patterns with coloured backgrounds. The results obtained with this printing method could be hardly reproducible with direct printing since it would be very difficult to obtain wide backgrounds, smooth and well penetrated, with sharp edges without seam defects. A problem for this printing method is represented by the need to choose perfectly destroyable dyes for backgrounds, which cannot be affected by the discharging agent used as brightener. The selection restricts the number of applicable dyes and above all, for some colour classes, very few dyes grant a good fastness to light and moisture, but excellent colour effects. With this type of printing carried out on black or navy blue backgrounds it is also impossible to check if the various colours are correctly positioned; any mistake will be visible only after the steaming process and at that point it would be impossible to correct it. This problem could be limited by testing the printing result on a white cloth before beginning the printing process. Resist printing With the old method of physical resist printing, (hydrophobic) products or printing pastes were applied to the fabric to avoid contact and penetration when the fabric was subsequently immersed in the dyeing liquor (Batik). Now the most diffused printing system is the chemical resist printing carried out with different printing methods, using pastes containing chemicals, which avoid fixation of background dyes (particularly for reactives on reactives applied on fabrics made of cellulose fibres). Some of the printing methods are detailed in the following: a) Resist printing on covered background: a pad dye is applied and dried; the printing is carried out with printing pastes containing products avoiding the fixing of background colour (but they do not avoid the fixing of any brightener used). The fabric is then dried, steamed and washed (this is the most diffused resist printing method). b) Resist printing by overdyeing: the operations of the resist printing method previously detailed are carried out in inverse sequence; therefore the fabric is first printed and then covered. c) Resist printing by overdyeing: this method is similar to the previous one, but the covering operation is replaced with the roller printing of the background. d) Printing on polyester: polyester printing must be carried out applying the resist-discharge printing method. Printing pastes containing both the discharge and resist products applied on covered background must be used. Transfer printing This printing method is used for printing on synthetic fibres, particularly P.L. With this efficient method disperse dyes, previously printed on special continuous paper on the fabric, are transferred on the fabric by means of rollers with engraved frames. The design is transferred by contact between the paper and the fabric, which is then passed through heated rollers at a temperature of 190-210C. With this method, disperse dyes sublime (i.e. change directly from the solid to the gaseous state without passing through the liquid phase) melt, penetrate the fibres and bind by heat and pressure onto the fabric surface in a few hundredths of a second. 83

Recently many manufacturers have used this printing method also with acid dyes on PA and reactives on cellulose fibres. Devor printing This method is generally used for P.L./cellulose blends (more rarely for PA/viscose, silk/viscose, wool/viscose blends) specifically pretreated, by means of acid pastes (potassium acid sulphate, chloride or aluminium sulphate); during the drying at 140-170C, cellulose fibres carbonise, while synthetic (or protein) fibres remain unaffected by the carbonising process. A subsequent mechanic treatment (brushing or beating) and washing create transparent effects designs resembling to laces; these fabrics are generally used for upholstery, underwear and garments production. Devor printing can also be carried out on polyamide/silk or polyamide/wool blends, using highly-basic resist pastes to destroy the protein areas of the fabric. Nowadays, manufacturers frequently combine devor printing with direct or resist printing to obtain fabrics with extremely interesting effects. It is worth considering that the fabrics must be carefully evaluated before applying this printing method: to obtain clearly visible effects. The quantity of fibres to be removed must make up for the 50-60% of the whole fabric, while the remaining fibres must be part of both warp and weft, forming a weave structure with a adequate stability on devor-printed areas. There are also many other types of printing hybrids, which have two or more different characteristics or types of structures that cannot be referred to as printing or finishing methods: Flocking: a patterned design is transferred onto a fabric using a suitable adhesive (instead of a dye); then flocks of different materials (fibres length range between 2 and 10 mm) are applied to the fabric in a manner that causes it to adhere in an upright position and produce a pile-like, velvet-textured design. The length of the fibres ranges between 2 and 10 mm and before being flocked onto the fabric, fibres pass through a gray cloth and then through a magnetic field, which sets all fibres in a vertical position. The fibres are then fixed by means of subsequent drying and polymerisation process of the adhesive; finally, unfixed fibres are removed. Metal foil printing: after printing the heat-adhesive product, the fabric is covered with a film made of polyester on which a thin metal coloured layer, or a thin metal foil has been deposited. The adhesive is then polymerised at 150-170C and after cooling down, the film, removed from the fabric, remains on some areas of the fabric. The areas where the adhesive was applied will be covered with printed designs Preparation of printing pastes The preparation of printing pastes greatly differs from the preparation of liquors: during the dyeing process the liquor is prepared directly when used, while printing needs a different approach passing through the preparation of "master batches" and cutting" pastes. Master batches are printing pastes containing a high percentage of dye and all the necessary auxiliaries (except for specific cases where the auxiliary could alter the dye or the paste stability). Usually, for each dye class 1214 master batches are prepared with selected dyes so to reproduce the widest possible range of colours. Therefore, combining the various master batches in specific quantities can reproduce any colour; the master batches will be then suitably "cut" (diluted) with the cutting paste, made of a paste containing the same auxiliaries of the master batch (with the same or lower concentration), but without the dye. Colour kitchens

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The colour kitchen can be a manual system where all the operations for preparing the thickener, weighing the dyes and the auxiliaries, dissolving and preparing of master batches and cutting pastes is manually carried out by the operators working on the colour kitchen. This approach to work entails some problems both for health protection and results; small inaccuracies, momentary distraction of the operator as well as different ways of working of various operators can compromise the reproducibility of results. Now many manufacturers use automatic colour kitchens both for sampling and production purposes. In these colour kitchens the various master batches and the cutting thickeners are stored in big containers from which they are automatically taken by means of pumps to be then used or to prepare the cuts. Special automatic distribution systems can reproduce the stored recipes (by recalling them by means of the keyboard) and accurately weigh, blend and mix the components. In several colour kitchens the balance incorporating the container for preparing the pastes is placed on a trolley, which is moved automatically under the dispenser nozzle of the containers (for cutting and blending the various master batches). In other colour kitchens distribution nozzles are assembled all together above the balance. The products must be perfectly blended before use.
Master batch Cutting paste

Dosing system Container Conveyor belt Balance

Picture 78 - Scheme of a colour kitchen

Picture 79 - Colour kitchen used for production purposes

Picture 80 - Colour kitchen used for sampling purposes

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Flat screens, cloths and hollow rollers The printing screen is made up of a metal frame, on which a cloth is firmly fastened in place. The cloth is usually made of single-filament or ply polyester fibre. Three screws are incorporated on one side of the screen for centering the inward-directed cavities: one of the screws touches the block on one side and is used for warp-wise motions, while the other two screws are used both for warp-wise motions and rotations. The cloth can have a bigger or smaller number of yarns per centimetre (from 40-50 to 90-100) depending on the type of fabric to be printed and on the fineness of the pattern to be reproduced. A coating of light-sensitive emulsion is applied uniformly on the cloth; the screen is then dried with a hot-air blow (40-50C). A film is positioned on a sensitised printing screen; the printing screen is then photoengraved by means of special lamps: the radiation starts the polymerisation reaction of the light-sensitive emulsion, which takes 120-240 seconds and makes it insoluble in water. Where the film has been blackened, radiation does not reach and does not affect the emulsion, which is not polymerised and remains soluble. In the following washing process carried out with water, the non-polymerised emulsion dissolves, leaving the openings on the cloth open where the colour has been reproduced on the film; through these openings the printing paste will be forced onto the screen through the fabric. After accurate inspection and manual rectification of small defects, an impermeable substance or lacquer is spread on the photoengraved cloth to enhance the resistance of the emulsion and therefore the durability of the screen. The cloth passes on a suction opening (to remove the lacquer from the cavities) and is subsequently dried. The above mentioned operations are repeated for each colour, with as many screens as colours.

Picture 81 Flat printing screen

Picture 82 Rotary printing roller with flange

The hollow roller has been replaced with a seamless nickel-made roller (prepared for depositing by electrolysis the metal on a special die) where the printing pastes are forced through the meshes. The number of meshes per centimetre (also known as mesh size, i.e. the size of screen or particles passed by it in terms of number of openings per linear inch in each direction), also for rollers, depends upon the type of fabric to be printed, the design, the shades and colours to be reproduced. The mesh size is generally fixed in 40-215 mesh/inch, corresponding to 15-85 mesh/cm).

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In the Como district the most commonly used types of rollers have mesh sizes ranging from 125 to 185 mesh/inch, with pentagonal or hexagonal mesh and widths ranging from 160 to 200 cm. The cylinder diameter and consequently the circumference (which determine the pattern ratio) have fixed values, which is certainly a limit for pattern reproduction (64, 86,102, 120, 240 cm.). Costs are proportional to the width and increase rapidly as the mesh size and the circumference increase.

Printing Machines
Manual flat screen printing tables These are wooden printing tables (1), with metal legs, usually 40 to 80 m long and 1 to 2 m wide; they are covered with a felt coating on which a resin cloth is laid (2) - possibly covered with a polyethylene film coated with the adhesive which causes it to adhere to the fabric and prevent the cloth from moving during the printing process (3). An upright rail (4) is fixed on the edge of the printing table, where some blocks (5) are arranged to lock the frames, keep the pattern ratio and maintain the precise position on the table for proper registration and alignment. The printing paste is accurately applied to the fabric, by spreading it on the cloth (7) of the screen (6), by means of squeegees (or paddles) (8). The screen centering is obtained by means of three screws; two screws are arranged on one side of the screen in contact with the rail (they lift, lower or rotate the screen) and the remaining one is arranged on one side in contact with the block (it moves the screen lengthwise). The squeegee is moved manually.

Picture 83 - Scheme of hand screen printing table

Nowadays, this type of printing is used only for high quality products and for small lots, or it is carried out on small tables (8-10 m.) for sampling purposes. The material is dried directly on the printing tables (30-50 C) heated by means of resistances positioned under the cloth with hot air jets (40-50 C.) directed on the printed cloths laid down on the table, or removed and hung above the printing table to air-dry. Flat screen printing with automatic carriage For this type of printing, manufacturers use 40 to 80 m long printing tables, equipped with an automatic feed carriage (5) sliding on special rails; the printing screen is fixed on the carriage (6). A special device fitted in the carriage lowers and lifts the printing screen and moves the squeegee (8); the pressure applied and the number of passages are entered by the operators. The pattern is centered by the operator by means of the set screws of the screen or by any other device arranged on the frame of the carriage moving screen warp- and weft-wise or making it rotate. In automatic screen printing, a pre-set amount of the appropriate colour is released on the fabric (3) which adheres to the resin-coated conveyor belt (2) of the printing table (1); the printing paste is spread uniformly on the fabric by moving the squeegee on the cloth (7) of the screen (6); after the squeegee has passed over the screen, the screen is progressively moved to the next section and lowered again to repeat the same cycle till the end of the piece. 87

The screen is then replaced with another one and the cloth to be printed receives the next colour; the number of screens corresponds to the number of colours.

Picture 84 Scheme of printing table equipped with computer-controlled carriage

Picture 85 Printing table with carriage

The motion of the carriage and of the squeegee on the printing tables can be controlled by electric motors, gears and chains or by means of a pneumatic system. Nowadays all manufacturers have equipped their automatic carriages with a computer (9) on which the printing data are entered and stored; this computer control system allows a considerable reduction of operating times, labour, possible inaccuracies and errors, thus improving reproducibility. The drying process is carried out on heated printing tables (30-50 C) or with hot air jets (40-50 C) directed on the printed cloths laid down on the table, or removed and hung to air-dry. All the printing tables can be equipped with a rack to hang the printed cloth and a washing system after printing. This printing method is used for good-quality small and medium yardages. Flat screen printing machines with rubber conveyor belt These machines (Picture 88) include a printing table (6) with a length ranging from 20 to 35-40 m., on which a conveyor belt (3), covered with resin-coated rubber, is progressively moved. The fabric (1) adheres to the conveyor belt, after passing through a feeding system provided with a spreader and a warp-centering and straightening unit controlled by photocells or other devices.

Picture 86 - Screen printing with conveyor belt: Feeding system a) with collecting system

b) without collecting system

The printing stations (4) (8, 12, 18 or more stations can be assembled on a printing system, depending upon the length of the table and the size of the screens) are arranged on the conveyor belt; the screens are fixed on the printing stations. Each printing station is equipped with a keyboard for setting and adjusting the printing data (5). Each time the conveyor belt stops, the screens simultaneously lower, the squeegees pass over the cloth (in line with the data entered by the operator), spread the dye, lift up and move to the next section.

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Picture 87

a) Bridge printing station

b) Gantry printing station

The fabric, once reached the end of the printing table (engraved with the whole pattern design), is removed from the conveyor belt and fed into the synchronised drying loft at the printing speed (8). The conveyor belt, washed with water jets and rotary brushes and then dried (7), passes under the printing table and is ready to be used for another printing cycle.

Picture 88 - Scheme of a printing machine with conveyor belt

Picture 89 Conveyor belt washing

Picture 90 Screen printing machine with conveyor belt

The main advantages of this system, compared to the screen printing carried out with automatic carriages, is an improved output rate since all colours can be printed in one run allowing high throughput rates (maximum output ranges between 400-500 m/h). Also the printing quality is inversely proportional to the operating speed. The adjustments to be carried out before printing are time-consuming since the printing stations must be moved progressively and carefully to the other sections or to the successive patterns. In case of new designs or possible modifications, the printing stations must be carefully centered and adjusted to be aligned with the centering recesses. 89

Furthermore, the screens must be removed, washed and assembled again on the printing system. The drying process is carried out in a drying loft, i.e. inside a circulating-hot air continuous drier, positioned at the end of the printing machine. The drier operating speed is synchronised with the average printing rate. The air blow can be adjusted at a temperature ranging from 80 to 150-160C, in order to dry, polymerise (pigment printing) or carbonise the fibres (devor printing). 1- Three-run drying with hot air (the fabric lays in the conveyor belt during the first drying run).

2- Same as 1, but with 5 runs for polymerisation.

3- One single run with blown air

4- Transfer with pin chains for delicate fabrics and feed-through printing

Picture 91 - Drying lofts for manually operated machines and rotary systems

Flat-bed rotary printing machine (with hollow rollers) This machine is used for large and medium yardages, of medium-good quality fabrics. The machine (Picture 93) employs an endless conveyor belt (4) made of resin-coated rubber on which the piece of fabric (1) adheres, after passing through a spreader and a warp straightening unit controlled by photocells (2). The printing stations (5) are arranged along the whole length of the conveyor belt (min. 8, max 12-16 printing stations depending upon on the length of the printing table and the manufacturers need), on which are assembled the engraved rollers (6). The doctor knife (13) (different models are available depending on the machine manufacturers) is introduced inside the photoengraved roller together with the feed unit (9) of the printing paste, which is fed by the distributor (10).

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flexible blade magnetic - high penetration

air cushion

magnetic - low penetration bar with magnet

Picture 92 - Different types of doctor knives The rollers drop the printing paste on the fabric sliding underneath and the printing stations, arranged at a multiple distance from the succeeding section (usually at a distance of 64 cm.), reproduce the designed pattern. At the end of the table the fabric is removed from the conveyor belt and fed into the drying loft (12); the conveyor belt (11), washed with water jets and rotary brushes and then dried (7), passes under the printing table and is ready to be used for another printing cycle.

Picture 93 - Scheme of a rotary printing machine

Picture 94 - Picture of a rotary printing machine

The main advantages concern the output rate; in fact the non-stop process allows an average operating speed ranging between 30-60 m/min, and maximum operating rates ranging between 100-110 m/min. The complex setup and the amortisation costs of older machine models limit their use to large printing runs; on the contrary, the most recent machines can be used for manufacturing cost-effective medium or small printing batches thanks to a quick setup of the design and a fast roller washing (to be carried out upon each colour change for every printing). Anyway the quality is inversely proportional to the machine speed.

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The use of roller printing machines is limited by the design ratio: usually roller printing machines incorporate cylinders with a circumference of 64 cm, and therefore the design ratio is the same of the circumference or of one of its submultiples (32, 16, 8). Now many manufacturers supply cylinders with different circumferences such as for example 101.8 and 120.6 cm, with widths ranging from 1.6 to 3.2 m (the width depends upon the machine model); some machines incorporate 240 cm-circumference cylinders, featuring a width of 320 cm. Some manufacturers also supply combined machines with both rollers and screens. Rotary-table printing machines This machine has a variable-length table (from 10 to 40 m). A conveyor belt made of resincoated rubber slides on this table. The length of the conveyor belt ranges from 20 to 80 m., according to the machine structure and model; a piece of fabric of the same length adheres to the conveyor belt. 1 or 2 printing stations equipped with screens (and/or rollers) are arranged along the conveyor belt. On one end of the conveyor belt a circulating hot-air drying loft dries the fabric partially at each fabric run. When the head of the fabric comes back to the printing stations, new screens (or rollers) are arranged on the table and the operation is repeated at each run for all the colours thus making up the entire patterned design. After the last run, the fabric is removed from the conveyor belt to be dried thoroughly, the conveyor belt is carefully washed and a new printing cycle can be started.

123456-

Printing stations (screen or roller printing systems) Keyboard for data input Table Resin-coated conveyor belt Drying loft Path of the fabrics at the end of the printing process

Picture 95 - Rotary table scheme

Picture 96 - Rotary table

The operating mode of this machine is partly similar to the rotary system, and partly to manually-operated machines and screen printing systems; it is used for high-quality small/medium lots or for samplings for rotary and/or manually-operated printing systems. In the printing field very few mechanical innovations have been introduced in these last years; anyway, small mechanical improvements and the coming up of electronics have allowed excellent quality results also on machines with high output rates. Furthermore these improvements have remarkably cut stand-by times, labour costs and energy, water and auxiliaries consumption. Here are some examples: Conveyor belt washing system with water recycling. Automatic synchronisation of printing speed and drying speed by means of inverter controlled by special processors. Automatic adjustment of the exhaust units of the drying lofts to maintain the best drying conditions.

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 Holding systems to maintain the roller or screen centering, which must be adjusted in case of a slight shifting of the conveyor belt (0,03 mm accuracy). Synchronisation of the roller speed with the one of the conveyor belt; it can be slightly modified depending on the fabric. Automatic transfer progressively moving to successive stations on manually operated machines controlled by a computer. Storage of all the printing options for the different patterns and colours (ratio, travel, speed, pressure and inclination of the doctor knife or squeegee etc.). Feed distribution of the printing paste in the various sections of the roller, depending upon the printing paste consumption. Roller washing carried out directly on the machine (in 8-10 minutes) to change the print. Roller machines allowing removing and assembling the rollers with the doctor knives when design is changed, with a remarkable reduction of operating times.

Steaming Machines
Static steaming machine (star-type) This steaming machine is the oldest steaming system. It consists of a cylindrical heater with a jacket to allow the steam to be blown from the top and the bottom of the cylinder (the steam heats the walls avoiding the formation of drops of condensation). The cover is sealed hermetically to allow the machine to operate under pressure. The fabric is firmly hung by its selvages and is fixed to a special backing cloth (Bengaline). The whole is wound on a star-shaped carrier by means of hook-shaped pins. The carrier with the fabric are loaded into the heater; steam is then forced into the heater removing the air from it. The cover is then closed and the pressure is kept constant by introducing or extracting the steam. Once the steaming process has been carried out, the cover is opened, the carrier is unloaded and the fabric is removed.

1. Steam feeding system 2. Saturator 4. Steam from the top 6. Steam exhaust 8. Jacket 10. Star

1st moistur. water 3. Steam feeding setting. 5. Steam from the bottom 7. Steaming machine body 9. Sealed cover 11. Fabric + Bengaline

Picture 97 Drawing of a static steaming machine

Picture 98 A static steaming machine 93

Due to the poor steam exchange, this system is not suitable for discharge printed fabrics. On the contrary, it gives excellent results with synthetic fibres since it allows working at temperatures ranging between 130 and 135C and pressures of 1.8 bar (i.e. with dry saturated steam and high temperature). This system gives a good colour rendering but possible head-tail defects (when forced incorrectly, the steam stratifies at different temperatures and with different moisture contents; therefore print dyes are fixed more consistently in the lower end of the fabric). This system is now rarely used since only small lots can be treated (max. 400 m long cloths are treated in 10-60 minutes) and many operators are required, thus entailing high costs. Continuous steaming machine It is made up of a parallelepiped-shaped container (recent systems have closed bottoms while old ones were opened at the bottom) with double-wall structure preventing external heat transmission. In the lower part of the jackets, the steam, coming from the boiler and passing through the saturator, is caused to expand and boil in water. In this way, the saturated steam at atmospheric pressure raises and heats the walls and the ceiling of the jackets (preventing condensation drops from forming and dripping onto the fabrics, as a result avoiding possible defects). The steam lowers from the top of the steaming machine through the ceiling openings, drives the air away (air is heavier than steam) and fills the steaming machine. The equipment to control moisture and temperature of the steam feeding the steaming machine is positioned in the jackets; the real-time control devices work interactively and start immediately some spray-water humidifiers, each one is cascade-connected with superheaters also assembled in the jackets. Thanks to this system all the variables can be controlled in realtime (the temperature difference allowed is 0,5C of preset values, and steam density between 96 and 98%). If necessary, the steam can be heated at temperatures of 170-180 C at atmospheric pressure passing through the jackets.

1 - Overheated steam line 2 - Water supply 3 - Saturator 4 - Water drainage 5 - Saturated steam under pressure 7 - Saturated steam at 100 8 - Superheater humidifier 9 - Control system 10 - Steam inlet 11 - Steam level 12 - Steam exhaust

Picture 99 Drawing of a continuous steaming machine

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humidifier cools the system down

the superheater heats the system up

Picture 100 Temperature control The fabric passes through the steaming machine folded on sticks; the sticks rotate all along the path and change the contact point with the fabric continuously to prevent any fixation defects in contacting points. Furthermore the fabric, by effect of the rotation of support sticks, constantly changes its position to reduce the formation of defects due to possible steam stratification. The steam exchange is carried out by means of one or more exhausters. At the end of the path, the fabric gets out of the steaming machine, while the sticks pass in the lower part of the machine and grip another piece of fabric at the entry of the steaming machine. Special inlet and outlet devices, together with a slight pressurisation, prevent the air from entering (max. O2 allowed = 0.3/1000 volume).

Picture 101 Drawing of a steaming machine (the fabric moves in pieces or on sticks) Continuous process allows a better output capacity and a reduced number of operators; the costs are therefore lower than the static steaming machine ones. It can be used for all kinds of print, by opportunely changing the operating conditions, and gives better results above all in discharge printing since it allows the removal of decomposition gases generated by reducing agents and a better temperature control, thanks to the huge exchange of steam. For this purpose all the steaming machines built in those last years have closed bottoms; this gives a better control of process variables (temperature, pressure, moisture, oxygen, steam circulation and exchange) and allows the creation of a slight pressurisation to prevent oxygen from entering. The operating speed depends upon the quantity of fabric in the steaming machine (number and length of the fabric pieces), upon its width (it is possible to steam two fabrics simultaneously) and upon the time necessary for fixing the dyes; these values also determine the steam requirement and exchange. To offer the customers a wide variety of steaming machines, builders have designed models in different structures and sizes, equipped with special devices to control the moisture of the fabric

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fed into the machine (water atomisers), the steam fed into and extracted from the machine, as well as all the other process variables. Some continuous machines for folded pieces can also be used for quick steaming cycles (from 1 to 2 min,) by moving the fabric on the sticks; in this case it could be useful to use flash steaming machines with short fabric paths.

Picture 102 - Continuous steaming machine

Picture 103 - Flash steaming machine

Washing Machines for Printed Fabrics

After printing and steaming, the pieces have a rough hand due to the use of thickeners and the colour shade is not the final one. The washing process aims at removing the thickening agents, all the chemical auxiliaries and the unfixed dye remained in the thickener or passed into the fabric. If correctly carried out, the washing process can enhance the colour brightness to obtain the maximum fastness for both fibres and dyes and offset the fabric tensions. Obviously the washing process must not affect the fabric (felting or other negative alterations of the fibres, change of dimensional stability etc.), as well as the printed patterns (undesired colours must not affect white or unprinted fabric section or areas printed with light colours, while the dyes removed with the washing process must not affect the colour shade). To obtain the desired results a powerful washing is not sufficient: dissolving dyes (conditions similar to the dyeing process) do not fix on fabric sections printed with different colours, do not dye or bleed on white areas. Thats why it is crucial to select the right - washing machine - conditions - auxiliaries bearing in mind that the results obtained are also the outcome of all the upstream operations.

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To optimise the washing of printed fabrics, an accurate evaluation of all the process steps is also fundamental; we can point out three basic different but overlapping steps: Step 1 What happens reimbibition and thickener swelling What makes the operation easier - quick and high absorption of the liquor - presence of wetting agent - contact time - mechanical action - squeezing - suction - water exchange - temperature - detergent - dispersing agent - time - dye - Alkali+reducing agent Measures to be taken before washing - type and quantity of thickener - thickener stability to steaming - quantity and type of thickener - dye fixation degree Dye selection

release, dissolving, removal of thickener and dye exchange, dilution, dispersion of unfixed dye

Step 1: The thickener film, touching the washing liquor, rehydrates, swells and progressively reduces its viscosity. At the same time, water solubilises or dissolves part of the dye remained in the thickener, and, penetrating the fibre, starts solubilising the unfixed dye. The presence of a suitable wetting agent in the washing liquor and the possibility to direct powerful jets and liquor atomised mist on the fabric, accelerates the wetting step, while a correct contact time of the material with the dye facilitates this step; the thickener swelling completes the dye dissolving. Step 2: Once the correct viscosity degree has been achieved, by effect of the powerful action of water jets, vibration, squeezing and/or suction, most of the thickener dissolves along with the dye and the auxiliaries inside it. Simultaneously, part of the dye remaining on the surface of the fibre or dispersed inside, but unfixed, dissolves or diffuses in the liquor. During this step the dye reaches its maximum concentration in the washing liquor (which becomes very similar to a dyeing liquor); it is therefore extremely important to work at low temperatures to avoid conditions that could facilitate the dispersion of the dye in the fibres; the washing liquor should be quickly withdrawn from contact with the fabric to protect white background tones. These first washing steps are crucial since they can lead to the elimination of more than 80% of thickener and unfixed dye but it is fundamental to work at low temperatures and avoid continuous and protracted contact of the fabric with the liquor. This grants an optimum protection of white backgrounds also during subsequent hot washings; the dye eliminated through a cold process will affect the fabric in subsequent hot treatments.

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Step 3: At this point it is fundamental to eliminate the remaining 15-20% of thickener still fixing to fibres and to restore the fabrics original hand; is also crucial to eliminate simultaneously the dye, which has not suitably fixed to the fibres and obtain the maximum fastness to liquids and rubbing. For natural fibres it is suitable to operate at the highest temperatures allowed by the various fibres (which obviously depend upon the material to be processed); an appropriate dwelling period for the fabric before the powerful hot washing stage, facilitates the swelling and the dissolution of the thickener blocked in the fabric and the elimination (by diffusion) from the fibres of the dye which passes to the diluted liquor solution. The low concentration of dye (if the two first steps are carried out correctly), the high temperatures reducing their affinity level as well as the use of suitable dissolving agents and detergents, protects the white backgrounds of the fabrics from being affected. For synthetic fibres and particularly for polyesters printed with dissolving agents, the dye on the surface is destroyed by means of reducing alkaline liquors at 70-80C, always with a suitable dissolving agents. The most part of the dye contained in the thickener should be eliminated during the first and the second step; in fact, to destroy the dye not fixed on the fibre or remaining on the surface it is necessary to continuously add alkali and the reducing agent (these continuous additions could be excessive due to the presence of the dye remained from the previous steps). At this point the fabric goes through a hot soaping treatment. Step 4: Rinsing and/or neutralisation. The second step includes the choice of the most suitable washing machine. Washing can be carried out: - with an overflow system (rarely) or in winch machines (rope discontinuous washing which can ensure good final results, cost efficiency and high output, must be evaluated for each specific conditions). - in winch machines equipped with various vats (continuous rope washing), or continuous washing units: this kind of washing can grant high output and cost efficiency but often the quality is really poor). - in continuous open-width washing units for printed fabrics. The washing process is often considered a real bottleneck in the finishing cycle but a reduction of the washing times will certainly lead to poor results (inevitably entailing a further washing stage with the resulting loss of time, increase of costs, delivery delays and possible fabric damage). These machines are designed for washing printed material and are equipped with all possible systems to avoid the most common problems (duplications, contamination of background colours, etc.).

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The most successful systems are continuous open-width machines; they assure the best washing results. In recent times, combined machines (with an open-width washing section and a rope washing section) ensure excellent washing results and also optimum hand for some types of fabrics.
washing jets rotating perforated cylinders conveyor belt

1 step

st

2 step

nd

3 step

rd

4 step

th

Picture 104 - Drawing of a continuous open-width washing range

Picture 105 - Continuous open-width washing range

Picture 106 - Continuous rope washing range

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A new-concept continuous open-width system is particularly interesting. Particularly suitable for washing reactive printed fabrics, thanks to its versatility this method can also be used for washing reactive dyed fabrics or for preparation treatments (desizing). Picture 107 shows the diagram of a treatment until the fabric, thanks to a vertical doublepositioning system, is exposed on both sides to the powerful washing action of the overheated liquor. The complete and quick removal of soluble products and dissolved solid residues is performed by the action of the bath (with high kinetic and thermal energy, at 105C) sprayed by water jets nozzles assembled on the whole width above the upper grooved cylinders (Picture 109); the shape of the grooved cylinders directs the washing liquor laterally and forces it powerfully through the fabric. The washing system operates with a reverse flow of the liquor (counterflow washing) on more washing units; in each unit the washing liquor is filtered before being fed to the superheater by the pumps. A PLC (displaying the parameters on a special screen) controls, regulates and monitors every process.

NOZZLE

GROOVED CYLINDER

STEAM

OVERHEATED WATER WASHING UNIT

HEAT EXCHANGER CONDENSER

STEAM AT 106C

PUMP
LIQUOR AT 95C

Picture 107 Scheme of a washing unit with upper grooved cylinder.

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Picture 108 Detail of the washing unit

Picture 109 Detail of the spraying nozzles

An accurate dimensioning of the system associated with a correct setup grants an optimum degree of reliability in terms of results, thus keeping water consumption low and the output rate good. Thorough control and suitable choice carried out during previous steps also allows considerable reduction of polluting wastewater. The selection of the right washing auxiliaries is another crucial step: a good wetting agent can accelerate the rewetting phase of the thickener thus facilitating its elimination in cold processing conditions and in relatively short times. Since the elimination of the thickener and of the dye can be carried out completely in cold processing conditions, high temperatures can be used only in the subsequent steps of the process. These conditions cause a dangerous increase of the fixing speed of dyes, which could entail the possibility of affecting white backgrounds. Suitable anionic-nonionic or nonionic detergents-dissolving agents can bind to the dye, stabilising it as a solution or dispersion, also in relatively high concentrations. This allows a good and smooth protection of white backgrounds. Another important feature is the foam creation: a low foaming ability avoids or reduces the use of anti-foaming agents, with the consequent benefits. To conclude, washing conditions strictly depend upon the type of printed fabric, the type of fibre and applied dyes.

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Developments in Screen and Cylinder Engraving Techniques and in Textile Printing

Time in days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Printing steaming washing Inspection Delivery Sampling Orders Screen or cylinder engraving Approval Printing steaming washing pattern variations Engraving of sample screens Printing steaming washing Inspection Delivery Manual colour selection and registering on transparent film Manual-analogue operations Analogue-digital operations CAD drawings pattern varying on screen Scanner transferring of design-pattern on screen Digital operations Ink-jet printing on paper Ink-jet printing on fabric

Drawing of the designed pattern on paper

Steaming washing Approval Delivery Orders

Screen/cylinder laser engraving

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The traditional engraving of print screens and cylinders is carried out with the following operations: - drawings are sketched on paper (manual operation); - colours are selected and a transparent polyester film is prepared for each colour to be printed and the (continuous) design is registered (the operations are carried out by hand and/or by photolithographic process); - small panels are engraved for fabric pattern grades; - colour grades are printed on fabric with sample screens, and then steamed and washed; - the customer approves the design and pattern varying; - the screens or cylinders are engraved (traditional photoengraving with photosensitive gels and transparent films); - sample printing, steaming and washing; - production fabric printing. For more than a decade, designs (sketched directly with a computer or scanned and eventually modified) have been digitally reproduced by means of CAD stations. With digital images and dedicated programs, registering operations and colour selection (transparent films are created/stored on a computer) the process has been considerably shortened and simplified. Furthermore thanks to the possibility of manipulating drawings on a computer and reproducing them in the form of transparent films, every pattern variant can be made directly on the screen (with an extremely quick operation) or printed on paper and submitted for customers approval (unfortunately colours are reproduced almost roughly and the fabric cannot be really touched, but the operation is carried out in a few minutes). Now printing times and (partially) costs have further reduced thanks to the latest innovative technologies such as powerful lasers, investment casting and, recently, cold laser (which directly engraves cylinders or flat screens).

Picture 110 Laser engraving of a screen

Picture 111 Laser engraving of a cylinder

However, it is still necessary to engrave panels and cylinders to print the final design on fabric and submit it for the customers approval: these operations need time to be carried out and this the fashion sector cannot stand. Also basic costs for making and storing panels (some designs will never be sold) make this system particularly expensive and difficult for printing todays most required small yardages. An important step forward to partially solving these problems has been made with ink-jet printing techniques.

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Ink-jet Printing
Today, the digital printing technology allows printing fabrics, in particular silk, and cotton fabrics (purposely prepared) but also other substrates, with good quality results for some types of design patterns. For the time being this system is used to prepare samples and small (and possibly customised) lots. Short times are undoubtedly the main advantage for choosing this printing method: in 2-3 hours it is possible to pass from pattern to print with speeds ranging from 1 to 3-4 m per hour. The principle of digital printing In digital printing, small droplets of dyes, in aqueous solution, are sprayed on the fabric to reproduce the pattern. The viscosity of the solutions is low and therefore, to strictly keep the pattern profiles (this problem originates from the capillarity of textile material) and allow a good definition of the pattern, the fabric must be prepared with a special pad-wetting process with thickeners and auxiliaries (typical of traditional printing) and then dried. The printing operation will be followed by a steaming process (to fix the dye) and washing, like traditional printing. Digital printing has several advantages if compared to traditional printing systems: no costs to produce screens, rollers or other printing equipment (production costs range approximately from 210 to 230-520 euro per colour), and the possibility of printing patterns in a few hours (not days or weeks) in all the desired colour variants. Furthermore, limited yardages do not excessively increase costs and patterns can always be slightly modified or customised. For environmental protection and cost reasons, it is also worth considering that this system applies controlled quantities of dyes, thickeners and auxiliaries, avoiding printing paste residues (usually excessive when prepared with traditional printing methods) and their consequent disposal. An inconvenience due to ink-jet printing is the low output efficiency and difficult reproducibility (by changing program or printer), the reduction of the colour space and above all the poor penetration of the dye onto the fabric, with evident discrepancies between the two sides of the fabric. All these problems make this printing system suitable for specific uses. Drop-spraying techniques The Drop-on-Demand technique, i.e. the direct application of a drop of dye on the fabric is the most diffused digital printing technique applied to the textile field. In particular, the nozzle technique used to spray the drop of dye determines the size of the drop itself, the spraying frequency, the accuracy, the evenness and partly also costs and reliability related to the machine. The type of nozzle used also influences the choice of dyes/inks used. Thermal nozzle (HP Technology, Bubble-jet): a small quantity of dye in aqueous solution is heated at 300-400C inside a small container. The steam bubble created causes the drop of ink to be forced through the nozzle and adhere to the fabric, while the quick cooling of the ink creates a concentration of dry ink particles and an immediate stop of the drop. A very high jet frequency can be obtained with this system. This technique makes it possible to use plates with a very high number of nozzles at quite low cost but one of the problems lies in the application of special inks that can be used at high temperatures.

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Furthermore the nozzles can be subjected to continuous and quite rapid deterioration due to deposits (originating from the decomposition of dyes and/or precipitation of salts) produced by high temperatures in the steaming unit. We can briefly conclude by saying that this technique is scarcely reliable due to the colour variations connected with deterioration, and also because when a single nozzle does not efficiently work in a printing head featuring a very high number of nozzles (even though a single nozzle is quite inexpensive) the whole printing head must be replaced thus entailing process interruptions and higher costs. Heating resistances Expanding steam bubble Ink container Forming drop Ejected drop Picture 112 Heated nozzle system Piezoelectric nozzle (Epson, Canon, Roland, Mimaki etc. technology): this technique is essentially that of ejecting drops of ink contained in a small unit by effect of the deformation of a crystal subjected to the action of an electric field. This technique is more precise and reliable that the previous one because crystals are much more strong and hard-wearing than resistances and also because the system reliability remarkably improves thanks to the elimination of the deposit problem; furthermore less sophisticated (and therefore less expensive) dyes/inks can be applied with this system. This technique makes it possible to vary the size of the dye/ink drop by varying the intensity of the electric field. It is still impossible to use plates (printing heads) featuring a very high number of nozzles, and each head is much more expensive than the previous ones. Application of the potential difference Adjustable piezoelectric crystal Ink container Forming drop Ejected drop

Picture 113 Piezoelectric nozzle system The Process printing technique This system essentially reproduces design patterns by means of a technique similar to digital printing (dietering): by using four (four-colour printing with 4 printing heads) or seven colours (seven-colour printing with 7 printing heads) and by mixing and/or spreading on the fabric dye drops of different colours (this step is controlled completely by special software) different shades can be accurately reproduced. The intensity can be adjusted: 105

- VDS Process (Variable Dot Size by analogue modulation): the drop size determines the intensity of the colour shade. - FDS Process (Fixed Dot Size by digital modulation): the number of drops per surface unit determines the intensity of the colour shade. This system allows (by using 4 or 7 standard colours and the same number of plates with nozzles) a quite easy reproduction of a wide coloured area, but creates problems in reproducing patterns with backgrounds in pastel shades (marked dotting, poorly uniform backgrounds), and very unsatisfactory penetration of pastel colours (poorer quantity of liquid ink). Some problem could arise also for the combination of shades and light colours. It is worth considering that the manufacturers of these printing systems are always more oriented towards nozzles granting more and more sharply defined printing (1200-2000 dots per inch), with always smaller droplets: this is an excellent technique for paper printing but not for textile printing, since very high definitions are not necessary and cause reliability problems (nozzles with very small holes which often clog), poor penetration and slow printing.

Process VDS Spot printing technique

Process FDS

Spot

The colours to be reproduced are prepared by mixing master batches (similarly to traditional printing) and suitably diluted (a special colour kitchen must be set up). Therefore it would be necessary to use as many inks as the colours of the pattern and as many printing heads as the colours. This technique allows the printing of the fabric with the same number (maximum number) of ink drops per surface unit, by eliminating dotting problems, unevenness and enhancing the penetration in design patterns with background in pastel colours. Obviously patterns with a huge number of colours cannot be reproduced (each colour must have its corresponding printing head and an excessive number of printing heads would make the printer less reliable). This makes the printing process very difficult and requires using a special colour kitchen, and washing the printing heads at every pattern varying, thus causing time losses and serious problems for nozzles, particularly for piezoelectric nozzles (drop ejecting holes with diameters of 10-12 micron).

Picture 114/115 - Pictures of ink-jet printers

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FUNCTIONAL FINISHING
The chemical structure of natural, artificial or synthetic fibres determines some of the properties that are naturally present also in finished products. Some fibres (such as linen, hemp, silk, nylon, polyester) are stronger than others (wool, viscose, acrylic) according to more or less controlled distribution of macromolecules in the polymer mass, structure stiffness and any possible inter and molecular interaction between the chains; other fibres tend to distort when stretched (cotton, viscose), and others recover their original shape after being distorted (wool); some others easily burn (cellulose), burn slowly and self-extinguish (wool, silk) or burn and melt (synthetic fibres). The above mentioned characteristics and many others make up positive and negative properties of a textile material, which must be accurately considered in view of their final application. The textile product final application will be considered from many points of view: wearability, hand, mechanical resistance, wettability, washability, deformability, fire-proof ability and many others. The word textile finishing defines a series of processing operations applied to gray fabrics to enhance their appearance and hand, properties and possible applications. The term finishing includes all the treatments applied to gray fabrics such as scouring, bleaching, dyeing or printing while we will use the term functional finishing with reference to all the mechanical or chemical finishing operations carried out on fabrics already bleached, dyed or printed to further enhance their properties and possibly add some new ones. The terms finishing and functional finishing are therefore similar and both play a fundamental role for the commercial excellency of the results of textiles, strictly depending on market requirements that are becoming increasingly stringent and unpredictable and permit very short response times. Depending upon the type of textile substrate to be treated (staple, yarn or fabric) functional finishing processes are carried out using different means: Mechanical means: involving the application of physical principles such as friction, temperature, pressure, tension and many others. involving the application of synthesis or natural chemical products, which bind to the fibres more or less permanently involving the application of both chemical and mechanical processes

Chemical substances

Combined mechanical and chemical means

The main purposes of functional finishing processes are the following: - Develop the "product finishing" in all its fundamental elements such as hand and appearance; - Give the finished fabric some properties that grant an optimum behaviour during the makingup and all through the life of the textile. The parameters influencing the choice of the most suitable finishing process are the following: - Fibre nature or fabric to be subjected to functional finishing treatments - Final application of the fabric to be subjected to functional finishing treatments

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Mechanical Finishing Treatments

Mechanical finishing processes can be referred to as those processes generally carried out on open-width dry fabrics, with or without heat application, which give the fabric good dimensional stability (shrink proof and shape retention) and modify the "hand" of the textile product by altering its structure (at least its surface structure) Dry finishing Calendering: a lustrous, dense and compact appearance can be obtained by means of friction, pressure and heat. this calendering operation is carried out using special calenders and exploiting the combined actions of heat, friction and polishing agents. this particular type of calendering process allows engraving a simple pattern on the fabric. thanks to this process, the fabric has a much softer hand and an improved insulating effect thanks to the fibre end pulled out of the fabric surface. This process is carried out by means of a roller coated with abrasive material. he fibre end pulled out to the fabric surface imparts an insulating effect. This process is carried out by means of hook-needles running in different directions on the fabric. the fibre ends on the fabric surface are cut by using special cutting tools. the fibre ends pulled out to the fabric surface are burnt by means of a flame (see preliminary treatments).

Ciring:

Embossing:

Sueding:

Raising:

Shearing: Singeing:

Wet finishing Wet calendering: this process is quite similar to the dry one. The only difference is the use of steam. Fulling: the structure, bulk and shrinkage of wool are modified by applying heat combined with friction and compression. the fabric is given an optimum dimensional stability by applying mechanic forces and water vapour. the lustrous appearance of the textile material is eliminated, the surface is smoothed and the fabric is given an optimum dimensional stability thanks to the action of dry or overheated saturated vapour.

Sanforising:

Decating:

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Calendering
This non-permanent mechanical finishing treatment is applied to fabrics made of cellulose, protein and synthetic fibres, by means of a calender. This machine generally includes one or a series of couples of rollers pressed one against the other with adjustable pressure and identical or similar tip speeds. The cloth passes through one or more couples of rollers, which exert a smoothing and a pressing action. Some rollers are stiff while some others are made of softer material. Stiff rollers are generally made of steel or hardened cast iron and the surface can be chrome-plated, nickel-plated or made of stainless steel and can be subjected to treatments that give: a matt appearance similar to the abrasive blasting; a cross-stripe engraving to improve the fabric resistance to sliding; a very thin diagonal stripe patterning with silk-sheen appearance; a patterned engraving with embossed effects. The fabric passing through the rollers of the calender is subjected to a very uniform pressure all along its width; if the rollers rotate at a different speed, a vigorous friction effect is generated. Steel rollers may be equipped in such a way to be heated from the inside by means of steam, circulating fluids or electrical power. They are supported by a vertical central frame made of steel, having the same size of rigid rollers, while the surface is coated with softer material like cotton (to stand high temperatures), wool paper (to enhance the glaze finish), or jute, wool or plastic material such as polyamide. The rollers coated with paper/wool, containing 45-50% of wool, feature good elasticity and excellent resistance to wear and are suitable for a wide variety of applications; they can also be used in embossing calendering units. Rollers made of paper/cotton, are used almost in friction calenders and for treating hard fibres, thanks to their high resistance capacity. Cotton rollers, featuring higher elasticity than the paper ones, are mainly used for cotton and blends finishing and for a final full hand effect. The life of cotton-polyester or polyamide rollers is considerably longer; in fact they are very resistant and cannot be easily etched by the passage of creases, knots or sewing. Thanks to their improved hardness, they produce on the fabric a particularly lustrous appearance and allow higher operating speeds. The effects on the cloth can be set permanently by using thermoplastic fibres or by applying suitable (thermosetting resin or reactive-based substances) finishing products. The use of different types of calenders gives different effects such as: Sheen appearance: it can be obtained by smoothing the cloth surface, which ensures a better reflection of light. Better coverage: it is due to the compression of the cloth, which generates a flattening of each single yarn. Softer hand: it is obtained thanks to a slight ironing effect, which produces a smoother, and softer cloth surface. Surface patterns: they can be obtained by means of special effects ("embossing" for example) for decorative purposes or to modify the surface smoothness. Yarn swelling and rounding effect: they give a modest glaze finishing to the fabric, a surface smoothness and above all a full and soft hand.

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The main types of calendering units are: Two-roller calenders: they are made up of a smooth roller coupled with a metallic one, which can be heated. The tip speeds of the two cylinders can be different: this system architecture produces a certain friction, which gives a high glaze effect to the fabric. The lustrous effect depends on the different rotation speed, pressure and temperature. Three-roller calenders: the most common combinations are the following: - smooth-steel-smooth rollers: this structure allows a better lustrous effect and gives the cloth more bulk. - steel-smooth-smooth rollers: this combination allows different effects. When the cloth passes through smooth rollers a matt appearance is given to the cloth together with fuller hand.

Picture 116 - Two-roller calender

Picture 117 - Three-roller calender

Universal calenders: these calenders, equipped with 3-5-7 or even more rollers, are referred to as universal calenders. They can give the fabric different effects; some of them are detailed below: roll effect: flattened fabric, high coverage ratio, soft hand and moderate glaze; matt effect: high coverage ratio, soft hand and matt effect; lustrous effect: this effect originates from friction created during the passage between a smooth and a steel roller. Mercerising-like calenders: by means of a high pressure (300-400 Kg/cm 2) and temperature, applied during the passage of the cotton cloth (which is still wet when passing through the rollers) a highly glazy effect can be created, similar to the one obtained with the mercerising process. Silk calenders (silky effect): the silky effect is obtained by feeding the cloth between a steel roller engraved with very thin diagonal stripes and a paper, cotton or rubber roller. Satin or poplin fabrics are generally treated with this type of calender. The engraved cylinder can be headed to enhance the modification of the fabric surface.

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Silk effect

Roll effect

Matt effect

Mangling calenders: they exert a strong pressure on a cloth wound in rolls. The effect of such a pressure between the yarns leads to an accentuated rounding of the yarn with a subsequent increase of the fabric density and a highly lustrous finish. Mangler calendering can be carried out by feeding the wound cloth between two or three cylinders, which exert a powerful pressure by an alternating rolling-off and rewinding motion. This treatment is particularly valuable for pure linen or linen blend fabrics, which can be subjected to pressures up to 40 t. Chaising calenders: the arrangement of rollers in chaising calenders allow the fabric to be wound several times inside the calender in a number of layers ranging from 5 to 13. In this way the pressure is not exerted directly by the flat surfaces of the cylinders but by the fabric itself. The warp and weft yarns carry out a progressive rounding action; the result is a precious lustrous effect, a more bulky, full and compact hand, similar to the one obtained with mangling calenders. Raising calenders: these calenders are used for finishing wool fabrics. They are made up of a single roller on which a metal raisers is pressed. The metal raising device envelops almost half of the whole circumference of the roller. This special calandering process gives a good lustrous effect, obtained by friction and by a moderate pressure exerted on the fabric. Moir effect: this attractive effect can be produced by means of a process that is essentially one of minute surface embossing or pressing of a fabric with crenellated, or ridged rollers. The pattern is imprinted on the raised filling yarns and the luster is produced by the divergent reflection of light on the lines impressed on the patterned design. This effect can be preferably given to silk, Rayon, wool, and linen fabrics. A good Moir effect can be with fabrics with coarse weft yarns and fine warp ones.

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6 fabric positions

Picture 118 Winding-unwinding mangler

Picture 119 - Chaising calender

Embossing
Embossing is a particular calendering process through which a simple pattern can be engraved on the cloth. The embossing machine is made up of a heated and embossed roller made of steel, which is pressed against another roller coated with paper or cotton, its circumference being exactly a whole multiple of the metal roller. A gear system drives the harmonised motion of the rollers, preventing them from sliding and granting a sharp engraving of the patterned design. After being engraved, the pattern can be stabilised by means of an appropriate high-temperature treatment or by applying suitable starchy substances.

Sueding
This operation is often carried out before the raising process to reduce the friction between the fibres making up the cloth and consequently to facilitate the extraction of the fibre end. The sueding process is carried out on both sides of the fabric and modifies the appearance and the final hand of the cloth; when touched it gives a soft and smooth sensation similar to the one given by a peach-grain surface. The sueding machine is made up of some rotating rollers coated with abrasive paper, which emerise the cloth and produce a more or less marked effect depending upon the pressure exerted on the fabric by the abrasive rollers. The abrasive paper used can vary according to the desired sueding degree and must be replaced after a given number of operating hours, or when it does not properly carry out suitably the sueding function. In some cases, it is possible to use also metal rollers with the surface coated with uneven and rough grains or pumice rollers performing an excellent sueding action on both dry or wet fabrics. For a very superficial sueding, the natural abrasive power of pumice can be applied with successful results. Gray fabrics as well as dyed ones can be subjected to the sueding process; the cloth to be emerised must be completely free from any finishing resin or adhesive substance remaining on the fabric surface after desizing. The sueding process reduces mechanic and dynamometric resistance of the fabric, thus making it more subject to tearing and seaming.

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The fabric can run at different speeds inside the sueding unit; a smooth pressure is kept thanks to two balancing arms assembled at the entry and at the exit of the unit. The pieces of cloth must be sewn with abrasion-resistant material such as polyester or nylon. The gears must be suitably cleaned with compressed air jets since the presence of pile residues could clog the ball bearings or drop again on the fabric surface thus creating some problems with dyeing machines filters. The sueding process, which can affect the fabric with a very wide range of effects, can give some problem when applied to knitted tubular goods but its widely used on woven fabrics with different weights and weaves (its application ranges from coarse jeans cloth to light and delicate silk or microfibre, coated fabrics and imitation leather).

Picture 120 A 6-cylinder sueding machine

Picture 121 A 24-cylinder sueding machine

The sueding unit is equipped with 6 rollers performing the sueding action on the face of the fabric and 1 roller performing its action of the back of the fabric; an advantage of this system is the possibility to use sueding cloths with different grains on each single roller. Thanks to three dandy rollers, the sueding action can be automatically adjusted during the fabric processing thus allowing the sueding process to be carried out also on knitted goods. The 24-roller sueding unit assembled on 2 rotating drums features some advantages if compared to traditional machines equipped with 4-6-8 rollers: the combined action of several rotating rollers and the beating effect grant a smooth sueding, and a much softer hand than any other machine; no differences are generated between the centre and the selvedge; no stripes are formed on the fabric; the wide contact surface allows very high operating rates. The great number of moving rollers performs a gentle action on each single sueding roller thus granting the maximum sueding smoothness. Furthermore the life of the abrasive cloth is much longer than the one assembled on conventional machines. In fact, 100,000150,000 meters of synthetic fabric and up to 200,000250,000 meters of 100% cotton fabric can be processed in standard processing conditions before replacing the abrasive; sueding units can also be transformed into raising (napping) units by assembling a special conversion kit. All sueding machines are equipped with a brushing unit assembled at the exit to reduce the powder resulting from the sueding process.

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Raising (Napping)
The raising process is a very old technique known also to Romans (as pictured in some paintings found in Pompeii). This operation is particularly suitable for wool and cotton fabrics; it gives a fuzzy surface by abrading the cloth and pulling the fibre end to the surface. During those last years this process has also been applied on polyester/viscose blends and acrylic fabrics. By means of this process a hairy surface can be given to both face and back of the cloth providing several modifications of the fabric appearance, softer and fuller hand and bulk increase. This enhances the resistance of the textile material to atmospheric agents, by improving thermal insulation and warmth provided by the insulating air cells in the nap. The fuzzy surface is created by pulling the fibre end out of the yarns by means of metal needles provided with hooks shelled into the rollers that scrape the fabric surface. The ends of the needles protruding from the rollers are 45-hooks; their thickness and length can vary and they are fitted in a special rubber belt spiral-wound on the raising rollers. These rollers are generally alternated with a roller with hooks directed toward the fabric feed direction (pile roller), and a roller with the hooks fitted in the opposite direction (counterpile roller).
Counterpile raising roller (CP) Pile raising roller (P)

Picture 122 - Raising rollers The machine also includes some rotating brushes, which suction-clean the nibs in pile and counterpile directions. Actually the trend goes towards a ratio of raising rollers/pile rollers equal to? or 1/3. The two series of rollers have independent motion and can rotate with different speed and direction thus carrying out different effects.

Picture 123 Raising (napping) machine:1: roller; 2: rollers equipped with hooks; 3: fabric;4: nib cleaning brushes;5: fabric tension adjustment

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The action of these systems is almost powerful and the results depend upon the effects and the type of fabric desired . The raising effect can be obtained by adjusting the fabric tension (5) or by adjusting the speed and the roller rotation direction (2). Once a certain limit has been exceeded, the excessive mechanical stress could damage the fabric: it is therefore better, when carrying out a powerful raising, to pass the wet fabric through the raising machine many times (dry when processing cotton fabrics) and treat the fabrics in advance with softening-lubricating agents. The pile extraction is easier when carried out on single fibres: it is therefore suitable to reduce the friction between the fibres by wetting the material or, in case of cellulose fibres, by previously steaming the fabric. For the same reasons, it is better to use slightly twisted yarns. The same machine allows different options of independent motions: - fabric moving between entry and exit - motion of large drum - motion of raising rollers

Picture 124 - Raising the face and back of the fabric: a) scheme; b) view The raising intensity can be adjusted by suitably combining the above mentioned independent motions, the tension of the textile material, the number of pilewise or counterpile raising rollers and their relative speed. It is possible to obtain combed pile raising effect, "semi-felting" effect with fibres pulled out and re-entered in the fabric, and complete felting effect.

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Picture 125 Raising machine equipped with 2 rotary drums, each featuring 24 rollers The raising machine shown in Picture 125 is equipped with two overlapping drums each one featuring 24 rollers, which can process two faces or face and back of the same fabric. The drums assembled on a standard machine can rotate separately one from the other in the fabric feeding direction or in the opposite direction by carrying out a counter rotation. In this model all the functions are carefully monitored and controlled by a computer system; in particular all the commands are driven by alternating power motors controlled by "Sensorless" vector inverters. The control electric system features: - PLC programmable controller for machine and alarms automation; - touch screen to program and update all processing parameters; - operating conditions of each single raising process (up to one million recipes") that can be stored to facilitate the batch reproduction. Furthermore, a series of special pressure rollers can be assembled on the feeding cylinders to prevent the fabric from sliding, thus granting an extremely smooth raising. The raising process ability lies merely in raising the desired quantity of fibre ends without excessively reducing the fabric resistance. For this reason, the technique applying the alternated use of pile and counterpile rollers is the most widely used since it minimises the loss of fibres from the fabric and the consequent resistance reduction. Standard raising machines have been designed to work with fabrics powerfully tensioned essentially because they are not equipped with an efficient and reliable tension control. This gives rise to the effects detailed below: 1) the contact surface between the fabric and the raising cylinders is quite small; 2) the hook nibs work only superficially on the fabric and the raising effect is quite reduced; 3) the fabric width is drastically reduced. The above mentioned inconveniences have now been eliminated thanks to the last generation of raising machines (shown in Paris at ITMA 99), which reduce the number of passages and carry out the raising process by gently tensioning the fabric.

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These recent raising machines have been equipped with an extremely accurate and self-adjusting system for feed tension control; the relationships between the ratios of the roller relative speed of the cylinders are electronically controlled by a PLC. The above mentioned parameters are constantly monitored and adjusted and a wider range of effects can be homogeneously carried out and reproduced; all this results in - quality excellency with higher coverage and limited loss o fibres; - higher production output with a reduced number of passages (up to 50%); - consequent saving with lower costs per treated fabric unit. A 24-roller machine can feature one of the following possible architectures : 1:1 Conventional system - 12 CPs + 12 Ps

2:1 System - 16 CPs + 8 Ps A greater pile density can be obtained with this system since this machine features 4 extra CP rollers (performing as true raisers), but the pile length is slightly shorter due to the reduced number of P rollers.

3:1 System - 18 CPs + 6 Ps Same as above but now the number of CP cylinders is still greater than 2. Consequently the hair pulled out is thicker but its length is further reduced. In most cases the shorter piles do not create any problem since the raising process is followed by a shearing (cutting) one.

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System 1 24 CPs napping unit This system is used for napping purposes, i.e. to felt the fibre end previously passed on special fabrics such as blankets, cotton plush and/or polyester, polar fleece.

System 1.3 - 6 CPs + 18 Ps This system is used to loosen the hairs; the number of P rollers is greater that the CP one. This system is mainly used to loose the hair on polar fleece fabrics before the final shearing process.

Picture 126 The most common arrangements for a 24-roller raising machine

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Wool Glazing Machine

This special machine is used to perform functional finishing on wool fabrics after raising. The machine is made up of two different units. The starching unit includes: - a vat containing water and silicones; - a variable-speed extracting cylinder to reduce the quantity of liquid to be passed onto the fabric; - a brush coated with horsehair adhering to the extracting cylinder and passing the liquid onto the fibre ends of the fabric, simultaneously combing and lining up the fibres. The glazing unit includes: - a crenellated polishing cylinder (made of steel and coated with hard chrome) heated by means of electric resistances at temperatures up to 220C and four spiral grooves on which hard-steel combs are assembled. These combs have very fine teeth to enhance the efficiency of fibre ironing during the process; - a felt sleeve, rotating at the same speed of the fabric, presses the fabric onto the polishing cylinder. The contact arc on the polishing cylinder can vary and the cylinder can reach a temperature of 130C. The fabric with the fibre ends already combed and wet come under the polishing cylinder, which dries and irons the pile, and confers a lustrous appearance by giving a soft and smooth hand, also thanks to the silicones added to the starching vat (thanks to this process the fabric acquires a hand similar to the precious wool one). By adjusting the temperature and the speed of the polishing cylinder, the contact arc of the fabric on the cylinder and the contrasting pressure of the felting material, it is possible to obtain different types of finishing (from the laid down to the perfectly lined up one).

Picture 127 Wool glazing machine

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Shearing
This cutting operation, complementary to raising, determines the height of the fibre end irregularly raised during the raising process; the resulting effect affects the appearance and the hand of the fabric, which becomes velvet-like. The machine is made up of: - velveting brush - velveting table - shearing cylinder equipped with helical blades - doctor blade - shearing table - lubrication felt. The fabric, after a brushing operation facilitating the raising, is fed on a shearing table forcing it to follow an acute angle direction. In this way the fibres raised by the cutting cylinder are correctly positioned to be sharply cut; the cutting cylinder rotates very quickly and carries out the first blade-cutting operation; the second fixed blade is represented by the doctor blade that stops the pile and cuts it. At this point the action of another brush adjusts uniformly the pile covering the fabric and the suction unit removes the sheared ends. When the shearing is carried out on velvet fabrics, during the final brushing the pile is not only adjusted but also set by blowing overheated steam on the back of the fabric. Obviously, to perform a perfectly smooth operation the shearing drum must not oscillate and must show a perfectly circular section. Also the doctor blade must have a sharp and perfectly even profile and the shearing table must be always positioned at perfectly uniform distance from the doctor blades, with no raised areas. Depending upon the desired length of the pile, the shearing table, the helical blades and the fixed blade are perfectly adjusted and calibrated: the resulting effects depend upon these adjustments (one tenth of a millimetre accuracy is allowed) and upon the blade grinding.

Picture 128 - A shearing machine: A = fabric; B = gib;C = fixed blade; D = helical blades;E = suction unit; F = brushing drum. The fabric passes under a rotating brush, which raises the pile and pushes it towards the fixed blade. The fabrics is tensioned by means of special gears and slides on a bar provided with a cutting edge that keeps it the fabric in a correct position and drives the pile through the two bladesThe fibre ends are cut by the contact between the fixed blade and the rotating helical blade; the contact point moves quickly on the whole width of the fabric following the cylinder rotation and cuts the fibre ends between the two blades. Obviously the following cutting passages must be as close as possible to make the weaves on the fabric surface less evident. The 120

distance of the following cutting passages depends upon the number of blades assembled on the machine (from 16 to 24), upon the cylinder revolutions per minute (from 700 to 1200) and upon the feeding speed of the fabric: D = V/g n (where (V) is the feeding speed of the fabric expressed in cm per minute, (g) is the number of revolutions per minute performed by the cylinder equipped with blades, and (n) is the number of the cylinder blades). To avoid overheating due to the friction between the helical blades and the fixed blade, a woollen felt (which is usually covered with a special lubricating oil every 2/4 operating hours) is assembled on the cylinder. The shearing units must controlled and ground at regular intervals. The shearing height is generally adjusted by raising/lowering the shearing unit with reference to the shearing table and only a few hundredths of millimetre accuracy is allowed. These units also include an electropneumatic device, which automatically makes the seam slide under the velveting and shearing unit. The cuts will be slanting to the fabric. To obtain a better evenness of the fabric surface, the shearing operation must be carried out with two cylinders equipped with helical blades arranged in the opposite direction, or with an even number of passages carried out with cylinders rotating each time in the opposite direction (crosscuts). Both shearing and raising machines must be equipped with devices which decrease the fabric tension (shearing machines) or raise the blade (raising machines) when the seam joining the cloths passes through the machine; this prevents the fabric from tearing and avoids undesirable machine stops. Also patterns may be cut into the fabrics by shearing to give a sculptured effect, like with raising, or by using special fixed or mobile blades.

Stabilisation
This process produces greater density and stability (e.g. the Sanforset process) and gives the fabric a controlled compression shrinkage, which eliminates distortions originated during previous processes. The fabric finished with this treatment keeps its shape also after repeated washing thus providing an excellent dimensional stability of the textile substrate. The fabric is fed into an opener/tension-adjusting device, and subsequently passes through a wetting unit where the quantity of water necessary for bulking the material is sprayed on the fabric. A steaming treatment can be carried out by passing the fabric onto a heated cylinder, which allows the water spreading in the fibre bulk and completes its swelling. The textile material passes to a stenter which gives the fabric the desired width and is then fed into the rubber-belt squeezing unit. The fabric shrinkage is carried out with several simple operations: the rubber belt pressed between the squeezing cylinder and the drum is stretched and, once out of this squeezing unit, it again takes its original shape. The fabric is made to adhere to the rubber belt in the squeezing area and, since it can slide more easily on the heated and mirror-polished surface of the drum than on the rubber one, it is forced to follow it during the subsequent shrinkage. The resulting effect is a continuous and steady sliding between the drum and the rubber belt and consequently between the drum and the fabric. Since the stretching of the rubber belt depends upon the intensity of the pressure exerted by the squeezing cylinder, each pressure variation corresponds to a shrinkage variation. Therefore the higher the pressure the greater the shrinking effect.

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extention

fabric line

fabric

rubber

pressure roller

warmed roller

Picture 129 - Compacting process After leaving the squeezing unit the fabric is sent out to the drying unit (180-190) with the slightest possible tension. The fabric is fed into a felt calender, which sets the shrinkage. The fabric immediately after the squeezing compression must be subjected to the slightest tensions and the moisture must not exceed optimum values.
fabric fabric

Picture 130 Shrink area Tubular knitted goods can be treated on stenters (to impart dimensional stability), only after the cutting operation and eventual bonding. Drying and dimensional stabilisation of tubular knitted goods can be obtained by passing the relaxed fabric into belt drying units and by steaming them in the final path.

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Picture 131 Compacting process for tubular knitted fabrics The fabric (T), wet or dampened with a solution containing softening agents in a vat (V), is laid down, overfed by a little calender (C), on metal-mesh vibrating conveyor belts (N) into a drying unit. On the first two conveyor belts, the fabric is dried with hot air (1) while vibrations make the fabric shrink freely; the steaming treatment (2), which sets the dimensional stability, increases the fabric bulk and gives a soft hand to the fabric, is carried out on a third conveyor belt. The fabric is then folded in a special folding unit (A). In case of further cutting and bonding units, a shrinking machine can be added to the system.

Decating
This process is mainly carried out on wool by exploiting its elastic properties in hot and wet conditions by the direct action of the steam on the fabric. This treatment gives the processed fabric the following characteristics: 1) dimensional stability; 2) setting of pile after raising; 3) reduction of possible glazing effect after calendering, thank to the swelling caused by steam blown on fibres; 4) modification of the hand, which is much more consistent after the treatment; 5) pre-stabilisation to autoclave dyeing This category of treatments does not include the stabilisation of wool fabrics such as potting, where the dimensional stabilisation is obtained thanks to the "plasticisation" phenomenon occurring when the wool fabric is immersed in hot water. On fabrics made with other fibres, the same treatment can be carried out as "steam ironing" alternatively to the calendering treatment, when an excessive "glazing effect" could result from the treatment. The steam decating, which is also referred to as dry decating, is carried out on decating machines in one continuous treatment or two discontinuous ones, according to the following operating techniques: - drum decating (alternated at atmospheric pressure); - autoclave vacuum decating (KD); - continuous decating.

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Alternated decating. In discontinuous decating processes, the fabric is wound, together with the satin (2) or beaverteen blanket (1) on a large perforated drum (90 cm) on which some meters of blanket or similar cloth have been previously rolled. By using large rollers, it is possible to wind the same quantity of cloth with a thinner density of the roller, to allow the steam imparting a more uniform effect and reducing the differences between the tail and the head. The steam, at a temperature that can reach 130C and a pressure of up to 6 bars, is forced into the cylinder through the fabric roll (i.e. it is forced through both fabric and blanket) for an interval of time that can range from 1 and 3-4 minutes, according to the desired effect. The steam is then exhausted by means of a pump. Autoclave decating (Kessel-Dekatur) Thanks to the possibility of reaching higher temperatures (130C) and greater pressures (up to 6 bar), the setting effect is markedly more durable than when working at atmospheric pressure. This treatment is now well appreciated and commonly used to give dimensional stability to all combed fabrics and also to some carded ones. The machine can be divided into two main compartments: the fabric taking up area and the horizontal autoclave. Recently, semi-automatic systems have been successfully developed and improved thanks multiple-position stations, which allow preparing a new roller and unloading the treated one while a third roller is undergoing the decating treatment.

Picture 132 Loading system of a pressure decating unit

(1) Beaverteen: raised technical fabric, used as a blanket in fabric decating process when the desired effect is a bulky hand and a matt appearance. Technical features of the most common types of beaver teens: width ranging from 176 to 178cm, weight varying from 190 to 600 gr/m 2; thickness 1.5-2mm; structure: polyester warp, cotton weft; polyamide warp, cotton weft; warp and weft 50% polyester/50% cotton. (2) Satin: technical textile used as a blanket in discontinuous decating (in drum or autoclave). The main characteristics of a satin are the following: 1) dimensional stability; 2)consistent steam permeability; 3) resistance to chemical agents and to steam; 4) no negative side effects. The most common fibre structures are the following: 1) polyester (65-50%)/cotton (35-50%), weft and warp; 2) 65% polyester warp / 35% cotton; 65% cotton warp/ 35% polyamide; 3) warp and weft 65% cotton / 35% polyamide. The life of a satin depends upon: 1) the presence of chemical products on the fabric; 2) the quality of the steam.

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It is worth considering that the setting effect is directly proportional to the increase of process time and steam pressure and consequently to temperature. The increase of both factors causes a marked yellowing of the wool together with a progressive deterioration of the peculiar qualities of the fibre (resistance, elasticity and soft hand). Continuous decating The need to speed up the processing cycles has led to the development of continuous systems, which give better output rates, no head-tails differences, no marks on the fabrics due to seams necessary to sew the heads and sometimes moir effects (surface pattern resembling water ripples). The only disadvantage is a less powerful effect given by the treatment; in particular an unsuitable stabilisation for all products. The continuous decating process carried out under pressure allows a permanent setting of the wool fabric, which is obtained through a first processing step with saturated vapour under pressure (which can reach a temperature exceeding 135C), while a second cooling step grants the surface and dimensional stabilisation. For handling purposes, the fabric is compressed between a large perforated roller, coated with a heavy textile coat and a thick endless layer made of dense cotton/polyester felting material. All along its path the fabric is treated (using different systems) with steam supplied by means of special delivering units assembled under the conveyor belt in the lower part of the cylinder, and subsequently cooled with air. The intensity of the treatment can be adjusted by adjusting the process speed, the pressure between the cylinder and the conveyor belt, the moisture degree and the steam pressure.

Picture 133 - Continuous pressure decating process

Steaming
The tensionless steaming process of wool fabrics is the most widely used technique to obtain a good dimensional stability to ironing with steam press. The steam action involves the hygroscopic swelling of the fibres with a subsequent relaxation or shrinkage of the fabric, which recovers its "natural" shape. The steaming process eliminates also all the residual tensions. The machines used to carry out this treatment are called tensionless steaming machines (tensionless steaming) or steamingshrinking machines.

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The tensionless steaming units can be divided into four main sections: 1) feeding section where the fabric is laid on a continuous conveyor belt by means of an overfeeding system coated with a technical fabric made of synthetic material, stable in regard to the action of heat, featuring such a weave to ease passage of steam. It generally vibrates for a better relaxation of the fabric and keeps it quite suspended inside the steaming tunnel. 2) steaming area with one or two steaming tunnels with a suction system. 3) cooling area equipped with a suction unit assembled under the conveyor belt to eliminate the residual moisture. 4) fabric take up area, where a dandy roller or an optical control system adjust the speed to prevent any stretching of the rolled or folded fabric. Technical innovations applied to the steaming processes aim at obtaining a better and final relaxation of the fabric and a reduction of the steaming stage, which requires a great quantity of steam (which is mostly dispersed outside through vents) and long processing times, since good results can be obtained only by keeping the fabric in contact with steam for a long time. The various machine manufactures have developed special systems to cut processing times and steam quantity and obtain an optimum relaxation of the fabric. The system shown in Picture 134, features a programmed and controlled dampening system assembled before the steaming tunnel.

Picture 134 - Steaming-shrinking unit: 1) double braking bar; 2) fabric centring device; 3) dampener; 4) adjusting cylinder; 5) compensating cylinder; 6) moisture sensor; 7) feeding cylinder; 8) feeding sensor; 9) steam application field; 10) suction hood; 11) vibrating device; 12) blowing unit; 13) suction unit; 14) fabric unloading regulator; 15) fabric unloading cylinder; 16) variable folding device.

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Picture 135 - Detail of the automatic fabric dampening system The dampening system has been introduced into the steaming unit for the reasons detailed below. - Steaming generally tends to reduce the moisture percentage dispersed in the fabric and therefore the pre-dampening operation grants a recovery ratio of the fabric after the treatment certainly better than the one obtained with a standard system. - The moisture dispersed in the dampened fabric fed into the steaming system is transformed into steam thus providing better shrinkage and relaxation results. - Commercial tests have shown a remarkable steam saving obtained thanks to the vaporisation of water previously sprayed on the fabric. The set up of the steaming-shrinking-crabbing unit has allowed great steam saving, a remarkably increased output rate and high-quality final results. The basic elements characterising this new type of steaming unit are detailed below: - the steaming tunnel with new design and architecture, grants an efficient air exhaust and the addition of a saturated vapour compartment with almost no-oxygen prevents any possible fabric defect caused by standard steam feeding units; - the steam is fed and controlled according to the real consumption, thus avoiding any dispersion inside the tunnel; - the temperature is controlled and adjusted according to the type of fabric and fibre to be treated; - any outlet exhausting in the atmosphere has been eliminated and consequently all heat dispersion has been eliminated.

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In another type of steaming machine the fabric is exposed to the steam action with tensionless feeding thanks to a suspended fabric system which avoids the use of a conveyor belt.

Picture 136 Shrinking-steaming machine with hanging fabric The suspended fabric system has the following advantages: - energy saving with the same relaxation effect thanks to the steam recirculated into the steaming compartments; - lower processing temperatures, greater quantity of water vapour; - longer dampening times with the same machine speed, due to a greater quantity of fabric fed into the "hanging fabric compartments "; - automatic self-adjustment of the tensionless take-up of the fabric inside the compartments, thanks to the shrinkage controlling system which monitors each single cloth and to the improved driving system. The system includes a double cooling compartment with forced ventilation (thermal shock) in the final section aiming at simultaneously cooling down the fabric and relaxing the internal tensions of the fabric structure.

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Chemical Finishing Treatments

By applying chemicals of different origins, a fabric can receive properties otherwise impossible to obtain with mechanical means. Chemical finishing treatments: - allow the stabilisation of fabrics already subjected to mechanical finishing processes, such as calendering; - give fabrics some properties (e.g. flame retardancy and water repellency), which would be otherwise absent The products used can be classified as follows: - Natural (adhesives, fats, oils, starches) - Artificial (modified starches, modified cellulose) - Synthetic (synthesis products) including: N-methylol derivatives (thermosetting, reactants), linear reactants (carbamates, epoxy resins), thermoplastic polymers (vinyl, acrylic, polyethylene), polyurethanes and silicones. This classification, helpful for students, does not coincide with the products actually sold on the market since these products are blends containing also catalysts and auxiliaries which interact and produce complementary effects. It is therefore necessary to underline how chemical finishing can affect the textile product by altering its mechanical properties, sometimes changing the colour shade or its original colour fastness. Different techniques are available for applying the above mentioned finishing substances: by solution, dispersion, and emulsion, pad wetting, exhaustion, coating, spraying, etc. The most appropriate technique must be carefully studied for each fibre type, and the most suitable chemical finishing process applied to obtain optimum results and grant a reasonable safety margin for any possible error. Application of the finish The operations to be carried out when applying the finish to a textile substrate are mostly conditioned by the structural and hygroscopic properties of the material to be processed, by the desired effects, by the physical and chemical nature of the elements that make up the finishing substance and by the machines output rate. In textile finishing, we can distinguish between five main application techniques: a) padding; b) spraying by means of atomisers; c) exhaust process in treatment liquor; d) coating carried out by means of doctor knives; e) controlled application of low liquor quantities. Padding is by far the most common among the various finishing techniques.

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Padding This is certainly the most popular process for both the most conventional and innovative finishing treatments. The machine used for this process can be referred to with various definitions such as padding unit, squeezing unit, etc. After ensuring that the textile substrate can be padded by evaluating its mechanical and structural properties, this technique can be applied to carry out all wet finishing operations, except for some cases (see pad dyeing for details about the machinery used). Spraying The application of finishing substances by spraying is used for carrying out gentle finishing processes which leave on the textile material a small concentration of products, and is particularly indicated for applying softening, anti-static and anti-mildew agents. For a good and homogeneous penetration and diffusion of the finish in the textile material, it is better to let the sprayed and wound fabric rest for some hours before drying. In the last few years, a very important field has been developed in the textile sector, i.e. the production of webs made of synthetic fibres. For this particular type of product, the resincoating process is carried out only by spraying the finish directly on the fibrous substrate and by generally applying synthetic resins in aqueous emulsion. Exhaustion The treatment of yarns or fabrics in exhaustion liquor is recommended above all when stable chemical products are applied on the textile substrate. The manufacturing process undergone by the material is useful to precisely evaluate the best method for applying the finish, for example on hosiery or tubular knitted goods. From a chemical point of view, the most suitable products for the exhaust process are those with cationactive properties. In particular cation-active softening agents are often applied with this process, as well as paraffin- and wax-based emulsions, and more recently, cation-active polymer emulsions. Coating At present, after the launch and diffusion of synthetic resins, the so called "coating and bonding applications have been experiencing an extraordinary growth, above all in Italy. Coated and bonded fabrics are now simply classified, according to their end use, i.e. for garments, upholstery, draperies and tapestries, footwear, leather goods and technical articles. Generally the process starts from a fabric or from a non-woven fabric as a backing. All fibres can be used, from light silk to linen and hemp, from synthetic fibres to glass fibres. As regards the resins used for the coating layer, manufacturers once employed only natural substances, but are now using almost exclusively synthetic polymers of high molecular weight.

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Today manufacturers are constantly in the search for coating substances that are more and more elastic, able to withstand different mechanical stress and washing conditions, and above all resistant to wearing and weather agents. These coating polymers are bonded to the fabric backing by means of calenders, in the form of thin sheets or are mainly spread in the form of aqueous dispersions or solutions in solvents. The characteristics and the properties of coated fabrics depend on the chemical structure of the coating resins applied and the type of backing fabric used. The coating layer undoubtedly plays the most important role for appearance, hand and resistance properties: its elasticity, its behaviour at high and low temperatures, its resistance to abrasion, to solvents and to the effect of ageing and weather agents, depend on its chemical composition as a substance with a high molecular weight and more or less thermoplastic qualities. The coating technique Coated fabrics are divided into specific categories according to the following scheme: - fabric based on natural, artificial and synthetic fibres; - coating layer of natural or synthetic resins. The coating layer can be obtained with the following processes: 1. bonding with thin resin film; 2. direct coating with resins; 3. indirect resin coating with the transfer technique. In the first process method, now scarcely used, the fabric is bonded to its fabric backing on special calenders. This process is still used today to manufacture tablecloths by applying a thin PVC film to the fabric. In the direct coating process the resin is spread directly on the fabric by means of a doctor knife or a cylinder with the following methods: air knife; knife on belt; knife on cylinder; "reverse-roll" cylinder.

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Since the fabric, in all the above mentioned cases during the coating, drying and winding operations is always subject to warp wise tension, these coating methods can be only used on compact or stretch-resistant fabrics. Obviously these methods cannot be used on knitted goods. During the air coating process and the belt coating one, the quantity of resin spread is relatively small and the desired thickness can be achieved only by applying successive layers, each one stabilised with an intermediate drying stage.

Air knife

Knife on rubber cylinder

Knife on steel cylinder

Reverse-roll cylinder

Picture 137 - Doctor knife coating The knife can have a more or less rounded profile; the quantity of resin spread is measured in grams per square meter of dry substance and is determined by the dry content of resin, by the coating speed and by the knife profile. The greater the process speed, the smaller the quantity of resin spread; the sharper the knife, the smaller the quantity of resin spread on the fabric. This coating method is used to produce waterproof fabrics for rainproof textiles, umbrellas, tapestries and technical items. The most commonly used resins are the acrylic resins in solvent or aqueous dispersion and single or bi-component polyurethane resins. Picture 138 Blades for doctor-knife coating With the reverse-roll cylinder method it is possible, within certain limits, to apply a thick coating layer, i.e. greater quantities of resin to fill a specific gap. In cylinder coating, the doctor knife usually has a fingers nail profile and the quantity of resin spread is measured in grams per square meter of dry substance or in hundredths of millimetres of coating layer thickness. A direct coating unit consists of a series of coating heads alternated with drying ovens or tunnels, each one with cooling cylinders at the exit. The drying temperatures depend on the type of resin used, whereas the coating speed is determined by the length of the drying ovens, the air exchange, the coating system and the rheological properties of the resins applied: the reverseroll method allows very high coating rates up to 70 m/min compared to the 15 to 18 m/min of other methods. The reverse-roll method is applied to the following goods: - rainproof textiles; - waterproof canvas; - coated fabrics for leather goods and cases; - coated fabrics for garment and upholstery; - reverse coated fabrics for wall coverings; - coated fabrics for footwear.

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In the indirect coating technique, the coating material is first spread on a special paper (the socalled release paper) and is then transferred onto the backing fabric. The coating layer consists of a layer of resin spread directly on the paper and of a second layer of resin, which acts as bonding agent between the first layer and the backing. The backing can be of different materials with different properties. The release paper, which must be compatible with the resin applied, can be glossy, matt, smooth or embossed. The steps to be carried out in an indirect coating process are the following: - application of the first resin layer on the release paper (1st coating head); - drying (1st oven); - cooling; - application of the second resin layer (adhesive, 2nd coating head); - bonding to the backing (woven of knitted fabric, etc.); - drying (2nd oven); - removal of the coated fabric from the paper and fabric winding up; - paper winding up. The paper coating step is carried out using a cylinder and fingers nail knife. The coating speed is relatively low and varies according to the resins to be applied; it can range from 4 to 20 m/min. With this coating technique it is possible to manufacture a number of different articles of different appearance and hand. The appearance of the coated surface depends on the type of paper used (glossy, matt, smooth or embossed), while the ultimate hand properties are determined by the resin quality and quantity, the adhesive agent applied, the backing fabric and its preparation. Here are some substrates that can be processed with the indirect coating technique: - imitation leather for upholstery and garments; - imitation leather for footwear; - imitation leather goods. Controlled application of small liquor quantities Water is the most common medium used for applying the finish, and must be subsequently removed from the textile material after the treatment. A drying process is quite expensive. Therefore, to avoid additional costs, new techniques have been developed that allow a controlled application of limited quantities of the finish liquor. In fact, most of the water on the fabric surface or between the fibres can be eliminated with mechanical hydroextraction processes (centrifuge, suction, squeezing, etc.) but these processes will hardly remove the moisture dispersed in the capillary spaces inside and between the fibres. In hydrophilic fibres (for example cotton), the limit of residual water that cannot be eliminated by means of a mechanical process ranges from 40% to 50%. To obtain a homogeneous distribution of the finish in the fabric it is (theoretically) necessary and sufficient to only saturate the capillary areas of the fibres. The quantity of solution corresponding to the water necessary for a complete swelling of the amorphous areas of the fibres is called "Critical Add on Value" (CAV) and is determined by the fibre nature and by the fabric structure. Following the application of greater quantities of solution, during the drying process unstable finishing products can migrate towards the surface of the fabric, thus leading to inconsistent distribution of the finish on the substrate (internal yarn areas are poorer of finish.).

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On the contrary, for an optimum application from both a technical (penetration and uniformity) and a cost-efficiency point of view (minimum energy consumption for drying), it is necessary to apply a quantity of solution equal to or slightly exceeding the CAV. For cotton, this means that only 30-35% of the liquor needs to be applied. The various techniques are briefly described below. 1. Liquor transfer: a continuous felt is impregnated with the finishing solution and then squeezed between two rollers with a pick up rate of about 70%. The fabric to be treated is made adhere against the felt in a second squeezing unit. The squeezing pressure transfers to the fabric about half the liquor in the felt. By controlling the pressures in the two squeezing points separately, the quantity of liquor applied to the textile material can be accurately controlled and the variations per square meter of the fabric (within a certain range) can be evaluated with precision.
Fabric

Transfer NIP Conveyor felt Carrier NIP

Picture 139 - Padding unit 2. Finish printing: a finely engraved roller is partially immersed in the finishing liquor. The liquid in excess is removed by means of a doctor knife.
Pressure feeding system Rubber roller Perforated roller Doctor knife

Engraved roller

Picture 140 - Finish printing Picture 141 - Foam systems The liquor remaining in the engraved roller is then transferred to the fabric by means of the pressure exerted by a second roller. By using special gluey finishing solutions, it is even possible to perform printing processes with hollow rollers. (See hollow-rollers printing.) 3. Finish foaming: small quantities of water can be left on the fabric by applying controlled quantities of foam. Foam is in fact made up of 5-10% aqueous substance and about 90-95% air. Foam is generated with special devices by blowing compressed gas (usually air) in the solution containing a surfactant. The viscosity degree of the solution and gas are so adjusted to obtain air bubbles of roughly uniform diameter (50-100 m) forming a stable and creamy foam. The foam is then deposited on the fabric in layers by means of a doctor knife. The foam, after being applied, must be settled so that the fabric can absorb the padding solution. 4. Semi-immersion systems: a finish application roller partially immersed in a finishing liquor, rotates and touches the fabric at proper speed to obtain the application of the desired quantity of solution.

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This application can be controlled and optimum results can be achieved only when a precise ratio is established between the speed of the application roller and the speed of the fabric. Since the fabric speed can be modified within a wide range (it can be controlled, for example by means of moisture sensors assembled at the exit side of the drying unit), the speed of the application roller must be controlled by special devices that measure the quantity of applied liquor. These measuring devices evaluate the radiation (generated by krypton 85) absorbed by the wet fabric. One of these measuring devices (m1) is placed before the contact point of the fabric with the application roller, while a second one (m2) measures the quantity of radiation after the application of the finishing product.

Picture 142 An immersion system The difference of signal between the two instruments is kept at a value corresponding to the application of the desired liquor quantity: in fact, each variation of this value determines a variation in the speed of the application roller, in order to bring the quantity of applied solution to the optimum value. For a smooth application on the fabric, a homogeneous liquid film must be created on the roller surface. This can be obtained with a special surface of the roller, but also by using the correct finishing products and auxiliaries (for example non-foaming agents.)

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Softening
As a general rule, each fibre has its specific softness value, which depends on its chemical composition and physical structure (less crystallinity = greater softness). The fineness of the fibre or of the filament directly affects the softness of the yarn (woollens, worsteds, microfibres etc.). The yarn twist ratio is inversely proportional to its softness. The weave also contributes to reducing (closer weave = cloth) or increasing (looser weave = satin) the fabric softness. Furthermore, a greater number of yarns per centimetre increase the stiffness of the fabric, thus reducing its softness. Softening is carried out when the softness characteristics of a certain fabric must be improved, always carefully considering the composition and properties of the substrate. It is also worth underlining that no standard methods have been developed and established to determine exactly what the softness of a fabric is. This evaluation is therefore almost personal and carried out on the basis of operators experience. It is anyway possible to distinguish between many types of softness: a) surface softness, b) surface smoothness, c) elasticity (to compression and stretching). To change the hand properties of a fabric, we can apply mechanical, physical, chemical or combined techniques; some of these methods (sueding, raising) have already been explained in detail in previous sections of this handbook, while some others refers to machines that give different degrees of softness, by means of high-speed rope processing in wet or dry conditions, with the drying stage carried out during the treatment (with or without softeners or enzymes.) The functional core of these machines are the two tunnels where the fabric is fed through two Venturi tubes. The energy applied for drawing the material is produced only by air and pressure. The fabric flowing through the Venturi tubes is pushed at high speed against a grid on the machine rear side; the fabric then slides on Teflon-coated chutes and reaches the machine front side to start the cycle again; the fabric can reach a speed of 1000 m/min., depending on the type and weight of the different textiles to be processed and according to the desired results.
1- air pump 2- ejector 3 - grid 4 - fabric 1 - fabric 2 stave belt 3 air jets

Picture 143-144 - Schemes of fabric softening machines

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The following picture details an industrial softening system.

Picture 145 A fabric softening machine This unit applies physical and mechanical principles on fundamental elements such as: - air, which is the fabric propeller and drawing element; - the mechanical stress exerted on the fabric inside the Venturi tubes and the stress due to the impact against the rear grid; - the eventual action of heat. It is also worth noticing that water is not a crucial element for the process; it is only a medium for carrying dissolved non biodegradable chemical additives (if required.) The combination of all these elements, almost free of polluting charge, cause the structural modification of the fibres making up the fabric. They result in more or less marked surface modifications, which can radically change the appearance and the sensorial properties of the fabrics. The complexity of the finishing action starts inside the Venturi tube where the tail of the fabric is subjected simultaneously to a compressive action and to a subsequent series of vibrating pulses which tend to "random-modify" and compact the textile structures, eventually giving them different properties. The one-way thrusting force is transformed into a impact force against the grid on which the fabric is pushed when emerging from the Venturi tube; this causes other modifications of the fabric and add structural and surface effects. This simple treatment that combines physical and mechanical principles, carried out at a precise temperature set by the operator, is sufficient to create particular effects on the morphology of fibres and the weave. The modifications produced by this treatment are very different and not only affect the colour, appearance and hand properties of the fabric, but also add new properties, e.g. modifying the refraction and diffraction of light on the fabric surface.

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The most notable effects in terms of style and added value are obtained on linen, a precious delicate fibre, particularly difficult to process without using chemicals. The combination of a chemical product or an enzyme liquor with the mechanical treatment can be carried out not only on linen but also on many other widely used fibres such as Tencel and polynosic fibres, imparting a draping, full and lively hand. All these effects are obtained thanks to the air thrust and to the following impact against the grid, or to the pressure of rollers on the fabric rope. Comparing the effects of this treatment on a Tencel fabric and on a similar treatment carried out on a dyeing machine, we can see that, as previously explained, this finishing process not only affects the appearance of the fabric, but also cleans up the fabric surface homogeneously, as a result providing good anti-pilling properties. The best softness results can be obtained by carrying out the above mentioned physicalmechanical processes and by applying a special chemical softening agent. As a general rule, the softening agents applied are hygroscopic or lubricating agents, which facilitate the fibre sliding within the fabric structure, thus granting easier deformation and creasing of the fabric. In most cases, the duration of the effect is limited since the products applied during the treatment are eliminated by subsequent washing; for this reason they must be applied in the final stage of the treatment. The most common softeners are detailed below: Non-ionic softeners: generally ethers and polyglycol esters, oxiethylates products, paraffins and fats. These softening agents are generally less efficient than anionic and cationic ones but they withstand the effects of hard waters, acid or basic environment and also in presence of cations and anions, therefore the normal fabric care conditions. Anionic softeners: sulphoricinates, anionic surfactants produced by the condensation of fatty acids. They have good characteristics as lubricating softening agents and give the fabric a full hand; they are unstable in hard water and acid environment. In addition, they must not cause yellowing at condensation temperatures. Cationic surfactants: usually they are quaternary ammonium salts, amino-esters and aminoamides; they are recommended for all types of fibre, and can be also applied with exhaustion process in acid environment (pH 4-5). These are the best softening agents and are also called lipophile chain molecular velveting agents because they form bonds with the cationic group cationic group on the surface of the fibre generally with negative fibre electric potential. They can give some problem in presence of large anions, and they can cause Picture 146 Distribution of the surfactant on the dye toning, or a reduction in fib fastness to light values in the presence of direct and reactive dyes; they also have a high polluting charge as wastewater (bactericides). Silicone-based softeners: these are generally polysiloxane derivatives of low molecular weight. They are insoluble in water, and therefore must be applied on fabrics after dissolution in organic solvents, or in the form of disperse products. They feature quite good fastness to washing. They create a lubricating and moderately waterproof film on the surface and give fabrics a velvetysilky hand (desirable for velvets, upholstery fabrics and emerised fabrics)

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Reactive softeners: N-methylol derivatives of superior fatty amides or urea compounds replaced with fatty acids. The products have to be cross-linked and provide permanent softness and water repellency. As explained previously, even though some softeners can be applied with exhaustion processes on yarns, when softening fabrics, the best technique is the continuous pad-wetting process followed by a drying stage in a stenter. This treatment must be carried out at the end of the finishing process; for this reason, softening is usually performed simultaneously with other dimensional stability processes (width stabilisation, weft and warp straightening). It is worth remembering that the use of softeners can reduce the fastness to rubbing of synthetic fibres dyed with disperse dyes, as the fatty surface layer tend to attract the dye molecules after hot treatments.

Crease-proof Treatments
Wash-and-wear and Permanent-press treatments This chapter describes different finishing treatments as they are all carried out applying similar principles. Crease-proof treatments represent an outstanding results in finishing technology, since they give fabrics really new physical and/or chemical properties. The original aim of the researchers who first developed this process was to create a crease-proof rayon fabric; however, the new treatment was soon applied to cotton fabrics and linen cloths. The last generation versions of the treatment produce fabrics that are not only crease-proof when used but also preserve the crease effect if desired. This treatment can also ensure excellent results on cottonsynthetic blends (Permanent-press process.) The auxiliaries used are synthetic thermosetting resins, or, more precisely, their monomers and their pre-condensates. The resins that react with cellulose are called "cellulose-reactants". A certain crease resistance can be obtained by adding to fibres complex inorganic compounds of boron, as well as zinc and barium silicate. However, today the only products applied are synthetic thermosetting resins. The principle on which this finishing treatment is based consists of impregnating the fibres with resinogenic compounds of low molecular weight and cause afterward the formation of the resin in the fibres. Recently new processes have been developed to chemically modify cellulose, aiming at improving the springback angle above all in wet substrates. For a better understanding of what happens during a crease-proof process, it is worth explaining the mechanism and the reasons for which cellulose fibres tend to crease. Cellulose fibres are made up of molecule chains formed by hundreds of thousands of glucose groups.

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The molecular chains of cellulose partly consist of crystalline areas rigidly oriented and compact, and partly of amorphous, loose and random-oriented layers; small covalence forces or electrostatic bonds cause their cohesion. By drawing the molecular chains, a stretching effect occurs due to the breaking of weak bonds and to Picture 147 - Non-cross-linked the subsequent sliding of the single chains over each polyglucose chains other, a phenomenon which becomes irreversible whenever the molecular chains (and therefore the cellulose fibres) assume a new position. If we now suppose to transfer the drawing force and therefore the stretching of the external bending of a certain point in the fibre subjected to creasing, the bending angle will assume a permanent position as a consequence of the irreversibility of the phenomenon, Picture 148 - Polyglucose chains therefore becoming a permanent crease. cross-linked with cellulose Above all, cellulose fibres rich in amorphous areas and reactants macromolecules, which tend to form bonds in the new positions imparted by mechanical stresses, can be affected by these deformation phenomena such as stretching, creasing and wrinkling. On the contrary, fibres like wool whose macromolecules are fixed by strong bonds (cystinic Picture 149 - Polyglucose chains bridges or salt bonds) as well as fibres with highly cross-linked with thermosetting controlled intermolecular structure and high crystallinity resins degree (synthetic), will be highly crease-proof. It is therefore evident and demonstrated the relationship between crystallinity, the presence of weak or strong bonds between the chains and the crease-proof quality of the fibres. In fact, while amorphous areas facilitate the sliding of macromolecular chains, the presence of weak bonds (hydrogen bridges) allow the stabilisation of macromolecules in their new positions and therefore the formation of a permanent crease. The above mentioned hypothesis lets us suppose that the replacement of weak bonds (electrostatic) with strong bonds (covalent) i.e. capable of reducing the displacement of the chains and bringing them back to their original position when the bending force ceases its action or when substances blocking the sliding spaces are introduced in the intra-molecular voids of cellulose can greatly improve the crease-proof properties of fibres. These pre-conditions are partly ensured by the so-called amino-plasts, as well as by cellulose reactants, which can form large-size molecules of resins, or bridges between the individual cellulose molecular chains, respectively. Before the drying stage, fabrics are impregnated with precondensed amino-plasts of low molecular weight, or with cellulose reactant solutions. Before the 1990s, these solutions consisted of N.N-l.3dimethylol-4.5-dihydroxyethylenurea (DMDHEU) combined with magnesium chloride as acid catalyst, to improve the formation of cross-linking bonds between the molecules of cellulose chains. The development of these bonds inside the amorphous areas of the fibre, improves the resistance to distortion and enhances elasticity properties; unfortunately the chemistry of N-hydroxymethyl (N-methylol) derivatives has a great drawback due to the reaction: - H 2 NCONH 2 + HCHO, which produces free formaldehyde. In fact, during the subsequent hot treatment which favours the formation of the resin, a bond with an hydroxyl of the cellulose ring sets individually, leaving an N-hydroxylmethyl group non reacted and capable, following an hydrolysis process, of releasing formaldehyde, above all at high temperatures. 140

Another problem occurring when using these resins is represented by the chlorine absorbed by the textile material during the washing process, which cause a visible yellowing of the textile surface. This does not represent an immediate damage, but when the textile is subjected to the action of heat (ironing, calendering, steaming) it also loses a considerable part of its mechanical resistance. Properties of various resins Dimethylol-urea
dimethylol-urea (dmu) non reactive easily hydrolysab high chlorine retention easily dry condensable dimethylol-ethyleneurea dmeu good reactivity stable to washing medium chlorine retention cross-linkable in dry and humid conditions poor stability of treatment liquors high formaldehyde content negative influence on fastness to light high formaldehyde content dimethylol-dihydroxylethylene-urea dm(oh)2 eu good reactivity stable to washing medium chlorine retention cross-linkable in dry, humid and wet conditions no influence on fastness low influence on hand to light medium formaldehyde content properties low formaldehyde content no formaldehyde content tendency to yellowing cross-linkable in dry and humid conditions only applicable by dry condensation dimethylol-dihydroxylethylene-urea dm(or)2 eu medium reactivity highly stable to washing low chlorine retention no chlorine retention dimethylol-dihydroxylethylene-urea (or)2eu medium/low reactivity sensible to hydrolysis

Application techniques Today, a number of treatments are available to give excellent properties to a wide range of textile products. The "wash-and-wear" finish is particularly effective since treated fabrics not only lose the creases formed on the dry fabric (i.e. when used) but also the creases which form on the wet fabric during manual or machine washing. The treatment to eliminate post-finishing creases is more complicated that the crease-proof treatment. The cross-linking process can be carried out in three different ways: 1. dry process: with this method it is possible to obtain wide springback angles for dry creases and only medium springback angles for humid creases; dimensional stability and shape retention are excellent. The tearing and abrasion resistance loss is proportional to the dry crease angle, and are therefore generally high; 2. humid process: the springback angles for humid creases are usually wide (proportional to residual moisture content), and dry ones are also good. Good dimensional stability and noironing properties (i.e. no ironing is required after washing). Low loss of tearing and abrasion resistance; 3. wet process: optimum springback angles for humid creases, but very limited for dry creases. Good no-ironing properties and dimensional stability, with very low loss of tearing and abrasion resistance.

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1 Dry process The classic process: the fabric is impregnated by means of a padding unit (the quantity of finish is tuned by modifying the liquor concentration and the squeezing ratio) and dried at 100-120 C in a stenter; the cross-linking process occurs in the stenter, at temperatures varying according to the type of cross-linking agent used (generally 4-5 minutes at 150-160 C). At the end of the process it is recommended to carry out a washing and softening stage (see STK process). Both self-cross-linking and reactive products can be used; ammonium salts or complex compounds are used as catalysts. It is a simple and quick process, as well as one of the most cost-effective. STK: drying and condensation are carried out simultaneously in a single run in the stenter at high temperatures (140 C at the entry side, 180 C at the exit side). The dwelling time inside the stenter depends on the products and the catalysts used, the temperature, and the substrate. This method is really cost-efficient but its results are quite uncertain and deterioration of the textile material may occur during the dwelling time in the stenter due to the high operating temperatures (resulting from the moisture variation in the fabric). For these reasons, STK is used above all for viscose. This process still requires a washing cycle to be carried out in order to comply with the strict regulations on formaldehyde fumes and the release of the metals contained in the catalysts. Double treatment: the fabric is impregnated with a softener and dried at 100- 130 C. The procedure applied is the same as with the STK process. The application of softeners before the cross-linking or reactive agents provides excellent crease-proof properties and a limited loss of tearing and abrasion resistance. Permanent-press: the cross-linking step is carried out by the operator and gives good crease-proof properties and dimensional stability, and is therefore used to ensure shape retention for the finished garment. Two operating methods can be applied: Post-curing: the fabric is impregnated with a solution of scarcely reactive cross-linking agents and special strong catalysts. Then the fabric is dried at low temperature and sent to the maker-up for cutting and ultimate making-up operations. Then it is hot pressed to assume the final shape and simultaneously obtain the cross-linking effect. (This method is scarcely applied due to the problem of formaldehyde fumes released and by non-washed fabrics or during storage.)
DRYING CUTTING PRESS CONDENSATION

Picture 150 The dry Permanent-press cross-linking process carried out with post-curing method Post-curing for blends: used for fabrics containing at least 55% of synthetic fibres. The fabric is impregnated, dried, condensed and washed for stabilisation, to give a crease-proof properties to cellulose fibres and eliminate the free formaldehyde. After the cutting and making-up stage, a high temperature pressing stage will impart the final shape to the finished garment by exploiting the thermoplastic features of synthetic fibres.
DRYING CROSS-LINKING AT 120 CUTTING

PRESS CONDENSATION AT 160

Picture 151 - Dry Permanent-press cross-linking process with post-curing system for blends 142

The same method can be used on fabrics made of cellulose fibres only, using a combination of two cross-linking agents with markedly differentiated reactivity values as a wetting agent (see picture). A first cross-linking step is be carried out on the fabric at low temperature (120-140 C), while in the subsequent high-temperature pressing step (160-180 C) the less reactive crosslinking agent will condense to set ultimate shape. (See the section on the post-curing method as far as formaldehyde is concerned.)

2 Humid process The fabric is wetted by means of a padding unit with a cross-linking agent and a catalyst solution; then 6-8% of residual moisture is removed from cotton (or 10-15% from other staple goods.) The fabric is then wound up on a roll, covered with a polyethylene sheet and left 16-24 hours to rest at ambient temperature. Strong catalysts must be used for this process and their quantity is tuned according to the residual moisture content. The final effect depends on the residual moisture: in case of low residual moisture content, the results will be similar to those obtained with the dry process whereas if the residual moisture content is high, the result is very similar to the cross-linking effect on wet substrates. The fabric hand after the treatment is generally soft. The fabric is then washed, the acids neutralised and the fabric is finally softened. Obviously this method does not allow continuous processing techniques, and therefore is not as common as dry cross-linking. However it ensures excellent results in wash-and-wear treatments, with low loss of resistance.

3 Wet process This process can be carried out in acid or alkaline environment. (The latter is less common as it gives limited crease-proof properties, though very low loss of tearing and abrasion resistance.) This method is similar to the previous one, except for the drying stage. The material is dried, wrapped, wound and covered with polyethylene and it is then kept rotating for 16-24 hours. The percentage of absorbed liquor vary considerably according to the type of processed fibres: Cotton: R.S. 100%, Polynosic: R.S. 120%, Staple: R.S. 200%.

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Flame-retardant Treatments
The term inflammability refers to the ease of ignition and burning rate of fabrics. The flammability of fabrics (particularly drapery, textile covering and clothing fabrics) constitutes a danger in ordinary conditions of use. L.O.I. of the main textile fibres The flame response of textile fibres is linked to their Textile fibre L.O.I. (%) L.O.I. (limit oxygen index), which indicates the Wool 25 minimum quantity of oxygen a fibre needs in order to Cotton 18 burn. Given that the percentage of oxygen in the air is around Viscose 20 21%, it is clear that all fibres with an L.O.I. lower than Acetate 18 this level will burn easily, while those with a higher Triacetate 18 L.O.I. will tend not to burn. From the table it can be Chlorofibres 48 seen that polyester, polyamide both of these melt and Acrylic 18 20 form viscous masses and cellulosic fibres are highly Modacrylic 22 28 flammable. The latter, especially in less compact fabrics Polyester 20 in which they have greater contact with the oxygen in Polyamide 20 the air, burn rapidly if heated to around 350C, temperatures at which they break down into highly inflammable volatile substances and carbonaceous residue.

The combustion mechanism and flame-retardant treatments Cellulose exposed to high temperatures breaks down into flammable substances. Combustion of these products generates further heat, causing the cellulose degradation and breakdown process to continue until the cellulose has entirely disintegrated. Cellulose combustion is a process that occurs in stages: 1) Pyrolysis: the action of an external heat energy source causes the homogeneous breakdown of the cellulose into liquid gas, tarry and solid products. The temperature at which rapid pyrolysis is triggered is around 300C. Combustion of the gases produced: at around 350C the flammable vapours produced in the previous stage ignite, giving rise to a strongly exothermal oxidation reaction, which produces volatilisation, further pyrolysis and combustion of the liquid and tarry substances formed previously. From this point on, combustion proceeds spontaneously, resulting in the release of considerable heat, until such time as the cellulose material is completely burned up. Post-combustion: when the tarry liquids produced in the first stage of combustion have undergone pyrolysis and combustion, a carbonaceous residue remains that undergoes slow oxidation (also exothermal) and continues to glow until it has been completely burned up.

2)

3)

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To sum up, a fabric undergoing combustion will present the following zones: a) a zone in which there are no longer any flames in evidence and in which combustion residue (ash) is present; b) a carbonaceous zone, glowing but flame-free; c) a burning zone: it is here that the violent oxidation of the gases produced (a series of reactions) is taking place; d) a zone in which it is possible to observe initial carbonisation and where the cellulose is undergoing the reactions of pyrolysis; e) an intact zone.

The theory of flame retardant systems The action of flame retardants on cellulosic fibres can be explained in several ways: 1) Through the formation of non combustible gases, a result of the action of the heat on the flame-retardant product that has been added. These gases act in two ways: they reduce the concentration of combustible volatile substances, and they reduce the concentration of oxygen needed in order for the combustion process to continue. In decreasing order of efficacy, they act on the following gases: NH3, HI, HBr, SO2, CO2, H2O, and N2. To achieve this end, the following substances are used: ammonium salts and organic nitrogenous compounds, like amine; b) organic halogenated compounds; c) salts containing high quantities of crystallisation water. 2) Through catalytic action on cellulose dehydration, in such a way as to obtain, at temperatures lower than ignition temperatures, a carbonaceous residue and to reduce the formation of flammable gases. This dehydration is catalysed by the acids. 3) Through products that prevent the formation of anhydroglucopyranosium. Since it is known that one stage in the pyrolysis of cellulose is the formation of levoglucosone, one need only block the hydroxyl groups in position 6 on the glucose molecule in order to reduce considerably the formation of flammable pyrolysis products. This objective is achieved by replacing the alcoholic function with the O-SO2-CH3 group, with bromine, or by making the hydroxyl react with nitrogenous compounds 4) Through the catalytic action of the derivatives of phosphorous (phosphoric esters). These compounds reduce or prevent post-combustion of the carbonaceous residue. In the presence of phosphoric esters, the following reaction is favoured: C + 1/2 O2 CO + 26.4 Kcal, which is weakly exothermal in relation to the much more strongly exothermal reaction (94 Kcal) that leads to the production of CO2. As a result, the temperatures reached in this case are low and the post-glowing phenomenon is absent. To achieve this objective, the following substances are used: ammonium phosphates, blends of phosphoric acid and amines, organic compounds containing phosphorous and ammonium. 5) Through catalytic action inhibiting the oxidation of combustible gases. Oxidation in the vapour phase is a process involving free radicals, some of the most important of which are the free radicals of H, OH and O. The flame quenching action is often attributed to the capacity of the added substances to capture these radicals.

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The action of bromine compounds, for example, is shown in the following scheme:

RBr + H HBr + R
If the R radical that is formed is less active than the H radical, the result is inhibition of oxidation. In general, removal of the H, the OH and similar radicals by other less active radicals results in suffocation of the flame. This is similar to the action of antimonium halides, compounds that are very efficient at capturing free radicals. The main products used in flame retardant treatments of cellulosic fibres Soluble inorganic products: ammonium salts, such as chloride, bromide and phosphate, applied in concentrations ranging from 10-20%, are very widely used. Borax, too, applied in concentrations of 6-10% and blended with boric acid (ratio 7:3) also confers good flameretardant properties. Soluble organic products: the substances used include ammonium sulphamate, phosphates, dicyandiamide, and thiourea. Water-repellent treatments: these treatments are also relatively resistant to domestic washing and dry cleaning. They include the Perkin treatment (based on the deposition of stannum hydroxide). The cellulosic fabric is padded with sodium stannate, dried, treated with ammonium sulphate and dried again. Treatment based on phosphoric acid and nitrogenous compounds: phosphoric acid, bound to the celluloses hydroxyl group, has good flame retardant properties, however it reduces considerably the mechanical strength of the cellulose itself. To reduce degradation damage and improve flame retardancy, bases, like the ones listed here, are added: urea, guanidine, melamine, dicyandiamide, and nitrogenous resins such as urea-formaldehyde, melamineformaldehyde (the latter also increase the solidity to washing of the product). A further improvement is obtained using phosphoric acid condensation products with the abovementioned amines. Of the various procedures proposed, the Bancroft procedure renders the flame-retardant property permanent to a degree. It consists of treating the cellulosic fabric with aqueous solutions of phosphoric acid-urea pre-condensate, applied by means of padding. This is followed by drying and by a thermal treatment. The latter, carried out at temperatures ranging from 140C to 160C enhances the condensation of phosphoric acid and urea and also fixes the condensate on the fibre as a nitrogenous phosphoric ester of the cellulose. The fabric is then washed thoroughly and dried. This flame-retardant product, which has low solidity to domestic washing, severely reduces the strength of the fabric and sometimes results in a change of colour. The treated fabric has good hand properties. Permanent salt- or metallic oxide-based products: these derive from the union of metallic oxides with organic substances that are thermally unstable and have a high chlorine content (4075%). The metallic oxides can be: antimonium, arsenic, lead, zinc and stannum oxides, while the organic substances can be polymers of vinyl chloride, vinyldiene chloride, chloroparaffin. The effect is lasting. This treatment is widely applied the USA, where it is known as F.W.W.M.R. Finish (i.e., flame, water, weather and mildew resistant). 146

Antimonium trioxide (Sb303) offers little flame retardancy, unlike oxychloride and trichloride; the latter, however, through hydrolysis, release hydrochloric acid on fabrics, and this attacks the fibres. Phosphorous-based products: in this family of compounds, tetrakis hydroxymethylol phosphorium (THPC) stands out in particular. Being without elements able to form non combustible gases, it is not used alone but rather with other flame-retardant products containing nitrogen or halogens (such as the azydirinic derivative APO) or with nitrogen compounds such as trimethylolmelamine or ureic resins with which it copolymerises. THPC One process that has a particularly important application is the Proban process. This process exploits the copolymerisation of THPC and methylolmelamine to form a highly flame-repellent resin that contains phosphorous and nitrogen. The two products are dissolved in the same liquor to which triethanolamines are added as stabilising agents and urea as a buffer agent. The effect is permanent and, provided there is not too much alkali present, not affected either by domestic or industrial washing. The most difficult part of the application of this treatment is the final polycondensation, which demands well ventilated equipment and perfectly controlled treatment times, otherwise the mechanical strength of the fabric is severely jeopardised. THPC-urea process (or process with melamine, dicyandiamide or guanidine). The fabric is impregnated with THPC and one of the above-mentioned nitrogenous substances, after which it undergoes a thermal treatment. It is dried, treated with ammonia, rinsed and dried again. A good and wash-resistant effect is obtained.

Hydrophobic, Oil-proof and Water-proof Treatments

Waterproofing is a treatment that does not allow water or air passing through the fabric. It consists of the application of substances capable of forming a thin waterproof layer, eliminating any space between the fibres and yarns in the fabric. The hydrophobic treatment gives the fibre the ability to repel water, but not air and water vapour. This treatment does not clog the fabric pores but reduces the capillarity effect by coating the textile substrate with substances having a low surface tension. The stain-proof treatment makes the fabrics hydrophobic (thus avoiding aqueous substances to penetrate them) and oil-proof (which limits or prevents the penetration of fatty substances). Wetting of the textile substrate We will now try to explain why a textile surface becomes wet. The natural hydrophilic characteristics of fibres greatly facilitates all finishing processes, and dyeing in particular, but this property can represent a problem under certain conditions, e.g. soiling caused by water or oil soluble substances, or when protecting a person during outdoor work or even when the fabric must withstand harsh weather conditions.

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It is therefore crucial to get a better understanding of these phenomena to improve the water and oil repellency of textile substrates, above all when they are destined to special uses (for example working garments.) Since it is impossible to modify the basic chemical structure of fibres or eliminate the porosity typical of textile products, it is important to modify surface and chemical structures. The wetting of a textile substrate produces a three-phase modification (solid, wetting fluid, air), generating simultaneously surface and interfacial tensions. Lets imagine a drop of liquid substance deposited on a solid surface: the attraction forces between its molecules allow the drop to keep its spherical shape. If great attraction forces generate from the solid surface in contact with the liquid (i.e. in case that the solid has a great surface energy), the surface tension of the liquid is not sufficient to keep the spherical shape: the drop consequently spreads on the surface and becomes more similar to a flat lens. Then it adheres to the surface and wets it. To cause the surface of a solid not to be wetted by a liquid, the surface energy of the solid must be inferior to the surface tension of the liquid. A liquid therefore adheres to a solid because of the attraction forces originating from the molecules of the surface of the liquid and of the solid (interfacial tension) and is independent from the underlying molecular layers. Wetting can be evaluated by measuring the contact angle formed by the intersection of the surface of the solid and the tangent of the arc surface of the drop. This angle is indicated with the symbol (theta).

Therefore: If the surface can be wet, we will have < 90 and 0 <cos < 1; If the surface is scarcely wettable, we will have > 90 and -1 <cos < 0. Since the tendency of the liquid to wet a solid is inversely proportional to the contact angle, cos becomes a direct measure of the wetting property.

Wettability and penetration of a liquid through a fabric Along with the above mentioned criteria, it will be worth considering that the surface of the fabric is more or less rough and therefore greater than its apparent surface. The value of cos (which expresses the wetting ability) must be therefore multiplied by the roughness factor r (with r > 1), and therefore the tendency of the fabric to wet becomes proportional to r cos . This relationship shows that if a smooth surface can be excellently wetted, its roughness will improve its wetting ability while if a smooth surface can be wetted with difficulty, its roughness will render it even less wettable. The diameter and the distance between the yarns of a fabric are also very important and must be carefully evaluated in waterproof and oil-proof applications.

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On a perforated surface like that of a fabric, liquids form contact angles which increase in proportion with the ratio r + (d / r) (Cassie and Baxter relation) where: r is the yarn diameter, d is the distance between two fabric threads. Furthermore, the liquid in contact with a porous solid like a fabric, tends to penetrate it like a capillary fringe, up to a height (h) depending upon the surface tension of the liquid (L), its density (), the radius (r) of the capillary fringe and the angle of contact () between the liquid and the solid: h = K L cos / r Therefore, when the angle of contact is smaller than 90 (co> 0) the liquid will show a capillary diffusion into the solid. Once the liquid has penetrated the fabric, the surface tension of the liquid no longer contrasts the flowing of the liquid and a stable flow will establish. Generally speaking, a fabric that has been made water repellent can better stand wetting and water penetration if yarns are small and the weave is thick. Hysteresis of the angle of contact The angle of contact () reduces by increasing the contact between the liquid and the solid. It is therefore necessary to underline the difference between: the advancing angle (formed by a drop in contact with a dry surface) and the receding angle (formed on a surface previously in contact with the liquid). The difference between these two values is the hysteresis of the angle of contact. The higher the hysteresis, the poorer the tendency of the liquid to pearl (i.e. to slip on the surface of the fabric by forming separated droplets), notwithstanding the high advancing angle. This is an important factor to be considered, for example in materials that will be exposed to rain and on which, after a certain period of time, the pearling effect no longer occurs. The hysteresis of the angle of contact is higher when the fabric is wet with water than with organic liquids. A specific material after the flame retardant treatment must have high receding angles (at least >90). Porous solids, like textile substrates, have a water receding angle that decreases very rapidly according to the period of immersion. For example, the pearling effect will disappear and water will form a continuous surface film if a fabric is exposed to the rain action for a certain period of time. The supremacy of silicones compared to other waterproofing agents is due to the slow decrease of the receding angle rather than to a high angle of contact. In case of surface contact between the fabric and water, the hysteresis of the contact angle can be originated by different reasons: - formation of a hydrous layer on the surface of the solid, due to water or water vapour absorption; - solubilisation in water of part of the hydrophobic substances (or mechanic removal), - the breaking of an hydrophobic film and the subsequent fibre hydration, - orientation inversion of the hydrophobic film, which (in contact with water) directs polar groups towards the surface. Hydrophobic treatments and products For the above mentioned reasons, to avoid the wetting of the surface of a macromolecular and porous material like a fibre, the surface must be covered with a film formed by a substance with a surface tension that is smaller than the textile. 149

In this way the drops of water will assemble on the surface, isolated from each other, to create the pearl effect. A waterproof effect can be also obtained by using non-filmogenic substances that form a sort of brush of short molecules. By limiting the formation of a hydrophobic state on the surface of the textile substrate, the basic properties of mechanic resistance and flexibility of the fibres remain unaltered. If also swelling (mainly due to the presence of amorphous areas) must be strictly controlled, these amorphous areas can be filled with macromolecular resins. Both polymer and low chain water-repellent products should have essentially a hydrocarbon character (with groups having a lower surface tension such as =CH 2, -CH 3 or perfluorinated chains), to reduce the surface tension of the fibre until making it water-repellent. Method based on emulsions in single bath This method is recommended for producing awnings or camping tents and umbrellas but it does not stand washing in water and solvents. The size of the emulsion particles must range within 0.1 and 2 micron, and can be stabilised, or not, by using protective colloids (hide glue, cellulose ethers, polyvinyl alcohols). The textile substrate treated with this method is dried in stenters at 80-100C. Good results can be obtained with medium-weight/light fabrics made of cotton, cotton-synthetic blends and wool, with a good cost-efficiency ratio. Unfortunately the waterproof finish is not a durable one. Better results for waterproof ability and solidity to usage and washing can be obtained by replacing Al salts with Zr salts (ammonium and zirconium dicarbonate, zirconium oxychloride, etc.), by applying them on fabrics made of cotton, cottonsynthetic blends and wool, with a technique similar to the above mentioned one. Good results can also be obtained on cotton, blends and wool, by using chromic chloride stearate emulsions with or without colloids, in presence of examethylene tetramine, by padding the fabric, drying it and polymerising at 130C for 3 minutes. Durable methods It is possible to bind hydrophobic chains to cellulose fibres by reacting the primary hydroxyl groups (etherification, esterification, etc.); the waterproof values reached are generally poor, but durable, since they do not cause the formation of the surface film. The results can be remarkably improved when these products are combined with resins. Usually the fabric is wetted by dispersing the product; the fabric is then dried and treated at 90120C. Products made of resins linked to fatty acids These products feature excellent solidity when washed in water at 60-90C, though not when washed with solvents. They are recommended for treating raincoats, uniforms etc. It is possible to use methylol-ureastearamide derivatives, ether alcohols superior to dimethylolurea, but more frequently melamine derivatives linked in different ways with lipophile chains. These products (whatever their formulation) can be used for padding applications in the presence of acid catalysts (ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, aluminium chloride or zirconium oxychloride), dried and polycondensed at 140-150C. It is important that fabrics made of synthetic fibres dyed with dispersed dyes, are dried at low temperatures after the padding process; this prevents the dyes from migrating toward the hydrophobic surface and maintains the fabrics solidity to rubbing.

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Silicones These products are stable to washing in water at 60C with solvents. They can be used to treat uniforms, raincoats and sportswear. These products are very popular since they allow excellent waterproofing properties, optimum solidity (that can also be enhanced if combined with resins) and a very pleasant and soft hand (they are also used as softening agents.) Starting from silicon and chloromethane, or from silicon tetrachloride with Grignard reagent, they are made react with water to release silanols. The dymethylesilanols obtained in this way can polycondensate in acid environment by forming linear dimethylpolysiloxanes. Precondensed products with low molecular weight are generally available on the market as solutions (in organic solvents such as carbon tetrachloride or n-decane) or contained in aqueous emulsions; they are recommended for completing the condensation process on fibres at 140160% or in milder solutions for longer times (acid hydrolysis of cellulose is avoided with a loss of tenacity) by adding special catalysts (Zr oxychloride and Zn nitrate). They are suitable to be applied on all types of fibres and also on emerised or coated fabrics. The high water-repellent effect and the soft hand are due to the orientation toward the outer surface of methyl groups induced by positive Zr ions linked to the negatively charged fibres:

fibres

Fluorinated products They feature an excellent fastness to washing in water and solvents. They are suitable for treating uniforms, raincoats and sportswear, tablecloths and protection clothes (after washing they must be ironed to recover their original effect). These products are resins bound with hydrocarbons having at least the last four atoms of C perfluorinates. These products allow excellent waterproofing results also with oil-repellency properties (if stains have not been pressed onto the fabric.) The application is carried out by padding the fabric, which is then dried at 100-120C and subsequently polymerised at 140-150C. Stain-proof treatment This treatment is often combined with waterproofing and other finishing treatments, and is particularly indicated for synthetic fabrics (oil-wettable) and synthetic blends, but it can also be carried out on all types of fibres. The stain-proof treatment bases on the application of molecules having hydrocarbon chains of at least 4 atoms of perfluorinated carbons, included the last one. These chains must be homogeneously distributed on the surface of the fibres and must represent at least 1% of the weight of the textile substrate. The most commonly used products are based on perfluorinated esters resins of acrylic acid and/or perfluorinated esters of polyvinyl acid, which make the fabric hardly wettable with oily and aqueous fluids. Furthermore the presence of fluorocompounds makes it easier to remove oily stains with solvents, by shrinking the stained area and avoiding the formation of halos. 151

Rf = Perfluorinated chain

Anti-soil Treatments
Hydrophilic fibres (both natural and man-made), when non-treated, are considered easy-wash materials, which, moreover, do not absorb dirt during washing. This is to be attributed to the fact that they have a very high critical surface tension in air, and thus a very low interfacial tension in water. On the other hand, certain synthetic fibres (particularly polyester), like cellulose fibres that have undergone chemical finishing processes (based on silicones, fluorocarbon compounds, permanent-press or wash-and-wear resins and acrylic resins), are difficult to clean because of their highly water-repellent surfaces. These surfaces produce an accumulation of electrostatic charges, and thus absorb and retain dirt. Clearly, therefore, there is a need for treatments that reduce the natural build-up of dirt with use - a treatment that is applicable to any fabric and that allows it: 1. to repel dirt during use (i.e., that makes it soil and stain repellent); 2. to be cleaned easily through normal cleaning procedures (brushing in the case of carpets, washing in the case of shirts, etc.) (i.e., that confers soil-release, easy-wash properties); 3. not to take on, during washing, that greyish/yellowish hue that is due to the re-depositing of soil particles from the dirty water (anti-soil redeposition). There is no type of finishing treatment that can confer, at the same time, all these properties on a fabric. Indeed, in some cases, a finishing treatment that confers one of the aforementioned properties, reduces the performance of the fabric where the others are concerned. Thus, the choice of an anti-soil treatment must be governed by the extent to which the article is effectively likely to become soiled and this of course depends on its destined use. For the sake of simplicity, the substances liable to soil a fabric can be subdivided as follows: - solid particles. The fabric will occasionally come into contact with fine particles capable of soiling it (soot, rust, blends of organic and inorganic substances). - oils and greasy substances; - water-soluble substances (natural colorants present in products such as coffee, wine and ink). There are five different ways in which these substances can come into contact with the fabric: 1) through direct transfer (contact); 2) through the deposition of airborne substances (solid particles that, because of their density, fall onto the fabric or that, because of its electrostatic charges, are attracted to it);

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3) through the deposition of substances contained in solutions or aqueous suspensions (solid particles, for example mud particles, or particles present in oily or coloured liquids). This category also includes the dirt contained in dirty washing liquor, which, despite being extremely diluted, can redeposit extremely fine soil particles deep within the fibre. Furthermore the high temperature of the liquor can favour the penetration of certain soil particles and even fix others in the fibre; 4) through transportation via oils and greases (greasy substances, but also solid transported substances, such as those present in lubricants, or coloured substances, like those contained in lipsticks); 5) through deposition of substances contained in solvents. Garments washed using dirty solvents can retain the soil particles they contain. Fibres can retain solid substances (dirt) in a number of ways: - by macro-occlusion or the trapping of particles between threads or fibres. - by micro-occlusion of the smallest particles in irregularities present on the fibre surface. Since the size of these irregularities is below 50 m, only soil particles of a similar size are trapped. - by absorption at the level of the fibre surface, due to Van der Waals and Coulomb forces. - by solubilisation or absorption of oily substances deposited on the fibre. This is associated, above all, with synthetic fibres. - by bonding to the finishing agent on the fibre, especially plastic or soft resins. The ease with which dirt is eliminated or absorbed is influenced considerably by the geometry of the fibre and yarn. Indeed, - round-section fibres soil less and come cleaner during washing; - curly staple fibres, with an irregular section have an increased tendency to absorb and retain dirt; - dirt easily penetrates but is also easy to eliminate from yarns that are loosely twisted, whereas the dirt that penetrates more tightly twisted yarns is more difficult to remove; - very highly twisted yarns show very little susceptibility to the penetration of dirt. PRE-SOIL treatments Solid particles of dirt are deposited on fibres, adhering mechanically to their rough surfaces: those involved in the first stage of fabric soiling find their way into the pores, producing a colour that is very difficult to get rid of; on the other hand, those that are absorbed subsequently (i.e., once the fibres pores are full) can be eliminated through simple mechanical actions. If, therefore, a finishing treatment is used that fills in the fibres surface irregularities (pores, indentations, holes) with white and translucent particles, the dirt that is subsequently deposited will inevitably adhere only superficially and thus be removable through the application of normal cleaning techniques (brushing, vacuum cleaning). However, the diameter of these "pre-soil" material particles must correspond to that (0.05-0.2 micron) of the irregularities present in the fibre, as larger particles would afford only temporary protection. Of the products that have been applied in practice, particularly in the treatment of carpets, some, in particular, have given successful and durable results. These include: oxide blends, such as zinc aluminium, magnesium, iron, and aluminium phosphate blends, all applied by means of sprays, padding or exhaust processes. The disadvantages of this treatment are 153

uncontrollable dust formation and, if a continuous film forms, a hardening and worsening of the hand. SOIL RELEASE treatment The expression Soil Release refers to the capacity to release dirt through wet cleaning. The aim of this finishing treatment is not to prevent a textile from soiling, or to reduce its tendency to absorb dirt, but rather to facilitate the removal of dirt through wet cleaning. Soil Release finishing treatments are used, in particular, in the polyester curtain sector and in the production of other textiles destined to be made up into household linen or underwear. While Soil Release finishing treatments are only rarely applied to polyamide or acrylic fibres, they are more often used on blended goods (wool/acrylic fibres), destined to be made up into items of womens clothing. The Soil-Release finishing treatment is based on a process that enhances the hydrophilic properties of the fibres in such a way that the dirt, particularly water-repellent dirt, passes more easily into the water during domestic washing cycles. The figure below illustrates, in this regard, the relationship that is established between dirt and detergent during wet cleaning: the longest part of the detergent molecule (the hydrophobic, unipolar part) becomes oriented towards the dirt, while the hydrophilic (polar) part remains free in the aqueous medium.
Detergent Water

Dirt Substrate

Improved water absorbency thanks to the SR film

Picture 152 - Diagram of the effect produced by the Soil Release finishing treatment As shown in the diagram, the Soil Release effect is obtained through the use of a chemical that has the capacity to form, on the surface of a fabric, a film (SR) that is able to reduce the attraction of the dirt towards the hydrophilic surface of the textile and, at the same time, to facilitate the introduction of the washing liquor between the dirt and the surface of the textile. The chemical products found to be best suited for this particular use are ones that have the capacity to form a thin film that is not sticky and that does not present plastic properties in the presence of heat of negative charges on the surface of the fabric. What is more, these products are able to confer an anti-static effect, which also favours the release of soil: the accumulation of electrostatic charges is, indeed, one of the main reasons why airborne particles are retained by synthetic fibres (the latter, through electrostatic mechanisms, attract them and bind them to the fabric). These products are emulsions, based on polymers or copolymers of acrylic or metacrylic acids, or on the relative salts, as well as on additional ethylene oxide compounds, and fluoride compounds. All are particularly resistant to wet cleaning, providing a metallic salt catalyst is used in the application stage.

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Anti-static Treatments
Being characteristically hydrophobic, synthetic fibres present a low electrical conductivity, so low that, after rubbing against other bodies, they can retain an electrical charge for a long time. Indeed, when two bodies, characterised by a neutral electrical charge and each having a different chemical composition, are rubbed together, the electrons of each of them will attract those of the other in such a way that both bodies acquire an electrical charge. Generally speaking, the body with the higher dielectric constant takes a positive charge, while the substance with the lower dielectric constant takes a negative one. A potential difference, of as much as several hundred millivolts, is created between the two contact surfaces. If these two bodies, both charged with electrical energy, are separated, the potential is increased, even as high as many tens of thousands of volts. As far as fabrics are concerned, this discharge of energy occurs mainly between the innumerable fibrils. It is responsible for creating the familiar crackling sound and for the formation of the tiny sparks and the genuine electrical discharges that can cause perceptible discomfort. To reduce this phenomenon, one can operate in a controlled environment that has high relative humidity, use conductors that can discharge the material, ionise the atmosphere, or apply hydrophilic chemical substances. Chemical products that confer an anti-static effect on synthetic fibres form, on the fibre surface, a thin film whose electrical conductivity is higher than that of the fibre. These substances are anionic, cationic, amphoteric, or even non ionogenic. The conductivity of a synthetic fibre is thus increased when it is covered with a surface-active substance in which the hydrophobic groups are oriented towards the fibre and the hydrophilic groups are oriented away from it. The presence of mobile electrical ions is, however, important. Depending on the substantivity of the chemical products used, it is possible to choose between different application processes: immersion, exhaust or padding. Anti-static finishing treatments are rarely applied through spraying. Chemical products that have the capacity to confer a permanent anti-static effect condense at high temperatures; they can even condense when stored at ambient temperature in hermetically sealed rooms or containers (as can epoxy resin-based products). All the anti-static products available on the market can be applied by padding, while only a few can be applied using the exhaust process. The material is immersed in liquor containing the anti-static chemical product, squeezed (to 40-60% absorption) and finally dried in a stenter at 80-100C. If the stenter is equipped with additional chambers that can be used to carry out heat setting processes, then it is also possible to condense, at the same time, anti-static products able to confer permanent effects.

Anti-mildew Treatments
In certain ambient (humidity and heat) conditions, cellulose can be permanently damaged. This damage can be due to depolymerisation of the cellulose or to the fact that certain microoganisms (mildews) feed off it. The situation is worsened, during long storage periods, by the presence of starch finishing agents.

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This damage can be prevented by the use of antiseptics, bacteria controlling products containing quaternary ammonium salts, and phenol derivatives. Dyestuffs containing heavy metals can also act as antiseptics. Permanent modification of the fibre (cyanoethylation) is another possibility.

Antimicrobial Treatments
In principle, antimicrobial treatments for fabrics work by limiting the growth of the microorganism population. This also leads to a reduction in the quantity of unwanted byproducts. The active principles that limit the growth of the microorganism population are known as "antimicrobials". Here, a distinction can be drawn between those that have a bacteriostatic effect, i.e., that limit growth, and those that have a bactericidal (or lethal) effect. The former have the following aims: - to prevent the transmission and propagation of pathogenic microorganisms (hygiene sector); - to reduce unpleasant odours due to bacterial degeneration (deodorisation); - to prevent loss of an items suitability for use (as a result of decomposition of fibres following attack by microorganisms). There are various chemical and physical possibilities that can be considered in the production of antimicrobial fabrics. In practice, the antimicrobial effect is obtained through the application of specific chemical products during the finishing stage, or through the incorporation of these substances into chemical fibres during the spinning process. These possibilities are: - the addition of bactericidal substances to the spinning solution, prior to the extrusion stage substances like Triclosan (2,4,4-hydrophenyl trichloro (II) ether), a member of the antiseptic and disinfectant family. Triclosan is a halogencontaining derivative of phenol, and is used in cosmetics and toothpastes. It has a wide range of action against gram-negative and gram- Picture 153 - Allergen-containing house mite excreta on fibres are initially positive bacteria. This compound, thanks to the presence of the acaricide benzyl benzoate, also covered in a mucous layer. This layer is subsequently broken down into tiny offers protection against mites and is used in particles. acaricide (spray or powder) formulas, as well as in a solution (25% concentration) for the treatment of scabies. This compound is non toxic. Benzyl benzoate is an acaricide that acts, chemically, directly on the mites. - A different method for the production of antimicrobial and fungicidal fibres has been adopted by an English company. Its "Stayfresh" fibres exploit the properties of silver and silica, both of which, on coming into contact with water or humidity, arrest the growth of bacterial populations in carpets, fabrics, furniture, mattresses and bed linen, by cutting off a source of their nutrition. As well as having antimicrobial and fungicidal properties, these fibres are safe, non toxic and inorganic because,

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they guarantee total mildew and fungus control, preventing the propagation of bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. - Modification through grafting or other chemical reactions. It is in this sector, that the Institut Textile de France in Ecully has developed the so-called biotextiles. In these products, the chains of molecules containing antiseptic substances are grafted onto the base polymers of the raw fabric. The base polymers are activated by electronic rays and, in the course of the process, they are refracted in given positions, into which is inserted the first graft molecule. The chains of polymers, which grow laterally from the first molecule, confer on the fabric its bactericidal properties. In the event of direct contact, these fabrics act very rapidly against bacteria and their bactericidal property remains intact even after washing. - Fibre blends. - Textile finishing treatments with specific active principles. Following heat treatment (drying, condensation), these substances, being incorporated into polymeric and resinogenic finishing products, become fixed to the structure of the textile. Antimicrobial finishing products Man has adopted antimicrobial substances since ancient times, a fact that is demonstrated by their use in Egyptian mummies and in similar applications in other cultures.
Mite % compared to the initial value

untreated protected

No. of weeks of cotton test (at 17C and rH 75%)

In this regard, the protection and preservation of fabrics, too, have long fulfilled a role of the utmost importance. The need to protect and preserve is still fundamental in many textile applications today. Antimicrobials are protective agents that, being bacteriostatic, bactericidal, fungistatic and fungicidal, also offer special protection against the various forms of textile rotting. The main antimicrobials include phenolic active principles, quaternary ammonium salts, and organic-metallic (Hg) compounds. The chemical products listed in the table on page 156 can be used to obtain antimicrobial effects in fabric finishing and in the production of chemical fibres. A different method for the production of antimicrobial and fungicidal fibres has been adopted by an English company. Its "Stayfresh" fibres exploit the properties of silver and silica (silicic acid), materials that react with water and humidity, cutting off a source of nutrition of the house mite and shrinking its population.

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Picture 154 - Specific treatments create a zone in which bacteria cannot proliferate, as the test in the picture demonstrates

Antimicrobials Aniline Phenol Guanidine Imidazole Inorganic compounds Natural products Surfactants

Materials 3,4,4-trichlorocarbaniline Biozole, thymol, sodium alkylenbisphenol salt 1,1-examethylene up to 5-(4-chlorophenyl) diguanide digluconate; diguanide polyexamethylene hydrochloride 2(4-thiasolil)benzimidazole, benzothiazole Silver zeolite; titanium oxide; silver silicate; silver sulphonate; ferrous phtalocyanate; copper sulphonate Glucosane; propolis; hinokichiole cloruro di poliossilalchiltrialchilammonio - Organic silicone with tertiary ammonium salt; octa-decilidimethyl(3trimethoxypropyl, ammonium chloride). Tertiary ammonium salt: didecilmethylammonium; exadecilperydium; cetyldimethylbenylammonium; polyoxylalkyltrialkylammonium

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Plasma Treatments
Plasma treatment is a surface modifying process, where a gas (air, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide and so on), injected inside a reactor at a pressure of approximately 0.5 mbar, is ionised by the presence of two electrodes between which is a high-frequency electric field. The need to create the vacuum is justified by the necessity to obtain a so-called cold plasma with a temperature no higher than 80 C. This, with the same energy content that can be reached at atmospheric pressure at a temperature of some thousands of degrees C, permits the treatment of fabrics even with a low melting point such as polypropylene and polyethylene, without causing any form of damage. The fabric, sliding through the electrodes, is subject to a true bombardment from the elements that constitute the plasma (ions, electrons, UV radiation and so on) and which come from the decomposition of gas and contain a very high level of kinetic energy. The surface of the fabric exposed to the action of the plasma is modified, both physically (roughness), as well as chemically, to remove organic particles still present and to prepare for the successive introduction of free radicals and new chemical groups inside the molecular chain on the surface of the material. The mechanical properties remain, on the other hand, unaltered, as the treatment is limited to the first molecular layers. The working process is dry, environmentally friendly and inexpensive; a fabric is normally treated at a speed of 13-20 m/min, with a consequential time of exposure to the plasma of around 30-40 seconds, using as mentioned above a gas (in the majority of cases it is air) and electrical current. The tension during the winding of the web is Picture 155 - a) A nonwoven substrate before controlled by a load cell capable plasma treatment of maintaining the tension b)The same nonwoven substrate previously established, even after plasma treatment. though this is very low; it follows that also with "melt-blown" type fabrics which generally have the lowest tensile strength can be successfully adapted. The fabrics treated with plasma present a high superficial energy, assuming however high hydrophilic properties, though they are originally water repellent. This permits on the one hand the elimination or the limitation of solvents in the successive processing steps, on the other it makes the chemical products used for finishing more efficient for the best and most uniform deposit of the product itself and for the adhesion of a chemical type between the active group present on the surface of the fabric treated and the coating product. It is possible therefore to obtain anti-static, antimicrobial, stainproof or flame retardant fabrics, with clearly higher performance, with better resistance to washing and wear and tear, and with finishing that is at times more simple and less expensive. The resistance to peeling and fibre-matrix interface resistance, which are the fundamental characteristics typical of multilayer products such as: composites (e.g. Kevlar, glass, carbon/epoxy resin or polyester), laminated textiles (e.g. fabric/nonwovens, fabric/film), coated textiles (e.g. fabric/resin or polyurethane foam)

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is much higher than the values of the same products obtained without plasma treatment. In fact, for fabrics made from natural and man-made fibre, the plasma treatment also improves dyeability characteristics, such as intensity (approx. 30%) and solidity (I point), and in particular, for animal fibres, it confers strong anti-felting characteristics. This means that the chlorine process can be avoided and therefore so too are the damaging physical properties this creates for the fabrics themselves, but also for people and the environment, as chlorine is a pollutant. The effects of this plasma treatment on surfaces are significant and uniform along the length and width, and they last a long time. The increase in surface energy of the fabrics means that chemical products containing solvents can be entirely eliminated from the conventional process necessary to uniformly wet the fabric surface. Furthermore, as the plasma treatment is efficient only on a level of the first surface layer, no damage to the physical properties intrinsic to the textile are noticed. It follows from the very interesting applications of the plasma treatment that also applications of Picture 156 - Silk fibre treated with nonwovens have become apparent, having a nitrogen plasma (above) and not destination of use among other things in air and treated (below). liquid filtering, synthetic leather, cloths, artificial limbs, biomedical and protective wear, footwear and sportswear.

Enzyme Treatments
This chapter aims to propose and develop, though in a summary form, the enormous possibilities and advantages, of an environmental and ecological nature, deriving from the use of enzymes in various textile finishing operations as an alternative to traditional processes and chemical products. Enzymes are proteins formed by long linear chains of amino acids linked by peptidic bonds. They are present in all living cells which carry out vital functions in the metabolic process, of growth and cellular reproduction, transforming and conserving energy. They are biological catalysts capable of notably accelerating the chemical reactions which occur in living organisms. They are produced by cells, but they are not viruses or bacteria and they cannot reproduce autonomously; they are therefore "alive" even though not biologically active, in determined conditions of pH, temperature, liquor composition and so on. In the past, enzymes used industrially were obtained by: - extraction and purification of animal organs or tissues (pancreatic trypsin) or from vegetal sources (papaine); - techniques of fermentation of selected microorganisms (bacterial amylase).

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The latest developments in genetic engineering and bioengineering have totally revolutionised the technological scene widening the outlook for the types of applications and expanding the enzyme market. In particular, protein bioengineering has permitted: - the adaptation of biochemical characteristics of an enzyme under conditions of the industrial process; - the creation of new enzymes with catalysis techniques which do not exist in nature; - the alteration of the properties of enzymes such as stability, activity, composition and so on. From the end of the eighties till today, the Old and new enzymes used in textiles biggest development of modern enzymology - Amylase: desizing. was made in the textile segment with the - Cellulase: biopolishing of fabrics and cellulose garments, introduction of new cellulase for finishing stone wash of denim garments. cellulosic fabrics and garments, of protease - Protease: treatment of protein fibres (silk and wool). for the treatment of wool and silk, of catalase - Catalase: elimination of hydrogen peroxide after for the elimination of hydrogen peroxide bleaching. after bleaching, of new amylase types for - Laccase and peroxides: oxidation of dyes. desizing processes, and of laccase for - Lipase: elimination of natural triglycerides (in scouring) or oxidation of dyes such as indigo. present in desizing (tallow compounds). A new and very interesting application - Pectinase: bioscouring of raw cotton. currently being developed is bioscouring raw cotton using alkaline pectinase, as an alternative to traditional treatments involving caustic soda and high temperatures. As a large part of fibres processed in the textile industry are of a cellulosic nature (cotton, linen, viscose, Lyocell from wood pulp etc), this segment represents a great opportunity for enzyme treatments. In particular, the uses of cellulose in the textile industry are very varied and in continuous evolution thanks also to the studies carried out in recent years in Italy by Mr Galante and Mr Monteverdi from the Lamberti research centre. Of the most important results from current research, the following is worthy of mention: enzymatic stone wash of denim garments biopolishing, meaning superficial defibrillation of fabrics or garments, before or after dyeing; removal of the imperfections of immature or "dead" fibre and cotton; the modification of hand characteristics and the permanent softening of fabrics; improvement of the quality of printing; a possible increase in affinity for dyes.

The uses of cellulase in textiles permits the development of a new range of finishing and "fashion effect" industrial processes for fabrics and garments, with an absolutely environment-friendly approach, as it is entirely based on completely biodegradable biological agents, with the following advantages offered by the enzymatic stone wash with cellulase compared to the sole use of pumice stone: - shorter treatment times; - minimal damage to machinery; Picture 157 - Effect of biopolishing: before (left) and after (right) the enzyme treatment. 161

- increased machine load for every work cycle, with higher productivity in laundering; - reduction of tearing caused by pumice stones; - substantial reduction or even elimination of the production of pumice dust, to be disposed of as solid refuse or waste; - better consistency and reproducibility of stone wash treatment, with also better flexibility of treatments and better final looks obtained; - less intense manual work in laundering; - better versatility in using the machine; - in the case of cellulase liquid formulae, the possibility of using the automatic and computerised dosage systems; - improved environmental and laundry work conditions. Biopolishing or biofinishing with cellulase is carried out both on pieces as well as made up garments and it can be compared to an enzymatic singeing process, carried out before dyeing or after dyeing also to give a sort of stone wash effect. It is widely used on made up garments, without technological alternative, while on a piece traditional singeing can be used. Nevertheless, in this latter case, that particular soft hand effect typical of cellulase cannot be obtained. Biopolishing treatments permit: Elimination of dead or immature cotton, of neps and surface hairiness. "Natural" softening with an improvement of hand and drapability. Permanent prevention of reiterated fibrillation and pilling. Increase in hydrophilic properties, particularly in the case of terry fabrics. Better cleanliness and brightness, as well as uniformity of dye. Better overall quality of the material. The possibility of creating finishings to suit new and original fashion effects. Use of an entirely environmentally friendly process.

Enzymatic finishing or surface biopolishing is the result of a combination of enzymatic hydrolysis and mechanical action, whose main factors to consider are: Mechanical action - Type, design and management of machinery. - Process time - Material load and liquor ratio Enzymatic action Type and quantity of enzyme Time, temperature and pH of the process Nature and concentration of the chemical auxiliaries present Thermal and/or alkaline inactivation of the enzyme at end treatment.

Recent formulae of cellulase and amylase are available, to degrade amide and derivatives of cellulose (such as CMC), and more recently a combination of amylase plus lipase has also been proposed.

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There are various scientific developments under way on amylase which could lead to results of a certain interest also for the textile industry, for example: - Amylase with acid pH, of possible use for desizing in combination with acid extract scouring. - Amylase with alkaline pH (around 8-9) for desizing in combination with bioscouring with pectinase or however with pH closer to that of bleach. - Amylase resistant to oxydising condition, capable of being used at the same time as a delicate bleaching process. - Amylase with activity and stability independent to the presence of calcium ions, which would avoid the addition of calcium chloride in the liquor and would permit the use of stronger chelants or sequestering agents, without risking inactivating the desizing enzymes. In treating natural fibres composed of proteins, like silk and wool, protease can be used. The latter is composed of a large family of enzymes specific for hydrolysis of proteins, being able to hydrolyse the peptidic link between adjacent amino acids. A very vast range of protease exists in nature, from every possible source of life (microorganisms, plants, animals) with very diverse properties, different optimal pH levels and temperature, and other biochemical characteristics. Nevertheless, the sources of industrial protease are by now almost solely microbes obtained by fermentation techniques. Vegetal protease, like papaine and bromelaine, or animal protease like trypsin, chemostrypsin and pepsin, have almost been entirely abandoned for industrial type processes. Enzymatic degumming of silk using protease permits the sericin to become hydrolysed and at the same time other protein residues deposited by the silkworm. Compared to traditional degumming of silk using soap in alkaline conditions, enzymatic degumming, if carried out correctly, prevents damage or weakening of the fibre from occurring, obtaining a more uniform coloration, with a less harsh environmental impact compared to surfactants. Currently, particular protease is used also in the preparation and finishing of silk pieces or articles. Through this enzymatic treatment, special effects are sought for softening and for the hand (e.g. peach-skin, draping, suede-like effects etc) demanded by fashion or the market. It should, however, be underlined that, while protease on silk can certainly give interesting and commercially valid results, they are still difficult treatments to carry out correctly in order to avoid irreversible damage.

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Possible uses of enzymes:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

Limit the typical tendency of wool to shrink and felt Solve dimensional stability problems Provide machine wash characteristics for the fabric Eliminate the negative properties emerging in fabric care processes (e.g. hygroscopic expansion) Enhance the fabric colouring Prevent the pilling effect after some finishing processes Eliminate motes (in alternative to the conventional carbonising methods) Bleaching of wool Wool fabric bioscouring

10) Possibility of enhancing the original fineness and softness characteristics of wool 11) Enhance the evenness of wool fabric fibres subjected to pre-dyeing treatments 12) Obtain stone-wash effects on yarn dyed fabrics, but above all on piece-dyed wool fabrics 13) Improve the imbibition properties of wool fabrics 14) Possibility of obtaining combined effects to ensure flame-retardant or water-repellent properties, etc.

One of the intrinsic properties of wool is its tendency to felt and shrink when wet under conditions of mechanical agitation. In relation to the various theories proposed to explain this property it is generally accepted that the "differential frictional effect" (DFE) plays a fundamental role in the process. The DFE is correlated to the morphological scale-like structure of the fibres, because of which they can move only in a unidirectional manner towards their roots, but not in an opposite direction, "blocking each other" therefore if subjected to mechanical stress when wet. In practical uses it is extremely convenient to use shrink proof wool, partly due to limitations imposed by dry cleaning and market demand for risk-free home washing of woollen garments. The techniques used to produce shrink proof wool modify the fibre with rather drastic oxidative treatments, at times followed by applications with cationic resins to preserve the dimensional stability of the wool. The majority of these processes use chlorine gas, or chlorine or hypochlorite salt. Nevertheless, due to the growing limitations of use of chlorine as an oxidant, there is a growing interest in using more ecological and safer alternatives to produce shrink proof wool. Wool can be considered an almost ideal substrate for many enzymes, like heterase, protease, lipase and other enzymes which break the disulphide bonds of cystins in keratins. The fibres of wool are, in fact, essentially composed of protein and lipids, and are formed by two main morphological structures: the cuticle and the cortex.
PROTEINS WITH HIGH SULPHUR AND TYROSINE CONTENT EPICUTICLE EXOCUTICLE

DEXTRORSE HELIX

ENDOCUTICLE CUTICLE

NUCLEUS PROTEINS WITH LOW SULPHUR CONTENT

SINISTRORSE CHORD MICROFIBRIL MATRIX

MACROFIBRIL CELL MEMBRANE PARACELL CORTEX ORTHOCEL

Picture 158 - Morphological structure of a wool fibre 164

The cuticle confers to the fibre the scale-like outer look and it is in turn composed of 75% protein and 25% lipids. The common anti-felting treatments with chlorine cause to a varying extent a functional modification (resistance to felting) associated with a morphological modification (a marked filing down of the scales of the epicuticle easily seen with a SEM).

Picture 159 - Photograph taken by a SEM which highlights the attacked wool. On wool, with some protease base enzymatic preparations, interesting effects can be achieved which have some commercial importance, such as: Softening and modification of hand characteristics. Anti-pilling and surface cleaning. Better drapability. "Aged" look for garments of clothing. Improved comfort.

In the case of anti-pilling treatment for wool woven and knitted fabrics, a protease has been launched on the market which can be used solely on pre-chlorinated wool. Unfortunately, treatments using only protease do not confer anti-felting properties on wool. In the textile industry, particularly in dyeing, catalysis represents a safe and ecological innovative application for eliminating hydrogen peroxide after the bleaching process and before dyeing. The use of this enzyme instead of more traditional chemical reactants (e.g. reducing alkaline detergents such as hydrosulphite or thiosulphate, magnesium salts etc) permit: - the avoidance of repeated rinsing cycles, leading to considerable savings in water. - carrying out of dyeing in the second liquor rinse or even in the first, following corrections of temperature and pH. - a reduction in process times. - lower energy requirement. - the avoidance of polluting chemical effluents. Recently a new oxidoreducing (laccase) enzyme was also proposed for breaking the irreversible oxidative breaking of indigo which gives denim garments a "cleaned" effect on backstaining (using low quantities) or bleaching (using higher quantities).

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Finally, a new process for the bioscouring of raw cotton was presented for the first time in Italy. The bioscouring of raw cotton as an alternative to alkaline scouring has been studied in depth over recent years. The basic idea is simply that of hydrolysing using enzymes those noncellulosic components responsible for water repellency of cotton, using a specific degradation process in delicate pH and temperature conditions, then removing them with a successive hot rinse. The enzymatic process are very specific and can therefore be direct only towards components which need to be removed, maintaining the cellulose intact, with therefore a lesser loss of weight and resistance to fibre, a lower COD and BOD in plant wastewater. Considering the composition of the entire cellulose fibre, pectin, protein, wax and hemicellulose, various families of hydrolytic enzymes have been evaluated in bioscouring, used individually or in combination, such as: cellulase, pectinase, protease, hemicellulase, and lipase. From many studies published or presented at scientific symposiums it has emerged that a treatment with pectinase followed by a hot rinse is able to confer hydrophilic properties on cotton and make cotton absorbent as well as being a chemical scouring process. Picture 160 Protease treatment of wool On the contrary, protease, hemicellulase and lipase A: non-treated wool; B: wool treated do not seem to offer positive effects, while with specific products; C: wool treated cellulase can weaken the fibre. This result is with protease; D: wool damaged by explained by the facts that: protease. - Waxy material, pectic substances and proteins from the cuticle and primary wall are associated and present in an amorphous state. - The primary wall has higher amorphous properties than the secondary one. - The external surface of the fibre can therefore be hydrolysed more easily than its core. The pectinase destroys the structure of the cuticle, hydrolysing the pectins and removing the links with wax and protein, as well as between these and the remaining fibre structure. The pectin links the wax to the cellulose of the primary wall, but it is not necessary to eliminate all the pectin for providing hydrophilic properties. Even when 30% of the residual pectin remains on the fabric, a wash at 80-90C after a dwelling stage eliminates the solubilised waxes. This pectinase is to be more exact, a lyase pectin, it acts therefore on the pectin independently to its degree of methoxidation. Bioscouring is applied on woven fabrics in continuous processes and on knitted fabrics in batch processes. It can be applied with an exhaust process or by impregnation (pad batch) in a special buffer at pH 8-9 containing an imbibition agent, at a temperature of between 50 and 60 C or lower and for variable times from some tens of minutes to some hours, depending on the fabric, the quantity and the dwelling temperature. In these conditions, it is also possible to combine the two treatments of scouring and desizing into just one operation, the conditions of use of pectinase and amylase being compatible. A hot rinse follows to eliminate the hydrolysed components and freed waxes. The efficiency of the bioscouring is measured mainly by the hydrophilic properties of the fabric treated. The same degree of hydrophilic properties are obtained with the drop test, comparable to chemical and enzymatic scouring.

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The residual content of pectin is comparable in the two approaches, but it is not influential on the hydrophilic property, this being determined mainly by waxy components on the cuticle. On the other hand, with bioscouring alone, the motes are not eliminated (in fact it is a wooden material) and it does not increase the degree of white. Both these aspects are however resolved in the successive bleaching. Of the potential application and commercial advantages of the bioscouring, the following are worthy of note: Saving of water and energy. Lower environmental impact and easier to treat wastewater. Better compatibility with other processes, machinery and materials. Lesser attacks on the fibre structure, loss of weight and resistance, with improved quality of the article. Improved hand characteristics. Possibility (still to be proven) of a higher degree of polymerisation of the cellulose and a lesser tendency of the fabric or fibrillation later pilling phenomena. Better and more uniform affinity for dyes. In the case of woven fabrics, the possibility to combine the two desizing and bioscouring steps in just one; in the case of knitted fabrics, combining bioscouring with biopolishing using cellulase, with a jet or overflow machine. Possibility of scouring cotton even when blended with more delicate fibres.

Bioscouring is therefore only in its infant stage as a proposal for large scale industrial application on woven and knitted fabrics as well as on yarns. Laboratory figures and pilot tests are without a doubt encouraging, but it remains to be tested in an installation to say how valid and competitive this new textile enzymology process can be. Until ten years ago, the use of normal amylase for desizing was more or less the only noted application and it would have been difficult to imagine such a boom in the development of new enzymes and their relative applications in the textile field. There is still a lot of progress to be made, such as: costs must become more competitive; the ease of use and parameter control must be improved; the question of inserting enzymatic treatments stages in continuous processes; new enzymes must be developed, above all active in a wider range of pH environments and temperatures; - rapid, simple and economic methods of enzymatic activity must be developed to offer the operator better control over the process. Enzymology is however finding increasingly large space in the practice of preparing and finishing textiles. It is not a technology which eliminates either chemicals or textile machines, but it integrates well with these. For a textile industry like the one in Italy, dependent for its commercial success above all on an excellent capacity and sensitivity to finishing textile goods, as recognised throughout the world, a good ability in enzymology becomes therefore an excellent factor linked to competitive advantage.

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The Influence of Finishing Treatments on Dyed Goods

The purpose of finishing treatments is to give cellulose articles and relative blends with synthetic fibres determined properties that are advantageous in terms of use. Nevertheless, we must add straight away that these treatments also cause undesired effects under a double aspect: mechanical-technological (e.g. reduction of strength) or appearance (e.g. colour change and influence on the solidity of tones). Here we above all discuss the influence that finishing treatments can have on dyeing and prints, though only in general terms as in many cases the problem is linked not only to the type, but also to the quantity of cross-linking agent as well as the method of application and the composition of the overall recipe, which also includes catalysts and additives. It must also be remembered that it is impossible to establish regulations on this subject to generalise dyes by class or certain assortment. Therefore even the following information, which is based on experience gained and the results of many research projects, is only indicative: we therefore recommend that the finisher, for safety reasons, carries out trials under normal working conditions. The influences of finishing on dyed goods are described in the example of cellulose fibre, but they are suitably adequate even for relative blends with synthetic fibres. Influence on colour Dye and print colour can be more or less strongly influenced by finishing treatments, with the possibility that variations in both tone and intensity occur. Individual dyes as well as finishing products and conditions are responsible for this. The individual cross linking agents on their own are of secondary importance for colour change, meaning that they cause a variance in tone practically the same as the dye itself in most cases, and under similar conditions. On the other hand, the influence of catalysts is entirely different. The most favourable results are obtained using zinc chloride or magnesium chloride. Zinc nitrate compromises the tone only in some cases, while ammonium chloride as well as organic hydrochlorides (e.g. 2-amino-2-methylpropanol-hydrochloride) can cause a sharper colour change. Additives and the conditions of condensation have generally less importance in this regard, nevertheless even these factors should not be entirely overlooked. Data relating to the influence of the dyes on finishing, often reported on relative colour cards, provides a reference, but does not permit definitive conclusions to be drawn. It is necessary, in fact, to consider that the environmental conditions of the various finishing mills makes a large number of variants possible, which cannot all be born in consideration on one colour card. To operate safely, it is therefore necessary that the finisher experiments in his own laboratory to verify which dyes and finishes are suitable for the particular conditions. Naturally, the company who produces the dyes as well as finishing products will always be willing to elaborate on ideal proposals for users. Even though changes in colour are observed especially when we are dealing with substantive dyes, preliminary trials are also required for reactive dyes as well as for vat dyes (which are less susceptible to the changes in question), in order for the maximum work safety in the mill to be observed. The trials should also contemplate the dyes that are used for the dyeing of synthetic fibre (e.g. polyester) in blends with cellulose fibre.

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Metamerism By metamerism is intended that phenomenon which causes two objects to present the same colour when they undergo a series of observation conditions, different colours on the other hand under a different set of conditions. In particular, with exposure to light certain dyes present the phenomenon of metamerism, such as some yellow vat dyes. This characteristic is a property of the dye, which cannot be influenced in a positive sense, but it can be accentuated by finishing. Even catalysts highlight the metamerism property of some sensitive dyes and for this reason ammonium salts are strongly advised against, they should be replaced with zinc salts or magnesium chloride. It is therefore a good idea to try and resolve the problem of metamerism dyes using which are as insensitive as possible for dyeing or printing. Influence on fastness to light Fastness to light of dyeing or printing with reactive or direct dyes can reduce in a more or less significant manner the finishing treatment. In general, the vat dyes are practically uninfluenced with some exceptions, including some leuco-esters which should however always be subject to prior checks. Given, however, that in practice determining fastness to light implies that time is widely available, it is recommended to use dyes with a high level of this fastness as far as possible as well as finishing products which could affect it only in a very slight way. Comparing various finishing treatments on dyed goods, it is noted that individual cross linking agents exercise a differentiated influence on fastness to light, even when they are applied without catalysts on dyed goods, that is therefore where a reaction cannot occur. It can be concluded that the catalyst has more or less no influence on fastness to light. Influence on fastness to rubbing Fastness to rubbing is affected by determined products mainly in the case of textiles (polyester, acetate) dyed with dispersion dyes. Of these products, we cite those of preparation for weaving, with winding oils, softeners, and water repellent agents. Often such a reaction results evident only after a lengthy storage of the dyed goods. Generally, the solidity to rubbing is not influenced by cross-linking agents and catalysts. Sometimes an abrasion of the fibre is erroneously mistaken for bad solidity to rubbing. This inconvenience is on the other hand due to an accumulation of finishing products, which can provoke a certain brittleness of the cellulose fibres on the surface of the fabric. To avoid this problem as far as possible, the following should be observed: - carry out singeing operations with great accuracy, eliminating hairiness; - avoid bleaching errors, which would provoke deterioration of the fibre; - use optimal quantities of cross linking agents; in such a way as to avoid provoking excessive brittleness of the fibre - keep to ideal conditions for drying after the application of finish and avoid the operation being carried out too quickly

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Influence on wet solidity Finishing treatments act favourably on wet solidity (washing, water, perspiration). In the majority of cases, notable improvements can be seen, especially for substantive dyes, for which in the case of light tones the use of cationic products for post-treatments to increase solidity is often unnecessary. On the other hand, a significant reduction in fastness to light occurs.

Accessories
De-twister rope-opener: this crucial system allows switching from a process in open-width form to a process in rope form. It automatically eliminates distortions of rope fabrics (woven fabrics, knitted and tubular knitted goods). A stitch cutting machine (Picture 161) is usually assembled before this system. This machine opens the sewn pieces of cloth and recovers the yarn. The fabric, placed on a carriage on a rotary plate (Picture 162), is conveyed to a rope-squeezer (Picture 163) and then to a de-twister (Picture 164), which eliminates fabric distortions.

Picture 161 Stitch cutting machine

Picture 162 Rotary plate

Picture 163 Rope squeezer

Picture 164 Special de-twister

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Picture 165 De-twister for tubular knitted goods

Picture 166 De-twisting, rope-opening, spreading and centering system

Spreader: This machine is used to spread fabrics and eliminate the longitudinal creases before loading the fabrics into the open-width machines or before ultimate winding. The spreader can be combined with a centering unit The spreading process can be carried out by means of bowed bars (Picture 167), with diverging helical-engraved drums (sometimes combined with oscillating drums) (Picture 168), with slattype spreading drums (the slat opening is controlled pneumatically or by means of a servomotor) (Picture 169 and 170) and with roller drums (Picture 171).

Picture 167 Bowed-bar spreading

Picture 168 Helical spreading: Picture + scheme

Picture 169 S lat-type spreading

Picture 170 Slat-type spreading

Weft straightener: This system is fundamental for preparing fabrics for printing and other functional finishing operations before final winding. It allows positioning the weft perpendicular to the warp in woven fabrics (thus avoiding angular differences and distortion), and to line up the stitches in knitted fabrics, as a result preventing the subsequent deformation of the printed patterns or of the finished garments. Picture 171 Roller spreading 171

Different operating principles are applied to the various types of machines: - a combination of horizontal or bow straightening rollers (Picture 172), with manual or automatic adjustment (controlled by photocells and microprocessor or by automatic devices detecting the warp position). - free wheels with straightening pins (which are used when there is a crosswise difference between the two opposite selvedges).

Picture 172 Bow-roller weft straightener

Picture 173 Free wheel weft straightener

Cutters: these systems grant an efficient cutting of the selvedge (when required), a precise longitudinal cutting of the fabrics at the desired height as well as the cut and the opening of tubular knitted goods. Cutting systems are usually equipped with gluing or thermowelding systems (for tubular knitted goods made of synthetic fibres) Brushing machines: these systems are used to eliminate any particle or impurity from the surface of the fabric; brushing machines are also used to equalise the fabric hairiness and the direction of the fibre end after raising. The brushing machine (including motorised drums coated with horsehair) is always combined with an efficient suction system, which eliminates and conveys the particles to a bag filtering system (Picture 176).

Picture 174 Cutting, opening and alignment of tubular knitted goods

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A Brushing roller

B Section brush Picture 175 Different types of brushes

C Beater brush

Picture 176 Brushing machine equipped with suction system Inspection table: This table is used for the visual inspection of fabrics usually carried out in optimum lighting conditions to allow the operator to detect any possible defects. The inspection takes place at an intermediate stage (usually after weaving) or at the very end of the textile process (final inspection). According to specific needs, the inspection table can be fed by means of standard or giant beam and can be equipped with cutting and packaging systems or with a fabric accumulator (with conveyor belt or others), which eliminates tensions on knitted and stretch goods. There are many types of automated inspection systems; defects can be highlighted by applying stickers or marking the selvedge; these systems can be also connected to a computer-controlled defect mapping system, granting an extremely precise indication of the defect and allowing cutting optimization.

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The checks carried out on inspection tables usually include: - fabric length - weaving defects (type and position) - dyeing defects (type and position) (see reciping, quality control and automation) - printing defects (type and position) - seam (position) - unwanted width variations

Inspection table for knitted and stretch goods.

Picture 177 - Inspection table with accumulation belt

Variable-tilt inspection table Winder

Picture 178 Inspection table for woven fabrics suitable for knitted and stretch goods

Picture 179 - Inspection table 174

Picture 180 Meter counting device

Picture 181 - Stitching detector (indication or cut)

Picture 182 Defect marking system with stickers

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AUTOMATION IN TEXTILE FINISHING

Foreword
The textile industry is characterized by a considerable fragmentation of the production cycle into a number of segments specialised in the processing of different fibres/yarns; even the single steps are often considerably fragmented, which entails the need for them to be accurately organised in order to guarantee good final results. The first steps of the textile production cycle are less fragmented but fragmentation unquestionably increases during the finishing stage, as a result of the large variety of processes required by the market. Modern automation technologies based on electronics, programmability and smart systems show great potential for textile applications and currently aim to the achievement of crucial objectives such as flexibility and quality, according to three main evolution paths: 1) the standardisation of components 2) the compatibility of systems 3) the popularity of personal computers. The standardisation of components takes place thanks to the concentration of automation technologies in some basic types of operations (processes) which must be carried out by the machine. The machine is characterised by a system made of inputs and outputs. Inputs are sensors which transform the physical variables of the system into electrical values which can be read and processed by an electronic unit. Outputs are the actuators controlling the machine and consequently the process (motors, solenoid valves, thermoresistors). Any process can generally refer to this operating scheme and can be controlled by making inputs operating in relation to the state of the output and following a preset sequence of times. The computer, by means of the appropriate software, supplies the logical links between inputs and outputs and controls the right process sequence. Through its gradual introduction, automation has affected: 1. machines: the immediate objective was the reduction and simplification of the operators tasks; 2. processes: the subsequent evolution stage has provided the links between the different production steps with the automatic control of the mill, leaving the operator with only control and supervision tasks. The full integration of the different production areas (inventory control systems, preparation of dyes and auxiliaries, dyeing equipment, material storage, etc) and /or services such as planning, laboratory, design pattern development, technological planning of cycles and production still needs to be addressed. The most advanced integration solutions available today are mainly production cells. The main difference between automated systems essentially lies in the quantity of variables controlled. Here are the finishing segments most affected by technological development: 1. colour analysis 2. process control 3. production control systems 4. colour kitchen 5. automated inventory control systems 6. transport and robotised systems 7. machine control systems

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Colour analysis and control

It is worth remembering that in the past the assessment of colour reproduction was exclusively entrusted to the ability and to the experience of the eye of highly skilled operators working on the colour kitchen, whose judgement, however, could be influenced by a number of physical, physiological and psychological restrictions. The success and the development of electronics have deeply transformed the colour control task thanks to the introduction of new measuring instruments, which have allowed definitely scientific and objective assessment. All the systems currently available on the market have basically the same fundamental structure and differ only in their performance and in the algorithms adopted for colour analysis. These systems generally feature: 1. a spectrophotometer, which measures the different spectral components of the sample analysed. Today the measurement is carried out by means of a xenon flash, a prism separating the chromatic components and a CCD sensor (of the type used for modern solidstate television cameras that have only a single row of light-sensitive elements or pixels), which reads the intensity of all the components simultaneously; 2. a standard computer, connected to a spectrophotometer like a simple peripheral unit. The software carries out the processes and defines the functions of the system. It represents an interesting field of competition and makes the real difference between the various systems. In brief, the software includes the following functions: - algorithms for colour analysis (processing of the data measured by the spectrophotometer to recognise the colorimetric features); - preparation of recipes, i.e. the combination of several base dyestuffs to obtain the desired colour by accurately mixing and distributing them; the colour to be matched is suggested to the computer by reading the reference sample with the spectrophotometer; - assessment of the colour differences, i.e. the assessment of the distance between the colours of the two samples in the colour table, expressed in different systems of coordinates; - correction of the recipes, i.e. the analysis of the difference between the colour obtained with the machine and the reference colour, and the calculation of dye distributions to improve the dyeing result; - control and storage of references and recipes for future retrieval; - control and storage of dyestuffs and textile substrates; - different types of algorithms to match the colour table to visual assessment and to the type of source used (so that the differences that the human eye has perceived as matching can generate assessments of the same degree); - selection of the recipe which better matches the sample, the costs and fastness; - other valuable functions;

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Automatic devices for the preparation of recipes are now considered crucial for all wellorganised and efficient dyeing mills. BENEFITS Repeatability of procedures Reduction of sampling times Reduction of sampling costs Reduction of dyestuff consumption Possibility to assess the dyeing efficiency Impartiality of the assessment Better control of colour archives Cost control Quality improvement There are really many reasons justifying the investments in automation which can be carried out at different levels and consequently having different costs; it is worth remembering that even the most sophisticated automated systems applied to any production cycle, turn out to be useless if the information coming from the laboratory is scarcely reliable or even incorrect. To obtain reliable indications, the laboratory and the production units must first of all be equipped with machines and tools working on the basis of the same operating concept (i.e. the laboratory must be in a condition to reproduce the same operating conditions as during the production process). With reference to the above-mentioned considerations, it is worth mentioning that manufacturers of colour matching systems have studied the reproducibility of measures, based on very precise and repeatable calibrating procedures. The dyestuffs must be accurately dosed both in the laboratory and in the dyehouse. As far as this latter is concerned, no real innovations have been introduced, due also to the high technological level reached by modern automatic colour kitchens; the only real innovations have generated an uninterrupted improvement of the dosing techniques for dyestuffs in different forms (liquid, powder, paste), leading to very accurate results also on large quantities. The multi-pipette volumetric dosing system is meeting with success in modern automated dyeing laboratories since it eliminates all the residual limits of the standard single-pipette volumetric system. LIMITS Integration problems Need for special training Needs for organisational changes Need for preparation steps

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Picture 183 Multi-pipette sampling system Here are the main benefits ensured by multi-pipette systems: 1. the elimination of intermediate pipette washing when changing the dye or the substrate, which considerably reduces the operating times necessary for each single dosing procedure and, at the same time, up to a 40/50% increase in productivity (compared to single-pipette systems). 2. the thorough elimination of any residual contamination risk, which could occur in particular with some products and dyes even after accurate washing of the pipette. Very important also are the benefits deriving from the use of special pipettes studied for the particular properties of some products (viscosity, precision, speed) which give excellent technical results. Another important issue is also represented by the application of a gravimetric system for dosing testing, which completely eliminates any residual doubt concerning the quantities delivered during each single delivery of the pipettes. Operating data are registered by means of a printer, while an automatic self-calibrating system guarantees a continuous check-up of each single pipette.

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Process controllers
While process control technology is not as specific as vision technology, it encompasses all manufacturing sectors.

The process controllers relevant to textile manufacturing are basic information-electronic systems that, installed on the machine, control certain fundamental parameters relating to the production process carried out on the machine itself. Essentially, they can be broken down into 4 categories according to the technology of the controller involved, which is itself dependent upon the type of process being controlled. 1. Cycle programmers: these are present on many dyeing machines and they are based on the general principle of activating outputs according to inputs. But their actual functioning is more specific: they are pre-programmed to manage a sequential cycle of operations. This facilitates programming, because the only thing that has to be done is determine the sequence of the steps in the cycle and the conditions required for the passage from one step to the next (the reaching of a certain temperature, the expiry of a set time, the arrival of a go-ahead signal, etc.). There exist two types of cycle programmer: one based on a microprocessor whose hardware and software remains the property of the supplier, and one based on a PC- or PLC-formatted architecture, which offers all the advantages of standard hardware and flexible software. 2. PC-driven Programmable Logical Controllers (PLCs): these systems are equipped to receive logical information (from switch or pushbutton contacts, limit switches, photocells, any kind of ON/OFF sensor) and to activate logical outputs (electric drives, relay contacts, etc.) A controller checks continuously the status of inputs (openings/closures, presence/absence of electrical current), and according to the configuration of the inputs, activates its own outputs (activated/deactivated, ON/OFF, command presence/absence). The logical correlation between input status and the output status consequently imposed is determined when programming the system. Thus, the PLC can be regarded as a completely general purpose tool, capable of carrying out, when duly programmed by the user, the most diverse functions. In practice, PLCs are used to resolve all those problems relating to automation and sequence management that used to be resolved using electrical systems and relay logics. They feature on practically all the systems used, in textile finishing, for operations such as washing, mercerisation, dyeing, drying, calendering, raising, pad-batching and steaming.

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3. Numerical Controls: these are electronic systems, specifically designed to control the positioning of a number of moving organs (e.g., robot axes). Using special languages, they programme the sequences of the positions of the various axes, each of which is controlled through measurement of the position of the organ. This measurement is carried out by high precision transducers (encoders, resolvers, optical rulers), which transmit to the numerical control a number (hence the name of the system) which represents that position. 4. Special programmers, developed specifically to carry out dedicated functions. These programmers are designed with and for the machine, in such a way that input and output signals and processing capacity are kept to the absolute minimum. In order to reduce costs, size and maintenance, they are often engineered in the form of single electronic cards. The four systems described above are can be integrated with one another, and are often used together. BENEFITS Better process quality Reduction of errors Greater production flexibility Rationalisation of the cycle according to scientific criteria Rapid personnel training Greater familiarity with production characteristics Scope for integration with other company information systems Repeatability of procedures End quality no longer dependent upon the skill and experience of staff LIMITS Need for organisational changes Difficulty personalising the system to specific requirements Difficulty interfacing with different IT products Need for assistance and maintenance

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The presence, in factories, of highly intelligent, local control systems has favoured the development of production management systems. Nearly all process controller producers also offer surveillance systems that centralise data relating to checks carried out on the machine and allow various levels of interaction. There is now a very wide range of production management software functions available, and new developments are emerging all the time in various areas as a result of greater contact between software designers and users in the textile sector. These areas include: - production planning - planning of production start-up (availability, requirements in terms of human resources and machines, etc.) - management of dyeing and finishing cycles - plant and single machine surveillance, remote acquisition and saving of key physical parameters, log record of alarms - plant and machine synoptic alarms (sometimes interactive) - records of orders and work carried out - recipe and cycle sequence management

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- management of dyestuffs and auxiliaries warehouse - s tatistical analysis of production - quality control-based classifications - tracking of single batches, i.e., the keeping of records of the different dyeing and finishing stages so as to make it possible in the future, in the event of disputes or problems, to trace the history of a piece - link-ups with ERP systems, for the transmission of data relating to technical operations of interest to the accounts department.
Process management Handling system Product and dyestuff dosing Drying Dyeing programmes Liquor flowrates Differential accuracy values Pump speed pH/liquor conductivity Colour kitchens Process monitor Records Temperature diagrams System diagnostics Alarms Remote technical assistance Production management Process automation Printer

Dyeing machines

Picture 184 - Example of an open, modular system for the remote control of the dyeing room or dyehouse, which allows the installation of different modules on the desired hardware platforms; the various surveillance modules can be positioned at different points within the system. The application of information technology to production in the textile sector is similar, in many regards, to its application in most other manufacturing sectors. In particular: information technology is taken out of the IT centre, and distributed throughout the mill, making it possible to present/access data wherever they are needed or generated; purely administrative functions are supported, more and more, by out-and-out automation functions: management and processing of organisational-type data, but also technological data relating to production; batch processes (data processing operations carried out by the computer at the end of which one obtains: balance sheets, production plans, warehouse status, etc.) are replaced by realtime applications, which make it possible, through one of the terminals linked up with the computer, to access and update records immediately; there is a growing need to integrate the processing of information relating to areas that are distinct from, but connected with, one another: design, technological definition of processes, machine preparation, planning of resources, etc. Textile companies want the adoption of IT systems in the production environment to generate a greater and greater rationalisation of management, and to reduce errors and waste. The requirements of a textile company, as regards its information system, can be broken down into three areas: 1. Company management: at this level, information systems are needed for the working out of production plans, the checking of results and the working out of sales and cost plans. 182

2. Function management: here, they are required to respond to the need to determine the production plan and flow. In particular, they help in the processing of orders, converting them into processing instructions for individual departments, stages or machines. They make it possible to optimise batches on the basis of resources and technological parameters, even simulating the production chain so as to optimise production speeds and balance workloads among machines. 3. Process management: here, they serve to tune the numerous technical regulation and programming procedures that are involved in the production process. In this stage, information systems make it possible to gather all the basic data needed for control and function planning activities. BENEFITS Integration of different areas (resource planning, designing, recipe preparation, machine programming, cost control) Better customer service in terms of order status and delivery times (shorter) Reduction of errors Increased company flexibility Greater control over the companys overall activity Reduction of stocks Reduction of downtimes Process repeatability LIMITS Modification of the modus operandi (which results in the need to standardise procedures and train staff) Standardisation problems (due to control systems that are often incompatible with one another) Poor product customisation

AUTOMATED COLOUR KITCHENS

The problems raised by colour kitchen departments in a dyeing mill are not the same as those raised by the colour kitchen departments in a printing mill, and thus the automation solutions developed for each differ considerably: 1. In printing mills, where only viscous fluids (pastes) or auxiliary solutions are used, there are two fundamental requirements: first, to sample the N number of colours per design pattern in the program, and second, rapidly to supply each printing unit with the relevant coloured pastes, in the appropriate quantities: clearly, many samples and products are involved, as are very short execution times. For at least a decade now, systems have been in operation that are able to meet sampling requirements, and that are often used together with other systems that dose print pastes both for sampling and for production. Dosing systems are linked up with a series of containers (which vary considerably in number), each of which is constantly filled with a colour or with a print paste and/or auxiliaries. These containers are connected to the pneumatic or electrical pumps that keep the colours moving and deliver the product to the dosing point. Dosing is controlled by dedicated controllers or PLCs linked up with PCs, which look after recipe preparation and production management. In certain circumstances, the PCs can be linked with a spectrophotometer and with the company management unit.

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2. In dyeing mills, products used in the preparation of recipes can be in liquid or powder form (auxiliaries or dyestuffs) and colour kitchens usually have four dosing systems with distinct functions: a) Dosing of liquid auxiliaries. Liquid products are measured using volumetric lire counters, solid-state gauges or scales. The system doses the product and delivers it to the machine via a single pipe or through a distributor (one pipe per machine).

Picture 185 - Liquid product dosing station

Picture 186 - Diagram of a liquid product dosing station b) Dosing and dissolving of solid auxiliaries (salts). Salts are dissolved in small quantities of water (ratio <1:1) and conveyed through a single pipe or distributor to the relevant machines.

Picture 187 - Powder product dosing system detail of the distributor 184

Picture 188 - Powder product dosing,

c) Dosing of powdered dyestuffs. The dyestuff is transferred through worms to containers on scales. In dyeing, the use of water-soluble bags is common. These bags are closed after dosing and then immersed in the tank, which is located on the machine. The dosing system is often used together with a traditional dissolving system this kind of system has a mixer or recirculating pump and the powder is conveyed to the mixer by robot or a new generation dissolving system (in which the transfer and dilution of the powders occurs by suction, i.e., thanks to the vacuum created in the dilution container).

Picture 189 - A dosing system for powdered dyestuffs. In the foreground, the suction and washing station, in the background the dilution station. d) Dosing of liquid dyestuffs. This is done using machines like those described in point a) or, when greater precision is required, using the dosing technology employed in printing mills.

Picture 190 - Diagram of a dosing system used in printing mills

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The complexity of truly automated colour kitchens is a result, above all, of the different forms the product can take; as a result of which it is difficult to unify the systems. Weighing, whether of liquids and viscous pastes, or of powders (providing these are homogeneous and non hygroscopic), does not really present any particular problems that need to be solved, but the contemporaneous presentation for processing of products in different forms makes it necessary to have multiple dosing and weighing systems. In practice, colour kitchens have been created that have dosing systems suitable only for dyestuffs and auxiliaries available in the liquid state, and that weigh the others semiautomatically (or vice versa). It is important to develop dosing systems that take into account the consumption levels and the contemporaneous demands of the various machines. The automated kitchen management programs available are generally concerned solely with the transmitting of information needed for weighing, dissolving and conveying to storage tanks, while the timer-controlled feeding and running of the production machines is managed directly either by process controllers located on the machines themselves and possibly linked up with a central system for the storing, management and conveying to the machines of cycle programs (integrated systems), or by operators (semi-automatic systems). Clearly, logical and timely programming of the two stages (preparation of recipes and their use in the dyeing rooms) also needs to be coordinated with warehouse availability (fabrics and products) and central programming. There already exist fairly simple automated systems for these operations, but here too, when it comes to all the various connections, one comes up against the interfacing problems mentioned in the chapter on recipe preparation systems. In short, it has become essential, as soon as possible, to achieve unification of processor interfaces. BENEFITS Reduction of errors thanks to automatic dosing of products Reduction of waste and downtimes Rapid dosing Space savings, thanks to the compactness of the systems Repeatability of procedures Better conservation of products in closed tanks and elimination of contamination through contact with the external environment Improved worker and environmental safety (special exhalation abatement systems) Reduction of labour due to the elimination of manual operations Conformity with manual load handling regulations More rational organisation of labour, greater integration of operational stages and higher engineering level of the dyeing process LIMITS Modification of the modus operandi Difficult integration with production methods Systems not always sufficiently reliable Difficulty interfacing with recipe preparation systems.

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One of the most important technical characteristics that an automatic dosing system must have is, without doubt, the capacity to dose within certain limits. A dosing machines operating limits are also the safety limits within which it must work; dosing requests at the limit of its capacity must be avoided, as they would lead to a slowing down of the dosing itself and create the risk of operating errors. Distributed IT systems are meant to allow the specialisation of a system to be combined with the operating ease of whoever is using it; they are not intended to result in the creation of IT cells. In the example illustrated here, an information network connects a series of basic stations that work by means of a single interface and that link up a dyeing rooms vital control systems. The operator has at his disposal a record of dosing recipes, which details all the products and order in which they are transferred. Reproducing, with the help of the computer, the procedures normally used in dyeing, he can set the machines according to the required dosage quantities. Given that a dyeing room may accommodate different types of machine, or machines that carry out various homogeneous processes, it is possible, in the installation stage, to group together the different machines, thereby simplifying their management and reducing the risk of errors. A PC network system responsible for information storage and system surveillance

Recipes window

System temperature diagram window

Applicative design and studies have led to the creation of compact and modular dosing systems equipped with hydraulic circuits that, using a single pump and distribution line, allow products to be drawn directly from the tanks, measured and conveyed to their point of use. The reading of the measuring, volumetric and solid-state instruments is carried out by a microprocessor connected up in feedback mode with a variable frequency drive that regulates the pump flow according to the programmed dosage quantities.

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The level of precision obtained using this system is remarkable: > 50 cc. or > 50 g. with a dosing speed of 30/40 litres/min. The products dosed are conveyed directly to their distribution points, or to pre-treatment tanks for mixing with other products, or for heat treatments, and then via pumps fed into the production cycles.
DRAINING T U M B L E R S S T O R A G E

PRODUCT TREATMENT STATION

Picture 191 - Compact modular dosing system An important new development in the field of powdered dyestuff transportation and dissolving is the vacuum technique, which allows powder to be transferred directly from the weighing bucket to the mixer container, without the use of robots or manipulators. In this way, there is no escape of powder or vapours during the transfer stage as the system is completely devoid of hoods and exhausts, thus meeting all environmental and safety regulations. The speed of powder transfer ranges from 150 to 300 g/s depending on the chemical-physical nature of the product. Thanks to this high transfer speed, combined with the turbulence of the fume abatement water, the powder is subjected to a vigorous mixing action, which guarantees the elimination of germs and the perfect dilution of the dyestuff. The mechanical action of the agitator combined with the emulsifying phenomena mentioned above result in perfect dilution of the powder in a far shorter time than is possible using traditional methods. Basically, the system is made up of two separate sections. One serves to empty the dyestuff buckets, and the other is made up of dilution containers. The systems are connected together only from an engineering point of view, therefore they do not have to be positioned in a particular way. The suction group can be single or double, as can the battery of dilution containers. The system can be used in-line with an automatic powder weighing system, or more simply, the powder bucket can be placed manually on the surface of the suction section. The pipes and transfer units are cleaned by suction and water.

Picture 192 - Detail of a vacuum dosing system 188

The solution can be conveyed to the machines by means of a single pipe distribution system equipped with sorting valves that, in response to a specific command, divert the flow to the selected machine. The single pipe system offers a number of advantages in relation to systems that use separate pipes for each machine. These advantages include: - the possibility of setting the quantity of rinsing water delivered to the machine according to the different capacities of the service tanks of the dyeing machine and the relative liquor ratios; - the possibility of effecting rinsing cycles using limited quantities of water and of reaching speeds and pressure levels able to guarantee perfect cleaning of the line; - rationalisation and simplification of the operations involved in transfer line installation.

AUTOMATED STORAGE
In completely automated systems, the storage, the unloading and loading of fabrics, the insertion and extraction of material carriers into/from yarn-dyeing autoclaves, transportation of materials, control of dyeing cycle parameters and the addition of dyestuffs and auxiliaries are all operations carried out by computer, in the absence of any human intervention.

Picture 193 - Completely robotised system for the dyeing of packages, equipped with hoists for the transportation of material carriers and for the loading/unloading of the machines Warehouse automation is a relatively recent development and it constitutes a blend of various basic technologies: information technology, robotics, handling and transportation systems. Initially applied for the management of large quantities of small items (mechanical and electronic components, medicines, etc.), automated warehouses are now being used with an increasingly diverse range of products. Because of the strategy of the warehouse, the companys whole production and organisational system has to be reviewed, and this brings to light three types of flow that, while different, are closely connected with one another, and all three have to be taken into consideration. They are: flow of materials, organisational flow, flow of information. The warehouse is the heart of the system, around which all these flows revolve. The type and size of the various inputs/outputs depends on the particular application, but incoming materials can nevertheless be split into two large families: - materials originating from internal processes - materials originating from external processes.

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In many cases, where production is largely decentralised, the importance of the latter family will be considerably greater than that of the former. The management system of an automated warehouse involves the digital processing of opportune characteristics and the exchanging of information with a host computer, which may be the companys existing host computer, or a different one, dedicated specifically to the warehouse. The host computer sends the processor lists of withdrawals, destinations, and products being processed, and updates of records, while the processor sends the host computer the list of motions effected. The management system (warehouse + transportation system) identifies and stores material that has been processed and withdraws materials to be sent for processing, in such a way that the situation in the warehouse can be monitored, second by second, through the creation of a physical map of items and processes. As far as the textile sector (with all its general and specific problems) is concerned, it is easy to appreciate the growing importance of storage systems, particularly in view of the new organisational systems that tend to cut transit times of products, and whose aim is to guarantee quick service to an ever-changing market, while at the same time keeping no, or minimum warehouse stocks. BENEFITS Production cycle integration Reduction of labour Elimination of laborious tasks Space savings Repeatability of procedures Reduction of errors Greater productivity LIMITS Modification of the modus operandi Plant and structure layout Need for preliminary studies and customised solutions Limited floorspace

HANDLING AND ROBOTISATION SYSTEMS Automation and information technologies have led to the development of highly sophisticated solutions that allow the problem of handling to be approached no longer with simple mechanical solutions, but by conditioning the companys logistics through intelligent flow management that increases flexibility and adaptability. The basic characteristics of automated transportation systems depend on the applications for which they are destined and on the environments in which they will be implemented, and they are strongly conditioned by the existing layout and structure of the buildings where the systems are housed. In general, the following systems are found: tracks, ground, aerial tracks, and systems without physical support, or rather that acquire information through magnetic, optical or sonorous guides that do not necessitate any particular intervention on the existing structure of the buildings. Transportation in textiles is a vast field, and this makes it difficult to provide meaningful examples. In short, it depends: - on the type of product being transported (staple bales, bumps, comb sliver cans, spindles, packages, fabric rolls, folded pieces, print screens, dyestuff containers, etc.); - on the type of machine that must connect with the transportation systems (operating machines, control, packaging, warehousing systems); - the movement to be carried out (simple shifting, inclination of packages, grouping, etc.);

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- on the degree of intelligence of the required operations, both on a sensory level (e.g., the capacity to modify behaviour according to the physical characteristics of the package or the environment) and on an operational level (as regards the IT management of articles received by the transportation system, the automatic definition of routes, destinations, etc.). Practically any transportation problem in a textile company can be resolved through the application of currently existing technologies, adapted appropriately. One problem that must be solved, if we are, in practice, to exploit automated handling systems in the textile field, is the standardisation of packages and formats. This is relevant particularly to jobbers, who have no control over the specifications of the semiprocessed goods they receive from their customers and on which they are required to work: size and shape of packages, tubes, methods of boxing up, type of pallet for packages and rolls, etc. Another difficulty in the textile sector is the extreme variability of products and the small lots, which mean constant variations in flow and in the layout of the virtual factory that is periodically set up within the company. The trend today is to pursue greater and greater integration between transportation systems and the system (robotised or other) in operation at production level, in an effort to provide a flexible solution to a series of problems that emerge in the normal running of the plant. Indeed, a simple system for the physical transfer of semiprocessed goods may well eliminate human labour, but it will not improve the companys production flexibility if, upstream and downstream, manual loading and unloading continues to be necessary. BENEFITS Greater efficiency thanks to an organisation of labour that is more rational and more coherent with production needs Reduction of labour costs Reduction of downtimes thanks to greater production cycle continuity Reduction of errors Reduction of laborious tasks Space savings due to rationalisation of production cycles and layout Reduction of intermediate storage LIMITS Modification of the modus operandi as a result of greater standardisation of packages and formats, plant layout and information flows Rather high labour cost/investment cost ratio Inflexibility of the system vis--vis the considerable variability of the textile production cycle (changing fashions, seasonal production, etc.) Difficulty interfacing with existing machines

In reference to the application of robots in the textile industry, it is worth proposing a system based on the idea of creating an robotised dyeing, centrifuging and drying system, which would receive reels of yarn in special modular columns the number of packages can vary according to requirements and then deliver dyed and dried packages in the same columns.

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Common to most traditional systems is the tendency to focus mainly on the dyeing stage itself. Indeed, for this particular stage, extremely sophisticated process automation solutions have been developed and the loading and unloading of the carriers has been specifically designed to optimise the operation of dyeing autoclaves. However, this is often at the expense of the subsequent stages, i.e., centrifuging and drying, even though these, too, are part of the whole dyeing process. As a result, complex systems have to be developed for transporting the packages from the dyeing carriers to the centrifuging hydroextractor and subsequently to the drying carriers, all of this generating considerable automation or, alternatively, labour costs. With a view to making the whole transportation system more simple, reliable and economical, special dyeing and drying autoclaves have been developed that are designed to receive the yarn packages in special centrifugable columns. These are transported in modules that take six columns, and they are sent from the dyeing machine to the centrifuging hydroextractor and finally to the drying machine, thereby eliminating the need for specific package carriers. The module comprising the six columns is, in fact, moved on a special automated overhead hoist equipped with multiple grippers; this makes it possible, in a single operation, to load the centrifuge to full capacity.

Picture 194 - Automated six-column module: photograph and diagram of package loading/unloading. The size and volume of the dyeing autoclave has since been optimised in order to ensure the ideal liquor ratio. In its most complete configuration, the system is as follows: Automatic store of packages for processing arranged on Europallets with cardboard or plastic dividers Automatic package depalletisation station, where the packages are loaded and possibly pressed on to vertical, centrifugable package carriers (columns). These columns are arranged on a platform following the ring configuration typical of the dyeing module (a circle of columns whose number is determined by the desired load). The loaded module is electronically weighed at this station. The circular modules are automatically lifted and moved (traditional package carriers no longer feature). The robot is an automated overhead hoist with automatic grippers that grasp the upper ends of the columns. The number and the ring arrangement of the grippers correspond to the number and ring arrangement of the columns making up the module; the two rings have the same diameter. They move in a synchronised manner on three spatial axes (X, Y, and Z) in order to move the columns, put them into and extract them from the different machines. Fully automatic dyeing units with vertical-axis and dyeing chamber and low liquor ratio. The units use the tried-and-tested air cushion dyeing technique and they are governed by the process computer based on a standard PC platform.Using volumetric reducers, the load can 192

be reduced to a minimum of two columns. The capacity of multiple systems can be reduced, maintaining a constant liquor ratio. This is done by isolating, using special valves, one or more modules; alternatively, modules can be parallel connected, in order to double the load. The system is based on a module of six columns, each column including 12 stacking 2-kg packages. As a result, each column weighs 24 kg and each module 144 kg. Hydroextractor that can accommodate the ring of centrifugable columns. The cycle is carried out entirely automatically by the process computer. The centrifugation cycle lasts an average of 15 minutes. Drying units with a vertical axis and circular chamber that carry out drying fully automatically with the end cycle governed by the weight of the material. There are normally 2 or 4 modules with a single filtering station, the latter driven by heated air. Since the circuit is open the air, having passed through the yarn, is aspirated and conveyed to the exhaust stack the modules can take yarns of different fibres, counts and colours without the risk of cross-contamination; perfect drying is guaranteed as the cycle end is determined by the weight of each individual module. Station where the dyed and dried packages are automatically unloaded from the modules centrifugable columns. This is the same station that effected the loading operation, and it now places the packages on trucks to be sent for rewinding or, should the packages have to be transported elsewhere, for reloading of the Europallets.

Advantages of the system Centrifugable columns on which raw packages are loaded and from which, when finished, they are unloaded, without ever having been touched by human hand. Elimination of traditional package carriers The same ring configuration is valid for the dyeing unit, centrifuge and drying unit modules; this facilitates the automation considerably and thus increases the systems reliability and reduces costs Extreme loading flexibility Standardised hydroextractor Completely automated links with yarn warehouse. MACHINE MONITORING SYSTEMS The expression machine monitoring systems refers to those electronic-information systems that monitor: production output, in terms of quantities of semi-processed goods and/or physical events relating to semi-processed goods (number of picks on a loom, reasons for machine stops, number of packages unloaded from a winding machine, etc.); operating parameters relating to individual machines (mechanical settings, temperatures, pressure levels, etc.). This family normally excludes those systems that control quality on line, and that therefore monitor technological and not purely production parameters. However, the boundary separating the two is very blurred. The task shared by all these systems is that of monitoring the physical values that can, to variable degrees, be correlated with the parameters that one wishes to monitor, and of allowing data processing in real-time or almost real time.

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The actions that follow the data processing can range from a simple signalling to (at more sophisticated levels) self-adjustment of individual machines or of the entire department. There are, essentially, two different categories of system: 1. Monitoring of quantities produced and methods of operation. This category embraces most systems used in companies for the direct monitoring of production methods; it is often not enough simply to monitor the number of single units produced; instead, this value needs to be correlated with the time it took to produce them, with the status of certain fundamental parameters, with events that occurred and with other collateral parameters. Systems belonging to this first category are now present in some considerable number on the textile market, and having got beyond the pioneering stages, they have now achieved high levels of reliability and technical features satisfying the markets requirements. Thus, they can be used for: 1) real-time reading of machine status 2) recording and cataloguing of machine events into log reports, also including untimely operator interventions 3) the statistical processing of the above data 4) the creation of dyeing cycles and the conveying of the same to the process controllers 5) remote control of the machine 6) planning the activities of the dyeing cell. All monitoring systems also pilot the automatic dosing systems, acting as an interface with the dyeing machines process controllers. They are easily added to existing mill equipment, without the need for complex mechanical or electronic adjustment operations. This clearly facilitates their installation. As regards their processing capacities, they are easy to personalise and often offer performances that are superfluous to effective information needs. 2. Monitoring of department operating parameters. The systems belonging to this category are ones that not only monitor, but also regulate machines that are dissimilar to one another but employed in a single setting. This function is usually achieved through the use of special processors and software procedures that can rarely be applied in exactly the same way in different production organisations. The monitoring of a dyeing room, or of a printing room, constitutes a good example, as here the production and management variables are complex as they are linked to machines that differ from one another. There thus arises the need for simultaneous management of different processes, involving different physical parameters. Systems belonging to this second category, when installed in finishing departments (dyeing, printing, wet and dry finishing), are rarely designed and created by the manufacturers of the individual operating units, precisely because they are designed to manage machines from different suppliers: this is thus the sphere of intervention of companies specialising in system integration.

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BENEFITS Improved quality and customer service Reduction of machine stops thanks to better programming, organisation of labour and preventive maintenance Increased productivity Reduction of staff for checking tasks Greater availability of real-time information that can be compared automatically and continuously Improved planning in terms of quality, quantity and organisation Possibility of carrying out preventive maintenance, thanks to the statistical analysis of data

LIMITS Incompatibility with other information systems Installation costs for replacement of microprocessors and for the development of software interface with existing controllers

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