GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

A Users Guide for GNU Awk Edition 3 October, 2007

Arnold D. Robbins

To boldly go where no man has gone before is a Registered Trademark of Paramount Pictures Corporation.

Published by: Free Software Foundation 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA Phone: +1-617-542-5942 Fax: +1-617-542-2652 Email: [email protected] URL: http://www.gnu.org/ ISBN 1-882114-28-0

Copyright c 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

This is Edition 3 of GAWK: Eective AWK Programming: A Users Guide for GNU Awk, for the 3.1.6 (or later) version of the GNU implementation of AWK. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Sections being GNU General Public License, the Front-Cover texts being (a) (see below), and with the Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below). A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License. a. A GNU Manual b. You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU software. Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise funds for GNU development.

Cover art by Etienne Suvasa.

To Miriam, for making me complete. To Chana, for the joy you bring us. To Rivka, for the exponential increase. To Nachum, for the added dimension. To Malka, for the new beginning.

Short Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 Getting Started with awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2 Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3 Reading Input Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4 Printing Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5 Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 6 Patterns, Actions, and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 7 Arrays in awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 8 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 9 Internationalization with gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 10 Advanced Features of gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 11 Running awk and gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 12 A Library of awk Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 13 Practical awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 A The Evolution of the awk Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 B Installing gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 C Implementation Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 D Basic Programming Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 GNU General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

ii GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

Table of Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
History of awk and gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Rose by Any Other Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typographical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The GNU Project and This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How to Contribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 5 6 7 8 8

Getting Started with awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.1 How to Run awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 One-Shot Throwaway awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Running awk Without Input Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 Running Long Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 Executable awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 Comments in awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.6 Shell-Quoting Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Data Files for the Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Some Simple Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 An Example with Two Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 A More Complex Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 awk Statements Versus Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Other Features of awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 When to Use awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11 12 12 13 14 14 16 17 19 20 20 22 22

Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1 How to Use Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Escape Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Regular Expression Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Using Character Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 gawk-Specic Regexp Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Case Sensitivity in Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 How Much Text Matches? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Using Dynamic Regexps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Where You Are Makes A Dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 25 27 29 31 32 33 34 35

iii

Reading Input Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 How Input Is Split into Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examining Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonconstant Field Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changing the Contents of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specifying How Fields Are Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Using Regular Expressions to Separate Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Making Each Character a Separate Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Setting FS from the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.4 Field-Splitting Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Reading Fixed-Width Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Multiple-Line Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Explicit Input with getline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.1 Using getline with No Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.2 Using getline into a Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.3 Using getline from a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.4 Using getline into a Variable from a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.5 Using getline from a Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.6 Using getline into a Variable from a Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.7 Using getline from a Coprocess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.8 Using getline into a Variable from a Coprocess . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.9 Points to Remember About getline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8.10 Summary of getline Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 39 40 41 43 44 44 45 46 47 49 51 51 52 53 53 54 55 55 56 56 56

Printing Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 The print Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of print Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Output Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Controlling Numeric Output with print . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 Introduction to the printf Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Format-Control Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3 Modiers for printf Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.4 Examples Using printf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Redirecting Output of print and printf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Special File Names in gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.1 Special Files for Standard Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2 Special Files for Process-Related Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3 Special Files for Network Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.4 Special File Name Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Closing Input and Output Redirections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 57 59 59 60 60 60 61 64 65 68 68 69 70 70 70

iv GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Constant Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Numeric and String Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Regular Expression Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Using Regular Expression Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Using Variables in a Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Assigning Variables on the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Conversion of Strings and Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Arithmetic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 String Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Assignment Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Increment and Decrement Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 True and False in awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10.1 String Type Versus Numeric Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10.2 Comparison Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11 Boolean Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12 Conditional Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.13 Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14 Operator Precedence (How Operators Nest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 73 73 74 74 76 76 76 77 79 80 81 84 85 85 86 87 89 90 91 92

Patterns, Actions, and Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.1 Pattern Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.1.1 Regular Expressions as Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.1.2 Expressions as Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.1.3 Specifying Record Ranges with Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 6.1.4 The BEGIN and END Special Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.1.4.1 Startup and Cleanup Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.1.4.2 Input/Output from BEGIN and END Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.1.5 The Empty Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.2 Using Shell Variables in Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.3 Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 6.4 Control Statements in Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 6.4.1 The if-else Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 6.4.2 The while Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 6.4.3 The do-while Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6.4.4 The for Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6.4.5 The switch Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 6.4.6 The break Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 6.4.7 The continue Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 6.4.8 The next Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 6.4.9 Using gawks nextfile Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.4.10 The exit Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.5 Built-in Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 6.5.1 Built-in Variables That Control awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 6.5.2 Built-in Variables That Convey Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

v 6.5.3 Using ARGC and ARGV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Arrays in awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 Introduction to Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Referring to an Array Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assigning Array Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Array Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scanning All Elements of an Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The delete Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Numbers to Subscript Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Uninitialized Variables as Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scanning Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sorting Array Values and Indices with gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 118 119 119 120 121 122 123 123 125 125

Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.1 Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Calling Built-in Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Numeric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 String-Manipulation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3.1 More About \ and & with sub, gsub, and gensub ........................................................ 8.1.4 Input/Output Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.5 Using gawks Timestamp Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.6 Bit-Manipulation Functions of gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.7 Using gawks String-Translation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 User-Dened Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Function Denition Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Function Denition Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Calling User-Dened Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 The return Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 Functions and Their Eects on Variable Typing . . . . . . . . . 128 128 128 130 138 141 143 148 150 150 150 152 153 155 156

Internationalization with gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Internationalization and Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GNU gettext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internationalizing awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Translating awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Extracting Marked Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2 Rearranging printf Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.3 awk Portability Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 A Simple Internationalization Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 gawk Can Speak Your Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 157 159 160 161 161 162 163 164

vi GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

10

Advanced Features of gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Allowing Nondecimal Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two-Way Communications with Another Process . . . . . . . . . . . . Using gawk for Network Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using gawk with BSD Portals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proling Your awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 167 169 170 170

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

11

Running awk and gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Invoking awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Command-Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Command-Line Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The AWKPATH Environment Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Obsolete Options and/or Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Undocumented Options and Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Known Bugs in gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 174 179 180 181 181 181

11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7

12

A Library of awk Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

182 184 184 185 186 188 189 189 191 191 193 193 194 195 195 196 197 202 206

12.1 Naming Library Function Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 General Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.1 Implementing nextfile as a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.2 Converting Strings To Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.3 Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.4 Rounding Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.5 The Cli Random Number Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.6 Translating Between Characters and Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.7 Merging an Array into a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.8 Managing the Time of Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Data File Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.1 Noting Data File Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.2 Rereading the Current File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.3 Checking for Readable Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.4 Checking For Zero-length Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.5 Treating Assignments as File Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Processing Command-Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Reading the User Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6 Reading the Group Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

Practical awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

211 211 211 216 220 222 224 225 229

13.1 Running the Example Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Reinventing Wheels for Fun and Prot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 Cutting out Fields and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 Searching for Regular Expressions in Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.3 Printing out User Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.4 Splitting a Large File into Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.5 Duplicating Output into Multiple Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.6 Printing Nonduplicated Lines of Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.7 Counting Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii 13.3 A Grab Bag of awk Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.1 Finding Duplicated Words in a Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.2 An Alarm Clock Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.3 Transliterating Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.4 Printing Mailing Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.5 Generating Word-Usage Counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.6 Removing Duplicates from Unsorted Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.7 Extracting Programs from Texinfo Source Files . . . . . . . . . 13.3.8 A Simple Stream Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.9 An Easy Way to Use Library Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 231 232 234 236 238 240 240 244 245

Appendix A The Evolution of the awk Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 A.6 Major Changes Between V7 and SVR3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes Between SVR3.1 and SVR4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes Between SVR4 and POSIX awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extensions in the Bell Laboratories awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extensions in gawk Not in POSIX awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Contributors to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 254 254 255 256 259

Appendix B

Installing gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

261 261 261 262 265 265 265 266 267 267 267 268 268 268 270 271 272 272 272 273 274 274 274 275 275 275

B.1 The gawk Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.1 Getting the gawk Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.2 Extracting the Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1.3 Contents of the gawk Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Compiling and Installing gawk on Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2.1 Compiling gawk for Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2.2 Additional Conguration Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2.3 The Conguration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3 Installation on Other Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.1 Installing gawk on an Amiga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.2 Installing gawk on BeOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.3 Installation on PC Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.3.1 Installing a Prepared Distribution for PC Systems . . B.3.3.2 Compiling gawk for PC Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . B.3.3.3 Compiling gawk For Dynamic Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.3.4 Using gawk on PC Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.3.5 Using gawk In The Cygwin Environment . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.4 How to Compile and Install gawk on VMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.4.1 Compiling gawk on VMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.4.2 Installing gawk on VMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.4.3 Running gawk on VMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3.4.4 Building and Using gawk on VMS POSIX . . . . . . . . . . B.3.4.5 Some VMS Systems Have An Old Version of gawk . . B.4 Unsupported Operating System Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.4.1 Installing gawk on the Atari ST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.4.1.1 Compiling gawk on the Atari ST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii GAWK: Eective AWK Programming B.4.1.2 Running gawk on the Atari ST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.4.2 Installing gawk on a Tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.5 Reporting Problems and Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.6 Other Freely Available awk Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 276 277 278

Appendix C

Implementation Notes . . . . . . . . . . 281

281 281 281 283 284 284 289 289 290 293 294

C.1 Downward Compatibility and Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Making Additions to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2.1 Adding New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2.2 Porting gawk to a New Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3 Adding New Built-in Functions to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3.1 A Minimal Introduction to gawk Internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3.2 Directory and File Operation Built-ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3.2.1 Using chdir and stat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3.2.2 C Code for chdir and stat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3.2.3 Integrating the Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.4 Probable Future Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix D

Basic Programming Concepts . . 297

297 298 299 300 300 301

D.1 What a Program Does . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 Data Values in a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3 Floating-Point Number Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3.1 The String Value Can Lie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3.2 Floating Point Numbers Are Not Abstract Numbers . . . . D.3.3 Standards Versus Existing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 GNU General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents . . . . . . . . 330

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Foreword 1

Foreword
Arnold Robbins and I are good friends. We were introduced 11 years ago by circumstances and our favorite programming language, AWK. The circumstances started a couple of years earlier. I was working at a new job and noticed an unplugged Unix computer sitting in the corner. No one knew how to use it, and neither did I. However, a couple of days later it was running, and I was root and the one-and-only user. That day, I began the transition from statistician to Unix programmer. On one of many trips to the library or bookstore in search of books on Unix, I found the gray AWK book, a.k.a. Aho, Kernighan and Weinberger, The AWK Programming Language, Addison-Wesley, 1988. AWKs simple programming paradigmnd a pattern in the input and then perform an actionoften reduced complex or tedious data manipulations to few lines of code. I was excited to try my hand at programming in AWK. Alas, the awk on my computer was a limited version of the language described in the AWK book. I discovered that my computer had old awk and the AWK book described new awk. I learned that this was typical; the old version refused to step aside or relinquish its name. If a system had a new awk, it was invariably called nawk, and few systems had it. The best way to get a new awk was to ftp the source code for gawk from prep.ai.mit.edu. gawk was a version of new awk written by David Trueman and Arnold, and available under the GNU General Public License. (Incidentally, its no longer dicult to nd a new awk. gawk ships with Linux, and you can download binaries or source code for almost any system; my wife uses gawk on her VMS box.) My Unix system started out unplugged from the wall; it certainly was not plugged into a network. So, oblivious to the existence of gawk and the Unix community in general, and desiring a new awk, I wrote my own, called mawk. Before I was nished I knew about gawk, but it was too late to stop, so I eventually posted to a comp.sources newsgroup. A few days after my posting, I got a friendly email from Arnold introducing himself. He suggested we share design and algorithms and attached a draft of the POSIX standard so that I could update mawk to support language extensions added after publication of the AWK book. Frankly, if our roles had been reversed, I would not have been so open and we probably would have never met. Im glad we did meet. He is an AWK experts AWK expert and a genuinely nice person. Arnold contributes signicant amounts of his expertise and time to the Free Software Foundation. This book is the gawk reference manual, but at its core it is a book about AWK programming that will appeal to a wide audience. It is a denitive reference to the AWK language as dened by the 1987 Bell Labs release and codied in the 1992 POSIX Utilities standard. On the other hand, the novice AWK programmer can study a wealth of practical programs that emphasize the power of AWKs basic idioms: data driven control-ow, pattern matching with regular expressions, and associative arrays. Those looking for something new can try out gawks interface to network protocols via special /inet les. The programs in this book make clear that an AWK program is typically much smaller and faster to develop than a counterpart written in C. Consequently, there is often a payo to prototype an algorithm or design in AWK to get it running quickly and expose problems

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

early. Often, the interpreted performance is adequate and the AWK prototype becomes the product. The new pgawk (proling gawk), produces program execution counts. I recently experimented with an algorithm that for n lines of input, exhibited Cn2 performance, while theory predicted Cn log n behavior. A few minutes poring over the awkprof.out prole pinpointed the problem to a single line of code. pgawk is a welcome addition to my programmers toolbox. Arnold has distilled over a decade of experience writing and using AWK programs, and developing gawk, into this book. If you use AWK or want to learn how, then read this book. Michael Brennan Author of mawk

Preface 3

Preface
Several kinds of tasks occur repeatedly when working with text les. You might want to extract certain lines and discard the rest. Or you may need to make changes wherever certain patterns appear, but leave the rest of the le alone. Writing single-use programs for these tasks in languages such as C, C++, or Pascal is time-consuming and inconvenient. Such jobs are often easier with awk. The awk utility interprets a special-purpose programming language that makes it easy to handle simple data-reformatting jobs. The GNU implementation of awk is called gawk; it is fully compatible with the System V Release 4 version of awk. gawk is also compatible with the POSIX specication of the awk language. This means that all properly written awk programs should work with gawk. Thus, we usually dont distinguish between gawk and other awk implementations. Using awk allows you to: Manage small, personal databases Generate reports Validate data Produce indexes and perform other document preparation tasks Experiment with algorithms that you can adapt later to other computer languages In addition, gawk provides facilities that make it easy to: Extract bits and pieces of data for processing Sort data Perform simple network communications This book teaches you about the awk language and how you can use it eectively. You should already be familiar with basic system commands, such as cat and ls,1 as well as basic shell facilities, such as input/output (I/O) redirection and pipes. Implementations of the awk language are available for many dierent computing environments. This book, while describing the awk language in general, also describes the particular implementation of awk called gawk (which stands for GNU awk). gawk runs on a broad range of Unix systems, ranging from 80386 PC-based computers up through large-scale systems, such as Crays. gawk has also been ported to Mac OS X, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows (all versions) and OS/2 PCs, Atari and Amiga microcomputers, BeOS, Tandem D20, and VMS.

History of awk and gawk

Recipe For A Programming Language 1 part egrep 2 parts ed 1 part snobol 3 parts C

Blend all parts well using lex and yacc. Document minimally and release.
1

These commands are available on POSIX-compliant systems, as well as on traditional Unix-based systems. If you are using some other operating system, you still need to be familiar with the ideas of I/O redirection and pipes.

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

After eight years, add another part egrep and two more parts C. Document very well and release. The name awk comes from the initials of its designers: Alfred V. Aho, Peter J. Weinberger and Brian W. Kernighan. The original version of awk was written in 1977 at AT&T Bell Laboratories. In 1985, a new version made the programming language more powerful, introducing user-dened functions, multiple input streams, and computed regular expressions. This new version became widely available with Unix System V Release 3.1 (SVR3.1). The version in SVR4 added some new features and cleaned up the behavior in some of the dark corners of the language. The specication for awk in the POSIX Command Language and Utilities standard further claried the language. Both the gawk designers and the original Bell Laboratories awk designers provided feedback for the POSIX specication. Paul Rubin wrote the GNU implementation, gawk, in 1986. Jay Fenlason completed it, with advice from Richard Stallman. John Woods contributed parts of the code as well. In 1988 and 1989, David Trueman, with help from me, thoroughly reworked gawk for compatibility with the newer awk. Circa 1995, I became the primary maintainer. Current development focuses on bug xes, performance improvements, standards compliance, and occasionally, new features. In May of 1997, J urgen Kahrs felt the need for network access from awk, and with a little help from me, set about adding features to do this for gawk. At that time, he also wrote the bulk of TCP/IP Internetworking with gawk (a separate document, available as part of the gawk distribution). His code nally became part of the main gawk distribution with gawk version 3.1. See Section A.6 [Major Contributors to gawk], page 259, for a complete list of those who made important contributions to gawk.

A Rose by Any Other Name

The awk language has evolved over the years. Full details are provided in Appendix A [The Evolution of the awk Language], page 253. The language described in this book is often referred to as new awk (nawk). Because of this, many systems have multiple versions of awk. Some systems have an awk utility that implements the original version of the awk language and a nawk utility for the new version. Others have an oawk version for the old awk language and plain awk for the new one. Still others only have one version, which is usually the new one.2 All in all, this makes it dicult for you to know which version of awk you should run when writing your programs. The best advice I can give here is to check your local documentation. Look for awk, oawk, and nawk, as well as for gawk. It is likely that you already have some version of new awk on your system, which is what you should use when running your programs. (Of course, if youre reading this book, chances are good that you have gawk!) Throughout this book, whenever we refer to a language feature that should be available in any complete implementation of POSIX awk, we simply use the term awk. When referring to a feature that is specic to the GNU implementation, we use the term gawk.
2

Often, these systems use gawk for their awk implementation!

Preface 5

Using This Book

The term awk refers to a particular program as well as to the language you use to tell this program what to do. When we need to be careful, we call the language the awk language, and the program the awk utility. This book explains both the awk language and how to run the awk utility. The term awk program refers to a program written by you in the awk programming language. Primarily, this book explains the features of awk, as dened in the POSIX standard. It does so in the context of the gawk implementation. While doing so, it also attempts to describe important dierences between gawk and other awk implementations.3 Finally, any gawk features that are not in the POSIX standard for awk are noted. This book has the dicult task of being both a tutorial and a reference. If you are a novice, feel free to skip over details that seem too complex. You should also ignore the many cross-references; they are for the expert user and for the online Info version of the document. There are subsections labelled as Advanced Notes scattered throughout the book. They add a more complete explanation of points that are relevant, but not likely to be of interest on rst reading. All appear in the index, under the heading advanced features. Most of the time, the examples use complete awk programs. In some of the more advanced sections, only the part of the awk program that illustrates the concept currently being described is shown. While this book is aimed principally at people who have not been exposed to awk, there is a lot of information here that even the awk expert should nd useful. In particular, the description of POSIX awk and the example programs in Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182, and in Chapter 13 [Practical awk Programs], page 211, should be of interest. Chapter 1 [Getting Started with awk], page 11, provides the essentials you need to know to begin using awk. Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24, introduces regular expressions in general, and in particular the avors supported by POSIX awk and gawk. Chapter 3 [Reading Input Files], page 36, describes how awk reads your data. It introduces the concepts of records and elds, as well as the getline command. I/O redirection is rst described here. Chapter 4 [Printing Output], page 57, describes how awk programs can produce output with print and printf. Chapter 5 [Expressions], page 73, describes expressions, which are the basic building blocks for getting most things done in a program. Chapter 6 [Patterns, Actions, and Variables], page 94, describes how to write patterns for matching records, actions for doing something when a record is matched, and the built-in variables awk and gawk use. Chapter 7 [Arrays in awk], page 117, covers awks one-and-only data structure: associative arrays. Deleting array elements and whole arrays is also described, as well as sorting arrays in gawk.
3

All such dierences appear in the index under the entry dierences in awk and gawk.

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

Chapter 8 [Functions], page 128, describes the built-in functions awk and gawk provide, as well as how to dene your own functions. Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157, describes special features in gawk for translating program messages into dierent languages at runtime. Chapter 10 [Advanced Features of gawk], page 166, describes a number of gawk-specic advanced features. Of particular note are the abilities to have two-way communications with another process, perform TCP/IP networking, and prole your awk programs. Chapter 11 [Running awk and gawk], page 174, describes how to run gawk, the meaning of its command-line options, and how it nds awk program source les. Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182, and Chapter 13 [Practical awk Programs], page 211, provide many sample awk programs. Reading them allows you to see awk solving real problems. Appendix A [The Evolution of the awk Language], page 253, describes how the awk language has evolved since rst release to present. It also describes how gawk has acquired features over time. Appendix B [Installing gawk], page 261, describes how to get gawk, how to compile it under Unix, and how to compile and use it on dierent non-Unix systems. It also describes how to report bugs in gawk and where to get three other freely available implementations of awk. Appendix C [Implementation Notes], page 281, describes how to disable gawks extensions, as well as how to contribute new code to gawk, how to write extension libraries, and some possible future directions for gawk development. Appendix D [Basic Programming Concepts], page 297, provides some very cursory background material for those who are completely unfamiliar with computer programming. Also centralized there is a discussion of some of the issues surrounding oating-point numbers. The [Glossary], page 303, denes most, if not all, the signicant terms used throughout the book. If you nd terms that you arent familiar with, try looking them up here. [GNU General Public License], page 313, and [GNU Free Documentation License], page 324, present the licenses that cover the gawk source code and this book, respectively.

Typographical Conventions
This book is written using Texinfo, the GNU documentation formatting language. A single Texinfo source le is used to produce both the printed and online versions of the documentation. Because of this, the typographical conventions are slightly dierent than in other books you may have read. Examples you would type at the command-line are preceded by the common shell primary and secondary prompts, $ and >. Output from the command is preceded by the glyph . This typically represents the commands standard output. Error messages, and other output on the commands standard error, are preceded by the glyph error . For example: $ echo hi on stdout hi on stdout $ echo hello on stderr 1>&2 error hello on stderr

Preface 7

In the text, command names appear in this font, while code segments appear in the same font and quoted, like this. Some things are emphasized like this, and if a point needs to be made strongly, it is done like this. The rst occurrence of a new term is usually its denition and appears in the same font as the previous occurrence of denition in this sentence. le names are indicated like this: /path/to/ourfile. Characters that you type at the keyboard look like this. In particular, there are special characters called control characters. These are characters that you type by holding down both the CONTROL key and another key, at the same time. For example, a Ctrl-d is typed by rst pressing and holding the CONTROL key, next pressing the d key and nally releasing both keys.

Dark Corners
Dark corners are basically fractal no matter how much you illuminate, theres always a smaller but darker one. Brian Kernighan Until the POSIX standard (and The Gawk Manual ), many features of awk were either poorly documented or not documented at all. Descriptions of such features (often called dark corners) are noted in this book with the picture of a ashlight in the margin, as shown here. They also appear in the index under the heading dark corner. As noted by the opening quote, though, any coverage of dark corners is, by denition, something that is incomplete.

The GNU Project and This Book

The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a nonprot organization dedicated to the production and distribution of freely distributable software. It was founded by Richard M. Stallman, the author of the original Emacs editor. GNU Emacs is the most widely used version of Emacs today. The GNU4 Project is an ongoing eort on the part of the Free Software Foundation to create a complete, freely distributable, POSIX-compliant computing environment. The FSF uses the GNU General Public License (GPL) to ensure that their softwares source code is always available to the end user. A copy of the GPL is included in this book for your reference (see [GNU General Public License], page 313). The GPL applies to the C language source code for gawk. To nd out more about the FSF and the GNU Project online, see the GNU Projects home page. This book may also be read from their web site. A shell, an editor (Emacs), highly portable optimizing C, C++, and Objective-C compilers, a symbolic debugger and dozens of large and small utilities (such as gawk), have all been completed and are freely available. The GNU operating system kernel (the HURD), has been released but is still in an early stage of development. Until the GNU operating system is more fully developed, you should consider using GNU/Linux, a freely distributable, Unix-like operating system for Intel 80386, DEC Alpha, Sun SPARC, IBM S/390, and other systems.5 There are many books on GNU/Linux. One that is freely available is Linux Installation and Getting Started, by Matt Welsh. Many
4 5

GNU stands for GNUs not Unix. The terminology GNU/Linux is explained in the [Glossary], page 303.

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

GNU/Linux distributions are often available in computer stores or bundled on CD-ROMs with books about Linux. (There are three other freely available, Unix-like operating systems for 80386 and other systems: NetBSD, FreeBSD, and OpenBSD. All are based on the 4.4Lite Berkeley Software Distribution, and they use recent versions of gawk for their versions of awk.) The book you are reading is actually freeat least, the information in it is free to anyone. The machine-readable source code for the book comes with gawk; anyone may take this book to a copying machine and make as many copies as they like. (Take a moment to check the Free Documentation License in [GNU Free Documentation License], page 324.) Although you could just print it out yourself, bound books are much easier to read and use. Furthermore, the proceeds from sales of this book go back to the FSF to help fund development of more free software. The book itself has gone through a number of previous editions. Paul Rubin wrote the very rst draft of The GAWK Manual ; it was around 40 pages in size. Diane Close and Richard Stallman improved it, yielding a version that was around 90 pages long and barely described the original, old version of awk. I started working with that version in the fall of 1988. As work on it progressed, the FSF published several preliminary versions (numbered 0.x ). In 1996, Edition 1.0 was released with gawk 3.0.0. The FSF published the rst two editions under the title The GNU Awk Users Guide. This edition maintains the basic structure of Edition 1.0, but with signicant additional material, reecting the host of new features in gawk version 3.1. Of particular note is Section 7.11 [Sorting Array Values and Indices with gawk], page 125, as well as Section 8.1.6 [Bit-Manipulation Functions of gawk], page 148, Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157, and also Chapter 10 [Advanced Features of gawk], page 166, and Section C.3 [Adding New Built-in Functions to gawk], page 284. GAWK: Eective AWK Programming will undoubtedly continue to evolve. An electronic version comes with the gawk distribution from the FSF. If you nd an error in this book, please report it! See Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277, for information on submitting problem reports electronically, or write to me in care of the publisher.

How to Contribute
As the maintainer of GNU awk, I am starting a collection of publicly available awk programs. For more information, see ftp://ftp.freefriends.org/arnold/Awkstuff. If you have written an interesting awk program, or have written a gawk extension that you would like to share with the rest of the world, please contact me ([email protected]). Making things available on the Internet helps keep the gawk distribution down to manageable size.

Acknowledgments
The initial draft of The GAWK Manual had the following acknowledgments: Many people need to be thanked for their assistance in producing this manual. Jay Fenlason contributed many ideas and sample programs. Richard Mlynarik and Robert Chassell gave helpful comments on drafts of this manual. The paper A Supplemental Document for awk by John W. Pierce of the Chemistry

Preface 9

Department at UC San Diego, pinpointed several issues relevant both to awk implementation and to this manual, that would otherwise have escaped us. I would like to acknowledge Richard M. Stallman, for his vision of a better world and for his courage in founding the FSF and starting the GNU Project. The following people (in alphabetical order) provided helpful comments on various versions of this book, up to and including this edition. Rick Adams, Nelson H.F. Beebe, Karl Berry, Dr. Michael Brennan, Rich Burridge, Claire Cloutier, Diane Close, Scott Deik, Christopher (Topher) Eliot, Jerey Friedl, Dr. Darrel Hankerson, Michal Jaegermann, Dr. Richard J. LeBlanc, Michael Lijewski, Pat Rankin, Miriam Robbins, Mary Sheehan, and Chuck Toporek. Robert J. Chassell provided much valuable advice on the use of Texinfo. He also deserves special thanks for convincing me not to title this book How To Gawk Politely. Karl Berry helped signicantly with the TEX part of Texinfo. I would like to thank Marshall and Elaine Hartholz of Seattle and Dr. Bert and Rita Schreiber of Detroit for large amounts of quiet vacation time in their homes, which allowed me to make signicant progress on this book and on gawk itself. Phil Hughes of SSC contributed in a very important way by loaning me his laptop GNU/Linux system, not once, but twice, which allowed me to do a lot of work while away from home. David Trueman deserves special credit; he has done a yeoman job of evolving gawk so that it performs well and without bugs. Although he is no longer involved with gawk, working with him on this project was a signicant pleasure. The intrepid members of the GNITS mailing list, and most notably Ulrich Drepper, provided invaluable help and feedback for the design of the internationalization features. Nelson Beebe, Martin Brown, Andreas Buening, Scott Deik, Darrel Hankerson, Isamu Hasegawa, Michal Jaegermann, J urgen Kahrs, Pat Rankin, Kai Uwe Rommel, and Eli Zaretskii (in alphabetical order) make up the gawk crack portability team. Without their hard work and help, gawk would not be nearly the ne program it is today. It has been and continues to be a pleasure working with this team of ne people. David and I would like to thank Brian Kernighan of Bell Laboratories for invaluable assistance during the testing and debugging of gawk, and for help in clarifying numerous points about the language. We could not have done nearly as good a job on either gawk or its documentation without his help. Chuck Toporek, Mary Sheehan, and Claire Coutier of OReilly & Associates contributed signicant editorial help for this book for the 3.1 release of gawk. I must thank my wonderful wife, Miriam, for her patience through the many versions of this project, for her proofreading, and for sharing me with the computer. I would like to thank my parents for their love, and for the grace with which they raised and educated me. Finally, I also must acknowledge my gratitude to G-d, for the many opportunities He has sent my way, as well as for the gifts He has given me with which to take advantage of those opportunities.

Arnold Robbins Nof Ayalon

10 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

ISRAEL March, 2001

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

11

1 Getting Started with awk

The basic function of awk is to search les for lines (or other units of text) that contain certain patterns. When a line matches one of the patterns, awk performs specied actions on that line. awk keeps processing input lines in this way until it reaches the end of the input les. Programs in awk are dierent from programs in most other languages, because awk programs are data-driven; that is, you describe the data you want to work with and then what to do when you nd it. Most other languages are procedural ; you have to describe, in great detail, every step the program is to take. When working with procedural languages, it is usually much harder to clearly describe the data your program will process. For this reason, awk programs are often refreshingly easy to read and write. When you run awk, you specify an awk program that tells awk what to do. The program consists of a series of rules. (It may also contain function denitions, an advanced feature that we will ignore for now. See Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150.) Each rule species one pattern to search for and one action to perform upon nding the pattern. Syntactically, a rule consists of a pattern followed by an action. The action is enclosed in curly braces to separate it from the pattern. Newlines usually separate rules. Therefore, an awk program looks like this: pattern { action } pattern { action } ...

1.1 How to Run awk Programs

There are several ways to run an awk program. If the program is short, it is easiest to include it in the command that runs awk, like this: awk program input-file1 input-file2 ... When the program is long, it is usually more convenient to put it in a le and run it with a command like this: awk -f program-file input-file1 input-file2 ... This section discusses both mechanisms, along with several variations of each.

1.1.1 One-Shot Throwaway awk Programs

Once you are familiar with awk, you will often type in simple programs the moment you want to use them. Then you can write the program as the rst argument of the awk command, like this: awk program input-file1 input-file2 ... where program consists of a series of patterns and actions, as described earlier. This command format instructs the shell, or command interpreter, to start awk and use the program to process records in the input le(s). There are single quotes around program so the shell wont interpret any awk characters as special shell characters. The quotes also cause the shell to treat all of program as a single argument for awk, and allow program to be more than one line long.

12 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

This format is also useful for running short or medium-sized awk programs from shell scripts, because it avoids the need for a separate le for the awk program. A self-contained shell script is more reliable because there are no other les to misplace. Section 1.3 [Some Simple Examples], page 17, later in this chapter, presents several short, self-contained programs.

1.1.2 Running awk Without Input Files

You can also run awk without any input les. If you type the following command line: awk program awk applies the program to the standard input, which usually means whatever you type on the terminal. This continues until you indicate end-of-le by typing Ctrl-d. (On other operating systems, the end-of-le character may be dierent. For example, on OS/2 and MS-DOS, it is Ctrl-z.) As an example, the following program prints a friendly piece of advice (from Douglas Adamss The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy ), to keep you from worrying about the complexities of computer programming (BEGIN is a feature we havent discussed yet): $ awk "BEGIN { print \"Dont Panic!\" }" Dont Panic! This program does not read any input. The \ before each of the inner double quotes is necessary because of the shells quoting rulesin particular because it mixes both single quotes and double quotes.1 This next simple awk program emulates the cat utility; it copies whatever you type on the keyboard to its standard output (why this works is explained shortly). $ awk { print } Now is the time for all good men Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their country. to come to the aid of their country. Four score and seven years ago, ... Four score and seven years ago, ... What, me worry? What, me worry? Ctrl-d

1.1.3 Running Long Programs

Sometimes your awk programs can be very long. In this case, it is more convenient to put the program into a separate le. In order to tell awk to use that le for its program, you type: awk -f source-file input-file1 input-file2 ... The -f instructs the awk utility to get the awk program from the le source-le. Any le name can be used for source-le. For example, you could put the program:
1

Although we generally recommend the use of single quotes around the program text, double quotes are needed here in order to put the single quote into the message.

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

13

BEGIN { print "Dont Panic!" } into the le advice. Then this command: awk -f advice does the same thing as this one: awk "BEGIN { print \"Dont Panic!\" }" This was explained earlier (see Section 1.1.2 [Running awk Without Input Files], page 12). Note that you dont usually need single quotes around the le name that you specify with -f, because most le names dont contain any of the shells special characters. Notice that in advice, the awk program did not have single quotes around it. The quotes are only needed for programs that are provided on the awk command line. If you want to identify your awk program les clearly as such, you can add the extension .awk to the le name. This doesnt aect the execution of the awk program but it does make housekeeping easier.

1.1.4 Executable awk Programs

Once you have learned awk, you may want to write self-contained awk scripts, using the #! script mechanism. You can do this on many Unix systems2 as well as on the GNU system. For example, you could update the le advice to look like this: #! /bin/awk -f BEGIN { print "Dont Panic!" } After making this le executable (with the chmod utility), simply type advice at the shell and the system arranges to run awk3 as if you had typed awk -f advice: $ chmod +x advice $ advice Dont Panic! (We assume you have the current directory in your shells search path variable (typically $PATH). If not, you may need to type ./advice at the shell.) Self-contained awk scripts are useful when you want to write a program that users can invoke without their having to know that the program is written in awk.

Advanced Notes: Portability Issues with #!

Some systems limit the length of the interpreter name to 32 characters. Often, this can be dealt with by using a symbolic link. You should not put more than one argument on the #! line after the path to awk. It does not work. The operating system treats the rest of the line as a single argument and
2 3

The #! mechanism works on Linux systems, systems derived from the 4.4-Lite Berkeley Software Distribution, and most commercial Unix systems. The line beginning with #! lists the full le name of an interpreter to run and an optional initial command-line argument to pass to that interpreter. The operating system then runs the interpreter with the given argument and the full argument list of the executed program. The rst argument in the list is the full le name of the awk program. The rest of the argument list contains either options to awk, or data les, or both.

14 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

passes it to awk. Doing this leads to confusing behaviormost likely a usage diagnostic of some sort from awk. Finally, the value of ARGV[0] (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108) varies depending upon your operating system. Some systems put awk there, some put the full pathname of awk (such as /bin/awk), and some put the name of your script (advice). Dont rely on the value of ARGV[0] to provide your script name.

1.1.5 Comments in awk Programs

A comment is some text that is included in a program for the sake of human readers; it is not really an executable part of the program. Comments can explain what the program does and how it works. Nearly all programming languages have provisions for comments, as programs are typically hard to understand without them. In the awk language, a comment starts with the sharp sign character (#) and continues to the end of the line. The # does not have to be the rst character on the line. The awk language ignores the rest of a line following a sharp sign. For example, we could have put the following into advice: # This program prints a nice friendly message. It helps # keep novice users from being afraid of the computer. BEGIN { print "Dont Panic!" } You can put comment lines into keyboard-composed throwaway awk programs, but this usually isnt very useful; the purpose of a comment is to help you or another person understand the program when reading it at a later time. Caution: As mentioned in Section 1.1.1 [One-Shot Throwaway awk Programs], page 11, you can enclose small to medium programs in single quotes, in order to keep your shell scripts self-contained. When doing so, dont put an apostrophe (i.e., a single quote) into a comment (or anywhere else in your program). The shell interprets the quote as the closing quote for the entire program. As a result, usually the shell prints a message about mismatched quotes, and if awk actually runs, it will probably print strange messages about syntax errors. For example, look at the following: $ awk { print "hello" } # lets be cute > The shell sees that the rst two quotes match, and that a new quoted object begins at the end of the command line. It therefore prompts with the secondary prompt, waiting for more input. With Unix awk, closing the quoted string produces this result: $ awk { print "hello" } # lets be cute > error awk: cant open file be source line number 1 error Putting a backslash before the single quote in lets wouldnt help, since backslashes are not special inside single quotes. The next subsection describes the shells quoting rules.

1.1.6 Shell-Quoting Issues

For short to medium length awk programs, it is most convenient to enter the program on the awk command line. This is best done by enclosing the entire program in single quotes. This

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

15

is true whether you are entering the program interactively at the shell prompt, or writing it as part of a larger shell script: awk program text input-file1 input-file2 ... Once you are working with the shell, it is helpful to have a basic knowledge of shell quoting rules. The following rules apply only to POSIX-compliant, Bourne-style shells (such as bash, the GNU Bourne-Again Shell). If you use csh, youre on your own. Quoted items can be concatenated with nonquoted items as well as with other quoted items. The shell turns everything into one argument for the command. Preceding any single character with a backslash (\) quotes that character. The shell removes the backslash and passes the quoted character on to the command. Single quotes protect everything between the opening and closing quotes. The shell does no interpretation of the quoted text, passing it on verbatim to the command. It is impossible to embed a single quote inside single-quoted text. Refer back to Section 1.1.5 [Comments in awk Programs], page 14, for an example of what happens if you try. Double quotes protect most things between the opening and closing quotes. The shell does at least variable and command substitution on the quoted text. Dierent shells may do additional kinds of processing on double-quoted text. Since certain characters within double-quoted text are processed by the shell, they must be escaped within the text. Of note are the characters $, , \, and ", all of which must be preceded by a backslash within double-quoted text if they are to be passed on literally to the program. (The leading backslash is stripped rst.) Thus, the example seen previously in Section 1.1.2 [Running awk Without Input Files], page 12, is applicable: $ awk "BEGIN { print \"Dont Panic!\" }" Dont Panic! Note that the single quote is not special within double quotes. Null strings are removed when they occur as part of a non-null command-line argument, while explicit non-null objects are kept. For example, to specify that the eld separator FS should be set to the null string, use: awk -F "" program files # correct Dont use this: awk -F"" program files # wrong! In the second case, awk will attempt to use the text of the program as the value of FS, and the rst le name as the text of the program! This results in syntax errors at best, and confusing behavior at worst. Mixing single and double quotes is dicult. You have to resort to shell quoting tricks, like this: $ awk BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <"">" } Here is a single quote <> This program consists of three concatenated quoted strings. The rst and the third are single-quoted, the second is double-quoted. This can be simplied to:

16 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

$ awk BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <\>" } Here is a single quote <> Judge for yourself which of these two is the more readable. Another option is to use double quotes, escaping the embedded, awk-level double quotes: $ awk "BEGIN { print \"Here is a single quote <>\" }" Here is a single quote <> This option is also painful, because double quotes, backslashes, and dollar signs are very common in awk programs. A third option is to use the octal escape sequence equivalents for the single- and doublequote characters, like so: $ awk BEGIN Here is a $ awk BEGIN Here is a { print "Here is a single quote <\47>" } single quote <> { print "Here is a double quote <\42>" } double quote <">

This works nicely, except that you should comment clearly what the escapes mean. A fourth option is to use command-line variable assignment, like this: $ awk -v sq="" BEGIN { print "Here is a single quote <" sq ">" } Here is a single quote <> If you really need both single and double quotes in your awk program, it is probably best to move it into a separate le, where the shell wont be part of the picture, and you can say what you mean.

1.2 Data Files for the Examples

Many of the examples in this book take their input from two sample data les. The rst, BBS-list, represents a list of computer bulletin board systems together with information about those systems. The second data le, called inventory-shipped, contains information about monthly shipments. In both les, each line is considered to be one record. In the data le BBS-list, each record contains the name of a computer bulletin board, its phone number, the boards baud rate(s), and a code for the number of hours it is operational. An A in the last column means the board operates 24 hours a day. A B in the last column means the board only operates on evening and weekend hours. A C means the board operates only on weekends: aardvark alpo-net barfly bites camelot core fooey foot macfoo sdace sabafoo 555-5553 555-3412 555-7685 555-1675 555-0542 555-2912 555-1234 555-6699 555-6480 555-3430 555-2127 1200/300 2400/1200/300 1200/300 2400/1200/300 300 1200/300 2400/1200/300 1200/300 1200/300 2400/1200/300 1200/300 B A A A C C B B A A C

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

17

The data le inventory-shipped represents information about shipments during the year. Each record contains the month, the number of green crates shipped, the number of red boxes shipped, the number of orange bags shipped, and the number of blue packages shipped, respectively. There are 16 entries, covering the 12 months of last year and the rst four months of the current year. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr 13 15 15 31 16 31 24 15 13 29 20 17 21 26 24 21 25 32 24 52 34 42 34 34 55 54 87 35 36 58 75 70 15 24 34 63 29 75 67 47 37 68 82 61 64 80 70 74 115 226 228 420 208 492 436 316 277 525 577 401 620 652 495 514

1.3 Some Simple Examples

The following command runs a simple awk program that searches the input le BBS-list for the character string foo (a grouping of characters is usually called a string ; the term string is based on similar usage in English, such as a string of pearls, or a string of cars in a train): awk /foo/ { print $0 } BBS-list When lines containing foo are found, they are printed because print $0 means print the current line. (Just print by itself means the same thing, so we could have written that instead.) You will notice that slashes (/) surround the string foo in the awk program. The slashes indicate that foo is the pattern to search for. This type of pattern is called a regular expression, which is covered in more detail later (see Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24). The pattern is allowed to match parts of words. There are single quotes around the awk program so that the shell wont interpret any of it as special shell characters. Here is what this program prints: $ awk /foo/ { print $0 } BBS-list fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 foot 555-6699 1200/300 macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 B B A C

18 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

In an awk rule, either the pattern or the action can be omitted, but not both. If the pattern is omitted, then the action is performed for every input line. If the action is omitted, the default action is to print all lines that match the pattern. Thus, we could leave out the action (the print statement and the curly braces) in the previous example and the result would be the same: all lines matching the pattern foo are printed. By comparison, omitting the print statement but retaining the curly braces makes an empty action that does nothing (i.e., no lines are printed). Many practical awk programs are just a line or two. Following is a collection of useful, short programs to get you started. Some of these programs contain constructs that havent been covered yet. (The description of the program will give you a good idea of what is going on, but please read the rest of the book to become an awk expert!) Most of the examples use a data le named data. This is just a placeholder; if you use these programs yourself, substitute your own le names for data. For future reference, note that there is often more than one way to do things in awk. At some point, you may want to look back at these examples and see if you can come up with dierent ways to do the same things shown here: Print the length of the longest input line: awk { if (length($0) > max) max = length($0) } END { print max } data Print every line that is longer than 80 characters: awk length($0) > 80 data The sole rule has a relational expression as its pattern and it has no actionso the default action, printing the record, is used. Print the length of the longest line in data: expand data | awk { if (x < length()) x = length() } END { print "maximum line length is " x } The input is processed by the expand utility to change tabs into spaces, so the widths compared are actually the right-margin columns. Print every line that has at least one eld: awk NF > 0 data This is an easy way to delete blank lines from a le (or rather, to create a new le similar to the old le but from which the blank lines have been removed). Print seven random numbers from 0 to 100, inclusive: awk BEGIN { for (i = 1; i <= 7; i++) print int(101 * rand()) } Print the total number of bytes used by les : ls -l files | awk { x += $5 } END { print "total bytes: " x } Print the total number of kilobytes used by les : ls -l files | awk { x += $5 } END { print "total K-bytes: " (x + 1023)/1024 } Print a sorted list of the login names of all users: awk -F: { print $1 } /etc/passwd | sort

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

19

Count the lines in a le: awk END { print NR } data Print the even-numbered lines in the data le: awk NR % 2 == 0 data If you use the expression NR % 2 == 1 instead, the program would print the oddnumbered lines.

1.4 An Example with Two Rules

The awk utility reads the input les one line at a time. For each line, awk tries the patterns of each of the rules. If several patterns match, then several actions are run in the order in which they appear in the awk program. If no patterns match, then no actions are run. After processing all the rules that match the line (and perhaps there are none), awk reads the next line. (However, see Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106, and also see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107). This continues until the program reaches the end of the le. For example, the following awk program contains two rules: /12/ /21/ { print $0 } { print $0 }

The rst rule has the string 12 as the pattern and print $0 as the action. The second rule has the string 21 as the pattern and also has print $0 as the action. Each rules action is enclosed in its own pair of braces. This program prints every line that contains the string 12 or the string 21. If a line contains both strings, it is printed twice, once by each rule. This is what happens if we run this program on our two sample data les, BBS-list and inventory-shipped: $ awk /12/ > /21/ aardvark alpo-net barfly bites core fooey foot macfoo sdace sabafoo sabafoo Jan 21 Apr 21 { print $0 } { print $0 } BBS-list inventory-shipped 555-5553 1200/300 B 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A 555-7685 1200/300 A 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A 555-2912 1200/300 C 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B 555-6699 1200/300 B 555-6480 1200/300 A 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A 555-2127 1200/300 C 555-2127 1200/300 C 36 64 620 70 74 514

Note how the line beginning with sabafoo in BBS-list was printed twice, once for each rule.

20 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

1.5 A More Complex Example

Now that weve mastered some simple tasks, lets look at what typical awk programs do. This example shows how awk can be used to summarize, select, and rearrange the output of another utility. It uses features that havent been covered yet, so dont worry if you dont understand all the details: ls -l | awk $6 == "Nov" { sum += $5 } END { print sum } This command prints the total number of bytes in all the les in the current directory that were last modied in November (of any year).4 The ls -l part of this example is a system command that gives you a listing of the les in a directory, including each les size and the date the le was last modied. Its output looks like this: -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 1933 Nov 7 13:05 Makefile -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 10809 Nov 7 13:03 awk.h -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 983 Apr 13 12:14 awk.tab.h -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 31869 Jun 15 12:20 awkgram.y -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 22414 Nov 7 13:03 awk1.c -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 37455 Nov 7 13:03 awk2.c -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 27511 Dec 9 13:07 awk3.c -rw-r--r-- 1 arnold user 7989 Nov 7 13:03 awk4.c The rst eld contains read-write permissions, the second eld contains the number of links to the le, and the third eld identies the owner of the le. The fourth eld identies the group of the le. The fth eld contains the size of the le in bytes. The sixth, seventh, and eighth elds contain the month, day, and time, respectively, that the le was last modied. Finally, the ninth eld contains the name of the le.5 The $6 == "Nov" in our awk program is an expression that tests whether the sixth eld of the output from ls -l matches the string Nov. Each time a line has the string Nov for its sixth eld, the action sum += $5 is performed. This adds the fth eld (the les size) to the variable sum. As a result, when awk has nished reading all the input lines, sum is the total of the sizes of the les whose lines matched the pattern. (This works because awk variables are automatically initialized to zero.) After the last line of output from ls has been processed, the END rule executes and prints the value of sum. In this example, the value of sum is 80600. These more advanced awk techniques are covered in later sections (see Section 6.3 [Actions], page 99). Before you can move on to more advanced awk programming, you have to know how awk interprets your input and displays your output. By manipulating elds and using print statements, you can produce some very useful and impressive-looking reports.

1.6 awk Statements Versus Lines

Most often, each line in an awk program is a separate statement or separate rule, like this:
4

In the C shell (csh), you need to type a semicolon and then a backslash at the end of the rst line; see Section 1.6 [awk Statements Versus Lines], page 20, for an explanation. In a POSIX-compliant shell, such as the Bourne shell or bash, you can type the example as shown. If the command echo $path produces an empty output line, you are most likely using a POSIX-compliant shell. Otherwise, you are probably using the C shell or a shell derived from it. On some very old systems, you may need to use ls -lg to get this output.

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

21

awk /12/ { print $0 } /21/ { print $0 } BBS-list inventory-shipped However, gawk ignores newlines after any of the following symbols and keywords: , { ? : || && do else A newline at any other point is considered the end of the statement.6 If you would like to split a single statement into two lines at a point where a newline would terminate it, you can continue it by ending the rst line with a backslash character (\). The backslash must be the nal character on the line in order to be recognized as a continuation character. A backslash is allowed anywhere in the statement, even in the middle of a string or regular expression. For example: awk /This regular expression is too long, so continue it\ on the next line/ { print $1 } We have generally not used backslash continuation in the sample programs in this book. In gawk, there is no limit on the length of a line, so backslash continuation is never strictly necessary; it just makes programs more readable. For this same reason, as well as for clarity, we have kept most statements short in the sample programs presented throughout the book. Backslash continuation is most useful when your awk program is in a separate source le instead of entered from the command line. You should also note that many awk implementations are more particular about where you may use backslash continuation. For example, they may not allow you to split a string constant using backslash continuation. Thus, for maximum portability of your awk programs, it is best not to split your lines in the middle of a regular expression or a string. Caution: Backslash continuation does not work as described with the C shell. It works for awk programs in les and for one-shot programs, provided you are using a POSIX-compliant shell, such as the Unix Bourne shell or bash. But the C shell behaves dierently! There, you must use two backslashes in a row, followed by a newline. Note also that when using the C shell, every newline in your awk program must be escaped with a backslash. To illustrate: % awk BEGIN { \ ? print \\ ? "hello, world" \ ? } hello, world Here, the % and ? are the C shells primary and secondary prompts, analogous to the standard shells $ and >. Compare the previous example to how it is done with a POSIX-compliant shell: $ awk BEGIN { > print \ > "hello, world" > } hello, world
6

The ? and : referred to here is the three-operand conditional expression described in Section 5.12 [Conditional Expressions], page 90. Splitting lines after ? and : is a minor gawk extension; if --posix is specied (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), then this extension is disabled.

22 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

awk is a line-oriented language. Each rules action has to begin on the same line as the pattern. To have the pattern and action on separate lines, you must use backslash continuation; there is no other option. Another thing to keep in mind is that backslash continuation and comments do not mix. As soon as awk sees the # that starts a comment, it ignores everything on the rest of the line. For example: $ gawk BEGIN { print "dont panic" # a friendly \ > BEGIN rule > } BEGIN rule error gawk: cmd. line:2: ^ parse error error gawk: cmd. line:2: In this case, it looks like the backslash would continue the comment onto the next line. However, the backslash-newline combination is never even noticed because it is hidden inside the comment. Thus, the BEGIN is noted as a syntax error. When awk statements within one rule are short, you might want to put more than one of them on a line. This is accomplished by separating the statements with a semicolon (;). This also applies to the rules themselves. Thus, the program shown at the start of this section could also be written this way: /12/ { print $0 } ; /21/ { print $0 } NOTE: The requirement that states that rules on the same line must be separated with a semicolon was not in the original awk language; it was added for consistency with the treatment of statements within an action.

1.7 Other Features of awk

The awk language provides a number of predened, or built-in, variables that your programs can use to get information from awk. There are other variables your program can set as well to control how awk processes your data. In addition, awk provides a number of built-in functions for doing common computational and string-related operations. gawk provides built-in functions for working with timestamps, performing bit manipulation, and for runtime string translation. As we develop our presentation of the awk language, we introduce most of the variables and many of the functions. They are dened systematically in Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108, and Section 8.1 [Built-in Functions], page 128.

1.8 When to Use awk

Now that youve seen some of what awk can do, you might wonder how awk could be useful for you. By using utility programs, advanced patterns, eld separators, arithmetic statements, and other selection criteria, you can produce much more complex output. The awk language is very useful for producing reports from large amounts of raw data, such as summarizing information from the output of other utility programs like ls. (See Section 1.5 [A More Complex Example], page 20.) Programs written with awk are usually much smaller than they would be in other languages. This makes awk programs easy to compose and use. Often, awk programs can

Chapter 1: Getting Started with awk

23

be quickly composed at your terminal, used once, and thrown away. Because awk programs are interpreted, you can avoid the (usually lengthy) compilation part of the typical edit-compile-test-debug cycle of software development. Complex programs have been written in awk, including a complete retargetable assembler for eight-bit microprocessors (see [Glossary], page 303, for more information), and a microcode assembler for a special-purpose Prolog computer. More recently, gawk was used for writing a Wiki clone.7 While the original awks capabilities were strained by tasks of such complexity, modern versions are more capable. Even the Bell Labs version of awk has fewer predened limits, and those that it has are much larger than they used to be. If you nd yourself writing awk scripts of more than, say, a few hundred lines, you might consider using a dierent programming language. Emacs Lisp is a good choice if you need sophisticated string or pattern matching capabilities. The shell is also good at string and pattern matching; in addition, it allows powerful use of the system utilities. More conventional languages, such as C, C++, and Java, oer better facilities for system programming and for managing the complexity of large programs. Programs in these languages may require more lines of source code than the equivalent awk programs, but they are easier to maintain and usually run more eciently.

Yet Another Wiki Clone.

24 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

2 Regular Expressions
A regular expression, or regexp, is a way of describing a set of strings. Because regular expressions are such a fundamental part of awk programming, their format and use deserve a separate chapter. A regular expression enclosed in slashes (/) is an awk pattern that matches every input record whose text belongs to that set. The simplest regular expression is a sequence of letters, numbers, or both. Such a regexp matches any string that contains that sequence. Thus, the regexp foo matches any string containing foo. Therefore, the pattern /foo/ matches any input record containing the three characters foo anywhere in the record. Other kinds of regexps let you specify more complicated classes of strings. Initially, the examples in this chapter are simple. As we explain more about how regular expressions work, we will present more complicated instances.

2.1 How to Use Regular Expressions

A regular expression can be used as a pattern by enclosing it in slashes. Then the regular expression is tested against the entire text of each record. (Normally, it only needs to match some part of the text in order to succeed.) For example, the following prints the second eld of each record that contains the string foo anywhere in it: $ awk /foo/ { print $2 } BBS-list 555-1234 555-6699 555-6480 555-2127 ~ (tilde), ~ operator Regular expressions can also be used in matching expressions. These expressions allow you to specify the string to match against; it need not be the entire current input record. The two operators ~ and !~ perform regular expression comparisons. Expressions using these operators can be used as patterns, or in if, while, for, and do statements. (See Section 6.4 [Control Statements in Actions], page 100.) For example: exp ~ /regexp / is true if the expression exp (taken as a string) matches regexp. The following example matches, or selects, all input records with the uppercase letter J somewhere in the rst eld: $ awk $1 ~ Jan 13 Jun 31 Jul 24 Jan 21 So does this: awk { if ($1 ~ /J/) print } inventory-shipped This next example is true if the expression exp (taken as a character string) does not match regexp : /J/ inventory-shipped 25 15 115 42 75 492 34 67 436 36 64 620

Chapter 2: Regular Expressions 25

exp !~ /regexp / The following example matches, or selects, all input records whose rst eld does not contain the uppercase letter J: $ awk $1 !~ /J/ inventory-shipped Feb 15 32 24 226 Mar 15 24 34 228 Apr 31 52 63 420 May 16 34 29 208 ... When a regexp is enclosed in slashes, such as /foo/, we call it a regexp constant, much like 5.27 is a numeric constant and "foo" is a string constant.

2.2 Escape Sequences

Some characters cannot be included literally in string constants ("foo") or regexp constants (/foo/). Instead, they should be represented with escape sequences, which are character sequences beginning with a backslash (\). One use of an escape sequence is to include a double-quote character in a string constant. Because a plain double quote ends the string, you must use \" to represent an actual double-quote character as a part of the string. For example: $ awk BEGIN { print "He said \"hi!\" to her." } He said "hi!" to her. The backslash character itself is another character that cannot be included normally; you must write \\ to put one backslash in the string or regexp. Thus, the string whose contents are the two characters " and \ must be written "\"\\". Backslash also represents unprintable characters such as TAB or newline. While there is nothing to stop you from entering most unprintable characters directly in a string constant or regexp constant, they may look ugly. The following table lists all the escape sequences used in awk and what they represent. Unless noted otherwise, all these escape sequences apply to both string constants and regexp constants: \\ \a \b \f \n \r \t \v \nnn A literal backslash, \. The alert character, Ctrl-g, ASCII code 7 (BEL). (This usually makes some sort of audible noise.) Backspace, Ctrl-h, ASCII code 8 (BS). Formfeed, Ctrl-l, ASCII code 12 (FF). Newline, Ctrl-j, ASCII code 10 (LF). Carriage return, Ctrl-m, ASCII code 13 (CR). Horizontal TAB, Ctrl-i, ASCII code 9 (HT). Vertical tab, Ctrl-k, ASCII code 11 (VT). The octal value nnn, where nnn stands for 1 to 3 digits between 0 and 7. For example, the code for the ASCII ESC (escape) character is \033.

26 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

\xhh ...

The hexadecimal value hh, where hh stands for a sequence of hexadecimal digits (09, and either AF or af). Like the same construct in ISO C, the escape sequence continues until the rst nonhexadecimal digit is seen. However, using more than two hexadecimal digits produces undened results. (The \x escape sequence is not allowed in POSIX awk.) A literal slash (necessary for regexp constants only). This expression is used when you want to write a regexp constant that contains a slash. Because the regexp is delimited by slashes, you need to escape the slash that is part of the pattern, in order to tell awk to keep processing the rest of the regexp. A literal double quote (necessary for string constants only). This expression is used when you want to write a string constant that contains a double quote. Because the string is delimited by double quotes, you need to escape the quote that is part of the string, in order to tell awk to keep processing the rest of the string.

\/

\"

In gawk, a number of additional two-character sequences that begin with a backslash have special meaning in regexps. See Section 2.5 [gawk-Specic Regexp Operators], page 31. In a regexp, a backslash before any character that is not in the previous list and not listed in Section 2.5 [gawk-Specic Regexp Operators], page 31, means that the next character should be taken literally, even if it would normally be a regexp operator. For example, /a\+b/ matches the three characters a+b. For complete portability, do not use a backslash before any character not shown in the previous list. To summarize: The escape sequences in the table above are always processed rst, for both string constants and regexp constants. This happens very early, as soon as awk reads your program. gawk processes both regexp constants and dynamic regexps (see Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34), for the special operators listed in Section 2.5 [gawkSpecic Regexp Operators], page 31. A backslash before any other character means to treat that character literally.

Advanced Notes: Backslash Before Regular Characters

If you place a backslash in a string constant before something that is not one of the characters previously listed, POSIX awk purposely leaves what happens as undened. There are two choices: Strip the backslash out This is what Unix awk and gawk both do. For example, "a\qc" is the same as "aqc". (Because this is such an easy bug both to introduce and to miss, gawk warns you about it.) Consider FS = "[ \t]+\|[ \t]+" to use vertical bars surrounded by whitespace as the eld separator. There should be two backslashes in the string FS = "[ \t]+\\|[ \t]+".) Leave the backslash alone Some other awk implementations do this. In such implementations, typing "a\qc" is the same as typing "a\\qc".

Chapter 2: Regular Expressions 27

Advanced Notes: Escape Sequences for Metacharacters

Suppose you use an octal or hexadecimal escape to represent a regexp metacharacter. (See Section 2.3 [Regular Expression Operators], page 27.) Does awk treat the character as a literal character or as a regexp operator? Historically, such characters were taken literally. However, the POSIX standard indicates that they should be treated as real metacharacters, which is what gawk does. In compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), gawk treats the characters represented by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences literally when used in regexp constants. Thus, /a\52b/ is equivalent to /a\*b/.

2.3 Regular Expression Operators

You can combine regular expressions with special characters, called regular expression operators or metacharacters, to increase the power and versatility of regular expressions. The escape sequences described earlier in Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25, are valid inside a regexp. They are introduced by a \ and are recognized and converted into corresponding real characters as the very rst step in processing regexps. Here is a list of metacharacters. All characters that are not escape sequences and that are not listed in the table stand for themselves: \ ^ This is used to suppress the special meaning of a character when matching. For example, \$ matches the character $. This matches the beginning of a string. For example, ^@chapter matches @chapter at the beginning of a string and can be used to identify chapter beginnings in Texinfo source les. The ^ is known as an anchor, because it anchors the pattern to match only at the beginning of the string. It is important to realize that ^ does not match the beginning of a line embedded in a string. The condition is not true in the following example: if ("line1\nLINE 2" ~ /^L/) ... $ This is similar to ^, but it matches only at the end of a string. For example, p$ matches a record that ends with a p. The $ is an anchor and does not match the end of a line embedded in a string. The condition in the following example is not true: if ("line1\nLINE 2" ~ /1$/) ... . This matches any single character, including the newline character. For example, .P matches any single character followed by a P in a string. Using concatenation, we can make a regular expression such as U.A, which matches any three-character sequence that begins with U and ends with A. In strict POSIX mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), . does not match the nul character, which is a character with all bits equal to zero. Otherwise, nul is just another character. Other versions of awk may not be able to match the nul character.

28 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

[...]

This is called a character list.1 It matches any one of the characters that are enclosed in the square brackets. For example, [MVX] matches any one of the characters M, V, or X in a string. A full discussion of what can be inside the square brackets of a character list is given in Section 2.4 [Using Character Lists], page 29. This is a complemented character list. The rst character after the [ must be a ^. It matches any characters except those in the square brackets. For example, [^awk] matches any character that is not an a, w, or k. This is the alternation operator and it is used to specify alternatives. The | has the lowest precedence of all the regular expression operators. For example, ^P|[[:digit:]] matches any string that matches either ^P or [[:digit:]]. This means it matches any string that starts with P or contains a digit. The alternation applies to the largest possible regexps on either side. Parentheses are used for grouping in regular expressions, as in arithmetic. They can be used to concatenate regular expressions containing the alternation operator, |. For example, @(samp|code)\{[^}]+\} matches both @code{foo} and @samp{bar}. (These are Texinfo formatting control sequences. The + is explained further on in this list.) This symbol means that the preceding regular expression should be repeated as many times as necessary to nd a match. For example, ph* applies the * symbol to the preceding h and looks for matches of one p followed by any number of hs. This also matches just p if no hs are present. The * repeats the smallest possible preceding expression. (Use parentheses if you want to repeat a larger expression.) It nds as many repetitions as possible. For example, awk /\(c[ad][ad]*r x\)/ { print } sample prints every record in sample containing a string of the form (car x), (cdr x), (cadr x), and so on. Notice the escaping of the parentheses by preceding them with backslashes. This symbol is similar to *, except that the preceding expression must be matched at least once. This means that wh+y would match why and whhy, but not wy, whereas wh*y would match all three of these strings. The following is a simpler way of writing the last * example: awk /\(c[ad]+r x\)/ { print } sample This symbol is similar to *, except that the preceding expression can be matched either once or not at all. For example, fe?d matches fed and fd, but nothing else.

[^ ...]

(...)

{n } {n,} {n,m }
1

One or two numbers inside braces denote an interval expression. If there is one number in the braces, the preceding regexp is repeated n times. If there are

In other literature, you may see a character list referred to as either a character set, a character class, or a bracket expression.

Chapter 2: Regular Expressions 29

two numbers separated by a comma, the preceding regexp is repeated n to m times. If there is one number followed by a comma, then the preceding regexp is repeated at least n times: wh{3}y wh{3,5}y wh{2,}y Matches whhhy, but not why or whhhhy. Matches whhhy, whhhhy, or whhhhhy, only. Matches whhy or whhhy, and so on.

Interval expressions were not traditionally available in awk. They were added as part of the POSIX standard to make awk and egrep consistent with each other. However, because old programs may use { and } in regexp constants, by default gawk does not match interval expressions in regexps. If either --posix or --re-interval are specied (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), then interval expressions are allowed in regexps. For new programs that use { and } in regexp constants, it is good practice to always escape them with a backslash. Then the regexp constants are valid and work the way you want them to, using any version of awk.2 In regular expressions, the *, +, and ? operators, as well as the braces { and }, have the highest precedence, followed by concatenation, and nally by |. As in arithmetic, parentheses can change how operators are grouped. In POSIX awk and gawk, the *, +, and ? operators stand for themselves when there is nothing in the regexp that precedes them. For example, /+/ matches a literal plus sign. However, many other versions of awk treat such a usage as a syntax error. If gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), POSIX character classes and interval expressions are not available in regular expressions.

2.4 Using Character Lists

Within a character list, a range expression consists of two characters separated by a hyphen. It matches any single character that sorts between the two characters, using the locales collating sequence and character set. For example, in the default C locale, [a-dx-z] is equivalent to [abcdxyz]. Many locales sort characters in dictionary order, and in these locales, [a-dx-z] is typically not equivalent to [abcdxyz]; instead it might be equivalent to [aBbCcDdxXyYz], for example. To obtain the traditional interpretation of bracket expressions, you can use the C locale by setting the LC_ALL environment variable to the value C. To include one of the characters \, ], -, or ^ in a character list, put a \ in front of it. For example: [d\]] matches either d or ]. This treatment of \ in character lists is compatible with other awk implementations and is also mandated by POSIX. The regular expressions in awk are a superset of the POSIX
2

Use two backslashes if youre using a string constant with a regexp operator or function.

30 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

specication for Extended Regular Expressions (EREs). POSIX EREs are based on the regular expressions accepted by the traditional egrep utility. Character classes are a new feature introduced in the POSIX standard. A character class is a special notation for describing lists of characters that have a specic attribute, but the actual characters can vary from country to country and/or from character set to character set. For example, the notion of what is an alphabetic character diers between the United States and France. A character class is only valid in a regexp inside the brackets of a character list. Character classes consist of [:, a keyword denoting the class, and :]. Table 2.1 lists the character classes dened by the POSIX standard.

Class [:alnum:] [:alpha:] [:blank:] [:cntrl:] [:digit:] [:graph:] [:lower:] [:print:] [:punct:] [:space:] [:upper:] [:xdigit:]

Meaning Alphanumeric characters. Alphabetic characters. Space and TAB characters. Control characters. Numeric characters. Characters that are both printable and visible. (A space is printable but not visible, whereas an a is both.) Lowercase alphabetic characters. Printable characters (characters that are not control characters). Punctuation characters (characters that are not letters, digits, control characters, or space characters). Space characters (such as space, TAB, and formfeed, to name a few). Uppercase alphabetic characters. Characters that are hexadecimal digits.

Table 2.1: POSIX Character Classes For example, before the POSIX standard, you had to write /[A-Za-z0-9]/ to match alphanumeric characters. If your character set had other alphabetic characters in it, this would not match them, and if your character set collated dierently from ASCII, this might not even match the ASCII alphanumeric characters. With the POSIX character classes, you can write /[[:alnum:]]/ to match the alphabetic and numeric characters in your character set. Two additional special sequences can appear in character lists. These apply to nonASCII character sets, which can have single symbols (called collating elements ) that are represented with more than one character. They can also have several characters that are equivalent for collating, or sorting, purposes. (For example, in French, a plain e and a grave-accented ` e are equivalent.) These sequences are: Collating symbols Multicharacter collating elements enclosed between [. and .]. For example, if ch is a collating element, then [[.ch.]] is a regexp that matches this collating element, whereas [ch] is a regexp that matches either c or h.

Chapter 2: Regular Expressions 31

Equivalence classes Locale-specic names for a list of characters that are equal. The name is enclosed between [= and =]. For example, the name e might be used to represent all of e, ` e, and e. In this case, [[=e=]] is a regexp that matches any of e, e, or ` e. These features are very valuable in non-English-speaking locales. Caution: The library functions that gawk uses for regular expression matching currently recognize only POSIX character classes; they do not recognize collating symbols or equivalence classes.

2.5 gawk-Specic Regexp Operators

GNU software that deals with regular expressions provides a number of additional regexp operators. These operators are described in this section and are specic to gawk; they are not available in other awk implementations. Most of the additional operators deal with word matching. For our purposes, a word is a sequence of one or more letters, digits, or underscores (_): \w \W \< \> \y Matches any word-constituent characterthat is, it matches any letter, digit, or underscore. Think of it as shorthand for [[:alnum:]_]. Matches any character that is not word-constituent. Think of it as shorthand for [^[:alnum:]_]. Matches the empty string at the beginning of a word. For example, /\<away/ matches away but not stowaway. Matches the empty string at the end of a word. For example, /stow\>/ matches stow but not stowaway. Matches the empty string at either the beginning or the end of a word (i.e., the word boundary). For example, \yballs?\y matches either ball or balls, as a separate word. Matches the empty string that occurs between two word-constituent characters. For example, /\Brat\B/ matches crate but it does not match dirty rat. \B is essentially the opposite of \y.

\B

There are two other operators that work on buers. In Emacs, a buer is, naturally, an Emacs buer. For other programs, gawks regexp library routines consider the entire string to match as the buer. The operators are: \ \ Matches the empty string at the beginning of a buer (string). Matches the empty string at the end of a buer (string).

Because ^ and $ always work in terms of the beginning and end of strings, these operators dont add any new capabilities for awk. They are provided for compatibility with other GNU software. In other GNU software, the word-boundary operator is \b. However, that conicts with the awk languages denition of \b as backspace, so gawk uses a dierent letter. An alternative method would have been to require two backslashes in the GNU operators, but

32 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

this was deemed too confusing. The current method of using \y for the GNU \b appears to be the lesser of two evils. The various command-line options (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174) control how gawk interprets characters in regexps: No options In the default case, gawk provides all the facilities of POSIX regexps and the previously described GNU regexp operators. However, interval expressions are not supported. --posix Only POSIX regexps are supported; the GNU operators are not special (e.g., \w matches a literal w). Interval expressions are allowed.

--traditional Traditional Unix awk regexps are matched. The GNU operators are not special, interval expressions are not available, nor are the POSIX character classes ([[:alnum:]], etc.). Characters described by octal and hexadecimal escape sequences are treated literally, even if they represent regexp metacharacters. Also, gawk silently skips directories named on the command line. --re-interval Allow interval expressions in regexps, even if --traditional has been provided. (--posix automatically enables interval expressions, so --re-interval is redundant when --posix is is used.)

2.6 Case Sensitivity in Matching

Case is normally signicant in regular expressions, both when matching ordinary characters (i.e., not metacharacters) and inside character sets. Thus, a w in a regular expression matches only a lowercase w and not an uppercase W. The simplest way to do a case-independent match is to use a character listfor example, [Ww]. However, this can be cumbersome if you need to use it often, and it can make the regular expressions harder to read. There are two alternatives that you might prefer. One way to perform a case-insensitive match at a particular point in the program is to convert the data to a single case, using the tolower or toupper built-in string functions (which we havent discussed yet; see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). For example: tolower($1) ~ /foo/ { ... } converts the rst eld to lowercase before matching against it. This works in any POSIXcompliant awk. Another method, specic to gawk, is to set the variable IGNORECASE to a nonzero value (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). When IGNORECASE is not zero, all regexp and string operations ignore case. Changing the value of IGNORECASE dynamically controls the case-sensitivity of the program as it runs. Case is signicant by default because IGNORECASE (like most variables) is initialized to zero: x = "aB" if (x ~ /ab/) ... # this test will fail

Chapter 2: Regular Expressions 33

IGNORECASE = 1 if (x ~ /ab/) ...

# now it will succeed

In general, you cannot use IGNORECASE to make certain rules case-insensitive and other rules case-sensitive, because there is no straightforward way to set IGNORECASE just for the pattern of a particular rule.3 To do this, use either character lists or tolower. However, one thing you can do with IGNORECASE only is dynamically turn case-sensitivity on or o for all the rules at once. IGNORECASE can be set on the command line or in a BEGIN rule (see Section 11.3 [Other Command-Line Arguments], page 179; also see Section 6.1.4.1 [Startup and Cleanup Actions], page 97). Setting IGNORECASE from the command line is a way to make a program case-insensitive without having to edit it. Prior to gawk 3.0, the value of IGNORECASE aected regexp operations only. It did not aect string comparison with ==, !=, and so on. Beginning with version 3.0, both regexp and string comparison operations are also aected by IGNORECASE. Beginning with gawk 3.0, the equivalences between upper- and lowercase characters are based on the ISO-8859-1 (ISO Latin-1) character set. This character set is a superset of the traditional 128 ASCII characters, which also provides a number of characters suitable for use with European languages. As of gawk 3.1.4, the case equivalences are fully locale-aware. They are based on the C <ctype.h> facilities, such as isalpha() and toupper(). The value of IGNORECASE has no eect if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Case is always signicant in compatibility mode.

2.7 How Much Text Matches?

Consider the following: echo aaaabcd | awk { sub(/a+/, "<A>"); print } This example uses the sub function (which we havent discussed yet; see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130) to make a change to the input record. Here, the regexp /a+/ indicates one or more a characters, and the replacement text is <A>. The input contains four a characters. awk (and POSIX) regular expressions always match the leftmost, longest sequence of input characters that can match. Thus, all four a characters are replaced with <A> in this example: $ echo aaaabcd | awk { sub(/a+/, "<A>"); print } <A>bcd For simple match/no-match tests, this is not so important. But when doing text matching and substitutions with the match, sub, gsub, and gensub functions, it is very important. Understanding this principle is also important for regexp-based record and eld splitting (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36, and also see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43).
3

Experienced C and C++ programmers will note that it is possible, using something like IGNORECASE = 1 && /foObAr/ { ... } and IGNORECASE = 0 || /foobar/ { ... }. However, this is somewhat obscure and we dont recommend it.

34 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

2.8 Using Dynamic Regexps

The righthand side of a ~ or !~ operator need not be a regexp constant (i.e., a string of characters between slashes). It may be any expression. The expression is evaluated and converted to a string if necessary; the contents of the string are used as the regexp. A regexp that is computed in this way is called a dynamic regexp : BEGIN { digits_regexp = "[[:digit:]]+" } $0 ~ digits_regexp { print } This sets digits_regexp to a regexp that describes one or more digits, and tests whether the input record matches this regexp. Caution: When using the ~ and !~ operators, there is a dierence between a regexp constant enclosed in slashes and a string constant enclosed in double quotes. If you are going to use a string constant, you have to understand that the string is, in essence, scanned twice : the rst time when awk reads your program, and the second time when it goes to match the string on the lefthand side of the operator with the pattern on the right. This is true of any string-valued expression (such as digits_regexp, shown previously), not just string constants. What dierence does it make if the string is scanned twice? The answer has to do with escape sequences, and particularly with backslashes. To get a backslash into a regular expression inside a string, you have to type two backslashes. For example, /\*/ is a regexp constant for a literal *. Only one backslash is needed. To do the same thing with a string, you have to type "\\*". The rst backslash escapes the second one so that the string actually contains the two characters \ and *. Given that you can use both regexp and string constants to describe regular expressions, which should you use? The answer is regexp constants, for several reasons: String constants are more complicated to write and more dicult to read. Using regexp constants makes your programs less error-prone. Not understanding the dierence between the two kinds of constants is a common source of errors. It is more ecient to use regexp constants. awk can note that you have supplied a regexp and store it internally in a form that makes pattern matching more ecient. When using a string constant, awk must rst convert the string into this internal form and then perform the pattern matching. Using regexp constants is better form; it shows clearly that you intend a regexp match.

Advanced Notes: Using \n in Character Lists of Dynamic Regexps

Some commercial versions of awk do not allow the newline character to be used inside a character list for a dynamic regexp: $ awk $0 ~ "[ \t\n]" error awk: newline in character class [ error ]... source line number 1 error context is error >>> <<< error But a newline in a regexp constant works with no problem:

Chapter 2: Regular Expressions 35

$ awk $0 ~ /[ \t\n]/ here is a sample line here is a sample line Ctrl-d gawk does not have this problem, and it isnt likely to occur often in practice, but its worth noting for future reference.

2.9 Where You Are Makes A Dierence

Modern systems support the notion of locales : a way to tell the system about the local character set and language. The current locale setting can aect the way regexp matching works, often in surprising ways. In particular, many locales do case-insensitive matching, even when you may have specied characters of only one particular case. The following example uses the sub function, which does text replacement (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). Here, the intent is to remove trailing uppercase characters: $ echo something1234abc | gawk { sub("[A-Z]*$", ""); print } something1234 This output is unexpected, since the abc at the end of something1234abc should not normally match [A-Z]*. This result is due to the locale setting (and thus you may not see it on your system). There are two xes. The rst is to use the POSIX character class [[:upper:]], instead of [A-Z]. (This is preferred, since then your program will work everywhere.) The second is to change the locale setting in the environment, before running gawk, by using the shell statements: LANG=C LC_ALL=C export LANG LC_ALL The setting C forces gawk to behave in the traditional Unix manner, where case distinctions do matter. You may wish to put these statements into your shell startup le, e.g., $HOME/.profile. Similar considerations apply to other ranges. For example, ["-/] is perfectly valid in ASCII, but is not valid in many Unicode locales, such as en_US.UTF-8. (In general, such ranges should be avoided; either list the characters individually, or use a POSIX character class such as [[:punct:]].) For the normal case of RS = "\n", the locale is largely irrelevant. For other singlecharacter record separators, using LC_ALL=C will give you much better performance when reading records. Otherwise, gawk has to make several function calls, per input character to nd the record terminator. Finally, the locale aects the value of the decimal point character used when gawk parses input data. This is discussed in detail in Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77.

36 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

3 Reading Input Files

In the typical awk program, all input is read either from the standard input (by default, this is the keyboard, but often it is a pipe from another command) or from les whose names you specify on the awk command line. If you specify input les, awk reads them in order, processing all the data from one before going on to the next. The name of the current input le can be found in the built-in variable FILENAME (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). The input is read in units called records, and is processed by the rules of your program one record at a time. By default, each record is one line. Each record is automatically split into chunks called elds. This makes it more convenient for programs to work on the parts of a record. On rare occasions, you may need to use the getline command. The getline command is valuable, both because it can do explicit input from any number of les, and because the les used with it do not have to be named on the awk command line (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51).

3.1 How Input Is Split into Records

The awk utility divides the input for your awk program into records and elds. awk keeps track of the number of records that have been read so far from the current input le. This value is stored in a built-in variable called FNR. It is reset to zero when a new le is started. Another built-in variable, NR, is the total number of input records read so far from all data les. It starts at zero, but is never automatically reset to zero. Records are separated by a character called the record separator. By default, the record separator is the newline character. This is why records are, by default, single lines. A dierent character can be used for the record separator by assigning the character to the built-in variable RS. Like any other variable, the value of RS can be changed in the awk program with the assignment operator, = (see Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). The new record-separator character should be enclosed in quotation marks, which indicate a string constant. Often the right time to do this is at the beginning of execution, before any input is processed, so that the very rst record is read with the proper separator. To do this, use the special BEGIN pattern (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). For example: awk BEGIN { RS = "/" } { print $0 } BBS-list changes the value of RS to "/", before reading any input. This is a string whose rst character is a slash; as a result, records are separated by slashes. Then the input le is read, and the second rule in the awk program (the action with no pattern) prints each record. Because each print statement adds a newline at the end of its output, this awk program copies the input with each slash changed to a newline. Here are the results of running the program on BBS-list: $ awk BEGIN { RS = "/" } > { print $0 } BBS-list aardvark 555-5553 1200

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300 alpo-net 1200 300 A barfly 300 bites 1200 300 A camelot core 300 fooey 1200 300 B foot 300 macfoo 300 sdace 1200 300 A sabafoo 300

B 555-3412

2400

555-7685 A 555-1675

1200 2400

555-0542 555-2912 C 555-1234

300 1200 2400

555-6699 B 555-6480 A 555-3430

1200 1200 2400

555-2127 C

1200

Note that the entry for the camelot BBS is not split. In the original data le (see Section 1.2 [Data Files for the Examples], page 16), the line looks like this: camelot 555-0542 300 C It has one baud rate only, so there are no slashes in the record, unlike the others which have two or more baud rates. In fact, this record is treated as part of the record for the core BBS; the newline separating them in the output is the original newline in the data le, not the one added by awk when it printed the record! Another way to change the record separator is on the command line, using the variableassignment feature (see Section 11.3 [Other Command-Line Arguments], page 179): awk { print $0 } RS="/" BBS-list This sets RS to / before processing BBS-list. Using an unusual character such as / for the record separator produces correct behavior in the vast majority of cases. However, the following (extreme) pipeline prints a surprising 1: $ echo | awk BEGIN { RS = "a" } ; { print NF } 1 There is one eld, consisting of a newline. The value of the built-in variable NF is the number of elds in the current record. Reaching the end of an input le terminates the current input record, even if the last character in the le is not the character in RS.

38 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

The empty string "" (a string without any characters) has a special meaning as the value of RS. It means that records are separated by one or more blank lines and nothing else. See Section 3.7 [Multiple-Line Records], page 49, for more details. If you change the value of RS in the middle of an awk run, the new value is used to delimit subsequent records, but the record currently being processed, as well as records already processed, are not aected. After the end of the record has been determined, gawk sets the variable RT to the text in the input that matched RS. When using gawk, the value of RS is not limited to a one-character string. It can be any regular expression (see Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24). In general, each record ends at the next string that matches the regular expression; the next record starts at the end of the matching string. This general rule is actually at work in the usual case, where RS contains just a newline: a record ends at the beginning of the next matching string (the next newline in the input), and the following record starts just after the end of this string (at the rst character of the following line). The newline, because it matches RS, is not part of either record. When RS is a single character, RT contains the same single character. However, when RS is a regular expression, RT contains the actual input text that matched the regular expression. The following example illustrates both of these features. It sets RS equal to a regular expression that matches either a newline or a series of one or more uppercase letters with optional leading and/or trailing whitespace: $ echo record 1 AAAA record 2 BBBB record 3 | > gawk BEGIN { RS = "\n|( *[[:upper:]]+ *)" } > { print "Record =", $0, "and RT =", RT } Record = record 1 and RT = AAAA Record = record 2 and RT = BBBB Record = record 3 and RT = The nal line of output has an extra blank line. This is because the value of RT is a newline, and the print statement supplies its own terminating newline. See Section 13.3.8 [A Simple Stream Editor], page 244, for a more useful example of RS as a regexp and RT. If you set RS to a regular expression that allows optional trailing text, such as RS = "abc(XYZ)?" it is possible, due to implementation constraints, that gawk may match the leading part of the regular expression, but not the trailing part, particularly if the input text that could match the trailing part is fairly long. gawk attempts to avoid this problem, but currently, theres no guarantee that this will never happen. NOTE: Remember that in awk, the ^ and $ anchor metacharacters match the beginning and end of a string, and not the beginning and end of a line. As a result, something like RS = "^[[:upper:]]" can only match at the beginning of a le. This is because gawk views the input le as one long string that happens to contain newline characters in it. It is thus best to avoid anchor characters in the value of RS. The use of RS as a regular expression and the RT variable are gawk extensions; they are not available in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). In compatibility mode, only the rst character of the value of RS is used to determine the end of the record.

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Advanced Notes: RS = "\0" Is Not Portable

There are times when you might want to treat an entire data le as a single record. The only way to make this happen is to give RS a value that you know doesnt occur in the input le. This is hard to do in a general way, such that a program always works for arbitrary input les. You might think that for text les, the nul character, which consists of a character with all bits equal to zero, is a good value to use for RS in this case: BEGIN { RS = "\0" } # whole file becomes one record? gawk in fact accepts this, and uses the nul character for the record separator. However, this usage is not portable to other awk implementations. All other awk implementations1 store strings internally as C-style strings. C strings use the nul character as the string terminator. In eect, this means that RS = "\0" is the same as RS = "". The best way to treat a whole le as a single record is to simply read the le in, one record at a time, concatenating each record onto the end of the previous ones.

3.2 Examining Fields

When awk reads an input record, the record is automatically parsed or separated by the interpreter into chunks called elds. By default, elds are separated by whitespace, like words in a line. Whitespace in awk means any string of one or more spaces, tabs, or newlines;2 other characters, such as formfeed, vertical tab, etc. that are considered whitespace by other languages, are not considered whitespace by awk. The purpose of elds is to make it more convenient for you to refer to these pieces of the record. You dont have to use themyou can operate on the whole record if you wantbut elds are what make simple awk programs so powerful. A dollar-sign ($) is used to refer to a eld in an awk program, followed by the number of the eld you want. Thus, $1 refers to the rst eld, $2 to the second, and so on. (Unlike the Unix shells, the eld numbers are not limited to single digits. $127 is the one hundred twenty-seventh eld in the record.) For example, suppose the following is a line of input: This seems like a pretty nice example. Here the rst eld, or $1, is This, the second eld, or $2, is seems, and so on. Note that the last eld, $7, is example.. Because there is no space between the e and the ., the period is considered part of the seventh eld. NF is a built-in variable whose value is the number of elds in the current record. awk automatically updates the value of NF each time it reads a record. No matter how many elds there are, the last eld in a record can be represented by $NF. So, $NF is the same as $7, which is example.. If you try to reference a eld beyond the last one (such as $8 when the record has only seven elds), you get the empty string. (If used in a numeric operation, you get zero.) The use of $0, which looks like a reference to the zero-th eld, is a special case: it represents the whole input record when you are not interested in specic elds. Here are some more examples:
1 2

At least that we know about. In POSIX awk, newlines are not considered whitespace for separating elds.

40 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

$ awk $1 ~ /foo/ { print $0 } BBS-list fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B foot 555-6699 1200/300 B macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C This example prints each record in the le BBS-list whose rst eld contains the string foo. The operator ~ is called a matching operator (see Section 2.1 [How to Use Regular Expressions], page 24); it tests whether a string (here, the eld $1) matches a given regular expression. By contrast, the following example looks for foo in the entire record and prints the rst eld and the last eld for each matching input record: $ awk /foo/ { print $1, $NF } BBS-list fooey B foot B macfoo A sabafoo C

3.3 Nonconstant Field Numbers

The number of a eld does not need to be a constant. Any expression in the awk language can be used after a $ to refer to a eld. The value of the expression species the eld number. If the value is a string, rather than a number, it is converted to a number. Consider this example: awk { print $NR } Recall that NR is the number of records read so far: one in the rst record, two in the second, etc. So this example prints the rst eld of the rst record, the second eld of the second record, and so on. For the twentieth record, eld number 20 is printed; most likely, the record has fewer than 20 elds, so this prints a blank line. Here is another example of using expressions as eld numbers: awk { print $(2*2) } BBS-list awk evaluates the expression (2*2) and uses its value as the number of the eld to print. The * sign represents multiplication, so the expression 2*2 evaluates to four. The parentheses are used so that the multiplication is done before the $ operation; they are necessary whenever there is a binary operator in the eld-number expression. This example, then, prints the hours of operation (the fourth eld) for every line of the le BBS-list. (All of the awk operators are listed, in order of decreasing precedence, in Section 5.14 [Operator Precedence (How Operators Nest)], page 92.) If the eld number you compute is zero, you get the entire record. Thus, $(2-2) has the same value as $0. Negative eld numbers are not allowed; trying to reference one usually terminates the program. (The POSIX standard does not dene what happens when you reference a negative eld number. gawk notices this and terminates your program. Other awk implementations may behave dierently.) As mentioned in Section 3.2 [Examining Fields], page 39, awk stores the current records number of elds in the built-in variable NF (also see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). The expression $NF is not a special featureit is the direct consequence of evaluating NF and using its value as a eld number.

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3.4 Changing the Contents of a Field

The contents of a eld, as seen by awk, can be changed within an awk program; this changes what awk perceives as the current input record. (The actual input is untouched; awk never modies the input le.) Consider the following example and its output: $ awk > 25 32 24 ... { nboxes = $3 ; $3 = $3 - 10 print nboxes, $3 } inventory-shipped 15 22 14

The program rst saves the original value of eld three in the variable nboxes. The - sign represents subtraction, so this program reassigns eld three, $3, as the original value of eld three minus ten: $3 - 10. (See Section 5.5 [Arithmetic Operators], page 79.) Then it prints the original and new values for eld three. (Someone in the warehouse made a consistent mistake while inventorying the red boxes.) For this to work, the text in eld $3 must make sense as a number; the string of characters must be converted to a number for the computer to do arithmetic on it. The number resulting from the subtraction is converted back to a string of characters that then becomes eld three. See Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77. When the value of a eld is changed (as perceived by awk), the text of the input record is recalculated to contain the new eld where the old one was. In other words, $0 changes to reect the altered eld. Thus, this program prints a copy of the input le, with 10 subtracted from the second eld of each line: $ awk { Jan 3 Feb 5 Mar 5 ... $2 25 32 24 = $2 - 10; print $0 } inventory-shipped 15 115 24 226 34 228

It is also possible to also assign contents to elds that are out of range. For example: $ awk { $6 = ($5 + $4 + $3 + $2) > print $6 } inventory-shipped 168 297 301 ... Weve just created $6, whose value is the sum of elds $2, $3, $4, and $5. The + sign represents addition. For the le inventory-shipped, $6 represents the total number of parcels shipped for a particular month. Creating a new eld changes awks internal copy of the current input record, which is the value of $0. Thus, if you do print $0 after adding a eld, the record printed includes the new eld, with the appropriate number of eld separators between it and the previously existing elds. This recomputation aects and is aected by NF (the number of elds; see Section 3.2 [Examining Fields], page 39). For example, the value of NF is set to the number of the

42 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

highest eld you create. The exact format of $0 is also aected by a feature that has not been discussed yet: the output eld separator, OFS, used to separate the elds (see Section 4.3 [Output Separators], page 59). Note, however, that merely referencing an out-of-range eld does not change the value of either $0 or NF. Referencing an out-of-range eld only produces an empty string. For example: if ($(NF+1) != "") print "cant happen" else print "everything is normal" should print everything is normal, because NF+1 is certain to be out of range. (See Section 6.4.1 [The if-else Statement], page 100, for more information about awks ifelse statements. See Section 5.10 [Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions], page 85, for more information about the != operator.) It is important to note that making an assignment to an existing eld changes the value of $0 but does not change the value of NF, even when you assign the empty string to a eld. For example: $ echo a b c d | awk { OFS = ":"; $2 = "" > print $0; print NF } a::c:d 4 The eld is still there; it just has an empty value, denoted by the two colons between a and c. This example shows what happens if you create a new eld: $ echo a b c d | awk { OFS = ":"; $2 = ""; $6 = "new" > print $0; print NF } a::c:d::new 6 The intervening eld, $5, is created with an empty value (indicated by the second pair of adjacent colons), and NF is updated with the value six. Decrementing NF throws away the values of the elds after the new value of NF and recomputes $0. Here is an example: $ echo a b c d e f | awk { print "NF =", NF; > NF = 3; print $0 } NF = 6 a b c Caution: Some versions of awk dont rebuild $0 when NF is decremented. Caveat emptor. Finally, there are times when it is convenient to force awk to rebuild the entire record, using the current value of the elds and OFS. To do this, use the seemingly innocuous assignment: $1 = $1 # force record to be reconstituted print $0 # or whatever else with $0 This forces awk rebuild the record. It does help to add a comment, as weve shown here. There is a ip side to the relationship between $0 and the elds. Any assignment to $0 causes the record to be reparsed into elds using the current value of FS. This also

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applies to any built-in function that updates $0, such as sub and gsub (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130).

3.5 Specifying How Fields Are Separated

The eld separator, which is either a single character or a regular expression, controls the way awk splits an input record into elds. awk scans the input record for character sequences that match the separator; the elds themselves are the text between the matches. In the examples that follow, we use the bullet symbol () to represent spaces in the output. If the eld separator is oo, then the following line: moo goo gai pan is split into three elds: m, g, and gaipan. Note the leading spaces in the values of the second and third elds. The eld separator is represented by the built-in variable FS. Shell programmers take note: awk does not use the name IFS that is used by the POSIX-compliant shells (such as the Unix Bourne shell, sh, or bash). The value of FS can be changed in the awk program with the assignment operator, = (see Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). Often the right time to do this is at the beginning of execution before any input has been processed, so that the very rst record is read with the proper separator. To do this, use the special BEGIN pattern (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). For example, here we set the value of FS to the string ",": awk BEGIN { FS = "," } ; { print $2 } Given the input line: John Q. Smith, 29 Oak St., Walamazoo, MI 42139 this awk program extracts and prints the string 29OakSt.. Sometimes the input data contains separator characters that dont separate elds the way you thought they would. For instance, the persons name in the example we just used might have a title or sux attached, such as: John Q. Smith, LXIX, 29 Oak St., Walamazoo, MI 42139 The same program would extract LXIX, instead of 29OakSt.. If you were expecting the program to print the address, you would be surprised. The moral is to choose your data layout and separator characters carefully to prevent such problems. (If the data is not in a form that is easy to process, perhaps you can massage it rst with a separate awk program.) Fields are normally separated by whitespace sequences (spaces, tabs, and newlines), not by single spaces. Two spaces in a row do not delimit an empty eld. The default value of the eld separator FS is a string containing a single space, " ". If awk interpreted this value in the usual way, each space character would separate elds, so two spaces in a row would make an empty eld between them. The reason this does not happen is that a single space as the value of FS is a special caseit is taken to specify the default manner of delimiting elds. If FS is any other single character, such as ",", then each occurrence of that character separates two elds. Two consecutive occurrences delimit an empty eld. If the character occurs at the beginning or the end of the line, that too delimits an empty eld. The space character is the only single character that does not follow these rules.

44 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

3.5.1 Using Regular Expressions to Separate Fields

The previous subsection discussed the use of single characters or simple strings as the value of FS. More generally, the value of FS may be a string containing any regular expression. In this case, each match in the record for the regular expression separates elds. For example, the assignment: FS = ", \t" makes every area of an input line that consists of a comma followed by a space and a TAB into a eld separator. For a less trivial example of a regular expression, try using single spaces to separate elds the way single commas are used. FS can be set to "[ ]" (left bracket, space, right bracket). This regular expression matches a single space and nothing else (see Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24). There is an important dierence between the two cases of FS = " " (a single space) and FS = "[ \t\n]+" (a regular expression matching one or more spaces, tabs, or newlines). For both values of FS, elds are separated by runs (multiple adjacent occurrences) of spaces, tabs, and/or newlines. However, when the value of FS is " ", awk rst strips leading and trailing whitespace from the record and then decides where the elds are. For example, the following pipeline prints b: $ echo a b c d | awk { print $2 } b However, this pipeline prints a (note the extra spaces around each letter): $ echo a b c d | awk BEGIN { FS = "[ \t\n]+" } > { print $2 } a In this case, the rst eld is null or empty. The stripping of leading and trailing whitespace also comes into play whenever $0 is recomputed. For instance, study this pipeline: $ echo a b c d | awk { print; $2 = $2; print } a b c d a b c d The rst print statement prints the record as it was read, with leading whitespace intact. The assignment to $2 rebuilds $0 by concatenating $1 through $NF together, separated by the value of OFS. Because the leading whitespace was ignored when nding $1, it is not part of the new $0. Finally, the last print statement prints the new $0.

3.5.2 Making Each Character a Separate Field

There are times when you may want to examine each character of a record separately. This can be done in gawk by simply assigning the null string ("") to FS. In this case, each individual character in the record becomes a separate eld. For example: $ echo a b | gawk BEGIN { FS = "" } > { > for (i = 1; i <= NF; i = i + 1) > print "Field", i, "is", $i > }

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Field 1 is a Field 2 is Field 3 is b Traditionally, the behavior of FS equal to "" was not dened. In this case, most versions of Unix awk simply treat the entire record as only having one eld. In compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), if FS is the null string, then gawk also behaves this way.

3.5.3 Setting FS from the Command Line

FS can be set on the command line. Use the -F option to do so. For example: awk -F, program input-files sets FS to the , character. Notice that the option uses an uppercase F instead of a lowercase f. The latter option (-f) species a le containing an awk program. Case is signicant in command-line options: the -F and -f options have nothing to do with each other. You can use both options at the same time to set the FS variable and get an awk program from a le. The value used for the argument to -F is processed in exactly the same way as assignments to the built-in variable FS. Any special characters in the eld separator must be escaped appropriately. For example, to use a \ as the eld separator on the command line, you would have to type: # same as FS = "\\" awk -F\\\\ ... files ... Because \ is used for quoting in the shell, awk sees -F\\. Then awk processes the \\ for escape characters (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25), nally yielding a single \ to use for the eld separator. As a special case, in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), if the argument to -F is t, then FS is set to the TAB character. If you type -F\t at the shell, without any quotes, the \ gets deleted, so awk gures that you really want your elds to be separated with tabs and not ts. Use -v FS="t" or -F"[t]" on the command line if you really do want to separate your elds with ts. For example, lets use an awk program le called baud.awk that contains the pattern /300/ and the action print $1: /300/ { print $1 } Lets also set FS to be the - character and run the program on the le BBS-list. The following command prints a list of the names of the bulletin boards that operate at 300 baud and the rst three digits of their phone numbers: $ awk -F- -f baud.awk BBS-list aardvark 555 alpo barfly 555 bites 555 camelot 555 core 555 fooey 555

46 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

foot 555 macfoo 555 sdace 555 sabafoo 555 Note the second line of output. The second line in the original le looked like this: alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A The - as part of the systems name was used as the eld separator, instead of the - in the phone number that was originally intended. This demonstrates why you have to be careful in choosing your eld and record separators. Perhaps the most common use of a single character as the eld separator occurs when processing the Unix system password le. On many Unix systems, each user has a separate entry in the system password le, one line per user. The information in these lines is separated by colons. The rst eld is the users login name and the second is the users (encrypted or shadow) password. A password le entry might look like this: arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/bash The following program searches the system password le and prints the entries for users who have no password: awk -F: $2 == "" /etc/passwd

3.5.4 Field-Splitting Summary

It is important to remember that when you assign a string constant as the value of FS, it undergoes normal awk string processing. For example, with Unix awk and gawk, the assignment FS = "\.." assigns the character string ".." to FS (the backslash is stripped). This creates a regexp meaning elds are separated by occurrences of any two characters. If instead you want elds to be separated by a literal period followed by any single character, use FS = "\\..". The following table summarizes how elds are split, based on the value of FS (== means is equal to): FS == " " Fields are separated by runs of whitespace. Leading and trailing whitespace are ignored. This is the default.

FS == any other single character Fields are separated by each occurrence of the character. Multiple successive occurrences delimit empty elds, as do leading and trailing occurrences. The character can even be a regexp metacharacter; it does not need to be escaped. FS == regexp Fields are separated by occurrences of characters that match regexp. Leading and trailing matches of regexp delimit empty elds. FS == "" Each individual character in the record becomes a separate eld. (This is a gawk extension; it is not specied by the POSIX standard.)

Advanced Notes: Changing FS Does Not Aect the Fields

According to the POSIX standard, awk is supposed to behave as if each record is split into elds at the time it is read. In particular, this means that if you change the value of FS

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after a record is read, the value of the elds (i.e., how they were split) should reect the old value of FS, not the new one. However, many implementations of awk do not work this way. Instead, they defer splitting the elds until a eld is actually referenced. The elds are split using the current value of FS! This behavior can be dicult to diagnose. The following example illustrates the dierence between the two methods. (The sed3 command prints just the rst line of /etc/passwd.) sed 1q /etc/passwd | awk { FS = ":" ; print $1 } which usually prints: root on an incorrect implementation of awk, while gawk prints something like: root:nSijPlPhZZwgE:0:0:Root:/:

Advanced Notes: FS and IGNORECASE

The IGNORECASE variable (see Section 6.5.1 [Built-in Variables That Control awk], page 108) aects eld splitting only when the value of FS is a regexp. It has no eect when FS is a single character, even if that character is a letter. Thus, in the following code: FS = "c" IGNORECASE = 1 $0 = "aCa" print $1 The output is aCa. If you really want to split elds on an alphabetic character while ignoring case, use a regexp that will do it for you. E.g., FS = "[c]". In this case, IGNORECASE will take eect.

3.6 Reading Fixed-Width Data

NOTE: This section discusses an advanced feature of gawk. If you are a novice awk user, you might want to skip it on the rst reading. gawk version 2.13 introduced a facility for dealing with xed-width elds with no distinctive eld separator. For example, data of this nature arises in the input for old Fortran programs where numbers are run together, or in the output of programs that did not anticipate the use of their output as input for other programs. An example of the latter is a table where all the columns are lined up by the use of a variable number of spaces and empty elds are just spaces. Clearly, awks normal eld splitting based on FS does not work well in this case. Although a portable awk program can use a series of substr calls on $0 (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130), this is awkward and inecient for a large number of elds. The splitting of an input record into xed-width elds is specied by assigning a string containing space-separated numbers to the built-in variable FIELDWIDTHS. Each number species the width of the eld, including columns between elds. If you want to ignore the columns between elds, you can specify the width as a separate eld that is subsequently ignored. It is a fatal error to supply a eld width that is not a positive number. The following data is the output of the Unix w utility. It is useful to illustrate the use of FIELDWIDTHS:
3

The sed utility is a stream editor. Its behavior is also dened by the POSIX standard.

48 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

10:06pm User hzuo hzang eklye dportein gierd dave brent dave

up 21 days, 14:04, 23 users tty login idle JCPU ttyV0 8:58pm 9 ttyV3 6:37pm 50 ttyV5 9:53pm 7 ttyV6 8:17pm 1:47 ttyD3 10:00pm 1 ttyD4 9:47pm 4 ttyp0 26Jun91 4:46 26:46 ttyq4 26Jun9115days 46

PCPU what 5 vi p24.tex -csh 1 em thes.tex -csh elm 4 w 4:41 bash 46 wnewmail

The following program takes the above input, converts the idle time to number of seconds, and prints out the rst two elds and the calculated idle time: NOTE: This program uses a number of awk features that havent been introduced yet. BEGIN { FIELDWIDTHS = "9 6 10 6 7 7 35" } NR > 2 { idle = $4 sub(/^ */, "", idle) # strip leading spaces if (idle == "") idle = 0 if (idle ~ /:/) { split(idle, t, ":") idle = t[1] * 60 + t[2] } if (idle ~ /days/) idle *= 24 * 60 * 60 print $1, $2, idle } Running the program on the data produces the following results: hzuo hzang eklye dportein gierd dave brent dave ttyV0 ttyV3 ttyV5 ttyV6 ttyD3 ttyD4 ttyp0 ttyq4 0 50 0 107 1 0 286 1296000

Another (possibly more practical) example of xed-width input data is the input from a deck of balloting cards. In some parts of the United States, voters mark their choices by punching holes in computer cards. These cards are then processed to count the votes for any particular candidate or on any particular issue. Because a voter may choose not to vote on some issue, any column on the card may be empty. An awk program for processing such data could use the FIELDWIDTHS feature to simplify reading the data. (Of course, getting gawk to run on a system with card readers is another story!)

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Assigning a value to FS causes gawk to use FS for eld splitting again. Use FS = FS to make this happen, without having to know the current value of FS. In order to tell which kind of eld splitting is in eect, use PROCINFO["FS"] (see Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111). The value is "FS" if regular eld splitting is being used, or it is "FIELDWIDTHS" if xed-width eld splitting is being used: if (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FS") regular field splitting ... else fixed-width field splitting ... This information is useful when writing a function that needs to temporarily change FS or FIELDWIDTHS, read some records, and then restore the original settings (see Section 12.5 [Reading the User Database], page 202, for an example of such a function).

3.7 Multiple-Line Records

In some databases, a single line cannot conveniently hold all the information in one entry. In such cases, you can use multiline records. The rst step in doing this is to choose your data format. One technique is to use an unusual character or string to separate records. For example, you could use the formfeed character (written \f in awk, as in C) to separate them, making each record a page of the le. To do this, just set the variable RS to "\f" (a string containing the formfeed character). Any other character could equally well be used, as long as it wont be part of the data in a record. Another technique is to have blank lines separate records. By a special dispensation, an empty string as the value of RS indicates that records are separated by one or more blank lines. When RS is set to the empty string, each record always ends at the rst blank line encountered. The next record doesnt start until the rst nonblank line that follows. No matter how many blank lines appear in a row, they all act as one record separator. (Blank lines must be completely empty; lines that contain only whitespace do not count.) You can achieve the same eect as RS = "" by assigning the string "\n\n+" to RS. This regexp matches the newline at the end of the record and one or more blank lines after the record. In addition, a regular expression always matches the longest possible sequence when there is a choice (see Section 2.7 [How Much Text Matches?], page 33). So the next record doesnt start until the rst nonblank line that followsno matter how many blank lines appear in a row, they are considered one record separator. There is an important dierence between RS = "" and RS = "\n\n+". In the rst case, leading newlines in the input data le are ignored, and if a le ends without extra blank lines after the last record, the nal newline is removed from the record. In the second case, this special processing is not done. Now that the input is separated into records, the second step is to separate the elds in the record. One way to do this is to divide each of the lines into elds in the normal manner. This happens by default as the result of a special feature. When RS is set to the empty string, and FS is set to a single character, the newline character always acts as a eld separator. This is in addition to whatever eld separations result from FS.4
4

When FS is the null string ("") or a regexp, this special feature of RS does not apply. It does apply to the default eld separator of a single space: FS = " ".

50 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

The original motivation for this special exception was probably to provide useful behavior in the default case (i.e., FS is equal to " "). This feature can be a problem if you really dont want the newline character to separate elds, because there is no way to prevent it. However, you can work around this by using the split function to break up the record manually (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). If you have a single character eld separator, you can work around the special feature in a dierent way, by making FS into a regexp for that single character. For example, if the eld separator is a percent character, instead of FS = "%", use FS = "[%]". Another way to separate elds is to put each eld on a separate line: to do this, just set the variable FS to the string "\n". (This single character separator matches a single newline.) A practical example of a data le organized this way might be a mailing list, where each entry is separated by blank lines. Consider a mailing list in a le named addresses, which looks like this: Jane Doe 123 Main Street Anywhere, SE 12345-6789 John Smith 456 Tree-lined Avenue Smallville, MW 98765-4321 ... A simple program to process this le is as follows: # addrs.awk --- simple mailing list program # Records are separated by blank lines. # Each line is one field. BEGIN { RS = "" ; FS = "\n" } { print print print print } Running the program produces the following output: $ awk -f addrs.awk addresses Name is: Jane Doe Address is: 123 Main Street City and State are: Anywhere, SE 12345-6789 Name is: John Smith Address is: 456 Tree-lined Avenue City and State are: Smallville, MW 98765-4321 ... "Name is:", $1 "Address is:", $2 "City and State are:", $3 ""

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See Section 13.3.4 [Printing Mailing Labels], page 236, for a more realistic program that deals with address lists. The following table summarizes how records are split, based on the value of RS: RS == "\n" Records are separated by the newline character (\n). In eect, every line in the data le is a separate record, including blank lines. This is the default. RS == any single character Records are separated by each occurrence of the character. Multiple successive occurrences delimit empty records. RS == "" Records are separated by runs of blank lines. When FS is a single character, then the newline character always serves as a eld separator, in addition to whatever value FS may have. Leading and trailing newlines in a le are ignored.

RS == regexp Records are separated by occurrences of characters that match regexp. Leading and trailing matches of regexp delimit empty records. (This is a gawk extension; it is not specied by the POSIX standard.) In all cases, gawk sets RT to the input text that matched the value specied by RS.

3.8 Explicit Input with getline

So far we have been getting our input data from awks main input streameither the standard input (usually your terminal, sometimes the output from another program) or from the les specied on the command line. The awk language has a special built-in command called getline that can be used to read input under your explicit control. The getline command is used in several dierent ways and should not be used by beginners. The examples that follow the explanation of the getline command include material that has not been covered yet. Therefore, come back and study the getline command after you have reviewed the rest of this book and have a good knowledge of how awk works. The getline command returns one if it nds a record and zero if it encounters the end of the le. If there is some error in getting a record, such as a le that cannot be opened, then getline returns 1. In this case, gawk sets the variable ERRNO to a string describing the error that occurred. In the following examples, command stands for a string value that represents a shell command.

3.8.1 Using getline with No Arguments

The getline command can be used without arguments to read input from the current input le. All it does in this case is read the next input record and split it up into elds. This is useful if youve nished processing the current record, but want to do some special processing on the next record right now. For example: { if ((t = index($0, "/*")) != 0) { # value of tmp will be "" if t is 1

52 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

tmp = substr($0, 1, t - 1) u = index(substr($0, t + 2), "*/") while (u == 0) { if (getline <= 0) { m = "unexpected EOF or error" m = (m ": " ERRNO) print m > "/dev/stderr" exit } u = index($0, "*/") } # substr expression will be "" if */ # occurred at end of line $0 = tmp substr($0, u + 2) } print $0 } This awk program deletes C-style comments (/* ... */) from the input. By replacing the print $0 with other statements, you could perform more complicated processing on the decommented input, such as searching for matches of a regular expression. (This program has a subtle problemit does not work if one comment ends and another begins on the same line.) This form of the getline command sets NF, NR, FNR, and the value of $0. NOTE: The new value of $0 is used to test the patterns of any subsequent rules. The original value of $0 that triggered the rule that executed getline is lost. By contrast, the next statement reads a new record but immediately begins processing it normally, starting with the rst rule in the program. See Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106.

3.8.2 Using getline into a Variable

You can use getline var to read the next record from awks input into the variable var. No other processing is done. For example, suppose the next line is a comment or a special string, and you want to read it without triggering any rules. This form of getline allows you to read that line and store it in a variable so that the main read-a-line-and-check-each-rule loop of awk never sees it. The following example swaps every two lines of input: { if ((getline tmp) > 0) { print tmp print $0 } else print $0 } It takes the following list: wan tew

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free phore and produces these results: tew wan phore free The getline command used in this way sets only the variables NR and FNR (and of course, var ). The record is not split into elds, so the values of the elds (including $0) and the value of NF do not change.

3.8.3 Using getline from a File

Use getline < file to read the next record from le. Here le is a string-valued expression that species the le name. < file is called a redirection because it directs input to come from a dierent place. For example, the following program reads its input record from the le secondary.input when it encounters a rst eld with a value equal to 10 in the current input le: { if ($1 == 10) { getline < "secondary.input" print } else print } Because the main input stream is not used, the values of NR and FNR are not changed. However, the record it reads is split into elds in the normal manner, so the values of $0 and the other elds are changed, resulting in a new value of NF. According to POSIX, getline < expression is ambiguous if expression contains unparenthesized operators other than $; for example, getline < dir "/" file is ambiguous because the concatenation operator is not parenthesized. You should write it as getline < (dir "/" file) if you want your program to be portable to other awk implementations.

3.8.4 Using getline into a Variable from a File

Use getline var < file to read input from the le le, and put it in the variable var. As above, le is a string-valued expression that species the le from which to read. In this version of getline, none of the built-in variables are changed and the record is not split into elds. The only variable changed is var. For example, the following program copies all the input les to the output, except for records that say @include filename . Such a record is replaced by the contents of the le lename : { if (NF == 2 && $1 == "@include") { while ((getline line < $2) > 0) print line close($2) } else

54 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

print } Note here how the name of the extra input le is not built into the program; it is taken directly from the data, specically from the second eld on the @include line. The close function is called to ensure that if two identical @include lines appear in the input, the entire specied le is included twice. See Section 4.8 [Closing Input and Output Redirections], page 70. One deciency of this program is that it does not process nested @include statements (i.e., @include statements in included les) the way a true macro preprocessor would. See Section 13.3.9 [An Easy Way to Use Library Functions], page 245, for a program that does handle nested @include statements.

3.8.5 Using getline from a Pipe

The output of a command can also be piped into getline, using command | getline. In this case, the string command is run as a shell command and its output is piped into awk to be used as input. This form of getline reads one record at a time from the pipe. For example, the following program copies its input to its output, except for lines that begin with @execute, which are replaced by the output produced by running the rest of the line as a shell command: { if ($1 == "@execute") { tmp = substr($0, 10) while ((tmp | getline) > 0) print close(tmp) } else print } The close function is called to ensure that if two identical @execute lines appear in the input, the command is run for each one. Given the input: foo bar baz @execute who bletch the program might produce: foo bar baz arnold miriam bill bletch

ttyv0 ttyp0 ttyp1

Jul 13 14:22 Jul 13 14:23 Jul 13 14:23

(murphy:0) (murphy:0)

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Notice that this program ran the command who and printed the previous result. (If you try this program yourself, you will of course get dierent results, depending upon who is logged in on your system.) This variation of getline splits the record into elds, sets the value of NF, and recomputes the value of $0. The values of NR and FNR are not changed. According to POSIX, expression | getline is ambiguous if expression contains unparenthesized operators other than $for example, "echo " "date" | getline is ambiguous because the concatenation operator is not parenthesized. You should write it as ("echo " "date") | getline if you want your program to be portable to other awk implementations. NOTE: Unfortunately, gawk has not been consistent in its treatment of a construct like "echo " "date" | getline. Up to and including version 3.1.1 of gawk, it was treated as ("echo " "date") | getline. (This how Unix awk behaves.) From 3.1.2 through 3.1.5, it was treated as "echo " ("date" | getline). (This is how mawk behaves.) Starting with version 3.1.6, the earlier behavior was reinstated. In short, always use explicit parentheses, and then you wont have to worry.

3.8.6 Using getline into a Variable from a Pipe

When you use command | getline var , the output of command is sent through a pipe to getline and into the variable var. For example, the following program reads the current date and time into the variable current_time, using the date utility, and then prints it: BEGIN { "date" | getline current_time close("date") print "Report printed on " current_time } In this version of getline, none of the built-in variables are changed and the record is not split into elds.

3.8.7 Using getline from a Coprocess

Input into getline from a pipe is a one-way operation. The command that is started with command | getline only sends data to your awk program. On occasion, you might want to send data to another program for processing and then read the results back. gawk allows you to start a coprocess, with which two-way communications are possible. This is done with the |& operator. Typically, you write data to the coprocess rst and then read results back, as shown in the following: print "some query " |& "db_server" "db_server" |& getline which sends a query to db_server and then reads the results. The values of NR and FNR are not changed, because the main input stream is not used. However, the record is split into elds in the normal manner, thus changing the values of $0, of the other elds, and of NF.

56 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

Coprocesses are an advanced feature. They are discussed here only because this is the section on getline. See Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167, where coprocesses are discussed in more detail.

3.8.8 Using getline into a Variable from a Coprocess

When you use command |& getline var , the output from the coprocess command is sent through a two-way pipe to getline and into the variable var. In this version of getline, none of the built-in variables are changed and the record is not split into elds. The only variable changed is var.

3.8.9 Points to Remember About getline

Here are some miscellaneous points about getline that you should bear in mind: When getline changes the value of $0 and NF, awk does not automatically jump to the start of the program and start testing the new record against every pattern. However, the new record is tested against any subsequent rules. Many awk implementations limit the number of pipelines that an awk program may have open to just one. In gawk, there is no such limit. You can open as many pipelines (and coprocesses) as the underlying operating system permits. An interesting side eect occurs if you use getline without a redirection inside a BEGIN rule. Because an unredirected getline reads from the command-line data les, the rst getline command causes awk to set the value of FILENAME. Normally, FILENAME does not have a value inside BEGIN rules, because you have not yet started to process the command-line data les. (See Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97, also see Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111.) Using FILENAME with getline (getline < FILENAME) is likely to be a source for confusion. awk opens a separate input stream from the current input le. However, by not using a variable, $0 and NR are still updated. If youre doing this, its probably by accident, and you should reconsider what it is youre trying to accomplish.

3.8.10 Summary of getline Variants

Table 3.1 summarizes the eight variants of getline, listing which built-in variables are set by each one.

Variant getline getline var getline < le getline var < file command | getline command | getline var command |& getline command |& getline var

Eect Sets $0, NF, FNR, and NR Sets var, FNR, and NR Sets $0 and NF Sets var Sets $0 and NF Sets var Sets $0 and NF. This is a gawk extension Sets var. This is a gawk extension

Table 3.1: getline Variants and What They Set

Chapter 4: Printing Output 57

4 Printing Output
One of the most common programming actions is to print, or output, some or all of the input. Use the print statement for simple output, and the printf statement for fancier formatting. The print statement is not limited when computing which values to print. However, with two exceptions, you cannot specify how to print themhow many columns, whether to use exponential notation or not, and so on. (For the exceptions, see Section 4.3 [Output Separators], page 59, and Section 4.4 [Controlling Numeric Output with print], page 59.) For printing with specications, you need the printf statement (see Section 4.5 [Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing], page 60). Besides basic and formatted printing, this chapter also covers I/O redirections to les and pipes, introduces the special le names that gawk processes internally, and discusses the close built-in function.

4.1 The print Statement

The print statement is used to produce output with simple, standardized formatting. Specify only the strings or numbers to print, in a list separated by commas. They are output, separated by single spaces, followed by a newline. The statement looks like this: print item1, item2, ... The entire list of items may be optionally enclosed in parentheses. The parentheses are necessary if any of the item expressions uses the > relational operator; otherwise it could be confused with a redirection (see Section 4.6 [Redirecting Output of print and printf], page 65). The items to print can be constant strings or numbers, elds of the current record (such as $1), variables, or any awk expression. Numeric values are converted to strings and then printed. The simple statement print with no items is equivalent to print $0: it prints the entire current record. To print a blank line, use print "", where "" is the empty string. To print a xed piece of text, use a string constant, such as "Dont Panic", as one item. If you forget to use the double-quote characters, your text is taken as an awk expression, and you will probably get an error. Keep in mind that a space is printed between any two items.

4.2 Examples of print Statements

Each print statement makes at least one line of output. However, it isnt limited to only one line. If an item value is a string that contains a newline, the newline is output along with the rest of the string. A single print statement can make any number of lines this way. The following is an example of printing a string that contains embedded newlines (the \n is an escape sequence, used to represent the newline character; see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25): $ awk BEGIN { print "line one\nline two\nline three" } line one line two

58 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

line three The next example, which is run on the inventory-shipped le, prints the rst two elds of each input record, with a space between them: $ awk { print $1, $2 } inventory-shipped Jan 13 Feb 15 Mar 15 ... A common mistake in using the print statement is to omit the comma between two items. This often has the eect of making the items run together in the output, with no space. The reason for this is that juxtaposing two string expressions in awk means to concatenate them. Here is the same program, without the comma: $ awk { print $1 $2 } inventory-shipped Jan13 Feb15 Mar15 ... To someone unfamiliar with the inventory-shipped le, neither examples output makes much sense. A heading line at the beginning would make it clearer. Lets add some headings to our table of months ($1) and green crates shipped ($2). We do this using the BEGIN pattern (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97) so that the headings are only printed once: awk BEGIN { print "Month Crates" print "----- ------" } { print $1, $2 } inventory-shipped When run, the program prints the following: Month Crates ----- -----Jan 13 Feb 15 Mar 15 ... The only problem, however, is that the headings and the table data dont line up! We can x this by printing some spaces between the two elds: awk BEGIN { print "Month Crates" print "----- ------" } { print $1, " ", $2 } inventory-shipped Lining up columns this way can get pretty complicated when there are many columns to x. Counting spaces for two or three columns is simple, but any more than this can take up a lot of time. This is why the printf statement was created (see Section 4.5 [Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing], page 60); one of its specialties is lining up columns of data. NOTE: You can continue either a print or printf statement simply by putting a newline after any comma (see Section 1.6 [awk Statements Versus Lines], page 20).

Chapter 4: Printing Output 59

4.3 Output Separators

As mentioned previously, a print statement contains a list of items separated by commas. In the output, the items are normally separated by single spaces. However, this doesnt need to be the case; a single space is only the default. Any string of characters may be used as the output eld separator by setting the built-in variable OFS. The initial value of this variable is the string " "that is, a single space. The output from an entire print statement is called an output record. Each print statement outputs one output record, and then outputs a string called the output record separator (or ORS). The initial value of ORS is the string "\n"; i.e., a newline character. Thus, each print statement normally makes a separate line. In order to change how output elds and records are separated, assign new values to the variables OFS and ORS. The usual place to do this is in the BEGIN rule (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97), so that it happens before any input is processed. It can also be done with assignments on the command line, before the names of the input les, or using the -v command-line option (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The following example prints the rst and second elds of each input record, separated by a semicolon, with a blank line added after each newline: $ awk BEGIN { OFS = ";"; ORS = "\n\n" } > { print $1, $2 } BBS-list aardvark;555-5553 alpo-net;555-3412 barfly;555-7685 ... If the value of ORS does not contain a newline, the programs output is run together on a single line.

4.4 Controlling Numeric Output with print

When the print statement is used to print numeric values, awk internally converts the number to a string of characters and prints that string. awk uses the sprintf function to do this conversion (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). For now, it suces to say that the sprintf function accepts a format specication that tells it how to format numbers (or strings), and that there are a number of dierent ways in which numbers can be formatted. The dierent format specications are discussed more fully in Section 4.5.2 [Format-Control Letters], page 60. The built-in variable OFMT contains the default format specication that print uses with sprintf when it wants to convert a number to a string for printing. The default value of OFMT is "%.6g". The way print prints numbers can be changed by supplying dierent format specications as the value of OFMT, as shown in the following example: $ awk BEGIN { > OFMT = "%.0f" # print numbers as integers (rounds) > print 17.23, 17.54 } 17 18

60 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

According to the POSIX standard, awks behavior is undened if OFMT contains anything but a oating-point conversion specication.

4.5 Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing

For more precise control over the output format than what is normally provided by print, use printf. printf can be used to specify the width to use for each item, as well as various formatting choices for numbers (such as what output base to use, whether to print an exponent, whether to print a sign, and how many digits to print after the decimal point). This is done by supplying a string, called the format string, that controls how and where to print the other arguments.

4.5.1 Introduction to the printf Statement

A simple printf statement looks like this: printf format, item1, item2, ... The entire list of arguments may optionally be enclosed in parentheses. The parentheses are necessary if any of the item expressions use the > relational operator; otherwise, it can be confused with a redirection (see Section 4.6 [Redirecting Output of print and printf], page 65). The dierence between printf and print is the format argument. This is an expression whose value is taken as a string; it species how to output each of the other arguments. It is called the format string. The format string is very similar to that in the ISO C library function printf. Most of format is text to output verbatim. Scattered among this text are format speciersone per item. Each format specier says to output the next item in the argument list at that place in the format. The printf statement does not automatically append a newline to its output. It outputs only what the format string species. So if a newline is needed, you must include one in the format string. The output separator variables OFS and ORS have no eect on printf statements. For example: $ awk BEGIN { > ORS = "\nOUCH!\n"; OFS = "+" > msg = "Dont Panic!" > printf "%s\n", msg > } Dont Panic! Here, neither the + nor the OUCH appear when the message is printed.

4.5.2 Format-Control Letters

A format specier starts with the character % and ends with a format-control letterit tells the printf statement how to output one item. The format-control letter species what kind of value to print. The rest of the format specier is made up of optional modiers that control how to print the value, such as the eld width. Here is a list of the format-control letters: %c This prints a number as an ASCII character; thus, printf "%c", 65 outputs the letter A. (The output for a string value is the rst character of the string.)

Chapter 4: Printing Output 61

%d, %i %e, %E

These are equivalent; they both print a decimal integer. (The %i specication is for compatibility with ISO C.) These print a number in scientic (exponential) notation; for example: printf "%4.3e\n", 1950 prints 1.950e+03, with a total of four signicant gures, three of which follow the decimal point. (The 4.3 represents two modiers, discussed in the next subsection.) %E uses E instead of e in the output. This prints a number in oating-point notation. For example: printf "%4.3f", 1950 prints 1950.000, with a total of four signicant gures, three of which follow the decimal point. (The 4.3 represents two modiers, discussed in the next subsection.) On systems supporting IEEE 754 oating point format, values representing negative innity are formatted as -inf or -infinity, and positive innity as inf and infinity. The special not a number value formats as -nan or nan. Like %f but the innity and not a number values are spelled using uppercase letters. The %F format is a POSIX extension to ISO C; not all systems support it. On those that dont, gawk uses %f instead. These print a number in either scientic notation or in oating-point notation, whichever uses fewer characters; if the result is printed in scientic notation, %G uses E instead of e. This prints an unsigned octal integer. This prints a string. This prints an unsigned decimal integer. (This format is of marginal use, because all numbers in awk are oating-point; it is provided primarily for compatibility with C.) These print an unsigned hexadecimal integer; %X uses the letters A through F instead of a through f. This isnt a format-control letter, but it does have meaningthe sequence %% outputs one %; it does not consume an argument and it ignores any modiers.

%f

%F

%g, %G

%o %s %u

%x, %X %%

NOTE: When using the integer format-control letters for values that are outside the range of the widest C integer type, gawk switches to the %g format specier. If --lint is provided on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), gawk warns about this. Other versions of awk may print invalid values or do something else entirely.

4.5.3 Modiers for printf Formats

A format specication can also include modiers that can control how much of the items value is printed, as well as how much space it gets. The modiers come between the % and

62 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

the format-control letter. We will use the bullet symbol in the following examples to represent spaces in the output. Here are the possible modiers, in the order in which they may appear: N$ An integer constant followed by a $ is a positional specier. Normally, format specications are applied to arguments in the order given in the format string. With a positional specier, the format specication is applied to a specic argument, instead of what would be the next argument in the list. Positional speciers begin counting with one. Thus: printf "%s %s\n", "dont", "panic" printf "%2$s %1$s\n", "panic", "dont" prints the famous friendly message twice. At rst glance, this feature doesnt seem to be of much use. It is in fact a gawk extension, intended for use in translating messages at runtime. See Section 9.4.2 [Rearranging printf Arguments], page 161, which describes how and why to use positional speciers. For now, we will not use them. The minus sign, used before the width modier (see later on in this table), says to left-justify the argument within its specied width. Normally, the argument is printed right-justied in the specied width. Thus: printf "%-4s", "foo" prints foo. space + For numeric conversions, prex positive values with a space and negative values with a minus sign. The plus sign, used before the width modier (see later on in this table), says to always supply a sign for numeric conversions, even if the data to format is positive. The + overrides the space modier. Use an alternate form for certain control letters. For %o, supply a leading zero. For %x and %X, supply a leading 0x or 0X for a nonzero result. For %e, %E, and %f, the result always contains a decimal point. For %g and %G, trailing zeros are not removed from the result. A leading 0 (zero) acts as a ag that indicates that output should be padded with zeros instead of spaces. This applies even to non-numeric output formats. This ag only has an eect when the eld width is wider than the value to print. A single quote or apostrophe character is a POSIX extension to ISO C. It indicates that the integer part of a oating point value, or the entire part of an integer decimal value, should have a thousands-separator character in it. This only works in locales that support such characters. For example: $ cat thousands.awk Show source program BEGIN { printf "%d\n", 1234567 } $ LC_ALL=C gawk -f thousands.awk 1234567 Results in "C" locale $ LC_ALL=en_US.UTF-8 gawk -f thousands.awk

Chapter 4: Printing Output 63

1,234,567 Results in US English UTF locale For more information about locales and internationalization issues, see Section 2.9 [Where You Are Makes A Dierence], page 35. NOTE: The ag is a nice feature, but its use complicates things: it becomes dicult to use it in command-line programs. For information on appropriate quoting tricks, see Section 1.1.6 [ShellQuoting Issues], page 14. width This is a number specifying the desired minimum width of a eld. Inserting any number between the % sign and the format-control character forces the eld to expand to this width. The default way to do this is to pad with spaces on the left. For example: printf "%4s", "foo" prints foo. The value of width is a minimum width, not a maximum. If the item value requires more than width characters, it can be as wide as necessary. Thus, the following: printf "%4s", "foobar" prints foobar. Preceding the width with a minus sign causes the output to be padded with spaces on the right, instead of on the left. A period followed by an integer constant species the precision to use when printing. The meaning of the precision varies by control letter: %e, %E, %f Number of digits to the right of the decimal point. %g, %G Maximum number of signicant digits.

.prec

%d, %i, %o, %u, %x, %X Minimum number of digits to print. %s Maximum number of characters from the string that should print.

Thus, the following: printf "%.4s", "foobar" prints foob. The C library printfs dynamic width and prec capability (for example, "%*.*s") is supported. Instead of supplying explicit width and/or prec values in the format string, they are passed in the argument list. For example: w = 5 p = 3 s = "abcdefg" printf "%*.*s\n", w, p, s is exactly equivalent to: s = "abcdefg" printf "%5.3s\n", s

64 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

Both programs output abc. Earlier versions of awk did not support this capability. If you must use such a version, you may simulate this feature by using concatenation to build up the format string, like so: w = 5 p = 3 s = "abcdefg" printf "%" w "." p "s\n", s This is not particularly easy to read but it does work. C programmers may be used to supplying additional l, L, and h modiers in printf format strings. These are not valid in awk. Most awk implementations silently ignore these modiers. If --lint is provided on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), gawk warns about their use. If --posix is supplied, their use is a fatal error.

4.5.4 Examples Using printf

The following is a simple example of how to use printf to make an aligned table: awk { printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 } BBS-list This command prints the names of the bulletin boards ($1) in the le BBS-list as a string of 10 characters that are left-justied. It also prints the phone numbers ($2) next on the line. This produces an aligned two-column table of names and phone numbers, as shown here: $ awk { printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 } BBS-list aardvark 555-5553 alpo-net 555-3412 barfly 555-7685 bites 555-1675 camelot 555-0542 core 555-2912 fooey 555-1234 foot 555-6699 macfoo 555-6480 sdace 555-3430 sabafoo 555-2127 In this case, the phone numbers had to be printed as strings because the numbers are separated by a dash. Printing the phone numbers as numbers would have produced just the rst three digits: 555. This would have been pretty confusing. It wasnt necessary to specify a width for the phone numbers because they are last on their lines. They dont need to have spaces after them. The table could be made to look even nicer by adding headings to the tops of the columns. This is done using the BEGIN pattern (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97) so that the headers are only printed once, at the beginning of the awk program: awk BEGIN { print "Name print "---Number" ------" }

Chapter 4: Printing Output 65

{ printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 } BBS-list The above example mixed print and printf statements in the same program. Using just printf statements can produce the same results: awk BEGIN { printf "%-10s %s\n", "Name", "Number" printf "%-10s %s\n", "----", "------" } { printf "%-10s %s\n", $1, $2 } BBS-list Printing each column heading with the same format specication used for the column elements ensures that the headings are aligned just like the columns. The fact that the same format specication is used three times can be emphasized by storing it in a variable, like this: awk BEGIN { format = "%-10s %s\n" printf format, "Name", "Number" printf format, "----", "------" } { printf format, $1, $2 } BBS-list At this point, it would be a worthwhile exercise to use the printf statement to line up the headings and table data for the inventory-shipped example that was covered earlier in the section on the print statement (see Section 4.1 [The print Statement], page 57).

4.6 Redirecting Output of print and printf

So far, the output from print and printf has gone to the standard output, usually the terminal. Both print and printf can also send their output to other places. This is called redirection. A redirection appears after the print or printf statement. Redirections in awk are written just like redirections in shell commands, except that they are written inside the awk program. There are four forms of output redirection: output to a le, output appended to a le, output through a pipe to another command, and output to a coprocess. They are all shown for the print statement, but they work identically for printf: print items > output-file This type of redirection prints the items into the output le named output-le. The le name output-le can be any expression. Its value is changed to a string and then used as a le name (see Chapter 5 [Expressions], page 73). When this type of redirection is used, the output-le is erased before the rst output is written to it. Subsequent writes to the same output-le do not erase output-le, but append to it. (This is dierent from how you use redirections in shell scripts.) If output-le does not exist, it is created. For example, here is how an awk program can write a list of BBS names to one le named name-list, and a list of phone numbers to another le named phone-list: $ awk { print $2 > "phone-list" > print $1 > "name-list" } BBS-list $ cat phone-list 555-5553 555-3412 ...

66 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

$ cat name-list aardvark alpo-net ... Each output le contains one name or number per line. print items >> output-file This type of redirection prints the items into the pre-existing output le named output-le. The dierence between this and the single-> redirection is that the old contents (if any) of output-le are not erased. Instead, the awk output is appended to the le. If output-le does not exist, then it is created. print items | command It is also possible to send output to another program through a pipe instead of into a le. This type of redirection opens a pipe to command, and writes the values of items through this pipe to another process created to execute command. The redirection argument command is actually an awk expression. Its value is converted to a string whose contents give the shell command to be run. For example, the following produces two les, one unsorted list of BBS names, and one list sorted in reverse alphabetical order: awk { print $1 > "names.unsorted" command = "sort -r > names.sorted" print $1 | command } BBS-list The unsorted list is written with an ordinary redirection, while the sorted list is written by piping through the sort utility. The next example uses redirection to mail a message to the mailing list bug-system. This might be useful when trouble is encountered in an awk script run periodically for system maintenance: report = "mail bug-system" print "Awk script failed:", $0 | report m = ("at record number " FNR " of " FILENAME) print m | report close(report) The message is built using string concatenation and saved in the variable m. Its then sent down the pipeline to the mail program. (The parentheses group the items to concatenatesee Section 5.6 [String Concatenation], page 80.) The close function is called here because its a good idea to close the pipe as soon as all the intended output has been sent to it. See Section 4.8 [Closing Input and Output Redirections], page 70, for more information. This example also illustrates the use of a variable to represent a le or commandit is not necessary to always use a string constant. Using a variable is generally a good idea, because (if you mean to refer to that same le or command) awk requires that the string value be spelled identically every time.

Chapter 4: Printing Output 67

print items |& command This type of redirection prints the items to the input of command. The dierence between this and the single-| redirection is that the output from command can be read with getline. Thus command is a coprocess, which works together with, but subsidiary to, the awk program. This feature is a gawk extension, and is not available in POSIX awk. See Section 3.8.7 [Using getline from a Coprocess], page 55, for a brief discussion. See Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167, for a more complete discussion. Redirecting output using >, >>, |, or |& asks the system to open a le, pipe, or coprocess only if the particular le or command you specify has not already been written to by your program or if it has been closed since it was last written to. It is a common error to use > redirection for the rst print to a le, and then to use >> for subsequent output: # clear the file print "Dont panic" > "guide.txt" ... # append print "Avoid improbability generators" >> "guide.txt" This is indeed how redirections must be used from the shell. But in awk, it isnt necessary. In this kind of case, a program should use > for all the print statements, since the output le is only opened once. (It happens that if you mix > and >> that output is produced in the expected order. However, mixing the operators for the same le is denitely poor style, and is confusing to readers of your program.) As mentioned earlier (see Section 3.8.9 [Points to Remember About getline], page 56), many awk implementations limit the number of pipelines that an awk program may have open to just one! In gawk, there is no such limit. gawk allows a program to open as many pipelines as the underlying operating system permits.

Advanced Notes: Piping into sh

A particularly powerful way to use redirection is to build command lines and pipe them into the shell, sh. For example, suppose you have a list of les brought over from a system where all the le names are stored in uppercase, and you wish to rename them to have names in all lowercase. The following program is both simple and ecient: { printf("mv %s %s\n", $0, tolower($0)) | "sh" } END { close("sh") } The tolower function returns its argument string with all uppercase characters converted to lowercase (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). The program builds up a list of command lines, using the mv utility to rename the les. It then sends the list to the shell for execution.

68 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

4.7 Special File Names in gawk

gawk provides a number of special le names that it interprets internally. These le names provide access to standard le descriptors, process-related information, and TCP/IP networking.

4.7.1 Special Files for Standard Descriptors

Running programs conventionally have three input and output streams already available to them for reading and writing. These are known as the standard input, standard output, and standard error output. These streams are, by default, connected to your terminal, but they are often redirected with the shell, via the <, <<, >, >>, >&, and | operators. Standard error is typically used for writing error messages; the reason there are two separate streams, standard output and standard error, is so that they can be redirected separately. In other implementations of awk, the only way to write an error message to standard error in an awk program is as follows: print "Serious error detected!" | "cat 1>&2" This works by opening a pipeline to a shell command that can access the standard error stream that it inherits from the awk process. This is far from elegant, and it is also inecient, because it requires a separate process. So people writing awk programs often dont do this. Instead, they send the error messages to the terminal, like this: print "Serious error detected!" > "/dev/tty" This usually has the same eect but not always: although the standard error stream is usually the terminal, it can be redirected; when that happens, writing to the terminal is not correct. In fact, if awk is run from a background job, it may not have a terminal at all. Then opening /dev/tty fails. gawk provides special le names for accessing the three standard streams, as well as any other inherited open les. If the le name matches one of these special names when gawk redirects input or output, then it directly uses the stream that the le name stands for. These special le names work for all operating systems that gawk has been ported to, not just those that are POSIX-compliant: /dev/stdin The standard input (le descriptor 0). /dev/stdout The standard output (le descriptor 1). /dev/stderr The standard error output (le descriptor 2). /dev/fd/N The le associated with le descriptor N. Such a le must be opened by the program initiating the awk execution (typically the shell). Unless special pains are taken in the shell from which gawk is invoked, only descriptors 0, 1, and 2 are available. The le names /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, and /dev/stderr are aliases for /dev/fd/0, /dev/fd/1, and /dev/fd/2, respectively. However, they are more

Chapter 4: Printing Output 69

self-explanatory. The proper way to write an error message in a gawk program is to use /dev/stderr, like this: print "Serious error detected!" > "/dev/stderr" Note the use of quotes around the le name. Like any other redirection, the value must be a string. It is a common error to omit the quotes, which leads to confusing results.

4.7.2 Special Files for Process-Related Information

gawk also provides special le names that give access to information about the running gawk process. Each of these les provides a single record of information. To read them more than once, they must rst be closed with the close function (see Section 4.8 [Closing Input and Output Redirections], page 70). The le names are: /dev/pid Reading this le returns the process ID of the current process, in decimal form, terminated with a newline. /dev/ppid Reading this le returns the parent process ID of the current process, in decimal form, terminated with a newline. /dev/pgrpid Reading this le returns the process group ID of the current process, in decimal form, terminated with a newline. /dev/user Reading this le returns a single record terminated with a newline. The elds are separated with spaces. The elds represent the following information: $1 $2 $3 $4 The return value of the getuid system call (the real user ID number). The return value of the geteuid system call (the eective user ID number). The return value of the getgid system call (the real group ID number). The return value of the getegid system call (the eective group ID number).

If there are any additional elds, they are the group IDs returned by the getgroups system call. (Multiple groups may not be supported on all systems.) These special le names may be used on the command line as data les, as well as for I/O redirections within an awk program. They may not be used as source les with the -f option. NOTE: The special les that provide process-related information are now considered obsolete and will disappear entirely in the next release of gawk. gawk prints a warning message every time you use one of these les. To obtain process-related information, use the PROCINFO array. See Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111.

70 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

4.7.3 Special Files for Network Communications

Starting with version 3.1 of gawk, awk programs can open a two-way TCP/IP connection, acting as either a client or a server. This is done using a special le name of the form: /inet/protocol /local-port /remote-host /remote-port The protocol is one of tcp, udp, or raw, and the other elds represent the other essential pieces of information for making a networking connection. These le names are used with the |& operator for communicating with a coprocess (see Section 10.2 [TwoWay Communications with Another Process], page 167). This is an advanced feature, mentioned here only for completeness. Full discussion is delayed until Section 10.3 [Using gawk for Network Programming], page 169.

4.7.4 Special File Name Caveats

Here is a list of things to bear in mind when using the special le names that gawk provides: Recognition of these special le names is disabled if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). As mentioned earlier, the special les that provide process-related information are now considered obsolete and will disappear entirely in the next release of gawk. gawk prints a warning message every time you use one of these les. Starting with version 3.1, gawk always interprets these special le names.1 For example, using /dev/fd/4 for output actually writes on le descriptor 4, and not on a new le descriptor that is duped from le descriptor 4. Most of the time this does not matter; however, it is important to not close any of the les related to le descriptors 0, 1, and 2. Doing so results in unpredictable behavior.

4.8 Closing Input and Output Redirections

If the same le name or the same shell command is used with getline more than once during the execution of an awk program (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51), the le is opened (or the command is executed) the rst time only. At that time, the rst record of input is read from that le or command. The next time the same le or command is used with getline, another record is read from it, and so on. Similarly, when a le or pipe is opened for output, the le name or command associated with it is remembered by awk, and subsequent writes to the same le or command are appended to the previous writes. The le or pipe stays open until awk exits. This implies that special steps are necessary in order to read the same le again from the beginning, or to rerun a shell command (rather than reading more output from the same command). The close function makes these things possible: close(filename ) or: close(command )
1

Older versions of gawk would interpret these names internally only if the system did not actually have a /dev/fd directory or any of the other special les listed earlier. Usually this didnt make a dierence, but sometimes it did; thus, it was decided to make gawks behavior consistent on all systems and to have it always interpret the special le names itself.

Chapter 4: Printing Output 71

The argument lename or command can be any expression. Its value must exactly match the string that was used to open the le or start the command (spaces and other irrelevant characters included). For example, if you open a pipe with this: "sort -r names" | getline foo then you must close it with this: close("sort -r names") Once this function call is executed, the next getline from that le or command, or the next print or printf to that le or command, reopens the le or reruns the command. Because the expression that you use to close a le or pipeline must exactly match the expression used to open the le or run the command, it is good practice to use a variable to store the le name or command. The previous example becomes the following: sortcom = "sort -r names" sortcom | getline foo ... close(sortcom) This helps avoid hard-to-nd typographical errors in your awk programs. Here are some of the reasons for closing an output le: To write a le and read it back later on in the same awk program. Close the le after writing it, then begin reading it with getline. To write numerous les, successively, in the same awk program. If the les arent closed, eventually awk may exceed a system limit on the number of open les in one process. It is best to close each one when the program has nished writing it. To make a command nish. When output is redirected through a pipe, the command reading the pipe normally continues to try to read input as long as the pipe is open. Often this means the command cannot really do its work until the pipe is closed. For example, if output is redirected to the mail program, the message is not actually sent until the pipe is closed. To run the same program a second time, with the same arguments. This is not the same thing as giving more input to the rst run! For example, suppose a program pipes output to the mail program. If it outputs several lines redirected to this pipe without closing it, they make a single message of several lines. By contrast, if the program closes the pipe after each line of output, then each line makes a separate message. If you use more les than the system allows you to have open, gawk attempts to multiplex the available open les among your data les. gawks ability to do this depends upon the facilities of your operating system, so it may not always work. It is therefore both good practice and good portability advice to always use close on your les when you are done with them. In fact, if you are using a lot of pipes, it is essential that you close commands when done. For example, consider something like this: { ... command = ("grep " $1 " /some/file | my_prog -q " $3) while ((command | getline) > 0) { process output of command

72 GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

} # need close(command) here } This example creates a new pipeline based on data in each record. Without the call to close indicated in the comment, awk creates child processes to run the commands, until it eventually runs out of le descriptors for more pipelines. Even though each command has nished (as indicated by the end-of-le return status from getline), the child process is not terminated;2 more importantly, the le descriptor for the pipe is not closed and released until close is called or awk exits. close will silently do nothing if given an argument that does not represent a le, pipe or coprocess that was opened with a redirection. Note also that close(FILENAME) has no magic eects on the implicit loop that reads through the les named on the command line. It is, more likely, a close of a le that was never opened, so awk silently does nothing. When using the |& operator to communicate with a coprocess, it is occasionally useful to be able to close one end of the two-way pipe without closing the other. This is done by supplying a second argument to close. As in any other call to close, the rst argument is the name of the command or special le used to start the coprocess. The second argument should be a string, with either of the values "to" or "from". Case does not matter. As this is an advanced feature, a more complete discussion is delayed until Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167, which discusses it in more detail and gives an example.

Advanced Notes: Using closes Return Value

In many versions of Unix awk, the close function is actually a statement. It is a syntax error to try and use the return value from close: command = "..." command | getline info retval = close(command) # syntax error in most Unix awks gawk treats close as a function. The return value is 1 if the argument names something that was never opened with a redirection, or if there is a system problem closing the le or process. In these cases, gawk sets the built-in variable ERRNO to a string describing the problem. In gawk, when closing a pipe or coprocess (input or output), the return value is the exit status of the command.3 Otherwise, it is the return value from the systems close or fclose C functions when closing input or output les, respectively. This value is zero if the close succeeds, or 1 if it fails. The POSIX standard is very vague; it says that close returns zero on success and nonzero otherwise. In general, dierent implementations vary in what they report when closing pipes; thus the return value cannot be used portably.
2 3

The technical terminology is rather morbid. The nished child is called a zombie, and cleaning up after it is referred to as reaping. This is a full 16-bit value as returned by the wait system call. See the system manual pages for information on how to decode this value.

Chapter 5: Expressions

73

5 Expressions
Expressions are the basic building blocks of awk patterns and actions. An expression evaluates to a value that you can print, test, or pass to a function. Additionally, an expression can assign a new value to a variable or a eld by using an assignment operator. An expression can serve as a pattern or action statement on its own. Most other kinds of statements contain one or more expressions that specify the data on which to operate. As in other languages, expressions in awk include variables, array references, constants, and function calls, as well as combinations of these with various operators.

5.1 Constant Expressions

The simplest type of expression is the constant, which always has the same value. There are three types of constants: numeric, string, and regular expression. Each is used in the appropriate context when you need a data value that isnt going to change. Numeric constants can have dierent forms, but are stored identically internally.

5.1.1 Numeric and String Constants

A numeric constant stands for a number. This number can be an integer, a decimal fraction, or a number in scientic (exponential) notation.1 Here are some examples of numeric constants that all have the same value: 105 1.05e+2 1050e-1 A string constant consists of a sequence of characters enclosed in double-quotation marks. For example: "parrot" represents the string whose contents are parrot. Strings in gawk can be of any length, and they can contain any of the possible eight-bit ASCII characters including ASCII nul (character code zero). Other awk implementations may have diculty with some character codes.

5.1.2 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers

In awk, all numbers are in decimal; i.e., base 10. Many other programming languages allow you to specify numbers in other bases, often octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16). In octal, the numbers go 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, etc. Just as 11, in decimal, is 1 times 10 plus 1, so 11, in octal, is 1 times 8, plus 1. This equals 9 in decimal. In hexadecimal, there are 16 digits. Since the everyday decimal number system only has ten digits (09), the letters a through f are used to represent the rest. (Case in the letters is usually irrelevant; hexadecimal a and A have the same value.) Thus, 11, in hexadecimal, is 1 times 16 plus 1, which equals 17 in decimal. Just by looking at plain 11, you cant tell what base its in. So, in C, C++, and other languages derived from C, there is a special notation to help signify the base. Octal numbers start with a leading 0, and hexadecimal numbers start with a leading 0x or 0X:
1

The internal representation of all numbers, including integers, uses double-precision oating-point numbers. On most modern systems, these are in IEEE 754 standard format.

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11 011 0x11

Decimal value 11. Octal 11, decimal value 9. Hexadecimal 11, decimal value 17.

This example shows the dierence: $ gawk BEGIN { printf "%d, %d, %d\n", 011, 11, 0x11 } 9, 11, 17 Being able to use octal and hexadecimal constants in your programs is most useful when working with data that cannot be represented conveniently as characters or as regular numbers, such as binary data of various sorts. gawk allows the use of octal and hexadecimal constants in your program text. However, such numbers in the input data are not treated dierently; doing so by default would break old programs. (If you really need to do this, use the --non-decimal-data commandline option; see Section 10.1 [Allowing Nondecimal Input Data], page 166.) If you have octal or hexadecimal data, you can use the strtonum function (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130) to convert the data into a number. Most of the time, you will want to use octal or hexadecimal constants when working with the built-in bit manipulation functions; see Section 8.1.6 [Bit-Manipulation Functions of gawk], page 148, for more information. Unlike some early C implementations, 8 and 9 are not valid in octal constants; e.g., gawk treats 018 as decimal 18: $ gawk BEGIN { print "021 is", 021 ; print 018 } 021 is 17 18 Octal and hexadecimal source code constants are a gawk extension. If gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), they are not available.

Advanced Notes: A Constants Base Does Not Aect Its Value

Once a numeric constant has been converted internally into a number, gawk no longer remembers what the original form of the constant was; the internal value is always used. This has particular consequences for conversion of numbers to strings: $ gawk BEGIN { printf "0x11 is <%s>\n", 0x11 } 0x11 is <17>

5.1.3 Regular Expression Constants

A regexp constant is a regular expression description enclosed in slashes, such as /^beginning and end$/. Most regexps used in awk programs are constant, but the ~ and !~ matching operators can also match computed or dynamic regexps (which are just ordinary strings or variables that contain a regexp).

5.2 Using Regular Expression Constants

When used on the righthand side of the ~ or !~ operators, a regexp constant merely stands for the regexp that is to be matched. However, regexp constants (such as /foo/) may be used like simple expressions. When a regexp constant appears by itself, it has

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the same meaning as if it appeared in a pattern, i.e., ($0 ~ /foo/) See Section 6.1.2 [Expressions as Patterns], page 94. This means that the following two code segments: if ($0 ~ /barfly/ || $0 ~ /camelot/) print "found" and: if (/barfly/ || /camelot/) print "found" are exactly equivalent. One rather bizarre consequence of this rule is that the following Boolean expression is valid, but does not do what the user probably intended: # note that /foo/ is on the left of the ~ if (/foo/ ~ $1) print "found foo" This code is obviously testing $1 for a match against the regexp /foo/. But in fact, the expression /foo/ ~ $1 actually means ($0 ~ /foo/) ~ $1. In other words, rst match the input record against the regexp /foo/. The result is either zero or one, depending upon the success or failure of the match. That result is then matched against the rst eld in the record. Because it is unlikely that you would ever really want to make this kind of test, gawk issues a warning when it sees this construct in a program. Another consequence of this rule is that the assignment statement: matches = /foo/ assigns either zero or one to the variable matches, depending upon the contents of the current input record. This feature of the language has never been well documented until the POSIX specication. Constant regular expressions are also used as the rst argument for the gensub, sub, and gsub functions, and as the second argument of the match function (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130). Modern implementations of awk, including gawk, allow the third argument of split to be a regexp constant, but some older implementations do not. This can lead to confusion when attempting to use regexp constants as arguments to user-dened functions (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150). For example: function mysub(pat, repl, str, global) { if (global) gsub(pat, repl, str) else sub(pat, repl, str) return str } { ... text = "hi! hi yourself!" mysub(/hi/, "howdy", text, 1) ... } In this example, the programmer wants to pass a regexp constant to the user-dened function mysub, which in turn passes it on to either sub or gsub. However, what really

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happens is that the pat parameter is either one or zero, depending upon whether or not $0 matches /hi/. gawk issues a warning when it sees a regexp constant used as a parameter to a user-dened function, since passing a truth value in this way is probably not what was intended.

5.3 Variables
Variables are ways of storing values at one point in your program for use later in another part of your program. They can be manipulated entirely within the program text, and they can also be assigned values on the awk command line.

5.3.1 Using Variables in a Program

Variables let you give names to values and refer to them later. Variables have already been used in many of the examples. The name of a variable must be a sequence of letters, digits, or underscores, and it may not begin with a digit. Case is signicant in variable names; a and A are distinct variables. A variable name is a valid expression by itself; it represents the variables current value. Variables are given new values with assignment operators, increment operators, and decrement operators. See Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81. A few variables have special built-in meanings, such as FS (the eld separator), and NF (the number of elds in the current input record). See Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108, for a list of the built-in variables. These built-in variables can be used and assigned just like all other variables, but their values are also used or changed automatically by awk. All built-in variables names are entirely uppercase. Variables in awk can be assigned either numeric or string values. The kind of value a variable holds can change over the life of a program. By default, variables are initialized to the empty string, which is zero if converted to a number. There is no need to initialize each variable explicitly in awk, which is what you would do in C and in most other traditional languages.

5.3.2 Assigning Variables on the Command Line

Any awk variable can be set by including a variable assignment among the arguments on the command line when awk is invoked (see Section 11.3 [Other Command-Line Arguments], page 179). Such an assignment has the following form: variable =text With it, a variable is set either at the beginning of the awk run or in between input les. When the assignment is preceded with the -v option, as in the following: -v variable =text the variable is set at the very beginning, even before the BEGIN rules are run. The -v option and its assignment must precede all the le name arguments, as well as the program text. (See Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174, for more information about the -v option.) Otherwise, the variable assignment is performed at a time determined by its position among the input le argumentsafter the processing of the preceding input le argument. For example: awk { print $n } n=4 inventory-shipped n=2 BBS-list

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prints the value of eld number n for all input records. Before the rst le is read, the command line sets the variable n equal to four. This causes the fourth eld to be printed in lines from the le inventory-shipped. After the rst le has nished, but before the second le is started, n is set to two, so that the second eld is printed in lines from BBS-list: $ awk { print $n } n=4 inventory-shipped n=2 BBS-list 15 24 ... 555-5553 555-3412 ... Command-line arguments are made available for explicit examination by the awk program in the ARGV array (see Section 6.5.3 [Using ARGC and ARGV], page 114). awk processes the values of command-line assignments for escape sequences (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25).

5.4 Conversion of Strings and Numbers

Strings are converted to numbers and numbers are converted to strings, if the context of the awk program demands it. For example, if the value of either foo or bar in the expression foo + bar happens to be a string, it is converted to a number before the addition is performed. If numeric values appear in string concatenation, they are converted to strings. Consider the following: two = 2; three = 3 print (two three) + 4 This prints the (numeric) value 27. The numeric values of the variables two and three are converted to strings and concatenated together. The resulting string is converted back to the number 23, to which 4 is then added. If, for some reason, you need to force a number to be converted to a string, concatenate the empty string, "", with that number. To force a string to be converted to a number, add zero to that string. A string is converted to a number by interpreting any numeric prex of the string as numerals: "2.5" converts to 2.5, "1e3" converts to 1000, and "25fix" has a numeric value of 25. Strings that cant be interpreted as valid numbers convert to zero. The exact manner in which numbers are converted into strings is controlled by the awk built-in variable CONVFMT (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). Numbers are converted using the sprintf function with CONVFMT as the format specier (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). CONVFMTs default value is "%.6g", which prints a value with at least six signicant digits. For some applications, you might want to change it to specify more precision. On most modern machines, 17 digits is enough to capture a oating-point numbers value exactly, most of the time.2 Strange results can occur if you set CONVFMT to a string that doesnt tell sprintf how to format oating-point numbers in a useful way. For example, if you forget the % in the
2

Pathological cases can require up to 752 digits (!), but we doubt that you need to worry about this.

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format, awk converts all numbers to the same constant string. As a special case, if a number is an integer, then the result of converting it to a string is always an integer, no matter what the value of CONVFMT may be. Given the following code fragment: CONVFMT = "%2.2f" a = 12 b = a "" b has the value "12", not "12.00". Prior to the POSIX standard, awk used the value of OFMT for converting numbers to strings. OFMT species the output format to use when printing numbers with print. CONVFMT was introduced in order to separate the semantics of conversion from the semantics of printing. Both CONVFMT and OFMT have the same default value: "%.6g". In the vast majority of cases, old awk programs do not change their behavior. However, these semantics for OFMT are something to keep in mind if you must port your new style program to older implementations of awk. We recommend that instead of changing your programs, just port gawk itself. See Section 4.1 [The print Statement], page 57, for more information on the print statement. And, once again, where you are can matter when it comes to converting between numbers and strings. In Section 2.9 [Where You Are Makes A Dierence], page 35, we mentioned that the local character set and language (the locale) can aect how gawk matches characters. The locale also aects numeric formats. In particular, for awk programs, it aects the decimal point character. The "C" locale, and most English-language locales, use the period character (.) as the decimal point. However, many (if not most) European and non-English locales use the comma (,) as the decimal point character. The POSIX standard says that awk always uses the period as the decimal point when reading the awk program source code, and for command-line variable assignments (see Section 11.3 [Other Command-Line Arguments], page 179). However, when interpreting input data, for print and printf output, and for number to string conversion, the local decimal point character is used. Here are some examples indicating the dierence in behavior, on a GNU/Linux system: $ gawk BEGIN { printf "%g\n", 3.1415927 } 3.14159 $ LC_ALL=en_DK gawk BEGIN { printf "%g\n", 3.1415927 } 3,14159 $ echo 4,321 | gawk { print $1 + 1 } 5 $ echo 4,321 | LC_ALL=en_DK gawk { print $1 + 1 } 5,321 The en_DK locale is for English in Denmark, where the comma acts as the decimal point separator. In the normal "C" locale, gawk treats 4,321 as 4, while in the Danish locale, its treated as the full number, 4.321. For version 3.1.3 through 3.1.5, gawk fully complied with this aspect of the standard. However, many users in non-English locales complained about this behavior, since their data used a period as the decimal point. Beginning in version 3.1.6, the default behavior was restored to use a period as the decimal point character. You can use the --use-lc-numeric option (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174) to force gawk to use the locales

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decimal point character. (gawk also uses the locales decimal point character when in POSIX mode, either via --posix, or the POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable.) The following table describes the cases in which the locales decimal point character is used and when a period is used. Some of these features have not been described yet.

Feature %g %g Input strtonum

Default Use locale Use period Use period Use period

--posix or --use-lc-numeric Use locale Use locale Use locale Use locale

Table 5.1: Locale Decimal Point versus A Period Finally, modern day formal standards and IEEE standard oating point representation can have an unusual but important eect on the way gawk converts some special string values to numbers. The details are presented in Section D.3.3 [Standards Versus Existing Practice], page 301.

5.5 Arithmetic Operators

The awk language uses the common arithmetic operators when evaluating expressions. All of these arithmetic operators follow normal precedence rules and work as you would expect them to. The following example uses a le named grades, which contains a list of student names as well as three test scores per student (its a small class): Pat 100 97 58 Sandy 84 72 93 Chris 72 92 89 This programs takes the le grades and prints the average of the scores: $ awk { sum = $2 + $3 + $4 ; avg = sum / 3 > print $1, avg } grades Pat 85 Sandy 83 Chris 84.3333 The following list provides the arithmetic operators in awk, in order from the highest precedence to the lowest: -x +x x ^y x ** y x *y x /y Negation. Unary plus; the expression is converted to a number. Exponentiation; x raised to the y power. 2 ^ 3 has the value eight; the character sequence ** is equivalent to ^. Multiplication. Division; because all numbers in awk are oating-point numbers, the result is not rounded to an integer3 / 4 has the value 0.75. (It is a common mistake,

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especially for C programmers, to forget that all numbers in awk are oatingpoint, and that division of integer-looking constants produces a real number, not an integer.) x %y x +y x -y Remainder; further discussion is provided in the text, just after this list. Addition. Subtraction.

Unary plus and minus have the same precedence, the multiplication operators all have the same precedence, and addition and subtraction have the same precedence. When computing the remainder of x % y , the quotient is rounded toward zero to an integer and multiplied by y. This result is subtracted from x ; this operation is sometimes known as trunc-mod. The following relation always holds: b * int(a / b) + (a % b) == a One possibly undesirable eect of this denition of remainder is that x % y is negative if x is negative. Thus: -17 % 8 = -1 In other awk implementations, the signedness of the remainder may be machinedependent. NOTE: The POSIX standard only species the use of ^ for exponentiation. For maximum portability, do not use the ** operator.

5.6 String Concatenation

It seemed like a good idea at the time. Brian Kernighan There is only one string operation: concatenation. It does not have a specic operator to represent it. Instead, concatenation is performed by writing expressions next to one another, with no operator. For example: $ awk { print "Field number one: " $1 } BBS-list Field number one: aardvark Field number one: alpo-net ... Without the space in the string constant after the :, the line runs together. For example: $ awk { print "Field number one:" $1 } BBS-list Field number one:aardvark Field number one:alpo-net ... Because string concatenation does not have an explicit operator, it is often necessary to insure that it happens at the right time by using parentheses to enclose the items to concatenate. For example, you might expect that the following code fragment concatenates file and name: file = "file" name = "name"

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print "something meaningful" > file name This produces a syntax error with Unix awk.3 It is necessary to use the following: print "something meaningful" > (file name) Parentheses should be used around concatenation in all but the most common contexts, such as on the righthand side of =. Be careful about the kinds of expressions used in string concatenation. In particular, the order of evaluation of expressions used for concatenation is undened in the awk language. Consider this example: BEGIN { a = "dont" print (a " " (a = "panic")) } It is not dened whether the assignment to a happens before or after the value of a is retrieved for producing the concatenated value. The result could be either dont panic, or panic panic. The precedence of concatenation, when mixed with other operators, is often counter-intuitive. Consider this example: $ awk BEGIN { print -12 " " -24 } -12-24 This obviously is concatenating 12, a space, and 24. But where did the space disappear to? The answer lies in the combination of operator precedences and awks automatic conversion rules. To get the desired result, write the program in the following manner: $ awk BEGIN { print -12 " " (-24) } -12 -24 This forces awk to treat the - on the -24 as unary. Otherwise, its parsed as follows: 12 (" " 24) 12 (0 24) 12 (24) 1224 As mentioned earlier, when doing concatenation, parenthesize. Otherwise, youre never quite sure what youll get.

5.7 Assignment Expressions

An assignment is an expression that stores a (usually dierent) value into a variable. For example, lets assign the value one to the variable z: z = 1 After this expression is executed, the variable z has the value one. Whatever old value z had before the assignment is forgotten. Assignments can also store string values. For example, the following stores the value "this food is good" in the variable message: thing = "food" predicate = "good" message = "this " thing " is " predicate
3

It happens that gawk and mawk get it right, but you should not rely on this.

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This also illustrates string concatenation. The = sign is called an assignment operator. It is the simplest assignment operator because the value of the righthand operand is stored unchanged. Most operators (addition, concatenation, and so on) have no eect except to compute a value. If the value isnt used, theres no reason to use the operator. An assignment operator is dierent; it does produce a value, but even if you ignore it, the assignment still makes itself felt through the alteration of the variable. We call this a side eect. The lefthand operand of an assignment need not be a variable (see Section 5.3 [Variables], page 76); it can also be a eld (see Section 3.4 [Changing the Contents of a Field], page 41) or an array element (see Chapter 7 [Arrays in awk], page 117). These are all called lvalues, which means they can appear on the lefthand side of an assignment operator. The righthand operand may be any expression; it produces the new value that the assignment stores in the specied variable, eld, or array element. (Such values are called rvalues.) It is important to note that variables do not have permanent types. A variables type is simply the type of whatever value it happens to hold at the moment. In the following program fragment, the variable foo has a numeric value at rst, and a string value later on: foo = print foo = print 1 foo "bar" foo

When the second assignment gives foo a string value, the fact that it previously had a numeric value is forgotten. String values that do not begin with a digit have a numeric value of zero. After executing the following code, the value of foo is ve: foo = "a string" foo = foo + 5 NOTE: Using a variable as a number and then later as a string can be confusing and is poor programming style. The previous two examples illustrate how awk works, not how you should write your programs! An assignment is an expression, so it has a valuethe same value that is assigned. Thus, z = 1 is an expression with the value one. One consequence of this is that you can write multiple assignments together, such as: x = y = z = 5 This example stores the value ve in all three variables (x, y, and z). It does so because the value of z = 5, which is ve, is stored into y and then the value of y = z = 5, which is ve, is stored into x. Assignments may be used anywhere an expression is called for. For example, it is valid to write x != (y = 1) to set y to one, and then test whether x equals one. But this style tends to make programs hard to read; such nesting of assignments should be avoided, except perhaps in a one-shot program. Aside from =, there are several other assignment operators that do arithmetic with the old value of the variable. For example, the operator += computes a new value by adding the righthand value to the old value of the variable. Thus, the following assignment adds ve to the value of foo:

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foo += 5 This is equivalent to the following: foo = foo + 5 Use whichever makes the meaning of your program clearer. There are situations where using += (or any assignment operator) is not the same as simply repeating the lefthand operand in the righthand expression. For example: # Thanks to Pat Rankin for this example BEGIN { foo[rand()] += 5 for (x in foo) print x, foo[x] bar[rand()] = bar[rand()] + 5 for (x in bar) print x, bar[x] } The indices of bar are practically guaranteed to be dierent, because rand returns dierent values each time it is called. (Arrays and the rand function havent been covered yet. See Chapter 7 [Arrays in awk], page 117, and see Section 8.1.2 [Numeric Functions], page 128, for more information). This example illustrates an important fact about assignment operators: the lefthand expression is only evaluated once. It is up to the implementation as to which expression is evaluated rst, the lefthand or the righthand. Consider this example: i = 1 a[i += 2] = i + 1 The value of a[3] could be either two or four. Table 5.2 lists the arithmetic assignment operators. In each case, the righthand operand is an expression whose value is converted to a number.

Operator lvalue += increment lvalue -= decrement lvalue *= coecient lvalue /= divisor lvalue %= modulus lvalue ^= power lvalue **= power

Eect Adds increment to the value of lvalue. Subtracts decrement from the value of lvalue. Multiplies the value of lvalue by coecient. Divides the value of lvalue by divisor. Sets lvalue to its remainder by modulus. Raises lvalue to the power power.

Table 5.2: Arithmetic Assignment Operators NOTE: Only the ^= operator is specied by POSIX. For maximum portability, do not use the **= operator.

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Advanced Notes: Syntactic Ambiguities Between /= and Regular Expressions

There is a syntactic ambiguity between the /= assignment operator and regexp constants whose rst character is an =. This is most notable in commercial awk versions. For example: $ awk /==/ /dev/null error awk: syntax error at source line 1 context is error >>> /= <<< error error awk: bailing out at source line 1 A workaround is: awk /[=]=/ /dev/null gawk does not have this problem, nor do the other freely available versions described in Section B.6 [Other Freely Available awk Implementations], page 278.

5.8 Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment and decrement operators increase or decrease the value of a variable by one. An assignment operator can do the same thing, so the increment operators add no power to the awk language; however, they are convenient abbreviations for very common operations. The operator used for adding one is written ++. It can be used to increment a variable either before or after taking its value. To pre-increment a variable v, write ++v. This adds one to the value of vthat new value is also the value of the expression. (The assignment expression v += 1 is completely equivalent.) Writing the ++ after the variable species post-increment. This increments the variable value just the same; the dierence is that the value of the increment expression itself is the variables old value. Thus, if foo has the value four, then the expression foo++ has the value four, but it changes the value of foo to ve. In other words, the operator returns the old value of the variable, but with the side eect of incrementing it. The post-increment foo++ is nearly the same as writing (foo += 1) - 1. It is not perfectly equivalent because all numbers in awk are oating-pointin oating-point, foo + 1 - 1 does not necessarily equal foo. But the dierence is minute as long as you stick to numbers that are fairly small (less than 10e12). Fields and array elements are incremented just like variables. (Use $(i++) when you want to do a eld reference and a variable increment at the same time. The parentheses are necessary because of the precedence of the eld reference operator $.) The decrement operator -- works just like ++, except that it subtracts one instead of adding it. As with ++, it can be used before the lvalue to pre-decrement or after it to post-decrement. Following is a summary of increment and decrement expressions: ++lvalue This expression increments lvalue, and the new value becomes the value of the expression.

lvalue ++ This expression increments lvalue, but the value of the expression is the old value of lvalue. --lvalue This expression is like ++lvalue , but instead of adding, it subtracts. It decrements lvalue and delivers the value that is the result.

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lvalue--

This expression is like lvalue ++, but instead of adding, it subtracts. It decrements lvalue. The value of the expression is the old value of lvalue.

Advanced Notes: Operator Evaluation Order

Doctor, doctor! It hurts when I do this! So dont do that! Groucho Marx What happens for something like the following? b = 6 print b += b++ Or something even stranger? b = 6 b += ++b + b++ print b In other words, when do the various side eects prescribed by the postx operators (b++) take eect? When side eects happen is implementation dened. In other words, it is up to the particular version of awk. The result for the rst example may be 12 or 13, and for the second, it may be 22 or 23. In short, doing things like this is not recommended and denitely not anything that you can rely upon for portability. You should avoid such things in your own programs.

5.9 True and False in awk

Many programming languages have a special representation for the concepts of true and false. Such languages usually use the special constants true and false, or perhaps their uppercase equivalents. However, awk is dierent. It borrows a very simple concept of true and false from C. In awk, any nonzero numeric value or any nonempty string value is true. Any other value (zero or the null string "") is false. The following program prints A strange truth value three times: BEGIN { if (3.1415927) print "A strange truth value" if ("Four Score And Seven Years Ago") print "A strange truth value" if (j = 57) print "A strange truth value" } There is a surprising consequence of the nonzero or non-null rule: the string constant "0" is actually true, because it is non-null.

5.10 Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions

The Guide is denitive. Reality is frequently inaccurate. The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy

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Unlike other programming languages, awk variables do not have a xed type. Instead, they can be either a number or a string, depending upon the value that is assigned to them. We look now at how variables are typed, and how awk compares variables.

5.10.1 String Type Versus Numeric Type

The 1992 POSIX standard introduced the concept of a numeric string, which is simply a string that looks like a numberfor example, " +2". This concept is used for determining the type of a variable. The type of the variable is important because the types of two variables determine how they are compared. In gawk, variable typing follows these rules: A numeric constant or the result of a numeric operation has the numeric attribute. A string constant or the result of a string operation has the string attribute. Fields, getline input, FILENAME, ARGV elements, ENVIRON elements, and the elements of an array created by split that are numeric strings have the strnum attribute. Otherwise, they have the string attribute. Uninitialized variables also have the strnum attribute. Attributes propagate across assignments but are not changed by any use. The last rule is particularly important. In the following program, a has numeric type, even though it is later used in a string operation: BEGIN { a = 12.345 b = a " is a cute number" print b } When two operands are compared, either string comparison or numeric comparison may be used. This depends upon the attributes of the operands, according to the following symmetric matrix: STRING STRING NUMERIC STRNUM string string string NUMERIC string numeric numeric STRNUM string numeric numeric

The basic idea is that user input that looks numericand only user inputshould be treated as numeric, even though it is actually made of characters and is therefore also a string. Thus, for example, the string constant " +3.14", when it appears in program source code, is a stringeven though it looks numericand is never treated as number for comparison purposes. In short, when one operand is a pure string, such as a string constant, then a string comparison is performed. Otherwise, a numeric comparison is performed.4 This point bears additional emphasis: All user input is made of characters, and so is rst and foremost of string type; input strings that look numeric are additionally given the strnum attribute. Thus, the six-character input string +3.14 receives the strnum
4

The POSIX standard has been revised. The revised standards rules for typing and comparison are the same as just described for gawk.

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attribute. In contrast, the eight-character literal " +3.14" appearing in program text is a string constant. The following examples print 1 when the comparison between the two dierent constants is true, 0 otherwise: $ echo 1 $ echo 0 $ echo 0 $ echo 1 $ echo 0 $ echo 1 $ echo 0 $ echo 1 +3.14 | gawk { print $0 == " +3.14" } +3.14 | gawk { print $0 == "+3.14" } +3.14 | gawk { print $0 == "3.14" } +3.14 | gawk { print $0 == 3.14 } +3.14 | gawk { print $1 == " +3.14" } +3.14 | gawk { print $1 == "+3.14" } +3.14 | gawk { print $1 == "3.14" } +3.14 | gawk { print $1 == 3.14 } True False False True False True False True

5.10.2 Comparison Operators

Comparison expressions compare strings or numbers for relationships such as equality. They are written using relational operators, which are a superset of those in C. Table 5.3 describes them.

Expression x <y x <= y x >y x >= y x == y x != y x ~y x !~ y subscript in array

Result True if x is less than y. True if x is less than or equal to y. True if x is greater than y. True if x is greater than or equal to y. True if x is equal to y. True if x is not equal to y. True if the string x matches the regexp denoted by y. True if the string x does not match the regexp denoted by y. True if the array array has an element with the subscript subscript.

Table 5.3: Relational Operators Comparison expressions have the value one if true and zero if false. When comparing operands of mixed types, numeric operands are converted to strings using the value of CONVFMT (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77). Strings are compared by comparing the rst character of each, then the second character of each, and so on. Thus, "10" is less than "9". If there are two strings where one is a prex of the other, the shorter string is less than the longer one. Thus, "abc" is less than "abcd".

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It is very easy to accidentally mistype the == operator and leave o one of the = characters. The result is still valid awk code, but the program does not do what is intended: if (a = b) # oops! should be a == b ... else ... Unless b happens to be zero or the null string, the if part of the test always succeeds. Because the operators are so similar, this kind of error is very dicult to spot when scanning the source code. The following table of expressions illustrates the kind of comparison gawk performs, as well as what the result of the comparison is: 1.5 <= 2.0 numeric comparison (true) "abc" >= "xyz" string comparison (false) 1.5 != " +2" string comparison (true) "1e2" < "3" string comparison (true) a = 2; b = "2" a == b string comparison (true) a = 2; b = " +2" a == b string comparison (false) In the next example: $ echo 1e2 3 | awk { print ($1 < $2) ? "true" : "false" } false the result is false because both $1 and $2 are user input. They are numeric strings therefore both have the strnum attribute, dictating a numeric comparison. The purpose of the comparison rules and the use of numeric strings is to attempt to produce the behavior that is least surprising, while still doing the right thing. String comparisons and regular expression comparisons are very dierent. For example: x == "foo" has the value one, or is true if the variable x is precisely foo. By contrast: x ~ /foo/ has the value one if x contains foo, such as "Oh, what a fool am I!". The righthand operand of the ~ and !~ operators may be either a regexp constant (/.../) or an ordinary expression. In the latter case, the value of the expression as a string is used as a dynamic regexp (see Section 2.1 [How to Use Regular Expressions], page 24; also see Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34). In modern implementations of awk, a constant regular expression in slashes by itself is also an expression. The regexp /regexp / is an abbreviation for the following comparison expression:

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$0 ~ /regexp / One special place where /foo/ is not an abbreviation for $0 ~ /foo/ is when it is the righthand operand of ~ or !~. See Section 5.2 [Using Regular Expression Constants], page 74, where this is discussed in more detail.

5.11 Boolean Expressions

A Boolean expression is a combination of comparison expressions or matching expressions, using the Boolean operators or (||), and (&&), and not (!), along with parentheses to control nesting. The truth value of the Boolean expression is computed by combining the truth values of the component expressions. Boolean expressions are also referred to as logical expressions. The terms are equivalent. Boolean expressions can be used wherever comparison and matching expressions can be used. They can be used in if, while, do, and for statements (see Section 6.4 [Control Statements in Actions], page 100). They have numeric values (one if true, zero if false) that come into play if the result of the Boolean expression is stored in a variable or used in arithmetic. In addition, every Boolean expression is also a valid pattern, so you can use one as a pattern to control the execution of rules. The Boolean operators are: boolean1 && boolean2 True if both boolean1 and boolean2 are true. For example, the following statement prints the current input record if it contains both 2400 and foo: if ($0 ~ /2400/ && $0 ~ /foo/) print The subexpression boolean2 is evaluated only if boolean1 is true. This can make a dierence when boolean2 contains expressions that have side eects. In the case of $0 ~ /foo/ && ($2 == bar++), the variable bar is not incremented if there is no substring foo in the record. boolean1 || boolean2 True if at least one of boolean1 or boolean2 is true. For example, the following statement prints all records in the input that contain either 2400 or foo or both: if ($0 ~ /2400/ || $0 ~ /foo/) print The subexpression boolean2 is evaluated only if boolean1 is false. This can make a dierence when boolean2 contains expressions that have side eects. ! boolean True if boolean is false. For example, the following program prints no home! in the unusual event that the HOME environment variable is not dened: BEGIN { if (! ("HOME" in ENVIRON)) print "no home!" } (The in operator is described in Section 7.2 [Referring to an Array Element], page 118.) The && and || operators are called short-circuit operators because of the way they work. Evaluation of the full expression is short-circuited if the result can be determined part way through its evaluation.

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Statements that use && or || can be continued simply by putting a newline after them. But you cannot put a newline in front of either of these operators without using backslash continuation (see Section 1.6 [awk Statements Versus Lines], page 20). The actual value of an expression using the ! operator is either one or zero, depending upon the truth value of the expression it is applied to. The ! operator is often useful for changing the sense of a ag variable from false to true and back again. For example, the following program is one way to print lines in between special bracketing lines: $1 == "START" { interested = ! interested; next } interested == 1 { print } $1 == "END" { interested = ! interested; next } The variable interested, as with all awk variables, starts out initialized to zero, which is also false. When a line is seen whose rst eld is START, the value of interested is toggled to true, using !. The next rule prints lines as long as interested is true. When a line is seen whose rst eld is END, interested is toggled back to false.5 NOTE: The next statement is discussed in Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106. next tells awk to skip the rest of the rules, get the next record, and start processing the rules over again at the top. The reason its there is to avoid printing the bracketing START and END lines.

5.12 Conditional Expressions

A conditional expression is a special kind of expression that has three operands. It allows you to use one expressions value to select one of two other expressions. The conditional expression is the same as in the C language, as shown here: selector ? if-true-exp : if-false-exp There are three subexpressions. The rst, selector, is always computed rst. If it is true (not zero or not null), then if-true-exp is computed next and its value becomes the value of the whole expression. Otherwise, if-false-exp is computed next and its value becomes the value of the whole expression. For example, the following expression produces the absolute value of x: x >= 0 ? x : -x Each time the conditional expression is computed, only one of if-true-exp and if-false-exp is used; the other is ignored. This is important when the expressions have side eects. For example, this conditional expression examines element i of either array a or array b, and increments i: x == y ? a[i++] : b[i++] This is guaranteed to increment i exactly once, because each time only one of the two increment expressions is executed and the other is not. See Chapter 7 [Arrays in awk], page 117, for more information about arrays. As a minor gawk extension, a statement that uses ?: can be continued simply by putting a newline after either character. However, putting a newline in front of either character does not work without using backslash continuation (see Section 1.6 [awk Statements Versus Lines], page 20). If --posix is specied (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), then this extension is disabled.
5

This program has a bug; it prints lines starting with END. How would you x it?

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5.13 Function Calls

A function is a name for a particular calculation. This enables you to ask for it by name at any point in the program. For example, the function sqrt computes the square root of a number. A xed set of functions are built-in, which means they are available in every awk program. The sqrt function is one of these. See Section 8.1 [Built-in Functions], page 128, for a list of built-in functions and their descriptions. In addition, you can dene functions for use in your program. See Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150, for instructions on how to do this. The way to use a function is with a function call expression, which consists of the function name followed immediately by a list of arguments in parentheses. The arguments are expressions that provide the raw materials for the functions calculations. When there is more than one argument, they are separated by commas. If there are no arguments, just write () after the function name. The following examples show function calls with and without arguments: sqrt(x^2 + y^2) atan2(y, x) rand() one argument two arguments no arguments

Caution: Do not put any space between the function name and the open-parenthesis! A user-dened function name looks just like the name of a variablea space would make the expression look like concatenation of a variable with an expression inside parentheses. With built-in functions, space before the parenthesis is harmless, but it is best not to get into the habit of using space to avoid mistakes with user-dened functions. Each function expects a particular number of arguments. For example, the sqrt function must be called with a single argument, the number of which to take the square root: sqrt(argument ) Some of the built-in functions have one or more optional arguments. If those arguments are not supplied, the functions use a reasonable default value. See Section 8.1 [Built-in Functions], page 128, for full details. If arguments are omitted in calls to user-dened functions, then those arguments are treated as local variables and initialized to the empty string (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150). Like every other expression, the function call has a value, which is computed by the function based on the arguments you give it. In this example, the value of sqrt(argument ) is the square root of argument. The following program reads numbers, one number per line, and prints the square root of each one: $ awk { print "The square 1 The square root of 1 is 3 The square root of 3 is 5 The square root of 5 is Ctrl-d root of", $1, "is", sqrt($1) } 1 1.73205 2.23607

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A function can also have side eects, such as assigning values to certain variables or doing I/O. This program shows how the match function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130) changes the variables RSTART and RLENGTH: { if (match($1, $2)) print RSTART, RLENGTH else print "no match" } Here is a sample run: $ awk -f matchit.awk aaccdd c+ 3 2 foo bar no match abcdefg e 5 1

5.14 Operator Precedence (How Operators Nest)

Operator precedence determines how operators are grouped when dierent operators appear close by in one expression. For example, * has higher precedence than +; thus, a + b * c means to multiply b and c, and then add a to the product (i.e., a + (b * c)). The normal precedence of the operators can be overruled by using parentheses. Think of the precedence rules as saying where the parentheses are assumed to be. In fact, it is wise to always use parentheses whenever there is an unusual combination of operators, because other people who read the program may not remember what the precedence is in this case. Even experienced programmers occasionally forget the exact rules, which leads to mistakes. Explicit parentheses help prevent any such mistakes. When operators of equal precedence are used together, the leftmost operator groups rst, except for the assignment, conditional, and exponentiation operators, which group in the opposite order. Thus, a - b + c groups as (a - b) + c and a = b = c groups as a = (b = c). Normally the precedence of prex unary operators does not matter, because there is only one way to interpret them: innermost rst. Thus, $++i means $(++i) and ++$x means ++($x). However, when another operator follows the operand, then the precedence of the unary operators can matter. $x^2 means ($x)^2, but -x^2 means -(x^2), because - has lower precedence than ^, whereas $ has higher precedence. Also, operators cannot be combined in a way that violates the precedence rules; for example, $$0++-- is not a valid expression because the rst $ has higher precedence than the ++; to avoid the problem the expression can be rewritten as $($0++)--. This table presents awks operators, in order of highest to lowest precedence: (...) $ ++ -Grouping. Field. Increment, decrement.

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^ ** +-! */% +-

Exponentiation. These operators group right-to-left. Unary plus, minus, logical not. Multiplication, division, remainder. Addition, subtraction.

String Concatenation No special symbol is used to indicate concatenation. The operands are simply written side by side (see Section 5.6 [String Concatenation], page 80). < <= == != > >= >> | |& Relational and redirection. The relational operators and the redirections have the same precedence level. Characters such as > serve both as relationals and as redirections; the context distinguishes between the two meanings. Note that the I/O redirection operators in print and printf statements belong to the statement level, not to expressions. The redirection does not produce an expression that could be the operand of another operator. As a result, it does not make sense to use a redirection operator near another operator of lower precedence without parentheses. Such combinations (for example, print foo > a ? b : c), result in syntax errors. The correct way to write this statement is print foo > (a ? b : c). ~ !~ in && || ?: Matching, nonmatching. Array membership. Logical and. Logical or. Conditional. This operator groups right-to-left.

= += -= *= /= %= ^= **= Assignment. These operators group right to left. NOTE: The |&, **, and **= operators are not specied by POSIX. For maximum portability, do not use them.

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6 Patterns, Actions, and Variables

As you have already seen, each awk statement consists of a pattern with an associated action. This chapter describes how you build patterns and actions, what kinds of things you can do within actions, and awks built-in variables. The pattern-action rules and the statements available for use within actions form the core of awk programming. In a sense, everything covered up to here has been the foundation that programs are built on top of. Now its time to start building something useful.

6.1 Pattern Elements

Patterns in awk control the execution of rulesa rule is executed when its pattern matches the current input record. The following is a summary of the types of awk patterns: /regular expression / A regular expression. It matches when the text of the input record ts the regular expression. (See Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24.) expression A single expression. It matches when its value is nonzero (if a number) or non-null (if a string). (See Section 6.1.2 [Expressions as Patterns], page 94.) pat1, pat2 A pair of patterns separated by a comma, specifying a range of records. The range includes both the initial record that matches pat1 and the nal record that matches pat2. (See Section 6.1.3 [Specifying Record Ranges with Patterns], page 96.) BEGIN END empty Special patterns for you to supply startup or cleanup actions for your awk program. (See Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97.) The empty pattern matches every input record. (See Section 6.1.5 [The Empty Pattern], page 98.)

6.1.1 Regular Expressions as Patterns

Regular expressions are one of the rst kinds of patterns presented in this book. This kind of pattern is simply a regexp constant in the pattern part of a rule. Its meaning is $0 ~ /pattern /. The pattern matches when the input record matches the regexp. For example: /foo|bar|baz/ { buzzwords++ } END { print buzzwords, "buzzwords seen" }

6.1.2 Expressions as Patterns

Any awk expression is valid as an awk pattern. The pattern matches if the expressions value is nonzero (if a number) or non-null (if a string). The expression is reevaluated each time the rule is tested against a new input record. If the expression uses elds such as $1, the value depends directly on the new input records text; otherwise, it depends on only what has happened so far in the execution of the awk program. Comparison expressions, using the comparison operators described in Section 5.10 [Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions], page 85, are a very common kind of pattern.

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Regexp matching and nonmatching are also very common expressions. The left operand of the ~ and !~ operators is a string. The right operand is either a constant regular expression enclosed in slashes (/regexp /), or any expression whose string value is used as a dynamic regular expression (see Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34). The following example prints the second eld of each input record whose rst eld is precisely foo: $ awk $1 == "foo" { print $2 } BBS-list (There is no output, because there is no BBS site with the exact name foo.) Contrast this with the following regular expression match, which accepts any record with a rst eld that contains foo: $ awk $1 ~ /foo/ { print $2 } BBS-list 555-1234 555-6699 555-6480 555-2127 A regexp constant as a pattern is also a special case of an expression pattern. The expression /foo/ has the value one if foo appears in the current input record. Thus, as a pattern, /foo/ matches any record containing foo. Boolean expressions are also commonly used as patterns. Whether the pattern matches an input record depends on whether its subexpressions match. For example, the following command prints all the records in BBS-list that contain both 2400 and foo: $ awk /2400/ && /foo/ BBS-list fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B The following command prints all records in BBS-list that contain either 2400 or foo (or both, of course): $ awk /2400/ || /foo/ BBS-list alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A bites 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A fooey 555-1234 2400/1200/300 B foot 555-6699 1200/300 B macfoo 555-6480 1200/300 A sdace 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A sabafoo 555-2127 1200/300 C The following command prints all records in BBS-list that do not contain the string foo: $ awk ! /foo/ BBS-list aardvark 555-5553 1200/300 B alpo-net 555-3412 2400/1200/300 A barfly 555-7685 1200/300 A bites 555-1675 2400/1200/300 A camelot 555-0542 300 C core 555-2912 1200/300 C sdace 555-3430 2400/1200/300 A The subexpressions of a Boolean operator in a pattern can be constant regular expressions, comparisons, or any other awk expressions. Range patterns are not expressions, so

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they cannot appear inside Boolean patterns. Likewise, the special patterns BEGIN and END, which never match any input record, are not expressions and cannot appear inside Boolean patterns.

6.1.3 Specifying Record Ranges with Patterns

A range pattern is made of two patterns separated by a comma, in the form begpat, endpat . It is used to match ranges of consecutive input records. The rst pattern, begpat, controls where the range begins, while endpat controls where the pattern ends. For example, the following: awk $1 == "on", $1 == "off" myfile prints every record in myfile between on/off pairs, inclusive. A range pattern starts out by matching begpat against every input record. When a record matches begpat, the range pattern is turned on and the range pattern matches this record as well. As long as the range pattern stays turned on, it automatically matches every input record read. The range pattern also matches endpat against every input record; when this succeeds, the range pattern is turned o again for the following record. Then the range pattern goes back to checking begpat against each record. The record that turns on the range pattern and the one that turns it o both match the range pattern. If you dont want to operate on these records, you can write if statements in the rules action to distinguish them from the records you are interested in. It is possible for a pattern to be turned on and o by the same record. If the record satises both conditions, then the action is executed for just that record. For example, suppose there is text between two identical markers (e.g., the % symbol), each on its own line, that should be ignored. A rst attempt would be to combine a range pattern that describes the delimited text with the next statement (not discussed yet, see Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106). This causes awk to skip any further processing of the current record and start over again with the next input record. Such a program looks like this: /^%$/,/^%$/ { next } { print } This program fails because the range pattern is both turned on and turned o by the rst line, which just has a % on it. To accomplish this task, write the program in the following manner, using a ag: /^%$/ { skip = ! skip; next } skip == 1 { next } # skip lines with skip set In a range pattern, the comma (,) has the lowest precedence of all the operators (i.e., it is evaluated last). Thus, the following program attempts to combine a range pattern with another, simpler test: echo Yes | awk /1/,/2/ || /Yes/ The intent of this program is (/1/,/2/) || /Yes/. However, awk interprets this as /1/, (/2/ || /Yes/). This cannot be changed or worked around; range patterns do not combine with other patterns: $ echo Yes | gawk (/1/,/2/) || /Yes/ error gawk: cmd. line:1: (/1/,/2/) || /Yes/

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error error error

gawk: cmd. line:1: ^ parse error gawk: cmd. line:2: (/1/,/2/) || /Yes/ gawk: cmd. line:2: ^ unexpected newline

6.1.4 The BEGIN and END Special Patterns

All the patterns described so far are for matching input records. The BEGIN and END special patterns are dierent. They supply startup and cleanup actions for awk programs. BEGIN and END rules must have actions; there is no default action for these rules because there is no current record when they run. BEGIN and END rules are often referred to as BEGIN and END blocks by long-time awk programmers.

6.1.4.1 Startup and Cleanup Actions

A BEGIN rule is executed once only, before the rst input record is read. Likewise, an END rule is executed once only, after all the input is read. For example: $ > > > awk BEGIN { print "Analysis of \"foo\"" } /foo/ { ++n } END { print "\"foo\" appears", n, "times." } BBS-list Analysis of "foo" "foo" appears 4 times.

This program nds the number of records in the input le BBS-list that contain the string foo. The BEGIN rule prints a title for the report. There is no need to use the BEGIN rule to initialize the counter n to zero, since awk does this automatically (see Section 5.3 [Variables], page 76). The second rule increments the variable n every time a record containing the pattern foo is read. The END rule prints the value of n at the end of the run. The special patterns BEGIN and END cannot be used in ranges or with Boolean operators (indeed, they cannot be used with any operators). An awk program may have multiple BEGIN and/or END rules. They are executed in the order in which they appear: all the BEGIN rules at startup and all the END rules at termination. BEGIN and END rules may be intermixed with other rules. This feature was added in the 1987 version of awk and is included in the POSIX standard. The original (1978) version of awk required the BEGIN rule to be placed at the beginning of the program, the END rule to be placed at the end, and only allowed one of each. This is no longer required, but it is a good idea to follow this template in terms of program organization and readability. Multiple BEGIN and END rules are useful for writing library functions, because each library le can have its own BEGIN and/or END rule to do its own initialization and/or cleanup. The order in which library functions are named on the command line controls the order in which their BEGIN and END rules are executed. Therefore, you have to be careful when writing such rules in library les so that the order in which they are executed doesnt matter. See Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174, for more information on using library functions. See Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182, for a number of useful library functions.

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If an awk program has only a BEGIN rule and no other rules, then the program exits after the BEGIN rule is run.1 However, if an END rule exists, then the input is read, even if there are no other rules in the program. This is necessary in case the END rule checks the FNR and NR variables.

6.1.4.2 Input/Output from BEGIN and END Rules

There are several (sometimes subtle) points to remember when doing I/O from a BEGIN or END rule. The rst has to do with the value of $0 in a BEGIN rule. Because BEGIN rules are executed before any input is read, there simply is no input record, and therefore no elds, when executing BEGIN rules. References to $0 and the elds yield a null string or zero, depending upon the context. One way to give $0 a real value is to execute a getline command without a variable (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). Another way is simply to assign a value to $0. The second point is similar to the rst but from the other direction. Traditionally, due largely to implementation issues, $0 and NF were undened inside an END rule. The POSIX standard species that NF is available in an END rule. It contains the number of elds from the last input record. Most probably due to an oversight, the standard does not say that $0 is also preserved, although logically one would think that it should be. In fact, gawk does preserve the value of $0 for use in END rules. Be aware, however, that Unix awk, and possibly other implementations, do not. The third point follows from the rst two. The meaning of print inside a BEGIN or END rule is the same as always: print $0. If $0 is the null string, then this prints an empty line. Many long time awk programmers use an unadorned print in BEGIN and END rules, to mean print "", relying on $0 being null. Although one might generally get away with this in BEGIN rules, it is a very bad idea in END rules, at least in gawk. It is also poor style, since if an empty line is needed in the output, the program should print one explicitly. Finally, the next and nextfile statements are not allowed in a BEGIN rule, because the implicit read-a-record-and-match-against-the-rules loop has not started yet. Similarly, those statements are not valid in an END rule, since all the input has been read. (See Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106, and see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107.)

6.1.5 The Empty Pattern

An empty (i.e., nonexistent) pattern is considered to match every input record. For example, the program: awk { print $1 } BBS-list prints the rst eld of every record.

6.2 Using Shell Variables in Programs

awk programs are often used as components in larger programs written in shell. For example, it is very common to use a shell variable to hold a pattern that the awk program searches for. There are two ways to get the value of the shell variable into the body of the awk program.
1

The original version of awk used to keep reading and ignoring input until the end of the le was seen.

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The most common method is to use shell quoting to substitute the variables value into the program inside the script. For example, in the following program: echo -n "Enter search pattern: " read pattern awk "/$pattern/ "{ nmatches++ } END { print nmatches, "found" } /path/to/data the awk program consists of two pieces of quoted text that are concatenated together to form the program. The rst part is double-quoted, which allows substitution of the pattern variable inside the quotes. The second part is single-quoted. Variable substitution via quoting works, but can be potentially messy. It requires a good understanding of the shells quoting rules (see Section 1.1.6 [Shell-Quoting Issues], page 14), and its often dicult to correctly match up the quotes when reading the program. A better method is to use awks variable assignment feature (see Section 5.3.2 [Assigning Variables on the Command Line], page 76) to assign the shell variables value to an awk variables value. Then use dynamic regexps to match the pattern (see Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34). The following shows how to redo the previous example using this technique: echo -n "Enter search pattern: " read pattern awk -v pat="$pattern" $0 ~ pat { nmatches++ } END { print nmatches, "found" } /path/to/data Now, the awk program is just one single-quoted string. The assignment -v pat="$pattern" still requires double quotes, in case there is whitespace in the value of $pattern. The awk variable pat could be named pattern too, but that would be more confusing. Using a variable also provides more exibility, since the variable can be used anywhere inside the programfor printing, as an array subscript, or for any other usewithout requiring the quoting tricks at every point in the program.

6.3 Actions
An awk program or script consists of a series of rules and function denitions interspersed. (Functions are described later. See Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150.) A rule contains a pattern and an action, either of which (but not both) may be omitted. The purpose of the action is to tell awk what to do once a match for the pattern is found. Thus, in outline, an awk program generally looks like this: [pattern ] [{ action }] [pattern ] [{ action }] ... function name (args ) { ... } ... An action consists of one or more awk statements, enclosed in curly braces ({...}). Each statement species one thing to do. The statements are separated by newlines or semicolons. The curly braces around an action must be used even if the action contains only one statement, or if it contains no statements at all. However, if you omit the action entirely, omit the curly braces as well. An omitted action is equivalent to { print $0 }:

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/foo/ { } match foo, do nothing --- empty action /foo/ match foo, print the record --- omitted action The following types of statements are supported in awk: Expressions Call functions or assign values to variables (see Chapter 5 [Expressions], page 73). Executing this kind of statement simply computes the value of the expression. This is useful when the expression has side eects (see Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). Control statements Specify the control ow of awk programs. The awk language gives you C-like constructs (if, for, while, and do) as well as a few special ones (see Section 6.4 [Control Statements in Actions], page 100). Compound statements Consist of one or more statements enclosed in curly braces. A compound statement is used in order to put several statements together in the body of an if, while, do, or for statement. Input statements Use the getline command (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). Also supplied in awk are the next statement (see Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106), and the nextfile statement (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107). Output statements Such as print and printf. See Chapter 4 [Printing Output], page 57. Deletion statements For deleting array elements. See Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121.

6.4 Control Statements in Actions

Control statements, such as if, while, and so on, control the ow of execution in awk programs. Most of the control statements in awk are patterned on similar statements in C. All the control statements start with special keywords, such as if and while, to distinguish them from simple expressions. Many control statements contain other statements. For example, the if statement contains another statement that may or may not be executed. The contained statement is called the body. To include more than one statement in the body, group them into a single compound statement with curly braces, separating them with newlines or semicolons.

6.4.1 The if-else Statement

The if-else statement is awks decision-making statement. It looks like this: if (condition ) then-body [else else-body ] The condition is an expression that controls what the rest of the statement does. If the condition is true, then-body is executed; otherwise, else-body is executed. The else part of the statement is optional. The condition is considered false if its value is zero or the null string; otherwise, the condition is true. Refer to the following:

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if (x % 2 == 0) print "x is even" else print "x is odd" In this example, if the expression x % 2 == 0 is true (that is, if the value of x is evenly divisible by two), then the rst print statement is executed; otherwise, the second print statement is executed. If the else keyword appears on the same line as then-body and then-body is not a compound statement (i.e., not surrounded by curly braces), then a semicolon must separate then-body from the else. To illustrate this, the previous example can be rewritten as: if (x % 2 == 0) print "x is even"; else print "x is odd" If the ; is left out, awk cant interpret the statement and it produces a syntax error. Dont actually write programs this way, because a human reader might fail to see the else if it is not the rst thing on its line.

6.4.2 The while Statement

In programming, a loop is a part of a program that can be executed two or more times in succession. The while statement is the simplest looping statement in awk. It repeatedly executes a statement as long as a condition is true. For example: while (condition ) body body is a statement called the body of the loop, and condition is an expression that controls how long the loop keeps running. The rst thing the while statement does is test the condition. If the condition is true, it executes the statement body. After body has been executed, condition is tested again, and if it is still true, body is executed again. This process repeats until the condition is no longer true. If the condition is initially false, the body of the loop is never executed and awk continues with the statement following the loop. This example prints the rst three elds of each record, one per line: awk { i = 1 while (i <= 3) { print $i i++ } } inventory-shipped The body of this loop is a compound statement enclosed in braces, containing two statements. The loop works in the following manner: rst, the value of i is set to one. Then, the while statement tests whether i is less than or equal to three. This is true when i equals one, so the i-th eld is printed. Then the i++ increments the value of i and the loop repeats. The loop terminates when i reaches four. A newline is not required between the condition and the body; however using one makes the program clearer unless the body is a compound statement or else is very simple. The newline after the open-brace that begins the compound statement is not required either, but the program is harder to read without it.

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6.4.3 The do-while Statement

The do loop is a variation of the while looping statement. The do loop executes the body once and then repeats the body as long as the condition is true. It looks like this: do body while (condition ) Even if the condition is false at the start, the body is executed at least once (and only once, unless executing body makes condition true). Contrast this with the corresponding while statement: while (condition ) body This statement does not execute body even once if the condition is false to begin with. The following is an example of a do statement: { i = 1 do { print $0 i++ } while (i <= 10)

} This program prints each input record 10 times. However, it isnt a very realistic example, since in this case an ordinary while would do just as well. This situation reects actual experience; only occasionally is there a real use for a do statement.

6.4.4 The for Statement

The for statement makes it more convenient to count iterations of a loop. The general form of the for statement looks like this: for (initialization ; condition ; increment ) body The initialization, condition, and increment parts are arbitrary awk expressions, and body stands for any awk statement. The for statement starts by executing initialization. Then, as long as the condition is true, it repeatedly executes body and then increment. Typically, initialization sets a variable to either zero or one, increment adds one to it, and condition compares it against the desired number of iterations. For example: awk { for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) print $i } inventory-shipped This prints the rst three elds of each input record, with one eld per line. It isnt possible to set more than one variable in the initialization part without using a multiple assignment statement such as x = y = 0. This makes sense only if all the initial values are equal. (But it is possible to initialize additional variables by writing their assignments as separate statements preceding the for loop.)

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The same is true of the increment part. Incrementing additional variables requires separate statements at the end of the loop. The C compound expression, using Cs comma operator, is useful in this context but it is not supported in awk. Most often, increment is an increment expression, as in the previous example. But this is not required; it can be any expression whatsoever. For example, the following statement prints all the powers of two between 1 and 100: for (i = 1; i <= 100; i *= 2) print i If there is nothing to be done, any of the three expressions in the parentheses following the for keyword may be omitted. Thus, for (; x > 0;) is equivalent to while (x > 0). If the condition is omitted, it is treated as true, eectively yielding an innite loop (i.e., a loop that never terminates). In most cases, a for loop is an abbreviation for a while loop, as shown here: initialization while (condition ) { body increment } The only exception is when the continue statement (see Section 6.4.7 [The continue Statement], page 105) is used inside the loop. Changing a for statement to a while statement in this way can change the eect of the continue statement inside the loop. The awk language has a for statement in addition to a while statement because a for loop is often both less work to type and more natural to think of. Counting the number of iterations is very common in loops. It can be easier to think of this counting as part of looping rather than as something to do inside the loop.

6.4.5 The switch Statement

NOTE: This subsection describes an experimental feature added in gawk 3.1.3. It is not enabled by default. To enable it, use the --enable-switch option to configure when gawk is being congured and built. See Section B.2.2 [Additional Conguration Options], page 265, for more information. The switch statement allows the evaluation of an expression and the execution of statements based on a case match. Case statements are checked for a match in the order they are dened. If no suitable case is found, the default section is executed, if supplied. Each case contains a single constant, be it numeric, string, or regexp. The switch expression is evaluated, and then each cases constant is compared against the result in turn. The type of constant determines the comparison: numeric or string do the usual comparisons. A regexp constant does a regular expression match against the string value of the original expression. The general form of the switch statement looks like this: switch (expression ) { case value or regular expression : case-body default: default-body

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} Control ow in the switch statement works as it does in C. Once a match to a given case is made, case statement bodies are executed until a break, continue, next, nextfile or exit is encountered, or the end of the switch statement itself. For example: switch (NR * 2 + 1) { case 3: case "11": print NR - 1 break case /2[[:digit:]]+/: print NR default: print NR + 1 case -1: print NR * -1 } Note that if none of the statements specied above halt execution of a matched case statement, execution falls through to the next case until execution halts. In the above example, for any case value starting with 2 followed by one or more digits, the print statement is executed and then falls through into the default section, executing its print statement. In turn, the 1 case will also be executed since the default does not halt execution.

6.4.6 The break Statement

The break statement jumps out of the innermost for, while, or do loop that encloses it. The following example nds the smallest divisor of any integer, and also identies prime numbers: # find smallest divisor of num { num = $1 for (div = 2; div*div <= num; div++) if (num % div == 0) break if (num % div == 0) printf "Smallest divisor of %d is %d\n", num, div else printf "%d is prime\n", num } When the remainder is zero in the rst if statement, awk immediately breaks out of the containing for loop. This means that awk proceeds immediately to the statement following the loop and continues processing. (This is very dierent from the exit statement, which stops the entire awk program. See Section 6.4.10 [The exit Statement], page 107.)

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Th following program illustrates how the condition of a for or while statement could be replaced with a break inside an if: # find smallest divisor of num { num = $1 for (div = 2; ; div++) { if (num % div == 0) { printf "Smallest divisor of %d is %d\n", num, div break } if (div*div > num) { printf "%d is prime\n", num break } } } The break statement has no meaning when used outside the body of a loop. However, although it was never documented, historical implementations of awk treated the break statement outside of a loop as if it were a next statement (see Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106). Recent versions of Unix awk no longer allow this usage. gawk supports this use of break only if --traditional has been specied on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Otherwise, it is treated as an error, since the POSIX standard species that break should only be used inside the body of a loop.

6.4.7 The continue Statement

As with break, the continue statement is used only inside for, while, and do loops. It skips over the rest of the loop body, causing the next cycle around the loop to begin immediately. Contrast this with break, which jumps out of the loop altogether. The continue statement in a for loop directs awk to skip the rest of the body of the loop and resume execution with the increment-expression of the for statement. The following program illustrates this fact: BEGIN { for (x = 0; x <= 20; x++) { if (x == 5) continue printf "%d ", x } print "" } This program prints all the numbers from 0 to 20except for 5, for which the printf is skipped. Because the increment x++ is not skipped, x does not remain stuck at 5. Contrast the for loop from the previous example with the following while loop: BEGIN { x = 0

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while (x <= 20) { if (x == 5) continue printf "%d ", x x++ } print "" } This program loops forever once x reaches 5. The continue statement has no meaning when used outside the body of a loop. Historical versions of awk treated a continue statement outside a loop the same way they treated a break statement outside a loop: as if it were a next statement (see Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106). Recent versions of Unix awk no longer work this way, and gawk allows it only if --traditional is specied on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Just like the break statement, the POSIX standard species that continue should only be used inside the body of a loop.

6.4.8 The next Statement

The next statement forces awk to immediately stop processing the current record and go on to the next record. This means that no further rules are executed for the current record, and the rest of the current rules action isnt executed. Contrast this with the eect of the getline function (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). That also causes awk to read the next record immediately, but it does not alter the ow of control in any way (i.e., the rest of the current action executes with a new input record). At the highest level, awk program execution is a loop that reads an input record and then tests each rules pattern against it. If you think of this loop as a for statement whose body contains the rules, then the next statement is analogous to a continue statement. It skips to the end of the body of this implicit loop and executes the increment (which reads another record). For example, suppose an awk program works only on records with four elds, and it shouldnt fail when given bad input. To avoid complicating the rest of the program, write a weed out rule near the beginning, in the following manner: NF != 4 { err = sprintf("%s:%d: skipped: NF != 4\n", FILENAME, FNR) print err > "/dev/stderr" next } Because of the next statement, the programs subsequent rules wont see the bad record. The error message is redirected to the standard error output stream, as error messages should be. For more detail see Section 4.7 [Special File Names in gawk], page 68. According to the POSIX standard, the behavior is undened if the next statement is used in a BEGIN or END rule. gawk treats it as a syntax error. Although POSIX permits it, some other awk implementations dont allow the next statement inside function bodies (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150). Just as with any other next statement, a

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next statement inside a function body reads the next record and starts processing it with the rst rule in the program. If the next statement causes the end of the input to be reached, then the code in any END rules is executed. See Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97.

6.4.9 Using gawks nextfile Statement

gawk provides the nextfile statement, which is similar to the next statement. However, instead of abandoning processing of the current record, the nextfile statement instructs gawk to stop processing the current data le. The nextfile statement is a gawk extension. In most other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), nextfile is not special. Upon execution of the nextfile statement, FILENAME is updated to the name of the next data le listed on the command line, FNR is reset to one, ARGIND is incremented, and processing starts over with the rst rule in the program. (ARGIND hasnt been introduced yet. See Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108.) If the nextfile statement causes the end of the input to be reached, then the code in any END rules is executed. See Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97. The nextfile statement is useful when there are many data les to process but it isnt necessary to process every record in every le. Normally, in order to move on to the next data le, a program has to continue scanning the unwanted records. The nextfile statement accomplishes this much more eciently. While one might think that close(FILENAME) would accomplish the same as nextfile, this isnt true. close is reserved for closing les, pipes, and coprocesses that are opened with redirections. It is not related to the main processing that awk does with the les listed in ARGV. If its necessary to use an awk version that doesnt support nextfile, see Section 12.2.1 [Implementing nextfile as a Function], page 184, for a user-dened function that simulates the nextfile statement. The current version of the Bell Laboratories awk (see Section B.6 [Other Freely Available awk Implementations], page 278) also supports nextfile. However, it doesnt allow the nextfile statement inside function bodies (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150). gawk does; a nextfile inside a function body reads the next record and starts processing it with the rst rule in the program, just as any other nextfile statement. Caution: Versions of gawk prior to 3.0 used two words (next file) for the nextfile statement. In version 3.0, this was changed to one word, because the treatment of file was inconsistent. When it appeared after next, file was a keyword; otherwise, it was a regular identier. The old usage is no longer accepted; next file generates a syntax error.

6.4.10 The exit Statement

The exit statement causes awk to immediately stop executing the current rule and to stop processing input; any remaining input is ignored. The exit statement is written as follows: exit [return code ]

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When an exit statement is executed from a BEGIN rule, the program stops processing everything immediately. No input records are read. However, if an END rule is present, as part of executing the exit statement, the END rule is executed (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). If exit is used as part of an END rule, it causes the program to stop immediately. An exit statement that is not part of a BEGIN or END rule stops the execution of any further automatic rules for the current record, skips reading any remaining input records, and executes the END rule if there is one. In such a case, if you dont want the END rule to do its job, set a variable to nonzero before the exit statement and check that variable in the END rule. See Section 12.2.3 [Assertions], page 186, for an example that does this. If an argument is supplied to exit, its value is used as the exit status code for the awk process. If no argument is supplied, exit returns status zero (success). In the case where an argument is supplied to a rst exit statement, and then exit is called a second time from an END rule with no argument, awk uses the previously supplied exit value. For example, suppose an error condition occurs that is dicult or impossible to handle. Conventionally, programs report this by exiting with a nonzero status. An awk program can do this using an exit statement with a nonzero argument, as shown in the following example: BEGIN { if (("date" | getline date_now) <= 0) { print "Cant get system date" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } print "current date is", date_now close("date") }

6.5 Built-in Variables

Most awk variables are available to use for your own purposes; they never change unless your program assigns values to them, and they never aect anything unless your program examines them. However, a few variables in awk have special built-in meanings. awk examines some of these automatically, so that they enable you to tell awk how to do certain things. Others are set automatically by awk, so that they carry information from the internal workings of awk to your program. This section documents all the built-in variables of gawk, most of which are also documented in the chapters describing their areas of activity.

6.5.1 Built-in Variables That Control awk

The following is an alphabetical list of variables that you can change to control how awk does certain things. The variables that are specic to gawk are marked with a pound sign (#). BINMODE # On non-POSIX systems, this variable species use of binary mode for all I/O. Numeric values of one, two, or three specify that input les, output les, or all les, respectively, should use binary I/O. Alternatively, string values of "r"

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or "w" specify that input les and output les, respectively, should use binary I/O. A string value of "rw" or "wr" indicates that all les should use binary I/O. Any other string value is equivalent to "rw", but gawk generates a warning message. BINMODE is described in more detail in Section B.3.3.4 [Using gawk on PC Operating Systems], page 271. This variable is a gawk extension. In other awk implementations (except mawk, see Section B.6 [Other Freely Available awk Implementations], page 278), or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), it is not special. CONVFMT This string controls conversion of numbers to strings (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77). It works by being passed, in effect, as the rst argument to the sprintf function (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130). Its default value is "%.6g". CONVFMT was introduced by the POSIX standard.

FIELDWIDTHS # This is a space-separated list of columns that tells gawk how to split input with xed columnar boundaries. Assigning a value to FIELDWIDTHS overrides the use of FS for eld splitting. See Section 3.6 [Reading Fixed-Width Data], page 47, for more information. If gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), then FIELDWIDTHS has no special meaning, and eld-splitting operations occur based exclusively on the value of FS. FS This is the input eld separator (see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43). The value is a single-character string or a multi-character regular expression that matches the separations between elds in an input record. If the value is the null string (""), then each character in the record becomes a separate eld. (This behavior is a gawk extension. POSIX awk does not specify the behavior when FS is the null string.) The default value is " ", a string consisting of a single space. As a special exception, this value means that any sequence of spaces, tabs, and/or newlines is a single separator.2 It also causes spaces, tabs, and newlines at the beginning and end of a record to be ignored. You can set the value of FS on the command line using the -F option: awk -F, program input-files If gawk is using FIELDWIDTHS for eld splitting, assigning a value to FS causes gawk to return to the normal, FS-based eld splitting. An easy way to do this is to simply say FS = FS, perhaps with an explanatory comment.

IGNORECASE # If IGNORECASE is nonzero or non-null, then all string comparisons and all regular expression matching are case independent. Thus, regexp matching with ~ and !~, as well as the gensub, gsub, index, match, split, and sub functions, record termination with RS, and eld splitting with FS, all ignore case when
2

In POSIX awk, newline does not count as whitespace.

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doing their particular regexp operations. However, the value of IGNORECASE does not aect array subscripting and it does not aect eld splitting when using a single-character eld separator. See Section 2.6 [Case Sensitivity in Matching], page 32. If gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), then IGNORECASE has no special meaning. Thus, string and regexp operations are always case-sensitive. LINT # When this variable is true (nonzero or non-null), gawk behaves as if the --lint command-line option is in eect. (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). With a value of "fatal", lint warnings become fatal errors. With a value of "invalid", only warnings about things that are actually invalid are issued. (This is not fully implemented yet.) Any other true value prints nonfatal warnings. Assigning a false value to LINT turns o the lint warnings. This variable is a gawk extension. It is not special in other awk implementations. Unlike the other special variables, changing LINT does aect the production of lint warnings, even if gawk is in compatibility mode. Much as the --lint and --traditional options independently control dierent aspects of gawks behavior, the control of lint warnings during program execution is independent of the avor of awk being executed. OFMT This string controls conversion of numbers to strings (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77) for printing with the print statement. It works by being passed as the rst argument to the sprintf function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). Its default value is "%.6g". Earlier versions of awk also used OFMT to specify the format for converting numbers to strings in general expressions; this is now done by CONVFMT. This is the output eld separator (see Section 4.3 [Output Separators], page 59). It is output between the elds printed by a print statement. Its default value is " ", a string consisting of a single space. This is the output record separator. It is output at the end of every print statement. Its default value is "\n", the newline character. (See Section 4.3 [Output Separators], page 59.) This is awks input record separator. Its default value is a string containing a single newline character, which means that an input record consists of a single line of text. It can also be the null string, in which case records are separated by runs of blank lines. If it is a regexp, records are separated by matches of the regexp in the input text. (See Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36.) The ability for RS to be a regular expression is a gawk extension. In most other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), just the rst character of RSs value is used. SUBSEP This is the subscript separator. It has the default value of "\034" and is used to separate the parts of the indices of a multidimensional array. Thus,

OFS

ORS

RS

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the expression foo["A", "B"] really accesses foo["A\034B"] (see Section 7.9 [Multidimensional Arrays], page 123). TEXTDOMAIN # This variable is used for internationalization of programs at the awk level. It sets the default text domain for specially marked string constants in the source text, as well as for the dcgettext, dcngettext and bindtextdomain functions (see Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157). The default value of TEXTDOMAIN is "messages". This variable is a gawk extension. In other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), it is not special.

6.5.2 Built-in Variables That Convey Information

The following is an alphabetical list of variables that awk sets automatically on certain occasions in order to provide information to your program. The variables that are specic to gawk are marked with a pound sign (#). ARGC, ARGV The command-line arguments available to awk programs are stored in an array called ARGV. ARGC is the number of command-line arguments present. See Section 11.3 [Other Command-Line Arguments], page 179. Unlike most awk arrays, ARGV is indexed from 0 to ARGC 1. In the following example: $ awk BEGIN { > for (i = 0; i < ARGC; i++) > print ARGV[i] > } inventory-shipped BBS-list awk inventory-shipped BBS-list ARGV[0] contains "awk", ARGV[1] contains "inventory-shipped", and ARGV[2] contains "BBS-list". The value of ARGC is three, one more than the index of the last element in ARGV, because the elements are numbered from zero. The names ARGC and ARGV, as well as the convention of indexing the array from 0 to ARGC 1, are derived from the C languages method of accessing command-line arguments. The value of ARGV[0] can vary from system to system. Also, you should note that the program text is not included in ARGV, nor are any of awks commandline options. See Section 6.5.3 [Using ARGC and ARGV], page 114, for information about how awk uses these variables. ARGIND # The index in ARGV of the current le being processed. Every time gawk opens a new data le for processing, it sets ARGIND to the index in ARGV of the le name. When gawk is processing the input les, FILENAME == ARGV[ARGIND] is always true.

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This variable is useful in le processing; it allows you to tell how far along you are in the list of data les as well as to distinguish between successive instances of the same le name on the command line. While you can change the value of ARGIND within your awk program, gawk automatically sets it to a new value when the next le is opened. This variable is a gawk extension. In other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), it is not special. ENVIRON An associative array that contains the values of the environment. The array indices are the environment variable names; the elements are the values of the particular environment variables. For example, ENVIRON["HOME"] might be /home/arnold. Changing this array does not aect the environment passed on to any programs that awk may spawn via redirection or the system function. Some operating systems may not have environment variables. On such systems, the ENVIRON array is empty (except for ENVIRON["AWKPATH"], see Section 11.4 [The AWKPATH Environment Variable], page 180). If a system error occurs during a redirection for getline, during a read for getline, or during a close operation, then ERRNO contains a string describing the error. ERRNO works similarly to the C variable errno. In particular gawk never clears it (sets it to zero or ""). Thus, you should only expect its value to be meaningful when an I/O operation returns a failure value, such as getline returning 1. You are, of course, free to clear it yourself before doing an I/O operation. This variable is a gawk extension. In other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), it is not special. The name of the le that awk is currently reading. When no data les are listed on the command line, awk reads from the standard input and FILENAME is set to "-". FILENAME is changed each time a new le is read (see Chapter 3 [Reading Input Files], page 36). Inside a BEGIN rule, the value of FILENAME is "", since there are no input les being processed yet.3 Note, though, that using getline (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51) inside a BEGIN rule can give FILENAME a value. The current record number in the current le. FNR is incremented each time a new record is read (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). It is reinitialized to zero each time a new input le is started. The number of elds in the current input record. NF is set each time a new record is read, when a new eld is created or when $0 changes (see Section 3.2 [Examining Fields], page 39). Unlike most of the variables described in this section, assigning a value to NF has the potential to aect awks internal workings. In particular, assignments to NF
Some early implementations of Unix awk initialized FILENAME to "-", even if there were data les to be processed. This behavior was incorrect and should not be relied upon in your programs.

ERRNO #

FILENAME

FNR

NF

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can be used to create or remove elds from the current record: See Section 3.4 [Changing the Contents of a Field], page 41. NR The number of input records awk has processed since the beginning of the programs execution (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36). NR is incremented each time a new record is read. The elements of this array provide access to information about the running awk program. The following elements (listed alphabetically) are guaranteed to be available: PROCINFO["egid"] The value of the getegid system call. PROCINFO["euid"] The value of the geteuid system call. PROCINFO["FS"] This is "FS" if eld splitting with FS is in eect, or it is "FIELDWIDTHS" if eld splitting with FIELDWIDTHS is in eect. PROCINFO["gid"] The value of the getgid system call. PROCINFO["pgrpid"] The process group ID of the current process. PROCINFO["pid"] The process ID of the current process. PROCINFO["ppid"] The parent process ID of the current process. PROCINFO["uid"] The value of the getuid system call. PROCINFO["version"] The version of gawk. This is available from version 3.1.4 and later. On some systems, there may be elements in the array, "group1" through "groupN " for some N. N is the number of supplementary groups that the process has. Use the in operator to test for these elements (see Section 7.2 [Referring to an Array Element], page 118). This array is a gawk extension. In other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), it is not special. RLENGTH The length of the substring matched by the match function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). RLENGTH is set by invoking the match function. Its value is the length of the matched string, or 1 if no match is found. The start-index in characters of the substring that is matched by the match function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). RSTART

PROCINFO #

RSTART

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is set by invoking the match function. Its value is the position of the string where the matched substring starts, or zero if no match was found. RT # This is set each time a record is read. It contains the input text that matched the text denoted by RS, the record separator. This variable is a gawk extension. In other awk implementations, or if gawk is in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), it is not special.

Advanced Notes: Changing NR and FNR

awk increments NR and FNR each time it reads a record, instead of setting them to the absolute value of the number of records read. This means that a program can change these variables and their new values are incremented for each record. This is demonstrated in the following example: $ echo 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 | awk NR == 2 { NR = 17 } > { print NR } 1 17 18 19 Before FNR was added to the awk language (see Section A.1 [Major Changes Between V7 and SVR3.1], page 253), many awk programs used this feature to track the number of records in a le by resetting NR to zero when FILENAME changed.

6.5.3 Using ARGC and ARGV

Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111, presented the following program describing the information contained in ARGC and ARGV: $ awk BEGIN { > for (i = 0; i < ARGC; i++) > print ARGV[i] > } inventory-shipped BBS-list awk inventory-shipped BBS-list In this example, ARGV[0] contains awk, ARGV[1] contains inventory-shipped, and ARGV[2] contains BBS-list. Notice that the awk program is not entered in ARGV. The other special command-line options, with their arguments, are also not entered. This includes variable assignments done with the -v option (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Normal variable assignments on the command line are treated as arguments and do show up in the ARGV array: $ cat showargs.awk BEGIN { printf "A=%d, B=%d\n", A, B

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for (i = 0; i < ARGC; i++) printf "\tARGV[%d] = %s\n", i, ARGV[i] } END { printf "A=%d, B=%d\n", A, B } $ awk -v A=1 -f showargs.awk B=2 /dev/null A=1, B=0 ARGV[0] = awk ARGV[1] = B=2 ARGV[2] = /dev/null A=1, B=2 A program can alter ARGC and the elements of ARGV. Each time awk reaches the end of an input le, it uses the next element of ARGV as the name of the next input le. By storing a dierent string there, a program can change which les are read. Use "-" to represent the standard input. Storing additional elements and incrementing ARGC causes additional les to be read. If the value of ARGC is decreased, that eliminates input les from the end of the list. By recording the old value of ARGC elsewhere, a program can treat the eliminated arguments as something other than le names. To eliminate a le from the middle of the list, store the null string ("") into ARGV in place of the les name. As a special feature, awk ignores le names that have been replaced with the null string. Another option is to use the delete statement to remove elements from ARGV (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121). All of these actions are typically done in the BEGIN rule, before actual processing of the input begins. See Section 13.2.4 [Splitting a Large File into Pieces], page 222, and see Section 13.2.5 [Duplicating Output into Multiple Files], page 224, for examples of each way of removing elements from ARGV. The following fragment processes ARGV in order to examine, and then remove, command-line options: BEGIN { for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) { if (ARGV[i] == "-v") verbose = 1 else if (ARGV[i] == "-d") debug = 1 else if (ARGV[i] ~ /^-./) { e = sprintf("%s: unrecognized option -- %c", ARGV[0], substr(ARGV[i], 2, 1)) print e > "/dev/stderr" } else break delete ARGV[i] } } To actually get the options into the awk program, end the awk options with -- and then supply the awk programs options, in the following manner: awk -f myprog -- -v -d file1 file2 ...

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This is not necessary in gawk. Unless --posix has been specied, gawk silently puts any unrecognized options into ARGV for the awk program to deal with. As soon as it sees an unknown option, gawk stops looking for other options that it might otherwise recognize. The previous example with gawk would be: gawk -f myprog -d -v file1 file2 ... Because -d is not a valid gawk option, it and the following -v are passed on to the awk program.

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7 Arrays in awk
An array is a table of values called elements. The elements of an array are distinguished by their indices. Indices may be either numbers or strings. This chapter describes how arrays work in awk, how to use array elements, how to scan through every element in an array, and how to remove array elements. It also describes how awk simulates multidimensional arrays, as well as some of the less obvious points about array usage. The chapter nishes with a discussion of gawks facility for sorting an array based on its indices. awk maintains a single set of names that may be used for naming variables, arrays, and functions (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150). Thus, you cannot have a variable and an array with the same name in the same awk program.

7.1 Introduction to Arrays

The awk language provides one-dimensional arrays for storing groups of related strings or numbers. Every awk array must have a name. Array names have the same syntax as variable names; any valid variable name would also be a valid array name. But one name cannot be used in both ways (as an array and as a variable) in the same awk program. Arrays in awk supercially resemble arrays in other programming languages, but there are fundamental dierences. In awk, it isnt necessary to specify the size of an array before starting to use it. Additionally, any number or string in awk, not just consecutive integers, may be used as an array index. In most other languages, arrays must be declared before use, including a specication of how many elements or components they contain. In such languages, the declaration causes a contiguous block of memory to be allocated for that many elements. Usually, an index in the array must be a positive integer. For example, the index zero species the rst element in the array, which is actually stored at the beginning of the block of memory. Index one species the second element, which is stored in memory right after the rst element, and so on. It is impossible to add more elements to the array, because it has room only for as many elements as given in the declaration. (Some languages allow arbitrary starting and ending indicese.g., 15 .. 27but the size of the array is still xed when the array is declared.) A contiguous array of four elements might look like the following example, conceptually, if the element values are 8, "foo", "", and 30: 8 0 "foo" 1 "" 2 30 3 Value Index

Only the values are stored; the indices are implicit from the order of the values. Here, 8 is the value at index zero, because 8 appears in the position with zero elements before it. Arrays in awk are dierentthey are associative. This means that each array is a collection of pairs: an index and its corresponding array element value: Element 3 Element 1 Element 0 Value 30 Value "foo" Value 8

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Element 2 Value "" The pairs are shown in jumbled order because their order is irrelevant. One advantage of associative arrays is that new pairs can be added at any time. For example, suppose a tenth element is added to the array whose value is "number ten". The result is: Element 10 Value "number ten" Element 3 Value 30 Element 1 Value "foo" Element 0 Value 8 Element 2 Value "" Now the array is sparse, which just means some indices are missing. It has elements 03 and 10, but doesnt have elements 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. Another consequence of associative arrays is that the indices dont have to be positive integers. Any number, or even a string, can be an index. For example, the following is an array that translates words from English to French: Element "dog" Value "chien" Element "cat" Value "chat" Element "one" Value "un" Element 1 Value "un" Here we decided to translate the number one in both spelled-out and numeric formthus illustrating that a single array can have both numbers and strings as indices. In fact, array subscripts are always strings; this is discussed in more detail in Section 7.7 [Using Numbers to Subscript Arrays], page 122. Here, the number 1 isnt double-quoted, since awk automatically converts it to a string. The value of IGNORECASE has no eect upon array subscripting. The identical string value used to store an array element must be used to retrieve it. When awk creates an array (e.g., with the split built-in function), that arrays indices are consecutive integers starting at one. (See Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130.) awks arrays are ecientthe time to access an element is independent of the number of elements in the array.

7.2 Referring to an Array Element

The principal way to use an array is to refer to one of its elements. An array reference is an expression as follows: array [index ] Here, array is the name of an array. The expression index is the index of the desired element of the array. The value of the array reference is the current value of that array element. For example, foo[4.3] is an expression for the element of array foo at index 4.3. A reference to an array element that has no recorded value yields a value of "", the null string. This includes elements that have not been assigned any value as well as elements that have been deleted (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121). Such a reference automatically creates that array element, with the null string as its value. (In some cases, this is unfortunate, because it might waste memory inside awk.)

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To determine whether an element exists in an array at a certain index, use the following expression: index in array This expression tests whether the particular index exists, without the side eect of creating that element if it is not present. The expression has the value one (true) if array [index ] exists and zero (false) if it does not exist. For example, this statement tests whether the array frequencies contains the index 2: if (2 in frequencies) print "Subscript 2 is present." Note that this is not a test of whether the array frequencies contains an element whose value is two. There is no way to do that except to scan all the elements. Also, this does not create frequencies[2], while the following (incorrect) alternative does: if (frequencies[2] != "") print "Subscript 2 is present."

7.3 Assigning Array Elements

Array elements can be assigned values just like awk variables: array [subscript ] = value array is the name of an array. The expression subscript is the index of the element of the array that is assigned a value. The expression value is the value to assign to that element of the array.

7.4 Basic Array Example

The following program takes a list of lines, each beginning with a line number, and prints them out in order of line number. The line numbers are not in order when they are rst readinstead they are scrambled. This program sorts the lines by making an array using the line numbers as subscripts. The program then prints out the lines in sorted order of their numbers. It is a very simple program and gets confused upon encountering repeated numbers, gaps, or lines that dont begin with a number: { if ($1 > max) max = $1 arr[$1] = $0 } END { for (x = 1; x <= max; x++) print arr[x] } The rst rule keeps track of the largest line number seen so far; it also stores each line into the array arr, at an index that is the lines number. The second rule runs after all the input has been read, to print out all the lines. When this program is run with the following input:

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5 2 4 1 3 1 2 3 4 5

I am the Five man Who are you? The new number two! . . . And four on the floor Who is number one? I three you. Who is number one? Who are you? The new number two! I three you. . . . And four on the floor I am the Five man

Its output is:

If a line number is repeated, the last line with a given number overrides the others. Gaps in the line numbers can be handled with an easy improvement to the programs END rule, as follows: END { for (x = 1; x <= max; x++) if (x in arr) print arr[x] }

7.5 Scanning All Elements of an Array

In programs that use arrays, it is often necessary to use a loop that executes once for each element of an array. In other languages, where arrays are contiguous and indices are limited to positive integers, this is easy: all the valid indices can be found by counting from the lowest index up to the highest. This technique wont do the job in awk, because any number or string can be an array index. So awk has a special kind of for statement for scanning an array: for (var in array ) body This loop executes body once for each index in array that the program has previously used, with the variable var set to that index. The following program uses this form of the for statement. The rst rule scans the input records and notes which words appear (at least once) in the input, by storing a one into the array used with the word as index. The second rule scans the elements of used to nd all the distinct words that appear in the input. It prints each word that is more than 10 characters long and also prints the number of such words. See Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130, for more information on the built-in function length. # Record a 1 for each word that is used at least once { for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) used[$i] = 1 }

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# Find number of distinct words more than 10 characters long END { for (x in used) if (length(x) > 10) { ++num_long_words print x } print num_long_words, "words longer than 10 characters" } See Section 13.3.5 [Generating Word-Usage Counts], page 238, for a more detailed example of this type. The order in which elements of the array are accessed by this statement is determined by the internal arrangement of the array elements within awk and cannot be controlled or changed. This can lead to problems if new elements are added to array by statements in the loop body; it is not predictable whether the for loop will reach them. Similarly, changing var inside the loop may produce strange results. It is best to avoid such things.

7.6 The delete Statement

To remove an individual element of an array, use the delete statement: delete array [index ] Once an array element has been deleted, any value the element once had is no longer available. It is as if the element had never been referred to or had been given a value. The following is an example of deleting elements in an array: for (i in frequencies) delete frequencies[i] This example removes all the elements from the array frequencies. Once an element is deleted, a subsequent for statement to scan the array does not report that element and the in operator to check for the presence of that element returns zero (i.e., false): delete foo[4] if (4 in foo) print "This will never be printed" It is important to note that deleting an element is not the same as assigning it a null value (the empty string, ""). For example: foo[4] = "" if (4 in foo) print "This is printed, even though foo[4] is empty" It is not an error to delete an element that does not exist. If --lint is provided on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), gawk issues a warning message when an element that is not in the array is deleted. All the elements of an array may be deleted with a single statement by leaving o the subscript in the delete statement, as follows: delete array This ability is a gawk extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174).

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Using this version of the delete statement is about three times more ecient than the equivalent loop that deletes each element one at a time. The following statement provides a portable but nonobvious way to clear out an array:1 split("", array) The split function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130) clears out the target array rst. This call asks it to split apart the null string. Because there is no data to split out, the function simply clears the array and then returns. Caution: Deleting an array does not change its type; you cannot delete an array and then use the arrays name as a scalar (i.e., a regular variable). For example, the following does not work: a[1] = 3; delete a; a = 3

7.7 Using Numbers to Subscript Arrays

An important aspect about arrays to remember is that array subscripts are always strings. When a numeric value is used as a subscript, it is converted to a string value before being used for subscripting (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77). This means that the value of the built-in variable CONVFMT can aect how your program accesses elements of an array. For example: xyz = 12.153 data[xyz] = 1 CONVFMT = "%2.2f" if (xyz in data) printf "%s is in data\n", xyz else printf "%s is not in data\n", xyz This prints 12.15 is not in data. The rst statement gives xyz a numeric value. Assigning to data[xyz] subscripts data with the string value "12.153" (using the default conversion value of CONVFMT, "%.6g"). Thus, the array element data["12.153"] is assigned the value one. The program then changes the value of CONVFMT. The test (xyz in data) generates a new string value from xyzthis time "12.15"because the value of CONVFMT only allows two signicant digits. This test fails, since "12.15" is a dierent string from "12.153". According to the rules for conversions (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77), integer values are always converted to strings as integers, no matter what the value of CONVFMT may happen to be. So the usual case of the following works: for (i = 1; i <= maxsub; i++) do something with array[i] The integer values always convert to strings as integers rule has an additional consequence for array indexing. Octal and hexadecimal constants (see Section 5.1.2 [Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers], page 73) are converted internally into numbers, and their original form is forgotten. This means, for example, that array[17], array[021], and array[0x11] all refer to the same element!
1

Thanks to Michael Brennan for pointing this out.

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As with many things in awk, the majority of the time things work as one would expect them to. But it is useful to have a precise knowledge of the actual rules which sometimes can have a subtle eect on your programs.

7.8 Using Uninitialized Variables as Subscripts

Suppose its necessary to write a program to print the input data in reverse order. A reasonable attempt to do so (with some test data) might look like this: $ > > > > > > echo line 1 line 2 line 3 | awk { l[lines] = $0; ++lines } END { for (i = lines-1; i >= 0; --i) print l[i] } line 3 line 2

Unfortunately, the very rst line of input data did not come out in the output! At rst glance, this program should have worked. The variable lines is uninitialized, and uninitialized variables have the numeric value zero. So, awk should have printed the value of l[0]. The issue here is that subscripts for awk arrays are always strings. Uninitialized variables, when used as strings, have the value "", not zero. Thus, line 1 ends up stored in l[""]. The following version of the program works correctly: { l[lines++] = $0 } END { for (i = lines - 1; i >= 0; --i) print l[i] } Here, the ++ forces lines to be numeric, thus making the old value numeric zero. This is then converted to "0" as the array subscript. Even though it is somewhat unusual, the null string ("") is a valid array subscript. gawk warns about the use of the null string as a subscript if --lint is provided on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174).

7.9 Multidimensional Arrays

A multidimensional array is an array in which an element is identied by a sequence of indices instead of a single index. For example, a two-dimensional array requires two indices. The usual way (in most languages, including awk) to refer to an element of a two-dimensional array named grid is with grid[x,y ]. Multidimensional arrays are supported in awk through concatenation of indices into one string. awk converts the indices into strings (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77) and concatenates them together, with a separator between them. This creates a single string that describes the values of the separate indices. The combined string

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is used as a single index into an ordinary, one-dimensional array. The separator used is the value of the built-in variable SUBSEP. For example, suppose we evaluate the expression foo[5,12] = "value" when the value of SUBSEP is "@". The numbers 5 and 12 are converted to strings and concatenated with an @ between them, yielding "5@12"; thus, the array element foo["5@12"] is set to "value". Once the elements value is stored, awk has no record of whether it was stored with a single index or a sequence of indices. The two expressions foo[5,12] and foo[5 SUBSEP 12] are always equivalent. The default value of SUBSEP is the string "\034", which contains a nonprinting character that is unlikely to appear in an awk program or in most input data. The usefulness of choosing an unlikely character comes from the fact that index values that contain a string matching SUBSEP can lead to combined strings that are ambiguous. Suppose that SUBSEP is "@"; then foo["a@b", "c"] and foo["a", "b@c"] are indistinguishable because both are actually stored as foo["a@b@c"]. To test whether a particular index sequence exists in a multidimensional array, use the same operator (in) that is used for single dimensional arrays. Write the whole sequence of indices in parentheses, separated by commas, as the left operand: (subscript1, subscript2, ...) in array The following example treats its input as a two-dimensional array of elds; it rotates this array 90 degrees clockwise and prints the result. It assumes that all lines have the same number of elements: { if (max_nf < NF) max_nf = NF max_nr = NR for (x = 1; x <= NF; x++) vector[x, NR] = $x } END { for (x = 1; x <= max_nf; x++) { for (y = max_nr; y >= 1; --y) printf("%s ", vector[x, y]) printf("\n") } } When given the input: 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 1 5 6 1 2 6 1 2 3

the program produces the following output: 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2

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6 1 2 3

5 6 1 2

4 5 6 1

3 4 5 6

7.10 Scanning Multidimensional Arrays

There is no special for statement for scanning a multidimensional array. There cannot be one, because, in truth, there are no multidimensional arrays or elementsthere is only a multidimensional way of accessing an array. However, if your program has an array that is always accessed as multidimensional, you can get the eect of scanning it by combining the scanning for statement (see Section 7.5 [Scanning All Elements of an Array], page 120) with the built-in split function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). It works in the following manner: for (combined in array) { split(combined, separate, SUBSEP) ... } This sets the variable combined to each concatenated combined index in the array, and splits it into the individual indices by breaking it apart where the value of SUBSEP appears. The individual indices then become the elements of the array separate. Thus, if a value is previously stored in array[1, "foo"]; then an element with index "1\034foo" exists in array. (Recall that the default value of SUBSEP is the character with code 034.) Sooner or later, the for statement nds that index and does an iteration with the variable combined set to "1\034foo". Then the split function is called as follows: split("1\034foo", separate, "\034") The result is to set separate[1] to "1" and separate[2] to "foo". Presto! The original sequence of separate indices is recovered.

7.11 Sorting Array Values and Indices with gawk

The order in which an array is scanned with a for (i in array) loop is essentially arbitrary. In most awk implementations, sorting an array requires writing a sort function. While this can be educational for exploring dierent sorting algorithms, usually thats not the point of the program. gawk provides the built-in asort and asorti functions (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130) for sorting arrays. For example: populate the array data n = asort(data) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) do something with data[i] After the call to asort, the array data is indexed from 1 to some number n, the total number of elements in data. (This count is asorts return value.) data[1] data[2] data[3], and so on. The comparison of array elements is done using gawks usual comparison rules (see Section 5.10 [Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions], page 85). An important side eect of calling asort is that the arrays original indices are irrevocably lost. As this isnt always desirable, asort accepts a second argument:

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populate the array source n = asort(source, dest) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) do something with dest[i] In this case, gawk copies the source array into the dest array and then sorts dest, destroying its indices. However, the source array is not aected. Often, whats needed is to sort on the values of the indices instead of the values of the elements. To do that, starting with gawk 3.1.2, use the asorti function. The interface is identical to that of asort, except that the index values are used for sorting, and become the values of the result array: { source[$0] = some_func($0) } END { n = asorti(source, dest) for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { do something with dest[i] rectly ... do something with source[dest[i]] dices } }

Work with sorted indices di-

Access original array via sorted in-

If your version of gawk is 3.1.0 or 3.1.1, you dont have asorti. Instead, use a helper array to hold the sorted index values, and then access the original arrays elements. It works in the following way: populate the array data # copy indices j = 1 for (i in data) { ind[j] = i # index value becomes element value j++ } n = asort(ind) # index values are now sorted for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { do something with ind[i] Work with sorted indices directly ... do something with data[ind[i]] Access original array via sorted indices } Sorting the array by replacing the indices provides maximal exibility. To traverse the elements in decreasing order, use a loop that goes from n down to 1, either over the elements or over the indices. Copying array indices and elements isnt expensive in terms of memory. Internally, gawk maintains reference counts to data. For example, when asort copies the rst array to the second one, there is only one copy of the original array elements data, even though both

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arrays use the values. Similarly, when copying the indices from data to ind, there is only one copy of the actual index strings. We said previously that comparisons are done using gawks usual comparison rules. Because IGNORECASE aects string comparisons, the value of IGNORECASE also aects sorting for both asort and asorti. Caveat Emptor.

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8 Functions
This chapter describes awks built-in functions, which fall into three categories: numeric, string, and I/O. gawk provides additional groups of functions to work with values that represent time, do bit manipulation, and internationalize and localize programs. Besides the built-in functions, awk has provisions for writing new functions that the rest of a program can use. The second half of this chapter describes these user-dened functions.

8.1 Built-in Functions

Built-in functions are always available for your awk program to call. This section denes all the built-in functions in awk; some of these are mentioned in other sections but are summarized here for your convenience.

8.1.1 Calling Built-in Functions

To call one of awks built-in functions, write the name of the function followed by arguments in parentheses. For example, atan2(y + z, 1) is a call to the function atan2 and has two arguments. Whitespace is ignored between the built-in function name and the open parenthesis, and it is good practice to avoid using whitespace there. User-dened functions do not permit whitespace in this way, and it is easier to avoid mistakes by following a simple convention that always worksno whitespace after a function name. Each built-in function accepts a certain number of arguments. In some cases, arguments can be omitted. The defaults for omitted arguments vary from function to function and are described under the individual functions. In some awk implementations, extra arguments given to built-in functions are ignored. However, in gawk, it is a fatal error to give extra arguments to a built-in function. When a function is called, expressions that create the functions actual parameters are evaluated completely before the call is performed. For example, in the following code fragment: i = 4 j = sqrt(i++) the variable i is incremented to the value ve before sqrt is called with a value of four for its actual parameter. The order of evaluation of the expressions used for the functions parameters is undened. Thus, avoid writing programs that assume that parameters are evaluated from left to right or from right to left. For example: i = 5 j = atan2(i++, i *= 2) If the order of evaluation is left to right, then i rst becomes 6, and then 12, and atan2 is called with the two arguments 6 and 12. But if the order of evaluation is right to left, i rst becomes 10, then 11, and atan2 is called with the two arguments 11 and 10.

8.1.2 Numeric Functions

The following list describes all of the built-in functions that work with numbers. Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]):

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int(x )

This returns the nearest integer to x, located between x and zero and truncated toward zero. For example, int(3) is 3, int(3.9) is 3, int(-3.9) is 3, and int(-3) is 3 as well. This returns the positive square root of x. gawk reports an error if x is negative. Thus, sqrt(4) is 2. This returns the exponential of x (e ^ x ) or reports an error if x is out of range. The range of values x can have depends on your machines oatingpoint representation. This returns the natural logarithm of x, if x is positive; otherwise, it reports an error. This returns the sine of x, with x in radians. This returns the cosine of x, with x in radians.

sqrt(x ) exp(x )

log(x ) sin(x ) cos(x )

atan2(y, x ) This returns the arctangent of y / x in radians. rand() This returns a random number. The values of rand are uniformly distributed between zero and one. The value could be zero but is never one.1 Often random integers are needed instead. Following is a user-dened function that can be used to obtain a random non-negative integer less than n: function randint(n) { return int(n * rand()) } The multiplication produces a random number greater than zero and less than n. Using int, this result is made into an integer between zero and n 1, inclusive. The following example uses a similar function to produce random integers between one and n. This program prints a new random number for each input record: # Function to roll a simulated die. function roll(n) { return 1 + int(rand() * n) } # Roll 3 six-sided dice and # print total number of points. { printf("%d points\n", roll(6)+roll(6)+roll(6)) } Caution: In most awk implementations, including gawk, rand starts generating numbers from the same starting number, or seed, each time you run awk. Thus,
1

The C version of rand is known to produce fairly poor sequences of random numbers. However, nothing requires that an awk implementation use the C rand to implement the awk version of rand. In fact, gawk uses the BSD random function, which is considerably better than rand, to produce random numbers.

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a program generates the same results each time you run it. The numbers are random within one awk run but predictable from run to run. This is convenient for debugging, but if you want a program to do dierent things each time it is used, you must change the seed to a value that is dierent in each run. To do this, use srand. srand([x ]) The function srand sets the starting point, or seed, for generating random numbers to the value x. Each seed value leads to a particular sequence of random numbers.2 Thus, if the seed is set to the same value a second time, the same sequence of random numbers is produced again. Dierent awk implementations use dierent random-number generators internally. Dont expect the same awk program to produce the same series of random numbers when executed by dierent versions of awk. If the argument x is omitted, as in srand(), then the current date and time of day are used for a seed. This is the way to get random numbers that are truly unpredictable. The return value of srand is the previous seed. This makes it easy to keep track of the seeds in case you need to consistently reproduce sequences of random numbers.

8.1.3 String-Manipulation Functions

The functions in this section look at or change the text of one or more strings. Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]). Those functions that are specic to gawk are marked with a pound sign (#): asort(source [, dest ]) # asort is a gawk-specic extension, returning the number of elements in the array source. The contents of source are sorted using gawks normal rules for comparing values (in particular, IGNORECASE aects the sorting) and the indices of the sorted values of source are replaced with sequential integers starting with one. If the optional array dest is specied, then source is duplicated into dest. dest is then sorted, leaving the indices of source unchanged. For example, if the contents of a are as follows: a["last"] = "de" a["first"] = "sac" a["middle"] = "cul" A call to asort: asort(a) results in the following contents of a: a[1] = "cul"
2

Computer-generated random numbers really are not truly random. They are technically known as pseudorandom. This means that while the numbers in a sequence appear to be random, you can in fact generate the same sequence of random numbers over and over again.

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a[2] = "de" a[3] = "sac" The asort function is described in more detail in Section 7.11 [Sorting Array Values and Indices with gawk], page 125. asort is a gawk extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). asorti(source [, dest ]) # asorti is a gawk-specic extension, returning the number of elements in the array source. It works similarly to asort, however, the indices are sorted, instead of the values. As array indices are always strings, the comparison performed is always a string comparison. (Here too, IGNORECASE aects the sorting.) The asorti function is described in more detail in Section 7.11 [Sorting Array Values and Indices with gawk], page 125. It was added in gawk 3.1.2. asorti is a gawk extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). index(in, find ) This searches the string in for the rst occurrence of the string nd, and returns the position in characters where that occurrence begins in the string in. Consider the following example: $ awk BEGIN { print index("peanut", "an") } 3 If nd is not found, index returns zero. (Remember that string indices in awk start at one.) length([string ]) This returns the number of characters in string. If string is a number, the length of the digit string representing that number is returned. For example, length("abcde") is 5. By contrast, length(15 * 35) works out to 3. In this example, 15 * 35 = 525, and 525 is then converted to the string "525", which has three characters. If no argument is supplied, length returns the length of $0. NOTE: In older versions of awk, the length function could be called without any parentheses. Doing so is marked as deprecated in the POSIX standard. This means that while a program can do this, it is a feature that can eventually be removed from a future version of the standard. Therefore, for programs to be maximally portable, always supply the parentheses. Beginning with gawk version 3.2, when supplied an array argument, the length function returns the number of elements in the array. This is less useful than it might seem at rst, as the array is not guaranteed to be indexed from one to the number of elements in it. If --lint is provided on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), gawk warns that passing an array argument is not portable. If --posix is supplied, using an array argument is a fatal error (see Chapter 7 [Arrays in awk], page 117).

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match(string, regexp [, array ]) The match function searches string for the longest, leftmost substring matched by the regular expression, regexp. It returns the character position, or index, at which that substring begins (one, if it starts at the beginning of string ). If no match is found, it returns zero. The regexp argument may be either a regexp constant (/.../) or a string constant (" . . . "). In the latter case, the string is treated as a regexp to be matched. Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34, for a discussion of the dierence between the two forms, and the implications for writing your program correctly. The order of the rst two arguments is backwards from most other string functions that work with regular expressions, such as sub and gsub. It might help to remember that for match, the order is the same as for the ~ operator: string ~ regexp . The match function sets the built-in variable RSTART to the index. It also sets the built-in variable RLENGTH to the length in characters of the matched substring. If no match is found, RSTART is set to zero, and RLENGTH to 1. For example: { if ($1 == "FIND") regex = $2 else { where = match($0, regex) if (where != 0) print "Match of", regex, "found at", where, "in", $0 } } This program looks for lines that match the regular expression stored in the variable regex. This regular expression can be changed. If the rst word on a line is FIND, regex is changed to be the second word on that line. Therefore, if given: FIND ru+n My program runs but not very quickly FIND Melvin JF+KM This line is property of Reality Engineering Co. Melvin was here. awk prints: Match of ru+n found at 12 in My program runs Match of Melvin found at 1 in Melvin was here. If array is present, it is cleared, and then the 0th element of array is set to the entire portion of string matched by regexp. If regexp contains parentheses,

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the integer-indexed elements of array are set to contain the portion of string matching the corresponding parenthesized subexpression. For example: $ echo foooobazbarrrrr | > gawk { match($0, /(fo+).+(bar*)/, arr) > print arr[1], arr[2] } foooo barrrrr In addition, beginning with gawk 3.1.2, multidimensional subscripts are available providing the start index and length of each matched subexpression: $ echo foooobazbarrrrr | > gawk { match($0, /(fo+).+(bar*)/, arr) > print arr[1], arr[2] > print arr[1, "start"], arr[1, "length"] > print arr[2, "start"], arr[2, "length"] > } foooo barrrrr 1 5 9 7 There may not be subscripts for the start and index for every parenthesized subexpressions, since they may not all have matched text; thus they should be tested for with the in operator (see Section 7.2 [Referring to an Array Element], page 118). The array argument to match is a gawk extension. In compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), using a third argument is a fatal error. split(string, array [, fieldsep ]) This function divides string into pieces separated by eldsep and stores the pieces in array. The rst piece is stored in array [1], the second piece in array [2], and so forth. The string value of the third argument, eldsep, is a regexp describing where to split string (much as FS can be a regexp describing where to split input records). If eldsep is omitted, the value of FS is used. split returns the number of elements created. The split function splits strings into pieces in a manner similar to the way input lines are split into elds. For example: split("cul-de-sac", a, "-") splits the string cul-de-sac into three elds using - as the separator. It sets the contents of the array a as follows: a[1] = "cul" a[2] = "de" a[3] = "sac" The value returned by this call to split is three. As with input eld-splitting, when the value of eldsep is " ", leading and trailing whitespace is ignored, and the elements are separated by runs of whitespace. Also as with input eld-splitting, if eldsep is the null string, each individual character in the string is split into its own array element. (This is a gawk-specic extension.)

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Note, however, that RS has no eect on the way split works. Even though RS = "" causes newline to also be an input eld separator, this does not aect how split splits strings. Modern implementations of awk, including gawk, allow the third argument to be a regexp constant (/abc/) as well as a string. The POSIX standard allows this as well. Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34, for a discussion of the dierence between using a string constant or a regexp constant, and the implications for writing your program correctly. Before splitting the string, split deletes any previously existing elements in the array array. If string is null, the array has no elements. (So this is a portable way to delete an entire array with one statement. See Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121.) If string does not match eldsep at all (but is not null), array has one element only. The value of that element is the original string. sprintf(format, expression1, ...) This returns (without printing) the string that printf would have printed out with the same arguments (see Section 4.5 [Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing], page 60). For example: pival = sprintf("pi = %.2f (approx.)", 22/7) assigns the string "pi = 3.14 (approx.)" to the variable pival. strtonum(str ) # Examines str and returns its numeric value. If str begins with a leading 0, strtonum assumes that str is an octal number. If str begins with a leading 0x or 0X, strtonum assumes that str is a hexadecimal number. For example: $ echo 0x11 | > gawk { printf "%d\n", strtonum($1) } 17 Using the strtonum function is not the same as adding zero to a string value; the automatic coercion of strings to numbers works only for decimal data, not for octal or hexadecimal.3 Note also that strtonum uses the current locales decimal point for recognizing numbers. strtonum is a gawk extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). sub(regexp, replacement [, target ]) The sub function alters the value of target. It searches this value, which is treated as a string, for the leftmost, longest substring matched by the regular expression regexp. Then the entire string is changed by replacing the matched text with replacement. The modied string becomes the new value of target.
3

Unless you use the --non-decimal-data option, which isnt recommended. See Section 10.1 [Allowing Nondecimal Input Data], page 166, for more information.

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The regexp argument may be either a regexp constant (/.../) or a string constant (" . . . "). In the latter case, the string is treated as a regexp to be matched. Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34, for a discussion of the dierence between the two forms, and the implications for writing your program correctly. This function is peculiar because target is not simply used to compute a value, and not just any expression will doit must be a variable, eld, or array element so that sub can store a modied value there. If this argument is omitted, then the default is to use and alter $0.4 For example: str = "water, water, everywhere" sub(/at/, "ith", str) sets str to "wither, water, everywhere", by replacing the leftmost longest occurrence of at with ith. The sub function returns the number of substitutions made (either one or zero). If the special character & appears in replacement, it stands for the precise substring that was matched by regexp. (If the regexp can match more than one string, then this precise substring may vary.) For example: { sub(/candidate/, "& and his wife"); print } changes the rst occurrence of candidate to candidate and his wife on each input line. Here is another example: $ awk BEGIN { > str = "daabaaa" > sub(/a+/, "C&C", str) > print str > } dCaaCbaaa This shows how & can represent a nonconstant string and also illustrates the leftmost, longest rule in regexp matching (see Section 2.7 [How Much Text Matches?], page 33). The eect of this special character (&) can be turned o by putting a backslash before it in the string. As usual, to insert one backslash in the string, you must write two backslashes. Therefore, write \\& in a string constant to include a literal & in the replacement. For example, the following shows how to replace the rst | on each line with an &: { sub(/\|/, "\\&"); print } As mentioned, the third argument to sub must be a variable, eld or array reference. Some versions of awk allow the third argument to be an expression that is not an lvalue. In such a case, sub still searches for the pattern and returns zero or one, but the result of the substitution (if any) is thrown away because there is no place to put it. Such versions of awk accept expressions such as the following:
4

Note that this means that the record will rst be regenerated using the value of OFS if any elds have been changed, and that the elds will be updated after the substitution, even if the operation is a no-op such as sub(/^/, "").

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sub(/USA/, "United States", "the USA and Canada") For historical compatibility, gawk accepts erroneous code, such as in the previous example. However, using any other nonchangeable object as the third parameter causes a fatal error and your program will not run. Finally, if the regexp is not a regexp constant, it is converted into a string, and then the value of that string is treated as the regexp to match. gsub(regexp, replacement [, target ]) This is similar to the sub function, except gsub replaces all of the longest, leftmost, nonoverlapping matching substrings it can nd. The g in gsub stands for global, which means replace everywhere. For example: { gsub(/Britain/, "United Kingdom"); print } replaces all occurrences of the string Britain with United Kingdom for all input records. The gsub function returns the number of substitutions made. If the variable to search and alter (target) is omitted, then the entire input record ($0) is used. As in sub, the characters & and \ are special, and the third argument must be assignable. gensub(regexp, replacement, how [, target ]) # gensub is a general substitution function. Like sub and gsub, it searches the target string target for matches of the regular expression regexp. Unlike sub and gsub, the modied string is returned as the result of the function and the original target string is not changed. If how is a string beginning with g or G, then it replaces all matches of regexp with replacement. Otherwise, how is treated as a number that indicates which match of regexp to replace. If no target is supplied, $0 is used. gensub provides an additional feature that is not available in sub or gsub: the ability to specify components of a regexp in the replacement text. This is done by using parentheses in the regexp to mark the components and then specifying \N in the replacement text, where N is a digit from 1 to 9. For example: $ gawk > BEGIN { > a = "abc def" > b = gensub(/(.+) (.+)/, "\\2 \\1", "g", a) > print b > } def abc As with sub, you must type two backslashes in order to get one into the string. In the replacement text, the sequence \0 represents the entire matched text, as does the character &. The following example shows how you can use the third argument to control which match of the regexp should be changed: $ echo a b c a b c | > gawk { print gensub(/a/, "AA", 2) } a b c AA b c

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In this case, $0 is used as the default target string. gensub returns the new string as its result, which is passed directly to print for printing. If the how argument is a string that does not begin with g or G, or if it is a number that is less than or equal to zero, only one substitution is performed. If how is zero, gawk issues a warning message. If regexp does not match target, gensubs return value is the original unchanged value of target. gensub is a gawk extension; it is not available in compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). substr(string, start [, length ]) This returns a length-character-long substring of string, starting at character number start. The rst character of a string is character number one.5 For example, substr("washington", 5, 3) returns "ing". If length is not present, this function returns the whole sux of string that begins at character number start. For example, substr("washington", 5) returns "ington". The whole sux is also returned if length is greater than the number of characters remaining in the string, counting from character start. If start is less than one, substr treats it as if it was one. (POSIX doesnt specify what to do in this case: Unix awk acts this way, and therefore gawk does too.) If start is greater than the number of characters in the string, substr returns the null string. Similarly, if length is present but less than or equal to zero, the null string is returned. The string returned by substr cannot be assigned. Thus, it is a mistake to attempt to change a portion of a string, as shown in the following example: string = "abcdef" # try to get "abCDEf", wont work substr(string, 3, 3) = "CDE" It is also a mistake to use substr as the third argument of sub or gsub: gsub(/xyz/, "pdq", substr($0, 5, 20)) # WRONG (Some commercial versions of awk do in fact let you use substr this way, but doing so is not portable.) If you need to replace bits and pieces of a string, combine substr with string concatenation, in the following manner: string = "abcdef" ... string = substr(string, 1, 2) "CDE" substr(string, 6) tolower(string ) This returns a copy of string, with each uppercase character in the string replaced with its corresponding lowercase character. Nonalphabetic characters are left unchanged. For example, tolower("MiXeD cAsE 123") returns "mixed case 123".
5

This is dierent from C and C++, in which the rst character is number zero.

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toupper(string ) This returns a copy of string, with each lowercase character in the string replaced with its corresponding uppercase character. Nonalphabetic characters are left unchanged. For example, toupper("MiXeD cAsE 123") returns "MIXED CASE 123".

8.1.3.1 More About \ and & with sub, gsub, and gensub
When using sub, gsub, or gensub, and trying to get literal backslashes and ampersands into the replacement text, you need to remember that there are several levels of escape processing going on. First, there is the lexical level, which is when awk reads your program and builds an internal copy of it that can be executed. Then there is the runtime level, which is when awk actually scans the replacement string to determine what to generate. At both levels, awk looks for a dened set of characters that can come after a backslash. At the lexical level, it looks for the escape sequences listed in Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25. Thus, for every \ that awk processes at the runtime level, type two backslashes at the lexical level. When a character that is not valid for an escape sequence follows the \, Unix awk and gawk both simply remove the initial \ and put the next character into the string. Thus, for example, "a\qb" is treated as "aqb". At the runtime level, the various functions handle sequences of \ and & dierently. The situation is (sadly) somewhat complex. Historically, the sub and gsub functions treated the two character sequence \& specially; this sequence was replaced in the generated text with a single &. Any other \ within the replacement string that did not precede an & was passed through unchanged. This is illustrated in Table 8.1. You type \& \\& \\\& \\\\& \\\\\& \\\\\\& \\q sub sees & \& \& \\& \\& \\\& \q sub generates the matched text a literal & a literal & a literal \& a literal \& a literal \\& a literal \q

Table 8.1: Historical Escape Sequence Processing for sub and gsub This table shows both the lexical-level processing, where an odd number of backslashes becomes an even number at the runtime level, as well as the runtime processing done by sub. (For the sake of simplicity, the rest of the following tables only show the case of even numbers of backslashes entered at the lexical level.) The problem with the historical approach is that there is no way to get a literal \ followed by the matched text.

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The 1992 POSIX standard attempted to x this problem. That standard says that sub and gsub look for either a \ or an & after the \. If either one follows a \, that character is output literally. The interpretation of \ and & then becomes as shown in Table 8.2. You type & \\& \\\\& \\\\\\& sub sees & \& \\& \\\& sub generates the matched text a literal & a literal \, then the matched text a literal \&

Table 8.2: 1992 POSIX Rules for sub and gsub Escape Sequence Processing This appears to solve the problem. Unfortunately, the phrasing of the standard is unusual. It says, in eect, that \ turns o the special meaning of any following character, but for anything other than \ and &, such special meaning is undened. This wording leads to two problems: Backslashes must now be doubled in the replacement string, breaking historical awk programs. To make sure that an awk program is portable, every character in the replacement string must be preceded with a backslash.6 Because of the problems just listed, in 1996, the gawk maintainer submitted proposed text for a revised standard that reverts to rules that correspond more closely to the original existing practice. The proposed rules have special cases that make it possible to produce a \ preceding the matched text. This is shown in Table 8.3. You type \\\\\\& \\\\& \\& \\q \\\\ sub sees \\\& \\& \& \q \\ sub generates a literal a literal a literal a literal \\ \& \, followed by the matched text & \q

Table 8.3: Proposed rules for sub and backslash In a nutshell, at the runtime level, there are now three special sequences of characters (\\\&, \\& and \&) whereas historically there was only one. However, as in the historical case, any \ that is not part of one of these three sequences is not special and appears in the output literally. gawk 3.0 and 3.1 follow these proposed POSIX rules for sub and gsub. The POSIX standard took much longer to be revised than was expected in 1996. The 2001 standard does not follow the above rules. Instead, the rules there are somewhat simpler. The results are similar except for one case.
6

This consequence was certainly unintended.

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The 2001 POSIX rules state that \& in the replacement string produces a literal &, \\ produces a literal \, and \ followed by anything else is not special; the \ is placed straight into the output. These rules are presented in Table 8.4. You type \\\\\\& \\\\& \\& \\q \\\\ sub sees \\\& \\& \& \q \\ sub generates a a a a \ literal literal literal literal \& \, followed by the matched text & \q

Table 8.4: POSIX 2001 rules for sub The only case where the dierence is noticeable is the last one: \\\\ is seen as \\ and produces \ instead of \\. Starting with version 3.1.4, gawk follows the POSIX rules when --posix is specied (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Otherwise, it continues to follow the 1996 proposed rules, since, as of this writing, that has been its behavior for over seven years. NOTE: At the next major release, gawk will switch to using the POSIX 2001 rules by default. The rules for gensub are considerably simpler. At the runtime level, whenever gawk sees a \, if the following character is a digit, then the text that matched the corresponding parenthesized subexpression is placed in the generated output. Otherwise, no matter what character follows the \, it appears in the generated text and the \ does not, as shown in Table 8.5. You type & \\& \\\\ \\\\& \\\\\\& \\q gensub sees & \& \\ \\& \\\& \q gensub generates the matched text a literal & a literal \ a literal \, then the matched text a literal \& a literal q

Table 8.5: Escape Sequence Processing for gensub Because of the complexity of the lexical and runtime level processing and the special cases for sub and gsub, we recommend the use of gawk and gensub when you have to do substitutions.

Advanced Notes: Matching the Null String

In awk, the * operator can match the null string. This is particularly important for the sub, gsub, and gensub functions. For example:

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$ echo abc | awk { gsub(/m*/, "X"); print } XaXbXcX Although this makes a certain amount of sense, it can be surprising.

8.1.4 Input/Output Functions

The following functions relate to input/output (I/O). Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): close(filename [, how ]) Close the le lename for input or output. Alternatively, the argument may be a shell command that was used for creating a coprocess, or for redirecting to or from a pipe; then the coprocess or pipe is closed. See Section 4.8 [Closing Input and Output Redirections], page 70, for more information. When closing a coprocess, it is occasionally useful to rst close one end of the two-way pipe and then to close the other. This is done by providing a second argument to close. This second argument should be one of the two string values "to" or "from", indicating which end of the pipe to close. Case in the string does not matter. See Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167, which discusses this feature in more detail and gives an example. fflush([filename ]) Flush any buered output associated with lename, which is either a le opened for writing or a shell command for redirecting output to a pipe or coprocess. Many utility programs buer their output; i.e., they save information to write to a disk le or terminal in memory until there is enough for it to be worthwhile to send the data to the output device. This is often more ecient than writing every little bit of information as soon as it is ready. However, sometimes it is necessary to force a program to ush its buers; that is, write the information to its destination, even if a buer is not full. This is the purpose of the fflush functiongawk also buers its output and the fflush function forces gawk to ush its buers. fflush was added to the Bell Laboratories research version of awk in 1994; it is not part of the POSIX standard and is not available if --posix has been specied on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). gawk extends the fflush function in two ways. The rst is to allow no argument at all. In this case, the buer for the standard output is ushed. The second is to allow the null string ("") as the argument. In this case, the buers for all open output les and pipes are ushed. fflush returns zero if the buer is successfully ushed; otherwise, it returns 1. In the case where all buers are ushed, the return value is zero only if all buers were ushed successfully. Otherwise, it is 1, and gawk warns about the problem lename. gawk also issues a warning message if you attempt to ush a le or pipe that was opened for reading (such as with getline), or if lename is not an open le, pipe, or coprocess. In such a case, fflush returns 1, as well.

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system(command ) Executes operating-system commands and then returns to the awk program. The system function executes the command given by the string command. It returns the status returned by the command that was executed as its value. For example, if the following fragment of code is put in your awk program: END { system("date | mail -s awk run done root") } the system administrator is sent mail when the awk program nishes processing input and begins its end-of-input processing. Note that redirecting print or printf into a pipe is often enough to accomplish your task. If you need to run many commands, it is more ecient to simply print them down a pipeline to the shell: while (more stuff to do ) print command | "/bin/sh" close("/bin/sh") However, if your awk program is interactive, system is useful for cranking up large self-contained programs, such as a shell or an editor. Some operating systems cannot implement the system function. system causes a fatal error if it is not supported.

Advanced Notes: Interactive Versus Noninteractive Buering

As a side point, buering issues can be even more confusing, depending upon whether your program is interactive, i.e., communicating with a user sitting at a keyboard.7 Interactive programs generally line buer their output; i.e., they write out every line. Noninteractive programs wait until they have a full buer, which may be many lines of output. Here is an example of the dierence: $ awk { print $1 + $2 } 1 1 2 2 3 5 Ctrl-d Each line of output is printed immediately. Compare that behavior with this example: $ awk { print $1 + $2 } | cat 1 1 2 3 Ctrl-d 2 5 Here, no output is printed until after the Ctrl-d is typed, because it is all buered and sent down the pipe to cat in one shot.
7

A program is interactive if the standard output is connected to a terminal device.

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Advanced Notes: Controlling Output Buering with system

The fflush function provides explicit control over output buering for individual les and pipes. However, its use is not portable to many other awk implementations. An alternative method to ush output buers is to call system with a null string as its argument: system("") # flush output gawk treats this use of the system function as a special case and is smart enough not to run a shell (or other command interpreter) with the empty command. Therefore, with gawk, this idiom is not only useful, it is also ecient. While this method should work with other awk implementations, it does not necessarily avoid starting an unnecessary shell. (Other implementations may only ush the buer associated with the standard output and not necessarily all buered output.) If you think about what a programmer expects, it makes sense that system should ush any pending output. The following program: BEGIN { print "first print" system("echo system echo") print "second print" } must print: first print system echo second print and not: system echo first print second print If awk did not ush its buers before calling system, you would see the latter (undesirable) output.

8.1.5 Using gawks Timestamp Functions

awk programs are commonly used to process log les containing timestamp information, indicating when a particular log record was written. Many programs log their timestamp in the form returned by the time system call, which is the number of seconds since a particular epoch. On POSIX-compliant systems, it is the number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC, not counting leap seconds.8 All known POSIX-compliant systems support timestamps from 0 through 23 1 1, which is sucient to represent times through 2038-01-19 03:14:07 UTC. Many systems support a wider range of timestamps, including negative timestamps that represent times before the epoch. In order to make it easier to process such log les and to produce useful reports, gawk provides the following functions for working with timestamps. They are gawk extensions;
8

See [Glossary], page 303, especially the entries Epoch and UTC.

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they are not specied in the POSIX standard, nor are they in any other known version of awk.9 Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): systime() This function returns the current time as the number of seconds since the system epoch. On POSIX systems, this is the number of seconds since 197001-01 00:00:00 UTC, not counting leap seconds. It may be a dierent number on other systems. mktime(datespec ) This function turns datespec into a timestamp in the same form as is returned by systime. It is similar to the function of the same name in ISO C. The argument, datespec, is a string of the form "YYYY MM DD HH MM SS [DST ]". The string consists of six or seven numbers representing, respectively, the full year including century, the month from 1 to 12, the day of the month from 1 to 31, the hour of the day from 0 to 23, the minute from 0 to 59, the second from 0 to 60,10 and an optional daylight-savings ag. The values of these numbers need not be within the ranges specied; for example, an hour of 1 means 1 hour before midnight. The origin-zero Gregorian calendar is assumed, with year 0 preceding year 1 and year 1 preceding year 0. The time is assumed to be in the local timezone. If the daylight-savings ag is positive, the time is assumed to be daylight savings time; if zero, the time is assumed to be standard time; and if negative (the default), mktime attempts to determine whether daylight savings time is in eect for the specied time. If datespec does not contain enough elements or if the resulting time is out of range, mktime returns 1. strftime([format [, timestamp [, utc-flag ]]]) This function returns a string. It is similar to the function of the same name in ISO C. The time specied by timestamp is used to produce a string, based on the contents of the format string. If utc-ag is present and is either non-zero or non-null, the value is formatted as UTC (Coordinated Universal Time, formerly GMT or Greenwich Mean Time). Otherwise, the value is formatted for the local time zone. The timestamp is in the same format as the value returned by the systime function. If no timestamp argument is supplied, gawk uses the current time of day as the timestamp. If no format argument is supplied, strftime uses "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Z %Y". This format string produces output that is (almost) equivalent to that of the date utility. (Versions of gawk prior to 3.0 require the format argument.) The systime function allows you to compare a timestamp from a log le with the current time of day. In particular, it is easy to determine how long ago a particular record was logged. It also allows you to produce log records using the seconds since the epoch format.
9 10

The GNU date utility can also do many of the things described here. Its use may be preferable for simple time-related operations in shell scripts. Occasionally there are minutes in a year with a leap second, which is why the seconds can go up to 60.

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The mktime function allows you to convert a textual representation of a date and time into a timestamp. This makes it easy to do before/after comparisons of dates and times, particularly when dealing with date and time data coming from an external source, such as a log le. The strftime function allows you to easily turn a timestamp into human-readable information. It is similar in nature to the sprintf function (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130), in that it copies nonformat specication characters verbatim to the returned string, while substituting date and time values for format specications in the format string. strftime is guaranteed by the 1999 ISO C standard11 to support the following date format specications: %a %A %b %B %c %C %d %D %e %F %g The locales abbreviated weekday name. The locales full weekday name. The locales abbreviated month name. The locales full month name. The locales appropriate date and time representation. (This is %A %B %d %T %Y in the "C" locale.) The century. This is the year divided by 100 and truncated to the next lower integer. The day of the month as a decimal number (0131). Equivalent to specifying %m/%d/%y. The day of the month, padded with a space if it is only one digit. Equivalent to specifying %Y-%m-%d. This is the ISO 8601 date format. The year modulo 100 of the ISO week number, as a decimal number (0099). For example, January 1, 1993 is in week 53 of 1992. Thus, the year of its ISO week number is 1992, even though its year is 1993. Similarly, December 31, 1973 is in week 1 of 1974. Thus, the year of its ISO week number is 1974, even though its year is 1973. The full year of the ISO week number, as a decimal number. Equivalent to %b. The hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (0023). The hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (0112). The day of the year as a decimal number (001366). The month as a decimal number (0112). The minute as a decimal number (0059). A newline character (ASCII LF).
As this is a recent standard, not every systems strftime necessarily supports all of the conversions listed here.

%G %h %H %I %j %m %M %n
11

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%p %r %R %S %t %T %u %U %V

The locales equivalent of the AM/PM designations associated with a 12-hour clock. The locales 12-hour clock time. (This is %I:%M:%S %p in the "C" locale.) Equivalent to specifying %H:%M. The second as a decimal number (0060). A TAB character. Equivalent to specifying %H:%M:%S. The weekday as a decimal number (17). Monday is day one. The week number of the year (the rst Sunday as the rst day of week one) as a decimal number (0053). The week number of the year (the rst Monday as the rst day of week one) as a decimal number (0153). The method for determining the week number is as specied by ISO 8601. (To wit: if the week containing January 1 has four or more days in the new year, then it is week one; otherwise it is week 53 of the previous year and the next week is week one.) The weekday as a decimal number (06). Sunday is day zero. The week number of the year (the rst Monday as the rst day of week one) as a decimal number (0053). The locales appropriate date representation. (This is %A %B %d %Y in the "C" locale.) The locales appropriate time representation. (This is %T in the "C" locale.) The year modulo 100 as a decimal number (0099). The full year as a decimal number (e.g., 1995). The timezone oset in a +HHMM format (e.g., the format necessary to produce RFC 822/RFC 1036 date headers). The time zone name or abbreviation; no characters if no time zone is determinable.

%w %W %x %X %y %Y %z %Z

%Ec %EC %Ex %EX %Ey %EY %Od %Oe %OH %OI %Om %OM %OS %Ou %OU %OV %Ow %OW %Oy Alternate representations for the specications that use only the second letter (%c, %C, and so on).12 (These facilitate compliance with the POSIX date utility.) %%
12

A literal %.
If you dont understand any of this, dont worry about it; these facilities are meant to make it easier to internationalize programs. Other internationalization features are described in Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157.

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If a conversion specier is not one of the above, the behavior is undened.13 Informally, a locale is the geographic place in which a program is meant to run. For example, a common way to abbreviate the date September 4, 1991 in the United States is 9/4/91. In many countries in Europe, however, it is abbreviated 4.9.91. Thus, the %x specication in a "US" locale might produce 9/4/91, while in a "EUROPE" locale, it might produce 4.9.91. The ISO C standard denes a default "C" locale, which is an environment that is typical of what most C programmers are used to. For systems that are not yet fully standards-compliant, gawk supplies a copy of strftime from the GNU C Library. It supports all of the just listed format specications. If that version is used to compile gawk (see Appendix B [Installing gawk], page 261), then the following additional format specications are available: %k %l %s The hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (023). Single-digit numbers are padded with a space. The hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (112). Single-digit numbers are padded with a space. The time as a decimal timestamp in seconds since the epoch.

Additionally, the alternate representations are recognized but their normal representations are used. This example is an awk implementation of the POSIX date utility. Normally, the date utility prints the current date and time of day in a well-known format. However, if you provide an argument to it that begins with a +, date copies nonformat specier characters to the standard output and interprets the current time according to the format speciers in the string. For example: $ date +Today is %A, %B %d, %Y. Today is Thursday, September 14, 2000. Here is the gawk version of the date utility. It has a shell wrapper to handle the -u option, which requires that date run as if the time zone is set to UTC: #! /bin/sh # # date --- approximate the P1003.2 date command case $1 in -u) TZ=UTC0 export TZ shift ;; esac

# use UTC

gawk BEGIN { format = "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Z %Y" exitval = 0

13

This is because ISO C leaves the behavior of the C version of strftime undened and gawk uses the systems version of strftime if its there. Typically, the conversion specier either does not appear in the returned string or appears literally.

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if (ARGC > 2) exitval = 1 else if (ARGC == 2) { format = ARGV[1] if (format ~ /^\+/) format = substr(format, 2) } print strftime(format) exit exitval } "$@"

# remove leading +

8.1.6 Bit-Manipulation Functions of gawk

I can explain it for you, but I cant understand it for you. Anonymous Many languages provide the ability to perform bitwise operations on two integer numbers. In other words, the operation is performed on each successive pair of bits in the operands. Three common operations are bitwise AND, OR, and XOR. The operations are described in Table 8.6.

Operands 0 1 Table 8.6: Bitwise Operations

Bit operator AND OR XOR 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

As you can see, the result of an AND operation is 1 only when both bits are 1. The result of an OR operation is 1 if either bit is 1. The result of an XOR operation is 1 if either bit is 1, but not both. The next operation is the complement; the complement of 1 is 0 and the complement of 0 is 1. Thus, this operation ips all the bits of a given value. Finally, two other common operations are to shift the bits left or right. For example, if you have a bit string 10111001 and you shift it right by three bits, you end up with 00010111.14 If you start over again with 10111001 and shift it left by three bits, you end up with 11001000. gawk provides built-in functions that implement the bitwise operations just described. They are: and(v1, v2 ) Returns the bitwise AND of the values provided by v1 and v2. Returns the bitwise OR of the values provided by v1 and v2.

or(v1, v2 )

14

This example shows that 0s come in on the left side. For gawk, this is always true, but in some languages, its possible to have the left side ll with 1s. Caveat emptor.

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xor(v1, v2 )

Returns the bitwise XOR of the values provided by v1 and v2. Returns the bitwise complement of val. Returns the value of val, shifted left by count bits.

compl(val ) lshift(val, count )

rshift(val, count ) Returns the value of val, shifted right by count bits. For all of these functions, rst the double-precision oating-point value is converted to the widest C unsigned integer type, then the bitwise operation is performed. If the result cannot be represented exactly as a C double, leading nonzero bits are removed one by one until it can be represented exactly. The result is then converted back into a C double. (If you dont understand this paragraph, dont worry about it.) Here is a user-dened function (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150) that illustrates the use of these functions:
# bits2str --- turn a byte into readable 1s and 0s function bits2str(bits, { if (bits == 0) return "0" data, mask)

mask = 1 for (; bits != 0; bits = rshift(bits, 1)) data = (and(bits, mask) ? "1" : "0") data while ((length(data) % 8) != 0) data = "0" data return data } BEGIN { printf "123 = %s\n", bits2str(123) printf "0123 = %s\n", bits2str(0123) printf "0x99 = %s\n", bits2str(0x99) comp = compl(0x99) printf "compl(0x99) = %#x = %s\n", comp, bits2str(comp) shift = lshift(0x99, 2) printf "lshift(0x99, 2) = %#x = %s\n", shift, bits2str(shift) shift = rshift(0x99, 2) printf "rshift(0x99, 2) = %#x = %s\n", shift, bits2str(shift) }

This program produces the following output when run:

$ gawk -f testbits.awk 123 = 01111011 0123 = 01010011 0x99 = 10011001 compl(0x99) = 0xffffff66 = 11111111111111111111111101100110 lshift(0x99, 2) = 0x264 = 0000001001100100 rshift(0x99, 2) = 0x26 = 00100110

The bits2str function turns a binary number into a string. The number 1 represents a binary value where the rightmost bit is set to 1. Using this mask, the function repeatedly

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checks the rightmost bit. ANDing the mask with the value indicates whether the rightmost bit is 1 or not. If so, a "1" is concatenated onto the front of the string. Otherwise, a "0" is added. The value is then shifted right by one bit and the loop continues until there are no more 1 bits. If the initial value is zero it returns a simple "0". Otherwise, at the end, it pads the value with zeros to represent multiples of 8-bit quantities. This is typical in modern computers. The main code in the BEGIN rule shows the dierence between the decimal and octal values for the same numbers (see Section 5.1.2 [Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers], page 73), and then demonstrates the results of the compl, lshift, and rshift functions.

8.1.7 Using gawks String-Translation Functions

gawk provides facilities for internationalizing awk programs. These include the functions described in the following list. The descriptions here are purposely brief. See Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157, for the full story. Optional parameters are enclosed in square brackets ([ ]): dcgettext(string [, domain [, category ]]) This function returns the translation of string in text domain domain for locale category category. The default value for domain is the current value of TEXTDOMAIN. The default value for category is "LC_MESSAGES". dcngettext(string1, string2, number [, domain [, category ]]) This function returns the plural form used for number of the translation of string1 and string2 in text domain domain for locale category category. string1 is the English singular variant of a message, and string2 the English plural variant of the same message. The default value for domain is the current value of TEXTDOMAIN. The default value for category is "LC_MESSAGES". bindtextdomain(directory [, domain ]) This function allows you to specify the directory in which gawk will look for message translation les, in case they will not or cannot be placed in the standard locations (e.g., during testing). It returns the directory in which domain is bound. The default domain is the value of TEXTDOMAIN. If directory is the null string (""), then bindtextdomain returns the current binding for the given domain.

8.2 User-Dened Functions

Complicated awk programs can often be simplied by dening your own functions. Userdened functions can be called just like built-in ones (see Section 5.13 [Function Calls], page 91), but it is up to you to dene them, i.e., to tell awk what they should do.

8.2.1 Function Denition Syntax

Denitions of functions can appear anywhere between the rules of an awk program. Thus, the general form of an awk program is extended to include sequences of rules and userdened function denitions. There is no need to put the denition of a function before all uses of the function. This is because awk reads the entire program before starting to execute any of it.

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The denition of a function named name looks like this: function name (parameter-list ) { body-of-function } name is the name of the function to dene. A valid function name is like a valid variable name: a sequence of letters, digits, and underscores that doesnt start with a digit. Within a single awk program, any particular name can only be used as a variable, array, or function. parameter-list is a list of the functions arguments and local variable names, separated by commas. When the function is called, the argument names are used to hold the argument values given in the call. The local variables are initialized to the empty string. A function cannot have two parameters with the same name, nor may it have a parameter with the same name as the function itself. The body-of-function consists of awk statements. It is the most important part of the denition, because it says what the function should actually do. The argument names exist to give the body a way to talk about the arguments; local variables exist to give the body places to keep temporary values. Argument names are not distinguished syntactically from local variable names. Instead, the number of arguments supplied when the function is called determines how many argument variables there are. Thus, if three argument values are given, the rst three names in parameter-list are arguments and the rest are local variables. It follows that if the number of arguments is not the same in all calls to the function, some of the names in parameter-list may be arguments on some occasions and local variables on others. Another way to think of this is that omitted arguments default to the null string. Usually when you write a function, you know how many names you intend to use for arguments and how many you intend to use as local variables. It is conventional to place some extra space between the arguments and the local variables, in order to document how your function is supposed to be used. During execution of the function body, the arguments and local variable values hide, or shadow, any variables of the same names used in the rest of the program. The shadowed variables are not accessible in the function denition, because there is no way to name them while their names have been taken away for the local variables. All other variables used in the awk program can be referenced or set normally in the functions body. The arguments and local variables last only as long as the function body is executing. Once the body nishes, you can once again access the variables that were shadowed while the function was running. The function body can contain expressions that call functions. They can even call this function, either directly or by way of another function. When this happens, we say the function is recursive. The act of a function calling itself is called recursion. In many awk implementations, including gawk, the keyword function may be abbreviated func. However, POSIX only species the use of the keyword function. This actually has some practical implications. If gawk is in POSIX-compatibility mode (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), then the following statement does not dene a function:

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func foo() { a = sqrt($1) ; print a } Instead it denes a rule that, for each record, concatenates the value of the variable func with the return value of the function foo. If the resulting string is non-null, the action is executed. This is probably not what is desired. (awk accepts this input as syntactically valid, because functions may be used before they are dened in awk programs.) To ensure that your awk programs are portable, always use the keyword function when dening a function.

8.2.2 Function Denition Examples

Here is an example of a user-dened function, called myprint, that takes a number and prints it in a specic format: function myprint(num) { printf "%6.3g\n", num } To illustrate, here is an awk rule that uses our myprint function: $3 > 0 { myprint($3) } This program prints, in our special format, all the third elds that contain a positive number in our input. Therefore, when given the following: 1.2 3.4 5.6 7.8 9.10 11.12 -13.14 15.16 17.18 19.20 21.22 23.24 this program, using our function to format the results, prints: 5.6 21.2 This function deletes all the elements in an array: function delarray(a, i) { for (i in a) delete a[i] } When working with arrays, it is often necessary to delete all the elements in an array and start over with a new list of elements (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121). Instead of having to repeat this loop everywhere that you need to clear out an array, your program can just call delarray. (This guarantees portability. The use of delete array to delete the contents of an entire array is a nonstandard extension.) The following is an example of a recursive function. It takes a string as an input parameter and returns the string in backwards order. Recursive functions must always have a test that stops the recursion. In this case, the recursion terminates when the starting position is zero, i.e., when there are no more characters left in the string. function rev(str, start) { if (start == 0) return ""

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return (substr(str, start, 1) rev(str, start - 1)) } If this function is in a le named rev.awk, it can be tested this way: $ echo "Dont Panic!" | > gawk --source { print rev($0, length($0)) } -f rev.awk !cinaP tnoD The C ctime function takes a timestamp and returns it in a string, formatted in a wellknown fashion. The following example uses the built-in strftime function (see Section 8.1.5 [Using gawks Timestamp Functions], page 143) to create an awk version of ctime: # ctime.awk # # awk version of C ctime(3) function function ctime(ts, format) { format = "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Z %Y" if (ts == 0) ts = systime() # use current time as default return strftime(format, ts) }

8.2.3 Calling User-Dened Functions

Calling a function means causing the function to run and do its job. A function call is an expression and its value is the value returned by the function. A function call consists of the function name followed by the arguments in parentheses. awk expressions are what you write in the call for the arguments. Each time the call is executed, these expressions are evaluated, and the values are the actual arguments. For example, here is a call to foo with three arguments (the rst being a string concatenation): foo(x y, "lose", 4 * z) Caution: Whitespace characters (spaces and tabs) are not allowed between the function name and the open-parenthesis of the argument list. If you write whitespace by mistake, awk might think that you mean to concatenate a variable with an expression in parentheses. However, it notices that you used a function name and not a variable name, and reports an error. When a function is called, it is given a copy of the values of its arguments. This is known as call by value. The caller may use a variable as the expression for the argument, but the called function does not know thisit only knows what value the argument had. For example, if you write the following code: foo = "bar" z = myfunc(foo) then you should not think of the argument to myfunc as being the variable foo. Instead, think of the argument as the string value "bar". If the function myfunc alters the values of its local variables, this has no eect on any other variables. Thus, if myfunc does this:

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function myfunc(str) { print str str = "zzz" print str } to change its rst argument variable str, it does not change the value of foo in the caller. The role of foo in calling myfunc ended when its value ("bar") was computed. If str also exists outside of myfunc, the function body cannot alter this outer value, because it is shadowed during the execution of myfunc and cannot be seen or changed from there. However, when arrays are the parameters to functions, they are not copied. Instead, the array itself is made available for direct manipulation by the function. This is usually called call by reference. Changes made to an array parameter inside the body of a function are visible outside that function. NOTE: Changing an array parameter inside a function can be very dangerous if you do not watch what you are doing. For example: function changeit(array, ind, nvalue) { array[ind] = nvalue } BEGIN { a[1] = 1; a[2] = 2; a[3] = 3 changeit(a, 2, "two") printf "a[1] = %s, a[2] = %s, a[3] = %s\n", a[1], a[2], a[3] } prints a[1] = 1, a[2] = two, a[3] = 3, because changeit stores "two" in the second element of a. Some awk implementations allow you to call a function that has not been dened. They only report a problem at runtime when the program actually tries to call the function. For example: BEGIN { if (0) foo() else bar() } function bar() { ... } # note that foo is not defined Because the if statement will never be true, it is not really a problem that foo has not been dened. Usually, though, it is a problem if a program calls an undened function. If --lint is specied (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174), gawk reports calls to undened functions.

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Some awk implementations generate a runtime error if you use the next statement (see Section 6.4.8 [The next Statement], page 106) inside a user-dened function. gawk does not have this limitation.

8.2.4 The return Statement

The body of a user-dened function can contain a return statement. This statement returns control to the calling part of the awk program. It can also be used to return a value for use in the rest of the awk program. It looks like this: return [expression ] The expression part is optional. If it is omitted, then the returned value is undened, and therefore, unpredictable. A return statement with no value expression is assumed at the end of every function denition. So if control reaches the end of the function body, then the function returns an unpredictable value. awk does not warn you if you use the return value of such a function. Sometimes, you want to write a function for what it does, not for what it returns. Such a function corresponds to a void function in C or to a procedure in Pascal. Thus, it may be appropriate to not return any value; simply bear in mind that if you use the return value of such a function, you do so at your own risk. The following is an example of a user-dened function that returns a value for the largest number among the elements of an array: function maxelt(vec, i, ret) { for (i in vec) { if (ret == "" || vec[i] > ret) ret = vec[i] } return ret } You call maxelt with one argument, which is an array name. The local variables i and ret are not intended to be arguments; while there is nothing to stop you from passing more than one argument to maxelt, the results would be strange. The extra space before i in the function parameter list indicates that i and ret are not supposed to be arguments. You should follow this convention when dening functions. The following program uses the maxelt function. It loads an array, calls maxelt, and then reports the maximum number in that array: function maxelt(vec, i, ret) { for (i in vec) { if (ret == "" || vec[i] > ret) ret = vec[i] } return ret } # Load all fields of each record into nums.

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{ for(i = 1; i <= NF; i++) nums[NR, i] = $i } END { print maxelt(nums) } Given the following input: 1 5 23 8 16 44 3 5 2 8 26 256 291 1396 2962 100 -6 467 998 1101 99385 11 0 225 the program reports (predictably) that 99385 is the largest number in the array.

8.2.5 Functions and Their Eects on Variable Typing

awk is a very uid language. It is possible that awk cant tell if an identier represents a regular variable or an array until runtime. Here is an annotated sample program: function foo(a) { a[1] = 1 # parameter is an array } BEGIN { b = 1 foo(b) foo(x) x = 1

# invalid: fatal type mismatch # x uninitialized, becomes an array dynamically # now not allowed, runtime error

} Usually, such things arent a big issue, but its worth being aware of them.

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9 Internationalization with gawk

Once upon a time, computer makers wrote software that worked only in English. Eventually, hardware and software vendors noticed that if their systems worked in the native languages of non-English-speaking countries, they were able to sell more systems. As a result, internationalization and localization of programs and software systems became a common practice. Until recently, the ability to provide internationalization was largely restricted to programs written in C and C++. This chapter describes the underlying library gawk uses for internationalization, as well as how gawk makes internationalization features available at the awk program level. Having internationalization available at the awk level gives software developers additional exibilitythey are no longer required to write in C when internationalization is a requirement.

9.1 Internationalization and Localization

Internationalization means writing (or modifying) a program once, in such a way that it can use multiple languages without requiring further source-code changes. Localization means providing the data necessary for an internationalized program to work in a particular language. Most typically, these terms refer to features such as the language used for printing error messages, the language used to read responses, and information related to how numerical and monetary values are printed and read.

9.2 GNU gettext

The facilities in GNU gettext focus on messages; strings printed by a program, either directly or via formatting with printf or sprintf.1 When using GNU gettext, each application has its own text domain. This is a unique name, such as kpilot or gawk, that identies the application. A complete application may have multiple componentsprograms written in C or C++, as well as scripts written in sh or awk. All of the components use the same text domain. To make the discussion concrete, assume were writing an application named guide. Internationalization consists of the following steps, in this order: 1. The programmer goes through the source for all of guides components and marks each string that is a candidate for translation. For example, "-F: option required" is a good candidate for translation. A table with strings of option names is not (e.g., gawks --profile option should remain the same, no matter what the local language). 2. The programmer indicates the applications text domain ("guide") to the gettext library, by calling the textdomain function. 3. Messages from the application are extracted from the source code and collected into a portable object le (guide.po), which lists the strings and their translations. The translations are initially empty. The original (usually English) messages serve as the key for lookup of the translations.
1

For some operating systems, the gawk port doesnt support GNU gettext. This applies most notably to the PC operating systems. As such, these features are not available if you are using one of those operating systems. Sorry.

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4. For each language with a translator, guide.po is copied and translations are created and shipped with the application. 5. Each languages .po le is converted into a binary message object (.mo) le. A message object le contains the original messages and their translations in a binary format that allows fast lookup of translations at runtime. 6. When guide is built and installed, the binary translation les are installed in a standard place. 7. For testing and development, it is possible to tell gettext to use .mo les in a dierent directory than the standard one by using the bindtextdomain function. 8. At runtime, guide looks up each string via a call to gettext. The returned string is the translated string if available, or the original string if not. 9. If necessary, it is possible to access messages from a dierent text domain than the one belonging to the application, without having to switch the applications default text domain back and forth. In C (or C++), the string marking and dynamic translation lookup are accomplished by wrapping each string in a call to gettext: printf(gettext("Dont Panic!\n")); The tools that extract messages from source code pull out all strings enclosed in calls to gettext. The GNU gettext developers, recognizing that typing gettext over and over again is both painful and ugly to look at, use the macro _ (an underscore) to make things easier: /* In the standard header file: */ #define _(str) gettext(str) /* In the program text: */ printf(_("Dont Panic!\n")); This reduces the typing overhead to just three extra characters per string and is considerably easier to read as well. There are locale categories for dierent types of locale-related information. The dened locale categories that gettext knows about are: LC_MESSAGES Text messages. This is the default category for gettext operations, but it is possible to supply a dierent one explicitly, if necessary. (It is almost never necessary to supply a dierent category.) LC_COLLATE Text-collation information; i.e., how dierent characters and/or groups of characters sort in a given language. LC_CTYPE Character-type information (alphabetic, digit, upper- or lowercase, and so on). This information is accessed via the POSIX character classes in regular expressions, such as /[[:alnum:]]/ (see Section 2.3 [Regular Expression Operators], page 27).

LC_MONETARY Monetary information, such as the currency symbol, and whether the symbol goes before or after a number.

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LC_NUMERIC Numeric information, such as which characters to use for the decimal point and the thousands separator.2 LC_RESPONSE Response information, such as how yes and no appear in the local language, and possibly other information as well. LC_TIME LC_ALL Time- and date-related information, such as 12- or 24-hour clock, month printed before or after day in a date, local month abbreviations, and so on. All of the above. (Not too useful in the context of gettext.)

9.3 Internationalizing awk Programs

gawk provides the following variables and functions for internationalization: TEXTDOMAIN This variable indicates the applications text domain. For compatibility with GNU gettext, the default value is "messages". _"your message here" String constants marked with a leading underscore are candidates for translation at runtime. String constants without a leading underscore are not translated. dcgettext(string [, domain [, category ]]) This built-in function returns the translation of string in text domain domain for locale category category. The default value for domain is the current value of TEXTDOMAIN. The default value for category is "LC_MESSAGES". If you supply a value for category, it must be a string equal to one of the known locale categories described in the previous section. You must also supply a text domain. Use TEXTDOMAIN if you want to use the current domain. Caution: The order of arguments to the awk version of the dcgettext function is purposely dierent from the order for the C version. The awk versions order was chosen to be simple and to allow for reasonable awk-style default arguments. dcngettext(string1, string2, number [, domain [, category ]]) This built-in function returns the plural form used for number of the translation of string1 and string2 in text domain domain for locale category category. string1 is the English singular variant of a message, and string2 the English plural variant of the same message. The default value for domain is the current value of TEXTDOMAIN. The default value for category is "LC_MESSAGES". The same remarks as for the dcgettext function apply. bindtextdomain(directory [, domain ]) This built-in function allows you to specify the directory in which gettext looks for .mo les, in case they will not or cannot be placed in the standard locations (e.g., during testing). It returns the directory in which domain is bound.
2

Americans use a comma every three decimal places and a period for the decimal point, while many Europeans do exactly the opposite: 1,234.56 versus 1.234,56.

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The default domain is the value of TEXTDOMAIN. If directory is the null string (""), then bindtextdomain returns the current binding for the given domain. To use these facilities in your awk program, follow the steps outlined in the previous section, like so: 1. Set the variable TEXTDOMAIN to the text domain of your program. This is best done in a BEGIN rule (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97), or it can also be done via the -v command-line option (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174): BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" ... } 2. Mark all translatable strings with a leading underscore (_) character. It must be adjacent to the opening quote of the string. For example: print _"hello, world" x = _"you goofed" printf(_"Number of users is %d\n", nusers) 3. If you are creating strings dynamically, you can still translate them, using the dcgettext built-in function: message = nusers " users logged in" message = dcgettext(message, "adminprog") print message Here, the call to dcgettext supplies a dierent text domain ("adminprog") in which to nd the message, but it uses the default "LC_MESSAGES" category. 4. During development, you might want to put the .mo le in a private directory for testing. This is done with the bindtextdomain built-in function: BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" # our text domain if (Testing) { # where to find our files bindtextdomain("testdir") # joe is in charge of adminprog bindtextdomain("../joe/testdir", "adminprog") } ... } See Section 9.5 [A Simple Internationalization Example], page 163, for an example program showing the steps to create and use translations from awk.

9.4 Translating awk Programs

Once a programs translatable strings have been marked, they must be extracted to create the initial .po le. As part of translation, it is often helpful to rearrange the order in which arguments to printf are output.

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gawks --gen-po command-line option extracts the messages and is discussed next. After that, printfs ability to rearrange the order for printf arguments at runtime is covered.

9.4.1 Extracting Marked Strings

Once your awk program is working, and all the strings have been marked and youve set (and perhaps bound) the text domain, it is time to produce translations. First, use the --gen-po command-line option to create the initial .po le: $ gawk --gen-po -f guide.awk > guide.po When run with --gen-po, gawk does not execute your program. Instead, it parses it as usual and prints all marked strings to standard output in the format of a GNU gettext Portable Object le. Also included in the output are any constant strings that appear as the rst argument to dcgettext or as the rst and second argument to dcngettext.3 See Section 9.5 [A Simple Internationalization Example], page 163, for the full list of steps to go through to create and test translations for guide.

9.4.2 Rearranging printf Arguments

Format strings for printf and sprintf (see Section 4.5 [Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing], page 60) present a special problem for translation. Consider the following:4 printf(_"String %s has %d characters\n", string, length(string))) A possible German translation for this might be: "%d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette %s\n" The problem should be obvious: the order of the format specications is dierent from the original! Even though gettext can return the translated string at runtime, it cannot change the argument order in the call to printf. To solve this problem, printf format speciers may have an additional optional element, which we call a positional specier. For example: "%2$d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette %1$s\n" Here, the positional specier consists of an integer count, which indicates which argument to use, and a $. Counts are one-based, and the format string itself is not included. Thus, in the following example, string is the rst argument and length(string) is the second: $ gawk BEGIN { > string = "Dont Panic" > printf _"%2$d characters live in \"%1$s\"\n", > string, length(string) > } 10 characters live in "Dont Panic" If present, positional speciers come rst in the format specication, before the ags, the eld width, and/or the precision.
3 4

Starting with gettext version 0.11.5, the xgettext utility that comes with GNU gettext can handle .awk les. This example is borrowed from the GNU gettext manual.

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Positional speciers can be used with the dynamic eld width and precision capability: $ gawk BEGIN { > printf("%*.*s\n", 10, 20, "hello") > printf("%3$*2$.*1$s\n", 20, 10, "hello") > } hello hello NOTE: When using * with a positional specier, the * comes rst, then the integer position, and then the $. This is somewhat counterintuitive. gawk does not allow you to mix regular format speciers and those with positional speciers in the same string:
$ gawk BEGIN { printf _"%d %3$s\n", 1, 2, "hi" } error gawk: cmd. line:1: fatal: must use count$ on all formats or none

NOTE: There are some pathological cases that gawk may fail to diagnose. In such cases, the output may not be what you expect. Its still a bad idea to try mixing them, even if gawk doesnt detect it. Although positional speciers can be used directly in awk programs, their primary purpose is to help in producing correct translations of format strings into languages dierent from the one in which the program is rst written.

9.4.3 awk Portability Issues

gawks internationalization features were purposely chosen to have as little impact as possible on the portability of awk programs that use them to other versions of awk. Consider this program: BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" if (Test_Guide) # set with -v bindtextdomain("/test/guide/messages") print _"dont panic!" } As written, it wont work on other versions of awk. However, it is actually almost portable, requiring very little change: Assignments to TEXTDOMAIN wont have any eect, since TEXTDOMAIN is not special in other awk implementations. Non-GNU versions of awk treat marked strings as the concatenation of a variable named _ with the string following it.5 Typically, the variable _ has the null string ("") as its value, leaving the original string constant as the result. By dening dummy functions to replace dcgettext, dcngettext and bindtextdomain, the awk program can be made to run, but all the messages are output in the original language. For example: function bindtextdomain(dir, domain) { return dir
5

This is good fodder for an Obfuscated awk contest.

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} function dcgettext(string, domain, category) { return string } function dcngettext(string1, string2, number, domain, category) { return (number == 1 ? string1 : string2) } The use of positional specications in printf or sprintf is not portable. To support gettext at the C level, many systems C versions of sprintf do support positional speciers. But it works only if enough arguments are supplied in the function call. Many versions of awk pass printf formats and arguments unchanged to the underlying C library version of sprintf, but only one format and argument at a time. What happens if a positional specication is used is anybodys guess. However, since the positional specications are primarily for use in translated format strings, and since non-GNU awks never retrieve the translated string, this should not be a problem in practice.

9.5 A Simple Internationalization Example

Now lets look at a step-by-step example of how to internationalize and localize a simple awk program, using guide.awk as our original source: BEGIN { TEXTDOMAIN = "guide" bindtextdomain(".") # for testing print _"Dont Panic" print _"The Answer Is", 42 print "Pardon me, Zaphod who?" } Run gawk --gen-po to create the .po le: $ gawk --gen-po -f guide.awk > guide.po This produces: #: guide.awk:4 msgid "Dont Panic" msgstr "" #: guide.awk:5 msgid "The Answer Is" msgstr "" This original portable object le is saved and reused for each language into which the application is translated. The msgid is the original string and the msgstr is the translation.

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NOTE: Strings not marked with a leading underscore do not appear in the guide.po le. Next, the messages must be translated. Here is a translation to a hypothetical dialect of English, called Mellow:6 $ cp guide.po guide-mellow.po Add translations to guide-mellow.po ... Following are the translations: #: guide.awk:4 msgid "Dont Panic" msgstr "Hey man, relax!" #: guide.awk:5 msgid "The Answer Is" msgstr "Like, the scoop is" The next step is to make the directory to hold the binary message object le and then to create the guide.mo le. The directory layout shown here is standard for GNU gettext on GNU/Linux systems. Other versions of gettext may use a dierent layout: $ mkdir en_US en_US/LC_MESSAGES The msgfmt utility does the conversion from human-readable .po le to machinereadable .mo le. By default, msgfmt creates a le named messages. This le must be renamed and placed in the proper directory so that gawk can nd it: $ msgfmt guide-mellow.po $ mv messages en_US/LC_MESSAGES/guide.mo Finally, we run the program to test it: $ gawk -f guide.awk Hey man, relax! Like, the scoop is 42 Pardon me, Zaphod who? If the three replacement functions for dcgettext, dcngettext and bindtextdomain (see Section 9.4.3 [awk Portability Issues], page 162) are in a le named libintl.awk, then we can run guide.awk unchanged as follows: $ gawk --posix -f guide.awk -f libintl.awk Dont Panic The Answer Is 42 Pardon me, Zaphod who?

9.6 gawk Can Speak Your Language

As of version 3.1, gawk itself has been internationalized using the GNU gettext package. (GNU gettext is described in complete detail in GNU gettext tools.) As of this writing, the latest version of GNU gettext is version 0.11.5.
6

Perhaps it would be better if it were called Hippy. Ah, well.

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If a translation of gawks messages exists, then gawk produces usage messages, warnings, and fatal errors in the local language.

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10 Advanced Features of gawk

Write documentation as if whoever reads it is a violent psychopath who knows where you live. Steve English, as quoted by Peter Langston This chapter discusses advanced features in gawk. Its a bit of a grab bag of items that are otherwise unrelated to each other. First, a command-line option allows gawk to recognize nondecimal numbers in input data, not just in awk programs. Next, two-way I/O, discussed briey in earlier parts of this book, is described in full detail, along with the basics of TCP/IP networking and BSD portal les. Finally, gawk can prole an awk program, making it possible to tune it for performance. Section C.3 [Adding New Built-in Functions to gawk], page 284, discusses the ability to dynamically add new built-in functions to gawk. As this feature is still immature and likely to change, its description is relegated to an appendix.

10.1 Allowing Nondecimal Input Data

If you run gawk with the --non-decimal-data option, you can have nondecimal constants in your input data: $ echo 0123 123 0x123 | > gawk --non-decimal-data { printf "%d, %d, %d\n", > $1, $2, $3 } 83, 123, 291 For this feature to work, write your program so that gawk treats your data as numeric: $ echo 0123 123 0x123 | gawk { print $1, $2, $3 } 0123 123 0x123 The print statement treats its expressions as strings. Although the elds can act as numbers when necessary, they are still strings, so print does not try to treat them numerically. You may need to add zero to a eld to force it to be treated as a number. For example: $ echo 0123 123 0x123 | gawk --non-decimal-data > { print $1, $2, $3 > print $1 + 0, $2 + 0, $3 + 0 } 0123 123 0x123 83 123 291 Because it is common to have decimal data with leading zeros, and because using it could lead to surprising results, the default is to leave this facility disabled. If you want it, you must explicitly request it. Caution: Use of this option is not recommended. It can break old programs very badly. Instead, use the strtonum function to convert your data (see Section 5.1.2 [Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers], page 73). This makes your programs easier to write and easier to read, and leads to less surprising results.

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10.2 Two-Way Communications with Another Process

From: [email protected] (Mike Brennan) Newsgroups: comp.lang.awk Subject: Re: Learn the SECRET to Attract Women Easily Date: 4 Aug 1997 17:34:46 GMT Message-ID: <[email protected]> On 3 Aug 1997 13:17:43 GMT, Want More Dates??? <[email protected]> wrote: >Learn the SECRET to Attract Women Easily > >The SCENT(tm) Pheromone Sex Attractant For Men to Attract Women The scent of awk programmers is a lot more attractive to women than the scent of perl programmers. -Mike Brennan

It is often useful to be able to send data to a separate program for processing and then read the result. This can always be done with temporary les: # write the data for processing tempfile = ("mydata." PROCINFO["pid"]) while (not done with data ) print data | ("subprogram > " tempfile) close("subprogram > " tempfile) # read the results, remove tempfile when done while ((getline newdata < tempfile) > 0) process newdata appropriately close(tempfile) system("rm " tempfile) This works, but not elegantly. Among other things, it requires that the program be run in a directory that cannot be shared among users; for example, /tmp will not do, as another user might happen to be using a temporary le with the same name. Starting with version 3.1 of gawk, it is possible to open a two-way pipe to another process. The second process is termed a coprocess, since it runs in parallel with gawk. The two-way connection is created using the new |& operator (borrowed from the Korn shell, ksh):1 do { print data |& "subprogram" "subprogram" |& getline results } while (data left to process ) close("subprogram") The rst time an I/O operation is executed using the |& operator, gawk creates a twoway pipeline to a child process that runs the other program. Output created with print or printf is written to the programs standard input, and output from the programs standard output can be read by the gawk program using getline. As is the case with processes started by |, the subprogram can be any program, or pipeline of programs, that can be started by the shell.
1

This is very dierent from the same operator in the C shell, csh.

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There are some cautionary items to be aware of: As the code inside gawk currently stands, the coprocesss standard error goes to the same place that the parent gawks standard error goes. It is not possible to read the childs standard error separately. I/O buering may be a problem. gawk automatically ushes all output down the pipe to the child process. However, if the coprocess does not ush its output, gawk may hang when doing a getline in order to read the coprocesss results. This could lead to a situation known as deadlock, where each process is waiting for the other one to do something. It is possible to close just one end of the two-way pipe to a coprocess, by supplying a second argument to the close function of either "to" or "from" (see Section 4.8 [Closing Input and Output Redirections], page 70). These strings tell gawk to close the end of the pipe that sends data to the process or the end that reads from it, respectively. This is particularly necessary in order to use the system sort utility as part of a coprocess; sort must read all of its input data before it can produce any output. The sort program does not receive an end-of-le indication until gawk closes the write end of the pipe. When you have nished writing data to the sort utility, you can close the "to" end of the pipe, and then start reading sorted data via getline. For example: BEGIN { command = "LC_ALL=C sort" n = split("abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz", a, "") for (i = n; i > 0; i--) print a[i] |& command close(command, "to") while ((command |& getline line) > 0) print "got", line close(command) } This program writes the letters of the alphabet in reverse order, one per line, down the two-way pipe to sort. It then closes the write end of the pipe, so that sort receives an end-of-le indication. This causes sort to sort the data and write the sorted data back to the gawk program. Once all of the data has been read, gawk terminates the coprocess and exits. As a side note, the assignment LC_ALL=C in the sort command ensures traditional Unix (ASCII) sorting from sort. Beginning with gawk 3.1.2, you may use Pseudo-ttys (ptys) for two-way communication instead of pipes, if your system supports them. This is done on a per-command basis, by setting a special element in the PROCINFO array (see Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111), like so: command = "sort -nr" PROCINFO[command, "pty"] = 1 # command, saved in variable for convenience # update PROCINFO

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print ... |& command # start two-way pipe ... Using ptys avoids the buer deadlock issues described earlier, at some loss in performance. If your system does not have ptys, or if all the systems ptys are in use, gawk automatically falls back to using regular pipes.

10.3 Using gawk for Network Programming

EMISTERED: A host is a host from coast to coast, and no-one can talk to host thats close, unless the host that isnt close is busy hung or dead. In addition to being able to open a two-way pipeline to a coprocess on the same system (see Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167), it is possible to make a two-way connection to another process on another system across an IP networking connection. You can think of this as just a very long two-way pipeline to a coprocess. The way gawk decides that you want to use TCP/IP networking is by recognizing special le names that begin with /inet/. The full syntax of the special le name is /inet/protocol /local-port /remotehost /remote-port . The components are: protocol The protocol to use over IP. This must be either tcp, udp, or raw, for a TCP, UDP, or raw IP connection, respectively. The use of TCP is recommended for most applications. Caution: The use of raw sockets is not currently supported in version 3.1 of gawk. The local TCP or UDP port number to use. Use a port number of 0 when you want the system to pick a port. This is what you should do when writing a TCP or UDP client. You may also use a well-known service name, such as smtp or http, in which case gawk attempts to determine the predened port number using the C getservbyname function. The IP address or fully-qualied domain name of the Internet host to which you want to connect. remote-port The TCP or UDP port number to use on the given remote-host. Again, use 0 if you dont care, or else a well-known service name. Consider the following very simple example: BEGIN { Service = "/inet/tcp/0/localhost/daytime" Service |& getline print $0 close(Service) }

local-port

remote-host

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This program reads the current date and time from the local systems TCP daytime server. It then prints the results and closes the connection. Because this topic is extensive, the use of gawk for TCP/IP programming is documented separately. See TCP/IP Internetworking with gawk, which comes as part of the gawk distribution, for a much more complete introduction and discussion, as well as extensive examples.

10.4 Using gawk with BSD Portals

Similar to the /inet special les, if gawk is congured with the --enable-portals option (see Section B.2.1 [Compiling gawk for Unix], page 265), then gawk treats les whose pathnames begin with /p as 4.4 BSD-style portals. When used with the |& operator, gawk opens the le for two-way communications. The operating systems portal mechanism then manages creating the process associated with the portal and the corresponding communications with the portals process.

10.5 Proling Your awk Programs

Beginning with version 3.1 of gawk, you may produce execution traces of your awk programs. This is done with a specially compiled version of gawk, called pgawk (proling gawk). pgawk is identical in every way to gawk, except that when it has nished running, it creates a prole of your program in a le named awkprof.out. Because it is proling, it also executes up to 45% slower than gawk normally does. As shown in the following example, the --profile option can be used to change the name of the le where pgawk will write the prole: $ pgawk --profile=myprog.prof -f myprog.awk data1 data2 In the above example, pgawk places the prole in myprog.prof instead of in awkprof.out. Regular gawk also accepts this option. When called with just --profile, gawk pretty prints the program into awkprof.out, without any execution counts. You may supply an option to --profile to change the le name. Here is a sample session showing a simple awk program, its input data, and the results from running pgawk. First, the awk program: BEGIN { print "First BEGIN rule" } END { print "First END rule" } /foo/ { print "matched /foo/, gosh" for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) sing() } { if (/foo/) print "if is true" else print "else is true"

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} BEGIN { print "Second BEGIN rule" } END { print "Second END rule" } function sing( dummy) { print "I gotta be me!" } Following is the input data: foo bar baz foo junk Here is the awkprof.out that results from running pgawk on this program and data (this example also illustrates that awk programmers sometimes have to work late): # gawk profile, created Sun Aug 13 00:00:15 2000 # BEGIN block(s) BEGIN { 1 1 } # Rule(s) 5 2 6 6 /foo/ { # 2 print "matched /foo/, gosh" for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) { sing() } print "First BEGIN rule" print "Second BEGIN rule"

} 5 5 2 3 3 { if (/foo/) { # 2 print "if is true" } else { print "else is true" } } # END block(s)

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END { 1 1 } # Functions, listed alphabetically 6 6 function sing(dummy) { print "I gotta be me!" } print "First END rule" print "Second END rule"

This example illustrates many of the basic rules for proling output. The rules are as follows: The program is printed in the order BEGIN rule, pattern/action rules, END rule and functions, listed alphabetically. Multiple BEGIN and END rules are merged together. Pattern-action rules have two counts. The rst count, to the left of the rule, shows how many times the rules pattern was tested. The second count, to the right of the rules opening left brace in a comment, shows how many times the rules action was executed. The dierence between the two indicates how many times the rules pattern evaluated to false. Similarly, the count for an if-else statement shows how many times the condition was tested. To the right of the opening left brace for the ifs body is a count showing how many times the condition was true. The count for the else indicates how many times the test failed. The count for a loop header (such as for or while) shows how many times the loop test was executed. (Because of this, you cant just look at the count on the rst statement in a rule to determine how many times the rule was executed. If the rst statement is a loop, the count is misleading.) For user-dened functions, the count next to the function keyword indicates how many times the function was called. The counts next to the statements in the body show how many times those statements were executed. The layout uses K&R style with tabs. Braces are used everywhere, even when the body of an if, else, or loop is only a single statement. Parentheses are used only where needed, as indicated by the structure of the program and the precedence rules. For example, (3 + 5) * 4 means add three plus ve, then multiply the total by four. However, 3 + 5 * 4 has no parentheses, and means 3 + (5 * 4). Parentheses are used around the arguments to print and printf only when the print or printf statement is followed by a redirection. Similarly, if the target of a redirection isnt a scalar, it gets parenthesized. pgawk supplies leading comments in front of the BEGIN and END rules, the pattern/action rules, and the functions. The proled version of your program may not look exactly like what you typed when you wrote it. This is because pgawk creates the proled version by pretty printing its

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internal representation of the program. The advantage to this is that pgawk can produce a standard representation. The disadvantage is that all source-code comments are lost, as are the distinctions among multiple BEGIN and END rules. Also, things such as: /foo/ come out as: /foo/ { print $0 } which is correct, but possibly surprising. Besides creating proles when a program has completed, pgawk can produce a prole while it is running. This is useful if your awk program goes into an innite loop and you want to see what has been executed. To use this feature, run pgawk in the background: $ pgawk -f myprog & [1] 13992 The shell prints a job number and process ID number; in this case, 13992. Use the kill command to send the USR1 signal to pgawk: $ kill -USR1 13992 As usual, the proled version of the program is written to awkprof.out, or to a dierent le if you use the --profile option. Along with the regular prole, as shown earlier, the prole includes a trace of any active functions: # Function Call Stack: # 3. baz # 2. bar # 1. foo # -- main -You may send pgawk the USR1 signal as many times as you like. Each time, the prole and function call trace are appended to the output prole le. If you use the HUP signal instead of the USR1 signal, pgawk produces the prole and the function call trace and then exits. When pgawk runs on MS-DOS or MS-Windows, it uses the INT and QUIT signals for producing the prole and, in the case of the INT signal, pgawk exits. This is because these systems dont support the kill command, so the only signals you can deliver to a program are those generated by the keyboard. The INT signal is generated by the Ctrl-C or Ctrl-BREAK key, while the QUIT signal is generated by the Ctrl-\ key.

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11 Running awk and gawk

This chapter covers how to run awk, both POSIX-standard and gawk-specic command-line options, and what awk and gawk do with non-option arguments. It then proceeds to cover how gawk searches for source les, obsolete options and/or features, and known bugs in gawk. This chapter rounds out the discussion of awk as a program and as a language. While a number of the options and features described here were discussed in passing earlier in the book, this chapter provides the full details.

11.1 Invoking awk

There are two ways to run awkwith an explicit program or with one or more program les. Here are templates for both of them; items enclosed in [. . . ] in these templates are optional: awk [options ] -f progfile [--] file ... awk [options ] [--] program file ... Besides traditional one-letter POSIX-style options, gawk also supports GNU long options. It is possible to invoke awk with an empty program: awk datafile1 datafile2 Doing so makes little sense, though; awk exits silently when given an empty program. If --lint has been specied on the command line, gawk issues a warning that the program is empty.

11.2 Command-Line Options

Options begin with a dash and consist of a single character. GNU-style long options consist of two dashes and a keyword. The keyword can be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviation allows the option to be uniquely identied. If the option takes an argument, then the keyword is either immediately followed by an equals sign (=) and the arguments value, or the keyword and the arguments value are separated by whitespace. If a particular option with a value is given more than once, it is the last value that counts. Each long option for gawk has a corresponding POSIX-style option. The long and short options are interchangeable in all contexts. The options and their meanings are as follows: -F fs --field-separator fs Sets the FS variable to fs (see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43). -f source-file --file source-file Indicates that the awk program is to be found in source-le instead of in the rst non-option argument.

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-v var =val --assign var =val Sets the variable var to the value val before execution of the program begins. Such variable values are available inside the BEGIN rule (see Section 11.3 [Other Command-Line Arguments], page 179). The -v option can only set one variable, but it can be used more than once, setting another variable each time, like this: awk -v foo=1 -v bar=2 .... Caution: Using -v to set the values of the built-in variables may lead to surprising results. awk will reset the values of those variables as it needs to, possibly ignoring any predened value you may have given. -mf N -mr N Sets various memory limits to the value N. The f ag sets the maximum number of elds and the r ag sets the maximum record size. These two ags and the -m option are from the Bell Laboratories research version of Unix awk. They are provided for compatibility but otherwise ignored by gawk, since gawk has no predened limits. (The Bell Laboratories awk no longer needs these options; it continues to accept them to avoid breaking old programs.)

-W gawk-opt Following the POSIX standard, implementation-specic options are supplied as arguments to the -W option. These options also have corresponding GNU-style long options. Note that the long options may be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviations remain unique. The full list of gawk-specic options is provided next. -Signals the end of the command-line options. The following arguments are not treated as options even if they begin with -. This interpretation of -- follows the POSIX argument parsing conventions. This is useful if you have le names that start with -, or in shell scripts, if you have le names that will be specied by the user that could start with -.

The previous list described options mandated by the POSIX standard, as well as options available in the Bell Laboratories version of awk. The following list describes gawk-specic options: -W compat -W traditional --compat --traditional Species compatibility mode, in which the GNU extensions to the awk language are disabled, so that gawk behaves just like the Bell Laboratories research version of Unix awk. --traditional is the preferred form of this option. See Section A.5 [Extensions in gawk Not in POSIX awk], page 256, which summarizes the extensions. Also see Section C.1 [Downward Compatibility and Debugging], page 281. -W copyright --copyright Print the short version of the General Public License and then exit.

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-W copyleft --copyleft Just like --copyright. This option may disappear in a future version of gawk. -W dump-variables[=file ] --dump-variables[=file ] Prints a sorted list of global variables, their types, and nal values to le. If no le is provided, gawk prints this list to the le named awkvars.out in the current directory. Having a list of all global variables is a good way to look for typographical errors in your programs. You would also use this option if you have a large program with a lot of functions, and you want to be sure that your functions dont inadvertently use global variables that you meant to be local. (This is a particularly easy mistake to make with simple variable names like i, j, etc.) -W exec file --exec file Similar to -f, reads awk program text from le. There are two dierences. The st is that this option also terminates option processing; anything else on the command line is passed on directly to the awk program. The second is that command line variable assignments of the form var =value are disallowed. This option is particularly necessary for World Wide Web CGI applications that pass arguments through the URL; using this option prevents a malicious (or other) user from passing in options, assignments, or awk source code (via --source) to the CGI application. This option should be used with #! scripts (see Section 1.1.4 [Executable awk Programs], page 13), like so: #! /usr/local/bin/gawk --exec awk program here ... -W gen-po --gen-po Analyzes the source program and generates a GNU gettext Portable Object le on standard output for all string constants that have been marked for translation. See Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157, for information about this option. -W help -W usage --help --usage

Prints a usage message summarizing the short and long style options that gawk accepts and then exit.

-W lint[=fatal] --lint[=fatal] Warns about constructs that are dubious or nonportable to other awk implementations. Some warnings are issued when gawk rst reads your program. Others are issued at runtime, as your program executes. With an optional argument of fatal, lint warnings become fatal errors. This may be drastic, but its use will certainly encourage the development of cleaner awk programs.

Chapter 11: Running awk and gawk 177

With an optional argument of invalid, only warnings about things that are actually invalid are issued. (This is not fully implemented yet.) Some warnings are only printed once, even if the dubious constructs they warn about occur multiple times in your awk program. Thus, when eliminating problems pointed out by --lint, you should take care to search for all occurrences of each inappropriate construct. As awk programs are usually short, doing so is not burdensome. -W lint-old --lint-old Warns about constructs that are not available in the original version of awk from Version 7 Unix (see Section A.1 [Major Changes Between V7 and SVR3.1], page 253). -W non-decimal-data --non-decimal-data Enable automatic interpretation of octal and hexadecimal values in input data (see Section 10.1 [Allowing Nondecimal Input Data], page 166). Caution: This option can severely break old programs. Use with care. -W posix --posix Operates in strict POSIX mode. This disables all gawk extensions (just like --traditional) and adds the following additional restrictions: \x escape sequences are not recognized (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). Newlines do not act as whitespace to separate elds when FS is equal to a single space (see Section 3.2 [Examining Fields], page 39). Newlines are not allowed after ? or : (see Section 5.12 [Conditional Expressions], page 90). The synonym func for the keyword function is not recognized (see Section 8.2.1 [Function Denition Syntax], page 150). The ** and **= operators cannot be used in place of ^ and ^= (see Section 5.5 [Arithmetic Operators], page 79, and also see Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). Specifying -Ft on the command-line does not set the value of FS to be a single TAB character (see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43). The locales decimal point character is used for parsing input data (see Section 2.9 [Where You Are Makes A Dierence], page 35). The fflush built-in function is not supported (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141). If you supply both --traditional and --posix on the command line, --posix takes precedence. gawk also issues a warning if both options are supplied.

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-W profile[=file ] --profile[=file ] Enable proling of awk programs (see Section 10.5 [Proling Your awk Programs], page 170). By default, proles are created in a le named awkprof.out. The optional le argument allows you to specify a dierent le name for the prole le. When run with gawk, the prole is just a pretty printed version of the program. When run with pgawk, the prole contains execution counts for each statement in the program in the left margin, and function call counts for each function. -W re-interval --re-interval Allows interval expressions (see Section 2.3 [Regular Expression Operators], page 27) in regexps. Because interval expressions were traditionally not available in awk, gawk does not provide them by default. This prevents old awk programs from breaking. -W source program-text --source program-text Allows you to mix source code in les with source code that you enter on the command line. Program source code is taken from the program-text. This is particularly useful when you have library functions that you want to use from your command-line programs (see Section 11.4 [The AWKPATH Environment Variable], page 180). -W use-lc-numeric --use-lc-numeric This option forces the use of the locales decimal point character when parsing numeric input data (see Section 2.9 [Where You Are Makes A Dierence], page 35). -W version --version Prints version information for this particular copy of gawk. This allows you to determine if your copy of gawk is up to date with respect to whatever the Free Software Foundation is currently distributing. It is also useful for bug reports (see Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277). As long as program text has been supplied, any other options are agged as invalid with a warning message but are otherwise ignored. In compatibility mode, as a special case, if the value of fs supplied to the -F option is t, then FS is set to the TAB character ("\t"). This is true only for --traditional and not for --posix (see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43). The -f option may be used more than once on the command line. If it is, awk reads its program source from all of the named les, as if they had been concatenated together into one big le. This is useful for creating libraries of awk functions. These functions can be written once and then retrieved from a standard place, instead of having to be included

Chapter 11: Running awk and gawk 179

into each individual program. (As mentioned in Section 8.2.1 [Function Denition Syntax], page 150, function names must be unique.) Library functions can still be used, even if the program is entered at the terminal, by specifying -f /dev/tty. After typing your program, type Ctrl-d (the end-of-le character) to terminate it. (You may also use -f - to read program source from the standard input but then you will not be able to also use the standard input as a source of data.) Because it is clumsy using the standard awk mechanisms to mix source le and commandline awk programs, gawk provides the --source option. This does not require you to preempt the standard input for your source code; it allows you to easily mix command-line and library source code (see Section 11.4 [The AWKPATH Environment Variable], page 180). If no -f or --source option is specied, then gawk uses the rst non-option commandline argument as the text of the program source code. If the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT exists, then gawk behaves in strict POSIX mode, exactly as if you had supplied the --posix command-line option. Many GNU programs look for this environment variable to turn on strict POSIX mode. If --lint is supplied on the command line and gawk turns on POSIX mode because of POSIXLY_ CORRECT, then it issues a warning message indicating that POSIX mode is in eect. You would typically set this variable in your shells startup le. For a Bourne-compatible shell (such as bash), you would add these lines to the .profile le in your home directory: POSIXLY_CORRECT=true export POSIXLY_CORRECT For a csh-compatible shell,1 you would add this line to the .login le in your home directory: setenv POSIXLY_CORRECT true Having POSIXLY_CORRECT set is not recommended for daily use, but it is good for testing the portability of your programs to other environments.

11.3 Other Command-Line Arguments

Any additional arguments on the command line are normally treated as input les to be processed in the order specied. However, an argument that has the form var =value , assigns the value value to the variable varit does not specify a le at all. (This was discussed earlier in Section 5.3.2 [Assigning Variables on the Command Line], page 76.) All these arguments are made available to your awk program in the ARGV array (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). Command-line options and the program text (if present) are omitted from ARGV. All other arguments, including variable assignments, are included. As each element of ARGV is processed, gawk sets the variable ARGIND to the index in ARGV of the current element. The distinction between le name arguments and variable-assignment arguments is made when awk is about to open the next input le. At that point in execution, it checks the le name to see whether it is really a variable assignment; if so, awk sets the variable instead of reading a le.
1

Not recommended.

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Therefore, the variables actually receive the given values after all previously specied les have been read. In particular, the values of variables assigned in this fashion are not available inside a BEGIN rule (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97), because such rules are run before awk begins scanning the argument list. The variable values given on the command line are processed for escape sequences (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). In some earlier implementations of awk, when a variable assignment occurred before any le names, the assignment would happen before the BEGIN rule was executed. awks behavior was thus inconsistent; some command-line assignments were available inside the BEGIN rule, while others were not. Unfortunately, some applications came to depend upon this feature. When awk was changed to be more consistent, the -v option was added to accommodate applications that depended upon the old behavior. The variable assignment feature is most useful for assigning to variables such as RS, OFS, and ORS, which control input and output formats before scanning the data les. It is also useful for controlling state if multiple passes are needed over a data le. For example: awk pass == 1 { pass 1 stuff } pass == 2 { pass 2 stuff } pass=1 mydata pass=2 mydata Given the variable assignment feature, the -F option for setting the value of FS is not strictly necessary. It remains for historical compatibility.

11.4 The AWKPATH Environment Variable

In most awk implementations, you must supply a precise path name for each program le, unless the le is in the current directory. But in gawk, if the le name supplied to the -f option does not contain a /, then gawk searches a list of directories (called the search path), one by one, looking for a le with the specied name. The search path is a string consisting of directory names separated by colons. gawk gets its search path from the AWKPATH environment variable. If that variable does not exist, gawk uses a default path, .:/usr/local/share/awk.2 (Programs written for use by system administrators should use an AWKPATH variable that does not include the current directory, ..) The search path feature is particularly useful for building libraries of useful awk functions. The library les can be placed in a standard directory in the default path and then specied on the command line with a short le name. Otherwise, the full le name would have to be typed for each le. By using both the --source and -f options, your command-line awk programs can use facilities in awk library les (see Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182). Path searching is not done if gawk is in compatibility mode. This is true for both --traditional and --posix. See Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174. NOTE: If you want les in the current directory to be found, you must include the current directory in the path, either by including . explicitly in the path or by writing a null entry in the path. (A null entry is indicated by starting
2

Your version of gawk may use a dierent directory; it will depend upon how gawk was built and installed. The actual directory is the value of $(datadir) generated when gawk was congured. You probably dont need to worry about this, though.

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or ending the path with a colon or by placing two colons next to each other (::).) If the current directory is not included in the path, then les cannot be found in the current directory. This path search mechanism is identical to the shells. Starting with version 3.0, if AWKPATH is not dened in the environment, gawk places its default search path into ENVIRON["AWKPATH"]. This makes it easy to determine the actual search path that gawk will use from within an awk program. While you can change ENVIRON["AWKPATH"] within your awk program, this has no eect on the running programs behavior. This makes sense: the AWKPATH environment variable is used to nd the program source les. Once your program is running, all the les have been found, and gawk no longer needs to use AWKPATH.

11.5 Obsolete Options and/or Features

This section describes features and/or command-line options from previous releases of gawk that are either not available in the current version or that are still supported but deprecated (meaning that they will not be in the next release). For version 3.1 of gawk, there are no deprecated command-line options from the previous version of gawk. The use of next file (two words) for nextfile was deprecated in gawk 3.0 but still worked. Starting with version 3.1, the two-word usage is no longer accepted. The process-related special les described in Section 4.7.2 [Special Files for ProcessRelated Information], page 69, work as described, but are now considered deprecated. gawk prints a warning message every time they are used. (Use PROCINFO instead; see Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111.) They will be removed from the next release of gawk.

11.6 Undocumented Options and Features

Use the Source, Luke! Obi-Wan This section intentionally left blank.

11.7 Known Bugs in gawk

The -F option for changing the value of FS (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174) is not necessary given the command-line variable assignment feature; it remains only for backward compatibility. Syntactically invalid single-character programs tend to overow the parse stack, generating a rather unhelpful message. Such programs are surprisingly dicult to diagnose in the completely general case, and the eort to do so really is not worth it.

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12 A Library of awk Functions

Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150, describes how to write your own awk functions. Writing functions is important, because it allows you to encapsulate algorithms and program tasks in a single place. It simplies programming, making program development more manageable, and making programs more readable. One valuable way to learn a new programming language is to read programs in that language. To that end, this chapter and Chapter 13 [Practical awk Programs], page 211, provide a good-sized body of code for you to read, and hopefully, to learn from. This chapter presents a library of useful awk functions. Many of the sample programs presented later in this book use these functions. The functions are presented here in a progression from simple to complex. Section 13.3.7 [Extracting Programs from Texinfo Source Files], page 240, presents a program that you can use to extract the source code for these example library functions and programs from the Texinfo source for this book. (This has already been done as part of the gawk distribution.) If you have written one or more useful, general-purpose awk functions and would like to contribute them to the authors collection of awk programs, see [How to Contribute], page 8, for more information. The programs in this chapter and in Chapter 13 [Practical awk Programs], page 211, freely use features that are gawk-specic. Rewriting these programs for dierent implementations of awk is pretty straightforward. Diagnostic error messages are sent to /dev/stderr. Use | "cat 1>&2" instead of > "/dev/stderr" if your system does not have a /dev/stderr, or if you cannot use gawk. A number of programs use nextfile (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107) to skip any remaining input in the input le. Section 12.2.1 [Implementing nextfile as a Function], page 184, shows you how to write a function that does the same thing. Finally, some of the programs choose to ignore upper- and lowercase distinctions in their input. They do so by assigning one to IGNORECASE. You can achieve almost the same eect1 by adding the following rule to the beginning of the program: # ignore case { $0 = tolower($0) } Also, verify that all regexp and string constants used in comparisons use only lowercase letters.

12.1 Naming Library Function Global Variables

Due to the way the awk language evolved, variables are either global (usable by the entire program) or local (usable just by a specic function). There is no intermediate state analogous to static variables in C. Library functions often need to have global variables that they can use to preserve state information between calls to the functionfor example, getopts variable _opti (see
1

The eects are not identical. Output of the transformed record will be in all lowercase, while IGNORECASE preserves the original contents of the input record.

Chapter 12: A Library of awk Functions 183

Section 12.4 [Processing Command-Line Options], page 197). Such variables are called private, since the only functions that need to use them are the ones in the library. When writing a library function, you should try to choose names for your private variables that will not conict with any variables used by either another library function or a users main program. For example, a name like i or j is not a good choice, because user programs often use variable names like these for their own purposes. The example programs shown in this chapter all start the names of their private variables with an underscore (_). Users generally dont use leading underscores in their variable names, so this convention immediately decreases the chances that the variable name will be accidentally shared with the users program. In addition, several of the library functions use a prex that helps indicate what function or set of functions use the variablesfor example, _pw_byname in the user database routines (see Section 12.5 [Reading the User Database], page 202). This convention is recommended, since it even further decreases the chance of inadvertent conict among variable names. Note that this convention is used equally well for variable names and for private function names as well.2 As a nal note on variable naming, if a function makes global variables available for use by a main program, it is a good convention to start that variables name with a capital letterfor example, getopts Opterr and Optind variables (see Section 12.4 [Processing Command-Line Options], page 197). The leading capital letter indicates that it is global, while the fact that the variable name is not all capital letters indicates that the variable is not one of awks built-in variables, such as FS. It is also important that all variables in library functions that do not need to save state are, in fact, declared local.3 If this is not done, the variable could accidentally be used in the users program, leading to bugs that are very dicult to track down: function lib_func(x, y, l1, l2) { ... use variable some_var # some_var should be local ... # but is not by oversight } A dierent convention, common in the Tcl community, is to use a single associative array to hold the values needed by the library function(s), or package. This signicantly decreases the number of actual global names in use. For example, the functions described in Section 12.5 [Reading the User Database], page 202, might have used array elements PW_data["inited"], PW_data["total"], PW_data["count"], and PW_data["awklib"], instead of _pw_inited, _pw_awklib, _pw_total, and _pw_count. The conventions presented in this section are exactly that: conventions. You are not required to write your programs this waywe merely recommend that you do so.
2 3

While all the library routines could have been rewritten to use this convention, this was not done, in order to show how my own awk programming style has evolved and to provide some basis for this discussion. gawks --dump-variables command-line option is useful for verifying this.

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12.2 General Programming

This section presents a number of functions that are of general programming use.

12.2.1 Implementing nextfile as a Function

The nextfile statement, presented in Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107, is a gawk-specic extensionit is not available in most other implementations of awk. This section shows two versions of a nextfile function that you can use to simulate gawks nextfile statement if you cannot use gawk. A rst attempt at writing a nextfile function is as follows: # nextfile --- skip remaining records in current file # this should be read in before the "main" awk program function nextfile() { _abandon_ = FILENAME; next } _abandon_ == FILENAME { next } Because it supplies a rule that must be executed rst, this le should be included before the main program. This rule compares the current data les name (which is always in the FILENAME variable) to a private variable named _abandon_. If the le name matches, then the action part of the rule executes a next statement to go on to the next record. (The use of _ in the variable name is a convention. It is discussed more fully in Section 12.1 [Naming Library Function Global Variables], page 182.) The use of the next statement eectively creates a loop that reads all the records from the current data le. The end of the le is eventually reached and a new data le is opened, changing the value of FILENAME. Once this happens, the comparison of _abandon_ to FILENAME fails, and execution continues with the rst rule of the real program. The nextfile function itself simply sets the value of _abandon_ and then executes a next statement to start the loop. This initial version has a subtle problem. If the same data le is listed twice on the command line, one right after the other or even with just a variable assignment between them, this code skips right through the le a second time, even though it should stop when it gets to the end of the rst occurrence. A second version of nextfile that remedies this problem is shown here: # nextfile --- skip remaining records in current file # correctly handle successive occurrences of the same file # this should be read in before the "main" awk program function nextfile() { _abandon_ = FILENAME; next }

_abandon_ == FILENAME { if (FNR == 1) _abandon_ = "" else next } The nextfile function has not changed. It makes _abandon_ equal to the current le name and then executes a next statement. The next statement reads the next record and

Chapter 12: A Library of awk Functions 185

increments FNR so that FNR is guaranteed to have a value of at least two. However, if nextfile is called for the last record in the le, then awk closes the current data le and moves on to the next one. Upon doing so, FILENAME is set to the name of the new le and FNR is reset to one. If this next le is the same as the previous one, _abandon_ is still equal to FILENAME. However, FNR is equal to one, telling us that this is a new occurrence of the le and not the one we were reading when the nextfile function was executed. In that case, _abandon_ is reset to the empty string, so that further executions of this rule fail (until the next time that nextfile is called). If FNR is not one, then we are still in the original data le and the program executes a next statement to skip through it. An important question to ask at this point is: given that the functionality of nextfile can be provided with a library le, why is it built into gawk? Adding features for little reason leads to larger, slower programs that are harder to maintain. The answer is that building nextfile into gawk provides signicant gains in eciency. If the nextfile function is executed at the beginning of a large data le, awk still has to scan the entire le, splitting it up into records, just to skip over it. The built-in nextfile can simply close the le immediately and proceed to the next one, which saves a lot of time. This is particularly important in awk, because awk programs are generally I/O-bound (i.e., they spend most of their time doing input and output, instead of performing computations).

12.2.2 Converting Strings To Numbers

The strtonum function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130) is a gawk extension. The following function provides an implementation for other versions of awk: # strtonum --- convert string to number function mystrtonum(str, ret, chars, n, i, k, c) { if (str ~ /^0[0-7]*$/) { # octal n = length(str) ret = 0 for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { c = substr(str, i, 1) if ((k = index("01234567", c)) > 0) k-- # adjust for 1-basing in awk ret = ret * 8 + k } } else if (str ~ /^0[xX][0-9a-fA-f]+/) { # hexadecimal str = substr(str, 3) # lop off leading 0x n = length(str) ret = 0 for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { c = substr(str, i, 1) c = tolower(c)

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if ((k = index("0123456789", c)) > 0) k-- # adjust for 1-basing in awk else if ((k = index("abcdef", c)) > 0) k += 9

ret = ret * 16 + k } } else if (str ~ /^[-+]?([0-9]+([.][0-9]*([Ee][0-9]+)?)?|([.][0-9]+([Ee][-+]?[0-9]+ # decimal number, possibly floating point ret = str + 0 } else ret = "NOT-A-NUMBER" return ret } # BEGIN { # gawk test harness # a[1] = "25" # a[2] = ".31" # a[3] = "0123" # a[4] = "0xdeadBEEF" # a[5] = "123.45" # a[6] = "1.e3" # a[7] = "1.32" # a[7] = "1.32E2" # # for (i = 1; i in a; i++) # print a[i], strtonum(a[i]), mystrtonum(a[i]) # } The function rst looks for C-style octal numbers (base 8). If the input string matches a regular expression describing octal numbers, then mystrtonum loops through each character in the string. It sets k to the index in "01234567" of the current octal digit. Since the return value is one-based, the k-- adjusts k so it can be used in computing the return value. Similar logic applies to the code that checks for and converts a hexadecimal value, which starts with 0x or 0X. The use of tolower simplies the computation for nding the correct numeric value for each hexadecimal digit. Finally, if the string matches the (rather complicated) regex for a regular decimal integer or oating-point number, the computation ret = str + 0 lets awk convert the value to a number. A commented-out test program is included, so that the function can be tested with gawk and the results compared to the built-in strtonum function.

12.2.3 Assertions
When writing large programs, it is often useful to know that a condition or set of conditions is true. Before proceeding with a particular computation, you make a statement about what

Chapter 12: A Library of awk Functions 187

you believe to be the case. Such a statement is known as an assertion. The C language provides an <assert.h> header le and corresponding assert macro that the programmer can use to make assertions. If an assertion fails, the assert macro arranges to print a diagnostic message describing the condition that should have been true but was not, and then it kills the program. In C, using assert looks this: #include <assert.h> int myfunc(int a, double b) { assert(a <= 5 && b >= 17.1); ... } If the assertion fails, the program prints a message similar to this: prog.c:5: assertion failed: a <= 5 && b >= 17.1 The C language makes it possible to turn the condition into a string for use in printing the diagnostic message. This is not possible in awk, so this assert function also requires a string version of the condition that is being tested. Following is the function: # assert --- assert that a condition is true. Otherwise exit. function assert(condition, string) { if (! condition) { printf("%s:%d: assertion failed: %s\n", FILENAME, FNR, string) > "/dev/stderr" _assert_exit = 1 exit 1 } } END { if (_assert_exit) exit 1 } The assert function tests the condition parameter. If it is false, it prints a message to standard error, using the string parameter to describe the failed condition. It then sets the variable _assert_exit to one and executes the exit statement. The exit statement jumps to the END rule. If the END rules nds _assert_exit to be true, it exits immediately. The purpose of the test in the END rule is to keep any other END rules from running. When an assertion fails, the program should exit immediately. If no assertions fail, then _assert_exit is still false when the END rule is run normally, and the rest of the programs END rules execute. For all of this to work correctly, assert.awk must be the rst source le read by awk. The function can be used in a program in the following way: function myfunc(a, b) { assert(a <= 5 && b >= 17.1, "a <= 5 && b >= 17.1") ...

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} If the assertion fails, you see a message similar to the following: mydata:1357: assertion failed: a <= 5 && b >= 17.1 There is a small problem with this version of assert. An END rule is automatically added to the program calling assert. Normally, if a program consists of just a BEGIN rule, the input les and/or standard input are not read. However, now that the program has an END rule, awk attempts to read the input data les or standard input (see Section 6.1.4.1 [Startup and Cleanup Actions], page 97), most likely causing the program to hang as it waits for input. There is a simple workaround to this: make sure the BEGIN rule always ends with an exit statement.

12.2.4 Rounding Numbers

The way printf and sprintf (see Section 4.5 [Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing], page 60) perform rounding often depends upon the systems C sprintf subroutine. On many machines, sprintf rounding is unbiased, which means it doesnt always round a trailing .5 up, contrary to naive expectations. In unbiased rounding, .5 rounds to even, rather than always up, so 1.5 rounds to 2 but 4.5 rounds to 4. This means that if you are using a format that does rounding (e.g., "%.0f"), you should check what your system does. The following function does traditional rounding; it might be useful if your awks printf does unbiased rounding: # round.awk --- do normal rounding function round(x, ival, aval, fraction) { ival = int(x) # integer part, int() truncates # see if fractional part if (ival == x) # no fraction return x if (x < 0) { aval = -x # absolute value ival = int(aval) fraction = aval - ival if (fraction >= .5) return int(x) - 1 # -2.5 --> -3 else return int(x) # -2.3 --> -2 } else { fraction = x - ival if (fraction >= .5) return ival + 1 else return ival } }

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# test harness { print $0, round($0) }

12.2.5 The Cli Random Number Generator

The Cli random number generator4 is a very simple random number generator that passes the noise sphere test for randomness by showing no structure. It is easily programmed, in less than 10 lines of awk code: # cliff_rand.awk --- generate Cliff random numbers BEGIN { _cliff_seed = 0.1 } function cliff_rand() { _cliff_seed = (100 * log(_cliff_seed)) % 1 if (_cliff_seed < 0) _cliff_seed = - _cliff_seed return _cliff_seed } This algorithm requires an initial seed of 0.1. Each new value uses the current seed as input for the calculation. If the built-in rand function (see Section 8.1.2 [Numeric Functions], page 128) isnt random enough, you might try using this function instead.

12.2.6 Translating Between Characters and Numbers

One commercial implementation of awk supplies a built-in function, ord, which takes a character and returns the numeric value for that character in the machines character set. If the string passed to ord has more than one character, only the rst one is used. The inverse of this function is chr (from the function of the same name in Pascal), which takes a number and returns the corresponding character. Both functions are written very nicely in awk; there is no real reason to build them into the awk interpreter: # ord.awk --- do ord and chr # Global identifiers: # _ord_: numerical values indexed by characters # _ord_init: function to initialize _ord_ BEGIN { _ord_init() } function _ord_init( low, high, i, t) { low = sprintf("%c", 7) # BEL is ascii 7 if (low == "\a") { # regular ascii low = 0 high = 127 } else if (sprintf("%c", 128 + 7) == "\a") { # ascii, mark parity
4

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CliffRandomNumberGenerator.html

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low = 128 high = 255 } else { low = 0 high = 255 }

# ebcdic(!)

for (i = low; i <= high; i++) { t = sprintf("%c", i) _ord_[t] = i } } Some explanation of the numbers used by chr is worthwhile. The most prominent character set in use today is ASCII. Although an 8-bit byte can hold 256 distinct values (from 0 to 255), ASCII only denes characters that use the values from 0 to 127.5 In the now distant past, at least one minicomputer manufacturer used ASCII, but with mark parity, meaning that the leftmost bit in the byte is always 1. This means that on those systems, characters have numeric values from 128 to 255. Finally, large mainframe systems use the EBCDIC character set, which uses all 256 values. While there are other character sets in use on some older systems, they are not really worth worrying about: function ord(str, c) { # only first character is of interest c = substr(str, 1, 1) return _ord_[c] } function chr(c) { # force c to be numeric by adding 0 return sprintf("%c", c + 0) } #### test code #### # BEGIN \ # { # for (;;) { # printf("enter a character: ") # if (getline var <= 0) # break # printf("ord(%s) = %d\n", var, ord(var)) # } # }
5

ASCII has been extended in many countries to use the values from 128 to 255 for country-specic characters. If your system uses these extensions, you can simplify _ord_init to simply loop from 0 to 255.

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An obvious improvement to these functions is to move the code for the _ord_init function into the body of the BEGIN rule. It was written this way initially for ease of development. There is a test program in a BEGIN rule, to test the function. It is commented out for production use.

12.2.7 Merging an Array into a String

When doing string processing, it is often useful to be able to join all the strings in an array into one long string. The following function, join, accomplishes this task. It is used later in several of the application programs (see Chapter 13 [Practical awk Programs], page 211). Good function design is important; this function needs to be general but it should also have a reasonable default behavior. It is called with an array as well as the beginning and ending indices of the elements in the array to be merged. This assumes that the array indices are numerica reasonable assumption since the array was likely created with split (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130): # join.awk --- join an array into a string function join(array, start, end, sep, result, i) { if (sep == "") sep = " " else if (sep == SUBSEP) # magic value sep = "" result = array[start] for (i = start + 1; i <= end; i++) result = result sep array[i] return result } An optional additional argument is the separator to use when joining the strings back together. If the caller supplies a nonempty value, join uses it; if it is not supplied, it has a null value. In this case, join uses a single blank as a default separator for the strings. If the value is equal to SUBSEP, then join joins the strings with no separator between them. SUBSEP serves as a magic value to indicate that there should be no separation between the component strings.6

12.2.8 Managing the Time of Day

The systime and strftime functions described in Section 8.1.5 [Using gawks Timestamp Functions], page 143, provide the minimum functionality necessary for dealing with the time of day in human readable form. While strftime is extensive, the control formats are not necessarily easy to remember or intuitively obvious when reading a program. The following function, gettimeofday, populates a user-supplied array with preformatted time information. It returns a string with the current time formatted in the same way as the date utility: # gettimeofday.awk --- get the time of day in a usable format
6

It would be nice if awk had an assignment operator for concatenation. The lack of an explicit operator for concatenation makes string operations more dicult than they really need to be.

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# Returns a string in the format of output of date(1) # Populates the array argument time with individual values: # time["second"] -- seconds (0 - 59) # time["minute"] -- minutes (0 - 59) # time["hour"] -- hours (0 - 23) # time["althour"] -- hours (0 - 12) # time["monthday"] -- day of month (1 - 31) # time["month"] -- month of year (1 - 12) # time["monthname"] -- name of the month # time["shortmonth"] -- short name of the month # time["year"] -- year modulo 100 (0 - 99) # time["fullyear"] -- full year # time["weekday"] -- day of week (Sunday = 0) # time["altweekday"] -- day of week (Monday = 0) # time["dayname"] -- name of weekday # time["shortdayname"] -- short name of weekday # time["yearday"] -- day of year (0 - 365) # time["timezone"] -- abbreviation of timezone name # time["ampm"] -- AM or PM designation # time["weeknum"] -- week number, Sunday first day # time["altweeknum"] -- week number, Monday first day function gettimeofday(time, ret, now, i) { # get time once, avoids unnecessary system calls now = systime() # return date(1)-style output ret = strftime("%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Z %Y", now) # clear out target array delete time # fill in values, force numeric values to be # numeric by adding 0 time["second"] = strftime("%S", now) + time["minute"] = strftime("%M", now) + time["hour"] = strftime("%H", now) + time["althour"] = strftime("%I", now) + time["monthday"] = strftime("%d", now) + time["month"] = strftime("%m", now) + time["monthname"] = strftime("%B", now) time["shortmonth"] = strftime("%b", now) time["year"] = strftime("%y", now) + time["fullyear"] = strftime("%Y", now) + time["weekday"] = strftime("%w", now) + time["altweekday"] = strftime("%u", now) +

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

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time["dayname"] time["shortdayname"] time["yearday"] time["timezone"] time["ampm"] time["weeknum"] time["altweeknum"] return ret }

= = = = = = =

strftime("%A", strftime("%a", strftime("%j", strftime("%Z", strftime("%p", strftime("%U", strftime("%W",

now) now) now) + 0 now) now) now) + 0 now) + 0

The string indices are easier to use and read than the various formats required by strftime. The alarm program presented in Section 13.3.2 [An Alarm Clock Program], page 232, uses this function. A more general design for the gettimeofday function would have allowed the user to supply an optional timestamp value to use instead of the current time.

12.3 Data File Management

This section presents functions that are useful for managing command-line data les.

12.3.1 Noting Data File Boundaries

The BEGIN and END rules are each executed exactly once at the beginning and end of your awk program, respectively (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). We (the gawk authors) once had a user who mistakenly thought that the BEGIN rule is executed at the beginning of each data le and the END rule is executed at the end of each data le. When informed that this was not the case, the user requested that we add new special patterns to gawk, named BEGIN_FILE and END_FILE, that would have the desired behavior. He even supplied us the code to do so. Adding these special patterns to gawk wasnt necessary; the job can be done cleanly in awk itself, as illustrated by the following library program. It arranges to call two usersupplied functions, beginfile and endfile, at the beginning and end of each data le. Besides solving the problem in only nine(!) lines of code, it does so portably ; this works with any implementation of awk: # # # # # # # transfile.awk Give the user a hook for filename transitions The user must supply functions beginfile() and endfile() that each take the name of the file being started or finished, respectively.

FILENAME != _oldfilename \ { if (_oldfilename != "") endfile(_oldfilename) _oldfilename = FILENAME

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beginfile(FILENAME) } END { endfile(FILENAME) } This le must be loaded before the users main program, so that the rule it supplies is executed rst. This rule relies on awks FILENAME variable that automatically changes for each new data le. The current le name is saved in a private variable, _oldfilename. If FILENAME does not equal _oldfilename, then a new data le is being processed and it is necessary to call endfile for the old le. Because endfile should only be called if a le has been processed, the program rst checks to make sure that _oldfilename is not the null string. The program then assigns the current le name to _oldfilename and calls beginfile for the le. Because, like all awk variables, _oldfilename is initialized to the null string, this rule executes correctly even for the rst data le. The program also supplies an END rule to do the nal processing for the last le. Because this END rule comes before any END rules supplied in the main program, endfile is called rst. Once again the value of multiple BEGIN and END rules should be clear. This version has same problem as the rst version of nextfile (see Section 12.2.1 [Implementing nextfile as a Function], page 184). If the same data le occurs twice in a row on the command line, then endfile and beginfile are not executed at the end of the rst pass and at the beginning of the second pass. The following version solves the problem: # ftrans.awk --- handle data file transitions # # user supplies beginfile() and endfile() functions FNR == 1 { if (_filename_ != "") endfile(_filename_) _filename_ = FILENAME beginfile(FILENAME) } END { endfile(_filename_) } Section 13.2.7 [Counting Things], page 229, shows how this library function can be used and how it simplies writing the main program.

12.3.2 Rereading the Current File

Another request for a new built-in function was for a rewind function that would make it possible to reread the current le. The requesting user didnt want to have to use getline (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51) inside a loop. However, as long as you are not in the END rule, it is quite easy to arrange to immediately close the current input le and then start over with it from the top. For lack of a better name, well call it rewind: # rewind.awk --- rewind the current file and start over function rewind( i) {

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# shift remaining arguments up for (i = ARGC; i > ARGIND; i--) ARGV[i] = ARGV[i-1] # make sure gawk knows to keep going ARGC++ # make current file next to get done ARGV[ARGIND+1] = FILENAME # do it nextfile } This code relies on the ARGIND variable (see Section 6.5.2 [Built-in Variables That Convey Information], page 111), which is specic to gawk. If you are not using gawk, you can use ideas presented in the previous section to either update ARGIND on your own or modify this code as appropriate. The rewind function also relies on the nextfile keyword (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107). See Section 12.2.1 [Implementing nextfile as a Function], page 184, for a function version of nextfile.

12.3.3 Checking for Readable Data Files

Normally, if you give awk a data le that isnt readable, it stops with a fatal error. There are times when you might want to just ignore such les and keep going. You can do this by prepending the following program to your awk program: # readable.awk --- library file to skip over unreadable files BEGIN { for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) { if (ARGV[i] ~ /^[A-Za-z_][A-Za-z0-9_]*=.*/ \ || ARGV[i] == "-") continue # assignment or standard input else if ((getline junk < ARGV[i]) < 0) # unreadable delete ARGV[i] else close(ARGV[i]) } } In gawk, the getline wont be fatal (unless --posix is in force). Removing the element from ARGV with delete skips the le (since its no longer in the list).

12.3.4 Checking For Zero-length Files

All known awk implementations silently skip over zero-length les. This is a by-product of awks implicit read-a-record-and-match-against-the-rules loop: when awk tries to read a record from an empty le, it immediately receives an end of le indication, closes the le, and proceeds on to the next command-line data le, without executing any user-level awk program code.

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Using gawks ARGIND variable (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108), it is possible to detect when an empty data le has been skipped. Similar to the library le presented in Section 12.3.1 [Noting Data File Boundaries], page 193, the following library le calls a function named zerofile that the user must provide. The arguments passed are the le name and the position in ARGV where it was found: # zerofile.awk --- library file to process empty input files BEGIN { Argind = 0 } ARGIND > Argind + 1 { for (Argind++; Argind < ARGIND; Argind++) zerofile(ARGV[Argind], Argind) } ARGIND != Argind { Argind = ARGIND } END { if (ARGIND > Argind) for (Argind++; Argind <= ARGIND; Argind++) zerofile(ARGV[Argind], Argind) } The user-level variable Argind allows the awk program to track its progress through ARGV. Whenever the program detects that ARGIND is greater than Argind + 1, it means that one or more empty les were skipped. The action then calls zerofile for each such le, incrementing Argind along the way. The Argind != ARGIND rule simply keeps Argind up to date in the normal case. Finally, the END rule catches the case of any empty les at the end of the command-line arguments. Note that the test in the condition of the for loop uses the <= operator, not <. As an exercise, you might consider whether this same problem can be solved without relying on gawks ARGIND variable. As a second exercise, revise this code to handle the case where an intervening value in ARGV is a variable assignment.

12.3.5 Treating Assignments as File Names

Occasionally, you might not want awk to process command-line variable assignments (see Section 5.3.2 [Assigning Variables on the Command Line], page 76). In particular, if you have le names that contain an = character, awk treats the le name as an assignment, and does not process it. Some users have suggested an additional command-line option for gawk to disable command-line assignments. However, some simple programming with a library le does the trick: # noassign.awk --- library file to avoid the need for a # special option that disables command-line assignments function disable_assigns(argc, argv, i) {

Chapter 12: A Library of awk Functions 197

for (i = 1; i < argc; i++) if (argv[i] ~ /^[A-Za-z_][A-Za-z_0-9]*=.*/) argv[i] = ("./" argv[i]) } BEGIN { if (No_command_assign) disable_assigns(ARGC, ARGV) } You then run your program this way: awk -v No_command_assign=1 -f noassign.awk -f yourprog.awk * The function works by looping through the arguments. It prepends ./ to any argument that matches the form of a variable assignment, turning that argument into a le name. The use of No_command_assign allows you to disable command-line assignments at invocation time, by giving the variable a true value. When not set, it is initially zero (i.e., false), so the command-line arguments are left alone.

12.4 Processing Command-Line Options

Most utilities on POSIX compatible systems take options, or switches, on the command line that can be used to change the way a program behaves. awk is an example of such a program (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Often, options take arguments ; i.e., data that the program needs to correctly obey the command-line option. For example, awks -F option requires a string to use as the eld separator. The rst occurrence on the command line of either -- or a string that does not begin with - ends the options. Modern Unix systems provide a C function named getopt for processing command-line arguments. The programmer provides a string describing the one-letter options. If an option requires an argument, it is followed in the string with a colon. getopt is also passed the count and values of the command-line arguments and is called in a loop. getopt processes the command-line arguments for option letters. Each time around the loop, it returns a single character representing the next option letter that it nds, or ? if it nds an invalid option. When it returns 1, there are no options left on the command line. When using getopt, options that do not take arguments can be grouped together. Furthermore, options that take arguments require that the argument is present. The argument can immediately follow the option letter, or it can be a separate command-line argument. Given a hypothetical program that takes three command-line options, -a, -b, and -c, where -b requires an argument, all of the following are valid ways of invoking the program: prog -a -b foo -c data1 data2 data3 prog -ac -bfoo -- data1 data2 data3 prog -acbfoo data1 data2 data3 Notice that when the argument is grouped with its option, the rest of the argument is considered to be the options argument. In this example, -acbfoo indicates that all of the -a, -b, and -c options were supplied, and that foo is the argument to the -b option.

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getopt provides four external variables that the programmer can use: optind optarg opterr The index in the argument value array (argv) where the rst nonoption command-line argument can be found. The string value of the argument to an option. Usually getopt prints an error message when it nds an invalid option. Setting opterr to zero disables this feature. (An application might want to print its own error message.) The letter representing the command-line option.

optopt

The following C fragment shows how getopt might process command-line arguments for awk: int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { ... /* print our own message */ opterr = 0; while ((c = getopt(argc, argv, "v:f:F:W:")) != -1) { switch (c) { case f: /* file */ ... break; case F: /* field separator */ ... break; case v: /* variable assignment */ ... break; case W: /* extension */ ... break; case ?: default: usage(); break; } } ... } As a side point, gawk actually uses the GNU getopt_long function to process both normal and GNU-style long options (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The abstraction provided by getopt is very useful and is quite handy in awk programs as well. Following is an awk version of getopt. This function highlights one of the greatest weaknesses in awk, which is that it is very poor at manipulating single characters. Repeated

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calls to substr are necessary for accessing individual characters (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130).7 The discussion that follows walks through the code a bit at a time: # getopt.awk --- do C library getopt(3) function in awk # External variables: # Optind -- index in ARGV of first nonoption argument # Optarg -- string value of argument to current option # Opterr -- if nonzero, print our own diagnostic # Optopt -- current option letter # Returns: # -1 # ? # <c>

at end of options for unrecognized option a character representing the current option

# Private Data: # _opti -- index in multi-flag option, e.g., -abc The function starts out with a list of the global variables it uses, what the return values are, what they mean, and any global variables that are private to this library function. Such documentation is essential for any program, and particularly for library functions. The getopt function rst checks that it was indeed called with a string of options (the options parameter). If options has a zero length, getopt immediately returns 1: function getopt(argc, argv, options, thisopt, i) { if (length(options) == 0) # no options given return -1 if (argv[Optind] == "--") { # all done Optind++ _opti = 0 return -1 } else if (argv[Optind] !~ /^-[^: \t\n\f\r\v\b]/) { _opti = 0 return -1 } The next thing to check for is the end of the options. A -- ends the command-line options, as does any command-line argument that does not begin with a -. Optind is used to step through the array of command-line arguments; it retains its value across calls to getopt, because it is a global variable. The regular expression that is used, /^-[^: \t\n\f\r\v\b]/, is perhaps a bit of overkill; it checks for a - followed by anything that is not whitespace and not a colon. If the current command-line argument does not match this pattern, it is not an option, and it ends option processing:
7

This function was written before gawk acquired the ability to split strings into single characters using "" as the separator. We have left it alone, since using substr is more portable.

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if (_opti == 0) _opti = 2 thisopt = substr(argv[Optind], _opti, 1) Optopt = thisopt i = index(options, thisopt) if (i == 0) { if (Opterr) printf("%c -- invalid option\n", thisopt) > "/dev/stderr" if (_opti >= length(argv[Optind])) { Optind++ _opti = 0 } else _opti++ return "?" } The _opti variable tracks the position in the current command-line argument (argv[Optind]). If multiple options are grouped together with one - (e.g., -abx), it is necessary to return them to the user one at a time. If _opti is equal to zero, it is set to two, which is the index in the string of the next character to look at (we skip the -, which is at position one). The variable thisopt holds the character, obtained with substr. It is saved in Optopt for the main program to use. If thisopt is not in the options string, then it is an invalid option. If Opterr is nonzero, getopt prints an error message on the standard error that is similar to the message from the C version of getopt. Because the option is invalid, it is necessary to skip it and move on to the next option character. If _opti is greater than or equal to the length of the current command-line argument, it is necessary to move on to the next argument, so Optind is incremented and _opti is reset to zero. Otherwise, Optind is left alone and _opti is merely incremented. In any case, because the option is invalid, getopt returns ?. The main program can examine Optopt if it needs to know what the invalid option letter actually is. Continuing on: if (substr(options, i + 1, 1) == ":") { # get option argument if (length(substr(argv[Optind], _opti + 1)) > 0) Optarg = substr(argv[Optind], _opti + 1) else Optarg = argv[++Optind] _opti = 0 } else Optarg = "" If the option requires an argument, the option letter is followed by a colon in the options string. If there are remaining characters in the current command-line argument (argv[Optind]), then the rest of that string is assigned to Optarg. Otherwise, the next command-line argument is used (-xFOO versus -x FOO). In either case, _opti is reset

Chapter 12: A Library of awk Functions 201

to zero, because there are no more characters left to examine in the current command-line argument. Continuing: if (_opti == 0 || _opti >= length(argv[Optind])) { Optind++ _opti = 0 } else _opti++ return thisopt } Finally, if _opti is either zero or greater than the length of the current commandline argument, it means this element in argv is through being processed, so Optind is incremented to point to the next element in argv. If neither condition is true, then only _opti is incremented, so that the next option letter can be processed on the next call to getopt. The BEGIN rule initializes both Opterr and Optind to one. Opterr is set to one, since the default behavior is for getopt to print a diagnostic message upon seeing an invalid option. Optind is set to one, since theres no reason to look at the program name, which is in ARGV[0]: BEGIN { Opterr = 1 Optind = 1 # default is to diagnose # skip ARGV[0]

# test program if (_getopt_test) { while ((_go_c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "ab:cd")) != -1) printf("c = <%c>, optarg = <%s>\n", _go_c, Optarg) printf("non-option arguments:\n") for (; Optind < ARGC; Optind++) printf("\tARGV[%d] = <%s>\n", Optind, ARGV[Optind]) } } The rest of the BEGIN rule is a simple test program. Here is the result of two sample runs of the test program: $ awk -f getopt.awk -v _getopt_test=1 -- -a -cbARG bax -x c = <a>, optarg = <> c = <c>, optarg = <> c = <b>, optarg = <ARG> non-option arguments: ARGV[3] = <bax> ARGV[4] = <-x> $ awk -f getopt.awk -v _getopt_test=1 -- -a -x -- xyz abc c = <a>, optarg = <>

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error

x -- invalid option c = <?>, optarg = <> non-option arguments: ARGV[4] = <xyz> ARGV[5] = <abc>

In both runs, the rst -- terminates the arguments to awk, so that it does not try to interpret the -a, etc., as its own options. NOTE: After getopt is through, it is the responsibility of the user level code to clear out all the elements of ARGV from 1 to Optind, so that awk does not try to process the command-line options as le names. Several of the sample programs presented in Chapter 13 [Practical awk Programs], page 211, use getopt to process their arguments.

12.5 Reading the User Database

The PROCINFO array (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108) provides access to the current users real and eective user and group ID numbers, and if available, the users supplementary group set. However, because these are numbers, they do not provide very useful information to the average user. There needs to be some way to nd the user information associated with the user and group ID numbers. This section presents a suite of functions for retrieving information from the user database. See Section 12.6 [Reading the Group Database], page 206, for a similar suite that retrieves information from the group database. The POSIX standard does not dene the le where user information is kept. Instead, it provides the <pwd.h> header le and several C language subroutines for obtaining user information. The primary function is getpwent, for get password entry. The password comes from the original user database le, /etc/passwd, which stores user information, along with the encrypted passwords (hence the name). While an awk program could simply read /etc/passwd directly, this le may not contain complete information about the systems set of users.8 To be sure you are able to produce a readable and complete version of the user database, it is necessary to write a small C program that calls getpwent. getpwent is dened as returning a pointer to a struct passwd. Each time it is called, it returns the next entry in the database. When there are no more entries, it returns NULL, the null pointer. When this happens, the C program should call endpwent to close the database. Following is pwcat, a C program that cats the password database: /* * pwcat.c * * Generate a printable version of the password database */ #include <stdio.h> #include <pwd.h>
8

It is often the case that password information is stored in a network database.

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int main(argc, argv) int argc; char **argv; { struct passwd *p; while ((p = getpwent()) != NULL) printf("%s:%s:%ld:%ld:%s:%s:%s\n", p->pw_name, p->pw_passwd, (long) p->pw_uid, (long) p->pw_gid, p->pw_gecos, p->pw_dir, p->pw_shell); endpwent(); return 0; } If you dont understand C, dont worry about it. The output from pwcat is the user database, in the traditional /etc/passwd format of colon-separated elds. The elds are: Login name Encrypted password The users login name. The users encrypted password. This may not be available on some systems. The users numeric user ID number. The users numeric group ID number. The users full name, and perhaps other information associated with the user. The users login (or home) directory (familiar to shell programmers as $HOME). The program that is run when the user logs in. This is usually a shell, such as bash.

User-ID Group-ID Full name

Home directory

Login shell

A few lines representative of pwcats output are as follows: $ pwcat root:3Ov02d5VaUPB6:0:1:Operator:/:/bin/sh nobody:*:65534:65534::/: daemon:*:1:1::/: sys:*:2:2::/:/bin/csh bin:*:3:3::/bin: arnold:xyzzy:2076:10:Arnold Robbins:/home/arnold:/bin/sh miriam:yxaay:112:10:Miriam Robbins:/home/miriam:/bin/sh andy:abcca2:113:10:Andy Jacobs:/home/andy:/bin/sh ...

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With that introduction, following is a group of functions for getting user information. There are several functions here, corresponding to the C functions of the same names: # passwd.awk --- access password file information BEGIN { # tailor this to suit your system _pw_awklib = "/usr/local/libexec/awk/" } function _pw_init( { if (_pw_inited) return oldfs, oldrs, olddol0, pwcat, using_fw)

oldfs = FS oldrs = RS olddol0 = $0 using_fw = (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FIELDWIDTHS") FS = ":" RS = "\n" pwcat = _pw_awklib "pwcat" while ((pwcat | getline) > 0) { _pw_byname[$1] = $0 _pw_byuid[$3] = $0 _pw_bycount[++_pw_total] = $0 } close(pwcat) _pw_count = 0 _pw_inited = 1 FS = oldfs if (using_fw) FIELDWIDTHS = FIELDWIDTHS RS = oldrs $0 = olddol0 } The BEGIN rule sets a private variable to the directory where pwcat is stored. Because it is used to help out an awk library routine, we have chosen to put it in /usr/local/libexec/awk; however, you might want it to be in a dierent directory on your system. The function _pw_init keeps three copies of the user information in three associative arrays. The arrays are indexed by username (_pw_byname), by user ID number (_pw_byuid), and by order of occurrence (_pw_bycount). The variable _pw_inited is used for eciency; _pw_init needs only to be called once. Because this function uses getline to read information from pwcat, it rst saves the values of FS, RS, and $0. It notes in the variable using_fw whether eld splitting with FIELDWIDTHS is in eect or not. Doing so is necessary, since these functions could be called

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from anywhere within a users program, and the user may have his or her own way of splitting records and elds. The using_fw variable checks PROCINFO["FS"], which is "FIELDWIDTHS" if eld splitting is being done with FIELDWIDTHS. This makes it possible to restore the correct eld-splitting mechanism later. The test can only be true for gawk. It is false if using FS or on some other awk implementation. The main part of the function uses a loop to read database lines, split the line into elds, and then store the line into each array as necessary. When the loop is done, _pw_init cleans up by closing the pipeline, setting _pw_inited to one, and restoring FS (and FIELDWIDTHS if necessary), RS, and $0. The use of _pw_count is explained shortly. The getpwnam function takes a username as a string argument. If that user is in the database, it returns the appropriate line. Otherwise, it returns the null string: function getpwnam(name) { _pw_init() if (name in _pw_byname) return _pw_byname[name] return "" } Similarly, the getpwuid function takes a user ID number argument. If that user number is in the database, it returns the appropriate line. Otherwise, it returns the null string: function getpwuid(uid) { _pw_init() if (uid in _pw_byuid) return _pw_byuid[uid] return "" } The getpwent function simply steps through the database, one entry at a time. It uses _pw_count to track its current position in the _pw_bycount array: function getpwent() { _pw_init() if (_pw_count < _pw_total) return _pw_bycount[++_pw_count] return "" } The endpwent function resets _pw_count to zero, so that subsequent calls to getpwent start over again: function endpwent() { _pw_count = 0 } A conscious design decision in this suite was made that each subroutine calls _pw_init to initialize the database arrays. The overhead of running a separate process to generate the

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user database, and the I/O to scan it, are only incurred if the users main program actually calls one of these functions. If this library le is loaded along with a users program, but none of the routines are ever called, then there is no extra runtime overhead. (The alternative is move the body of _pw_init into a BEGIN rule, which always runs pwcat. This simplies the code but runs an extra process that may never be needed.) In turn, calling _pw_init is not too expensive, because the _pw_inited variable keeps the program from reading the data more than once. If you are worried about squeezing every last cycle out of your awk program, the check of _pw_inited could be moved out of _pw_init and duplicated in all the other functions. In practice, this is not necessary, since most awk programs are I/O-bound, and it clutters up the code. The id program in Section 13.2.3 [Printing out User Information], page 220, uses these functions.

12.6 Reading the Group Database

Much of the discussion presented in Section 12.5 [Reading the User Database], page 202, applies to the group database as well. Although there has traditionally been a well-known le (/etc/group) in a well-known format, the POSIX standard only provides a set of C library routines (<grp.h> and getgrent) for accessing the information. Even though this le may exist, it likely does not have complete information. Therefore, as with the user database, it is necessary to have a small C program that generates the group database as its output. grcat, a C program that cats the group database, is as follows: /* * grcat.c * * Generate a printable version of the group database */ #include <stdio.h> #include <grp.h> int main(argc, argv) int argc; char **argv; { struct group *g; int i; while ((g = getgrent()) != NULL) { printf("%s:%s:%ld:", g->gr_name, g->gr_passwd, (long) g->gr_gid); for (i = 0; g->gr_mem[i] != NULL; i++) { printf("%s", g->gr_mem[i]); if (g->gr_mem[i+1] != NULL) putchar(,); }

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putchar(\n); } endgrent(); return 0; } Each line in the group database represents one group. The elds are separated with colons and represent the following information: Group name The groups name. Group password The groups encrypted password. In practice, this eld is never used; it is usually empty or set to *. The groups numeric group ID number; this number should be unique within the le.

Group-ID

Group member list

A comma-separated list of user names. These users are members of the group. Modern Unix systems allow users to be members of several groups simultaneously. If your system does, then there are elements "group1" through "groupN " in PROCINFO for those group ID numbers. (Note that PROCINFO is a gawk extension; see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108.) Here is what running grcat might produce: $ grcat wheel:*:0:arnold nogroup:*:65534: daemon:*:1: kmem:*:2: staff:*:10:arnold,miriam,andy other:*:20: ... Here are the functions for obtaining information from the group database. There are several, modeled after the C library functions of the same names: # group.awk --- functions for dealing with the group file BEGIN \ { # Change to suit your system _gr_awklib = "/usr/local/libexec/awk/" } function _gr_init( { if (_gr_inited) return oldfs, oldrs, olddol0, grcat, using_fw, n, a, i)

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oldfs = FS oldrs = RS olddol0 = $0 using_fw = (PROCINFO["FS"] == "FIELDWIDTHS") FS = ":" RS = "\n" grcat = _gr_awklib "grcat" while ((grcat | getline) > 0) { if ($1 in _gr_byname) _gr_byname[$1] = _gr_byname[$1] "," $4 else _gr_byname[$1] = $0 if ($3 in _gr_bygid) _gr_bygid[$3] = _gr_bygid[$3] "," $4 else _gr_bygid[$3] = $0 n = split($4, a, "[ \t]*,[ \t]*") for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) if (a[i] in _gr_groupsbyuser) _gr_groupsbyuser[a[i]] = \ _gr_groupsbyuser[a[i]] " " $1 else _gr_groupsbyuser[a[i]] = $1 _gr_bycount[++_gr_count] = $0 } close(grcat) _gr_count = 0 _gr_inited++ FS = oldfs if (using_fw) FIELDWIDTHS = FIELDWIDTHS RS = oldrs $0 = olddol0 } The BEGIN rule sets a private variable to the directory where grcat is stored. Because it is used to help out an awk library routine, we have chosen to put it in /usr/local/libexec/awk. You might want it to be in a dierent directory on your system. These routines follow the same general outline as the user database routines (see Section 12.5 [Reading the User Database], page 202). The _gr_inited variable is used to ensure that the database is scanned no more than once. The _gr_init function rst saves FS, FIELDWIDTHS, RS, and $0, and then sets FS and RS to the correct values for scanning the group information.

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The group information is stored is several associative arrays. The arrays are indexed by group name (_gr_byname), by group ID number (_gr_bygid), and by position in the database (_gr_bycount). There is an additional array indexed by user name (_gr_groupsbyuser), which is a space-separated list of groups to which each user belongs. Unlike the user database, it is possible to have multiple records in the database for the same group. This is common when a group has a large number of members. A pair of such entries might look like the following: tvpeople:*:101:johnny,jay,arsenio tvpeople:*:101:david,conan,tom,joan For this reason, _gr_init looks to see if a group name or group ID number is already seen. If it is, then the user names are simply concatenated onto the previous list of users. (There is actually a subtle problem with the code just presented. Suppose that the rst time there were no names. This code adds the names with a leading comma. It also doesnt check that there is a $4.) Finally, _gr_init closes the pipeline to grcat, restores FS (and FIELDWIDTHS if necessary), RS, and $0, initializes _gr_count to zero (it is used later), and makes _gr_inited nonzero. The getgrnam function takes a group name as its argument, and if that group exists, it is returned. Otherwise, getgrnam returns the null string: function getgrnam(group) { _gr_init() if (group in _gr_byname) return _gr_byname[group] return "" } The getgrgid function is similar, it takes a numeric group ID and looks up the information associated with that group ID: function getgrgid(gid) { _gr_init() if (gid in _gr_bygid) return _gr_bygid[gid] return "" } The getgruser function does not have a C counterpart. It takes a user name and returns the list of groups that have the user as a member: function getgruser(user) { _gr_init() if (user in _gr_groupsbyuser) return _gr_groupsbyuser[user] return "" }

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The getgrent function steps through the database one entry at a time. It uses _gr_ count to track its position in the list: function getgrent() { _gr_init() if (++_gr_count in _gr_bycount) return _gr_bycount[_gr_count] return "" } The endgrent function resets _gr_count to zero so that getgrent can start over again: function endgrent() { _gr_count = 0 } As with the user database routines, each function calls _gr_init to initialize the arrays. Doing so only incurs the extra overhead of running grcat if these functions are used (as opposed to moving the body of _gr_init into a BEGIN rule). Most of the work is in scanning the database and building the various associative arrays. The functions that the user calls are themselves very simple, relying on awks associative arrays to do work. The id program in Section 13.2.3 [Printing out User Information], page 220, uses these functions.

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13 Practical awk Programs

Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182, presents the idea that reading programs in a language contributes to learning that language. This chapter continues that theme, presenting a potpourri of awk programs for your reading enjoyment. There are three sections. The rst describes how to run the programs presented in this chapter. The second presents awk versions of several common POSIX utilities. These are programs that you are hopefully already familiar with, and therefore, whose problems are understood. By reimplementing these programs in awk, you can focus on the awk-related aspects of solving the programming problem. The third is a grab bag of interesting programs. These solve a number of dierent data-manipulation and management problems. Many of the programs are short, which emphasizes awks ability to do a lot in just a few lines of code. Many of these programs use the library functions presented in Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182.

13.1 Running the Example Programs

To run a given program, you would typically do something like this: awk -f program -- options files Here, program is the name of the awk program (such as cut.awk), options are any command-line options for the program that start with a -, and les are the actual data les. If your system supports the #! executable interpreter mechanism (see Section 1.1.4 [Executable awk Programs], page 13), you can instead run your program directly: cut.awk -c1-8 myfiles > results If your awk is not gawk, you may instead need to use this: cut.awk -- -c1-8 myfiles > results

13.2 Reinventing Wheels for Fun and Prot

This section presents a number of POSIX utilities that are implemented in awk. Reinventing these programs in awk is often enjoyable, because the algorithms can be very clearly expressed, and the code is usually very concise and simple. This is true because awk does so much for you. It should be noted that these programs are not necessarily intended to replace the installed versions on your system. Instead, their purpose is to illustrate awk language programming for real world tasks. The programs are presented in alphabetical order.

13.2.1 Cutting out Fields and Columns

The cut utility selects, or cuts, characters or elds from its standard input and sends them to its standard output. Fields are separated by tabs by default, but you may supply a command-line option to change the eld delimiter (i.e., the eld-separator character). cuts denition of elds is less general than awks.

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A common use of cut might be to pull out just the login name of logged-on users from the output of who. For example, the following pipeline generates a sorted, unique list of the logged-on users: who | cut -c1-8 | sort | uniq The options for cut are: -c list Use list as the list of characters to cut out. Items within the list may be separated by commas, and ranges of characters can be separated with dashes. The list 1-8,15,22-35 species characters 1 through 8, 15, and 22 through 35. Use list as the list of elds to cut out. Use delim as the eld-separator character instead of the tab character. Suppress printing of lines that do not contain the eld delimiter.

-f list -d delim -s

The awk implementation of cut uses the getopt library function (see Section 12.4 [Processing Command-Line Options], page 197) and the join library function (see Section 12.2.7 [Merging an Array into a String], page 191). The program begins with a comment describing the options, the library functions needed, and a usage function that prints out a usage message and exits. usage is called if invalid arguments are supplied: # cut.awk --- implement cut in awk # Options: # -f list Cut fields # -d c Field delimiter character # -c list Cut characters # # -s Suppress lines without the delimiter # # Requires getopt and join library functions function usage( e1, e2) { e1 = "usage: cut [-f list] [-d c] [-s] [files...]" e2 = "usage: cut [-c list] [files...]" print e1 > "/dev/stderr" print e2 > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } The variables e1 and e2 are used so that the function ts nicely on the page. Next comes a BEGIN rule that parses the command-line options. It sets FS to a single TAB character, because that is cuts default eld separator. The output eld separator is also set to be the same as the input eld separator. Then getopt is used to step through the command-line options. Exactly one of the variables by_fields or by_chars is set to true, to indicate that processing should be done by elds or by characters, respectively. When cutting by characters, the output eld separator is set to the null string:

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BEGIN \ { FS = "\t" # default OFS = FS while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "sf:c:d:")) != -1) { if (c == "f") { by_fields = 1 fieldlist = Optarg } else if (c == "c") { by_chars = 1 fieldlist = Optarg OFS = "" } else if (c == "d") { if (length(Optarg) > 1) { printf("Using first character of %s" \ " for delimiter\n", Optarg) > "/dev/stderr" Optarg = substr(Optarg, 1, 1) } FS = Optarg OFS = FS if (FS == " ") # defeat awk semantics FS = "[ ]" } else if (c == "s") suppress++ else usage() } for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" Special care is taken when the eld delimiter is a space. Using a single space (" ") for the value of FS is incorrectawk would separate elds with runs of spaces, tabs, and/or newlines, and we want them to be separated with individual spaces. Also remember that after getopt is through (as described in Section 12.4 [Processing Command-Line Options], page 197), we have to clear out all the elements of ARGV from 1 to Optind, so that awk does not try to process the command-line options as le names. After dealing with the command-line options, the program veries that the options make sense. Only one or the other of -c and -f should be used, and both require a eld list. Then the program calls either set_fieldlist or set_charlist to pull apart the list of elds or characters: if (by_fields && by_chars) usage() if (by_fields == 0 && by_chars == 0) by_fields = 1 # default

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if (fieldlist == "") { print "cut: needs list for -c or -f" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } if (by_fields) set_fieldlist() else set_charlist() } set_fieldlist is used to split the eld list apart at the commas and into an array. Then, for each element of the array, it looks to see if it is actually a range, and if so, splits it apart. The range is veried to make sure the rst number is smaller than the second. Each number in the list is added to the flist array, which simply lists the elds that will be printed. Normal eld splitting is used. The program lets awk handle the job of doing the eld splitting: function set_fieldlist( n, m, i, j, k, f, g) { n = split(fieldlist, f, ",") j = 1 # index in flist for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { if (index(f[i], "-") != 0) { # a range m = split(f[i], g, "-") if (m != 2 || g[1] >= g[2]) { printf("bad field list: %s\n", f[i]) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } for (k = g[1]; k <= g[2]; k++) flist[j++] = k } else flist[j++] = f[i] } nfields = j - 1 } The set_charlist function is more complicated than set_fieldlist. The idea here is to use gawks FIELDWIDTHS variable (see Section 3.6 [Reading Fixed-Width Data], page 47), which describes constant-width input. When using a character list, that is exactly what we have. Setting up FIELDWIDTHS is more complicated than simply listing the elds that need to be printed. We have to keep track of the elds to print and also the intervening characters that have to be skipped. For example, suppose you wanted characters 1 through 8, 15, and 22 through 35. You would use -c 1-8,15,22-35. The necessary value for FIELDWIDTHS is "8 6 1 6 14". This yields ve elds, and the elds to print are $1, $3, and $5. The intermediate elds are ller, which is stu in between the desired data. flist lists the elds to print, and t tracks the complete eld list, including ller elds:

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function set_charlist( {

field, i, j, f, g, t, filler, last, len)

field = 1 # count total fields n = split(fieldlist, f, ",") j = 1 # index in flist for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { if (index(f[i], "-") != 0) { # range m = split(f[i], g, "-") if (m != 2 || g[1] >= g[2]) { printf("bad character list: %s\n", f[i]) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } len = g[2] - g[1] + 1 if (g[1] > 1) # compute length of filler filler = g[1] - last - 1 else filler = 0 if (filler) t[field++] = filler t[field++] = len # length of field last = g[2] flist[j++] = field - 1 } else { if (f[i] > 1) filler = f[i] - last - 1 else filler = 0 if (filler) t[field++] = filler t[field++] = 1 last = f[i] flist[j++] = field - 1 } } FIELDWIDTHS = join(t, 1, field - 1) nfields = j - 1 } Next is the rule that actually processes the data. If the -s option is given, then suppress is true. The rst if statement makes sure that the input record does have the eld separator. If cut is processing elds, suppress is true, and the eld separator character is not in the record, then the record is skipped. If the record is valid, then gawk has split the data into elds, either using the character in FS or using xed-length elds and FIELDWIDTHS. The loop goes through the list of elds

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that should be printed. The corresponding eld is printed if it contains data. If the next eld also has data, then the separator character is written out between the elds: { if (by_fields && suppress && index($0, FS) != 0) next for (i = 1; i <= nfields; i++) { if ($flist[i] != "") { printf "%s", $flist[i] if (i < nfields && $flist[i+1] != "") printf "%s", OFS } } print "" } This version of cut relies on gawks FIELDWIDTHS variable to do the character-based cutting. While it is possible in other awk implementations to use substr (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130), it is also extremely painful. The FIELDWIDTHS variable supplies an elegant solution to the problem of picking the input line apart by characters.

13.2.2 Searching for Regular Expressions in Files

The egrep utility searches les for patterns. It uses regular expressions that are almost identical to those available in awk (see Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24). It is used in the following manner: egrep [ options ] pattern files ... The pattern is a regular expression. In typical usage, the regular expression is quoted to prevent the shell from expanding any of the special characters as le name wildcards. Normally, egrep prints the lines that matched. If multiple le names are provided on the command line, each output line is preceded by the name of the le and a colon. The options to egrep are as follows: -c -s -v -i -l -e pattern Use pattern as the regexp to match. The purpose of the -e option is to allow patterns that start with a -. Print out a count of the lines that matched the pattern, instead of the lines themselves. Be silent. No output is produced and the exit value indicates whether the pattern was matched. Invert the sense of the test. egrep prints the lines that do not match the pattern and exits successfully if the pattern is not matched. Ignore case distinctions in both the pattern and the input data. Only print (list) the names of the les that matched, not the lines that matched.

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This version uses the getopt library function (see Section 12.4 [Processing CommandLine Options], page 197) and the le transition library program (see Section 12.3.1 [Noting Data File Boundaries], page 193). The program begins with a descriptive comment and then a BEGIN rule that processes the command-line arguments with getopt. The -i (ignore case) option is particularly easy with gawk; we just use the IGNORECASE built-in variable (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108): # egrep.awk --- simulate egrep in awk # Options: # -c count of lines # -s silent - use exit value # -v invert test, success if no match # -i ignore case # -l print filenames only # -e argument is pattern # # Requires getopt and file transition library functions BEGIN { while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "ce:svil")) != -1) { if (c == "c") count_only++ else if (c == "s") no_print++ else if (c == "v") invert++ else if (c == "i") IGNORECASE = 1 else if (c == "l") filenames_only++ else if (c == "e") pattern = Optarg else usage() } Next comes the code that handles the egrep-specic behavior. If no pattern is supplied with -e, the rst nonoption on the command line is used. The awk command-line arguments up to ARGV[Optind] are cleared, so that awk wont try to process them as les. If no les are specied, the standard input is used, and if multiple les are specied, we make sure to note this so that the le names can precede the matched lines in the output: if (pattern == "") pattern = ARGV[Optind++] for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" if (Optind >= ARGC) {

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ARGV[1] = "-" ARGC = 2 } else if (ARGC - Optind > 1) do_filenames++ # if (IGNORECASE) # pattern = tolower(pattern) } The last two lines are commented out, since they are not needed in gawk. They should be uncommented if you have to use another version of awk. The next set of lines should be uncommented if you are not using gawk. This rule translates all the characters in the input line into lowercase if the -i option is specied.1 The rule is commented out since it is not necessary with gawk: #{ # if (IGNORECASE) # $0 = tolower($0) #} The beginfile function is called by the rule in ftrans.awk when each new le is processed. In this case, it is very simple; all it does is initialize a variable fcount to zero. fcount tracks how many lines in the current le matched the pattern (naming the parameter junk shows we know that beginfile is called with a parameter, but that were not interested in its value): function beginfile(junk) { fcount = 0 } The endfile function is called after each le has been processed. It aects the output only when the user wants a count of the number of lines that matched. no_print is true only if the exit status is desired. count_only is true if line counts are desired. egrep therefore only prints line counts if printing and counting are enabled. The output format must be adjusted depending upon the number of les to process. Finally, fcount is added to total, so that we know the total number of lines that matched the pattern: function endfile(file) { if (! no_print && count_only) if (do_filenames) print file ":" fcount else print fcount total += fcount } The following rule does most of the work of matching lines. The variable matches is true if the line matched the pattern. If the user wants lines that did not match, the sense
1

It also introduces a subtle bug; if a match happens, we output the translated line, not the original.

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of matches is inverted using the ! operator. fcount is incremented with the value of matches, which is either one or zero, depending upon a successful or unsuccessful match. If the line does not match, the next statement just moves on to the next record. A number of additional tests are made, but they are only done if we are not counting lines. First, if the user only wants exit status (no_print is true), then it is enough to know that one line in this le matched, and we can skip on to the next le with nextfile. Similarly, if we are only printing le names, we can print the le name, and then skip to the next le with nextfile. Finally, each line is printed, with a leading le name and colon if necessary: { matches = ($0 ~ pattern) if (invert) matches = ! matches fcount += matches if (! matches) next if (! count_only) { if (no_print) nextfile if (filenames_only) { print FILENAME nextfile } if (do_filenames) print FILENAME ":" $0 else print } } The END rule takes care of producing the correct exit status. If there are no matches, the exit status is one; otherwise it is zero: END { \ if (total == 0) exit 1 exit 0 } The usage function prints a usage message in case of invalid options, and then exits: function usage( { e) # 1 or 0

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e = "Usage: egrep [-csvil] [-e pat] [files ...]" e = e "\n\tegrep [-csvil] pat [files ...]" print e > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } The variable e is used so that the function ts nicely on the printed page. Just a note on programming style: you may have noticed that the END rule uses backslash continuation, with the open brace on a line by itself. This is so that it more closely resembles the way functions are written. Many of the examples in this chapter use this style. You can decide for yourself if you like writing your BEGIN and END rules this way or not.

13.2.3 Printing out User Information

The id utility lists a users real and eective user ID numbers, real and eective group ID numbers, and the users group set, if any. id only prints the eective user ID and group ID if they are dierent from the real ones. If possible, id also supplies the corresponding user and group names. The output might look like this: $ id uid=2076(arnold) gid=10(staff) groups=10(staff),4(tty) This information is part of what is provided by gawks PROCINFO array (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). However, the id utility provides a more palatable output than just individual numbers. Here is a simple version of id written in awk. It uses the user database library functions (see Section 12.5 [Reading the User Database], page 202) and the group database library functions (see Section 12.6 [Reading the Group Database], page 206): The program is fairly straightforward. All the work is done in the BEGIN rule. The user and group ID numbers are obtained from PROCINFO. The code is repetitive. The entry in the user database for the real user ID number is split into parts at the :. The name is the rst eld. Similar code is used for the eective user ID number and the group numbers: # # # # # # id.awk --- implement id in awk Requires user and group library functions output is: uid=12(foo) euid=34(bar) gid=3(baz) \ egid=5(blat) groups=9(nine),2(two),1(one)

BEGIN \ { uid = PROCINFO["uid"] euid = PROCINFO["euid"] gid = PROCINFO["gid"] egid = PROCINFO["egid"] printf("uid=%d", uid) pw = getpwuid(uid) if (pw != "") {

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split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } if (euid != uid) { printf(" euid=%d", euid) pw = getpwuid(euid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } } printf(" gid=%d", gid) pw = getgrgid(gid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } if (egid != gid) { printf(" egid=%d", egid) pw = getgrgid(egid) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } } for (i = 1; ("group" i) in PROCINFO; i++) { if (i == 1) printf(" groups=") group = PROCINFO["group" i] printf("%d", group) pw = getgrgid(group) if (pw != "") { split(pw, a, ":") printf("(%s)", a[1]) } if (("group" (i+1)) in PROCINFO) printf(",") } print "" }

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The test in the for loop is worth noting. Any supplementary groups in the PROCINFO array have the indices "group1" through "groupN " for some N, i.e., the total number of supplementary groups. However, we dont know in advance how many of these groups there are. This loop works by starting at one, concatenating the value with "group", and then using in to see if that value is in the array. Eventually, i is incremented past the last group in the array and the loop exits. The loop is also correct if there are no supplementary groups; then the condition is false the rst time its tested, and the loop body never executes.

13.2.4 Splitting a Large File into Pieces

The split program splits large text les into smaller pieces. Usage is as follows: split [-count ] file [ prefix ] By default, the output les are named xaa, xab, and so on. Each le has 1000 lines in it, with the likely exception of the last le. To change the number of lines in each le, supply a number on the command line preceded with a minus; e.g., -500 for les with 500 lines in them instead of 1000. To change the name of the output les to something like myfileaa, myfileab, and so on, supply an additional argument that species the le name prex. Here is a version of split in awk. It uses the ord and chr functions presented in Section 12.2.6 [Translating Between Characters and Numbers], page 189. The program rst sets its defaults, and then tests to make sure there are not too many arguments. It then looks at each argument in turn. The rst argument could be a minus sign followed by a number. If it is, this happens to look like a negative number, so it is made positive, and that is the count of lines. The data le name is skipped over and the nal argument is used as the prex for the output le names: # split.awk --- do split in awk # # Requires ord and chr library functions # usage: split [-num] [file] [outname] BEGIN { outfile = "x" count = 1000 if (ARGC > 4) usage()

# default

i = 1 if (ARGV[i] ~ /^-[0-9]+$/) { count = -ARGV[i] ARGV[i] = "" i++ } # test argv in case reading from stdin instead of file if (i in ARGV)

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i++ # skip data file name if (i in ARGV) { outfile = ARGV[i] ARGV[i] = "" } s1 = s2 = "a" out = (outfile s1 s2) } The next rule does most of the work. tcount (temporary count) tracks how many lines have been printed to the output le so far. If it is greater than count, it is time to close the current le and start a new one. s1 and s2 track the current suxes for the le name. If they are both z, the le is just too big. Otherwise, s1 moves to the next letter in the alphabet and s2 starts over again at a: { if (++tcount > count) { close(out) if (s2 == "z") { if (s1 == "z") { printf("split: %s is too large to split\n", FILENAME) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } s1 = chr(ord(s1) + 1) s2 = "a" } else s2 = chr(ord(s2) + 1) out = (outfile s1 s2) tcount = 1 } print > out } The usage function simply prints an error message and exits: function usage( e) { e = "usage: split [-num] [file] [outname]" print e > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } The variable e is used so that the function ts nicely on the page. This program is a bit sloppy; it relies on awk to automatically close the last le instead of doing it in an END rule. It also assumes that letters are contiguous in the character set, which isnt true for EBCDIC systems.

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13.2.5 Duplicating Output into Multiple Files

The tee program is known as a pipe tting. tee copies its standard input to its standard output and also duplicates it to the les named on the command line. Its usage is as follows: tee [-a] file ... The -a option tells tee to append to the named les, instead of truncating them and starting over. The BEGIN rule rst makes a copy of all the command-line arguments into an array named copy. ARGV[0] is not copied, since it is not needed. tee cannot use ARGV directly, since awk attempts to process each le name in ARGV as input data. If the rst argument is -a, then the ag variable append is set to true, and both ARGV[1] and copy[1] are deleted. If ARGC is less than two, then no le names were supplied and tee prints a usage message and exits. Finally, awk is forced to read the standard input by setting ARGV[1] to "-" and ARGC to two: # tee.awk --- tee in awk BEGIN \ { for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) copy[i] = ARGV[i] if (ARGV[1] == "-a") { append = 1 delete ARGV[1] delete copy[1] ARGC-} if (ARGC < 2) { print "usage: tee [-a] file ..." > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } ARGV[1] = "-" ARGC = 2 } The single rule does all the work. Since there is no pattern, it is executed for each line of input. The body of the rule simply prints the line into each le on the command line, and then to the standard output: { # moving the if outside the loop makes it run faster if (append) for (i in copy) print >> copy[i] else for (i in copy) print > copy[i] print }

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It is also possible to write the loop this way: for (i in copy) if (append) print >> copy[i] else print > copy[i] This is more concise but it is also less ecient. The if is tested for each record and for each output le. By duplicating the loop body, the if is only tested once for each input record. If there are N input records and M output les, the rst method only executes N if statements, while the second executes N *M if statements. Finally, the END rule cleans up by closing all the output les: END { \ for (i in copy) close(copy[i]) }

13.2.6 Printing Nonduplicated Lines of Text

The uniq utility reads sorted lines of data on its standard input, and by default removes duplicate lines. In other words, it only prints unique lineshence the name. uniq has a number of options. The usage is as follows: uniq [-udc [-n ]] [+n ] [ input file [ output file ]] The options for uniq are: -d -u -c -n +n input file Data is read from the input le named on the command line, instead of from the standard input. output file The generated output is sent to the named output le, instead of to the standard output. Normally uniq behaves as if both the -d and -u options are provided. uniq uses the getopt library function (see Section 12.4 [Processing Command-Line Options], page 197) and the join library function (see Section 12.2.7 [Merging an Array into a String], page 191). Pnly print only repeated lines. Print only nonrepeated lines. Count lines. This option overrides -d and -u. Both repeated and nonrepeated lines are counted. Skip n elds before comparing lines. The denition of elds is similar to awks default: nonwhitespace characters separated by runs of spaces and/or tabs. Skip n characters before comparing lines. Any elds specied with -n are skipped rst.

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The program begins with a usage function and then a brief outline of the options and their meanings in a comment. The BEGIN rule deals with the command-line arguments and options. It uses a trick to get getopt to handle options of the form -25, treating such an option as the option letter 2 with an argument of 5. If indeed two or more digits are supplied (Optarg looks like a number), Optarg is concatenated with the option digit and then the result is added to zero to make it into a number. If there is only one digit in the option, then Optarg is not needed. In this case, Optind must be decremented so that getopt processes it next time. This code is admittedly a bit tricky. If no options are supplied, then the default is taken, to print both repeated and nonrepeated lines. The output le, if provided, is assigned to outputfile. Early on, outputfile is initialized to the standard output, /dev/stdout: # uniq.awk --- do uniq in awk # # Requires getopt and join library functions function usage( e) { e = "Usage: uniq [-udc [-n]] [+n] [ in [ out ]]" print e > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } # # # # # -c -d -u -n +n count lines. overrides -d and -u only repeated lines only non-repeated lines skip n fields skip n characters, skip fields first

BEGIN \ { count = 1 outputfile = "/dev/stdout" opts = "udc0:1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8:9:" while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, opts)) != -1) { if (c == "u") non_repeated_only++ else if (c == "d") repeated_only++ else if (c == "c") do_count++ else if (index("0123456789", c) != 0) { # getopt requires args to options # this messes us up for things like -5 if (Optarg ~ /^[0-9]+$/) fcount = (c Optarg) + 0 else { fcount = c + 0

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Optind-} } else usage() } if (ARGV[Optind] ~ /^\+[0-9]+$/) { charcount = substr(ARGV[Optind], 2) + 0 Optind++ } for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" if (repeated_only == 0 && non_repeated_only == 0) repeated_only = non_repeated_only = 1 if (ARGC - Optind == 2) { outputfile = ARGV[ARGC - 1] ARGV[ARGC - 1] = "" } } The following function, are_equal, compares the current line, $0, to the previous line, last. It handles skipping elds and characters. If no eld count and no character count are specied, are_equal simply returns one or zero depending upon the result of a simple string comparison of last and $0. Otherwise, things get more complicated. If elds have to be skipped, each line is broken into an array using split (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130); the desired elds are then joined back into a line using join. The joined lines are stored in clast and cline. If no elds are skipped, clast and cline are set to last and $0, respectively. Finally, if characters are skipped, substr is used to strip o the leading charcount characters in clast and cline. The two strings are then compared and are_equal returns the result: function are_equal( n, m, clast, cline, alast, aline) { if (fcount == 0 && charcount == 0) return (last == $0) if (fcount > 0) { n = split(last, alast) m = split($0, aline) clast = join(alast, fcount+1, n) cline = join(aline, fcount+1, m) } else { clast = last cline = $0 }

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if (charcount) { clast = substr(clast, charcount + 1) cline = substr(cline, charcount + 1) } return (clast == cline) } The following two rules are the body of the program. The rst one is executed only for the very rst line of data. It sets last equal to $0, so that subsequent lines of text have something to be compared to. The second rule does the work. The variable equal is one or zero, depending upon the results of are_equals comparison. If uniq is counting repeated lines, and the lines are equal, then it increments the count variable. Otherwise, it prints the line and resets count, since the two lines are not equal. If uniq is not counting, and if the lines are equal, count is incremented. Nothing is printed, since the point is to remove duplicates. Otherwise, if uniq is counting repeated lines and more than one line is seen, or if uniq is counting nonrepeated lines and only one line is seen, then the line is printed, and count is reset. Finally, similar logic is used in the END rule to print the nal line of input data: NR == 1 { last = $0 next } { equal = are_equal() if (do_count) { # overrides -d and -u if (equal) count++ else { printf("%4d %s\n", count, last) > outputfile last = $0 count = 1 # reset } next } if (equal) count++ else { if ((repeated_only && count > 1) || (non_repeated_only && count == 1)) print last > outputfile last = $0 count = 1

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} } END { if (do_count) printf("%4d %s\n", count, last) > outputfile else if ((repeated_only && count > 1) || (non_repeated_only && count == 1)) print last > outputfile }

13.2.7 Counting Things

The wc (word count) utility counts lines, words, and characters in one or more input les. Its usage is as follows: wc [-lwc] [ files ... ] If no les are specied on the command line, wc reads its standard input. If there are multiple les, it also prints total counts for all the les. The options and their meanings are shown in the following list: -l -w Count only lines. Count only words. A word is a contiguous sequence of nonwhitespace characters, separated by spaces and/or tabs. Luckily, this is the normal way awk separates elds in its input data. Count only characters.

-c

Implementing wc in awk is particularly elegant, since awk does a lot of the work for us; it splits lines into words (i.e., elds) and counts them, it counts lines (i.e., records), and it can easily tell us how long a line is. This uses the getopt library function (see Section 12.4 [Processing Command-Line Options], page 197) and the le-transition functions (see Section 12.3.1 [Noting Data File Boundaries], page 193). This version has one notable dierence from traditional versions of wc: it always prints the counts in the order lines, words, and characters. Traditional versions note the order of the -l, -w, and -c options on the command line, and print the counts in that order. The BEGIN rule does the argument processing. The variable print_total is true if more than one le is named on the command line: # wc.awk --- count lines, words, characters # Options: # -l only count lines # -w only count words # -c only count characters # # Default is to count lines, words, characters # # Requires getopt and file transition library functions

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BEGIN { # let getopt print a message about # invalid options. we ignore them while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "lwc")) != -1) { if (c == "l") do_lines = 1 else if (c == "w") do_words = 1 else if (c == "c") do_chars = 1 } for (i = 1; i < Optind; i++) ARGV[i] = "" # if no options, do all if (! do_lines && ! do_words && ! do_chars) do_lines = do_words = do_chars = 1 print_total = (ARGC - i > 2) } The beginfile function is simple; it just resets the counts of lines, words, and characters to zero, and saves the current le name in fname: function beginfile(file) { chars = lines = words = 0 fname = FILENAME } The endfile function adds the current les numbers to the running totals of lines, words, and characters.2 It then prints out those numbers for the le that was just read. It relies on beginfile to reset the numbers for the following data le: function endfile(file) { tchars += chars tlines += lines twords += words if (do_lines) printf "\t%d", lines if (do_words) printf "\t%d", words if (do_chars) printf "\t%d", chars printf "\t%s\n", fname
2

wc cant just use the value of FNR in endfile. If you examine the code in Section 12.3.1 [Noting Data File Boundaries], page 193, you will see that FNR has already been reset by the time endfile is called.

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} There is one rule that is executed for each line. It adds the length of the record, plus one, to chars. Adding one plus the record length is needed because the newline character separating records (the value of RS) is not part of the record itself, and thus not included in its length. Next, lines is incremented for each line read, and words is incremented by the value of NF, which is the number of words on this line: # do per line { chars += length($0) + 1 lines++ words += NF }

# get newline

Finally, the END rule simply prints the totals for all the les: END { if (print_total) { if (do_lines) printf "\t%d", tlines if (do_words) printf "\t%d", twords if (do_chars) printf "\t%d", tchars print "\ttotal" } }

13.3 A Grab Bag of awk Programs

This section is a large grab bag of miscellaneous programs. We hope you nd them both interesting and enjoyable.

13.3.1 Finding Duplicated Words in a Document

A common error when writing large amounts of prose is to accidentally duplicate words. Typically you will see this in text as something like the the program does the following. . . When the text is online, often the duplicated words occur at the end of one line and the beginning of another, making them very dicult to spot. This program, dupword.awk, scans through a le one line at a time and looks for adjacent occurrences of the same word. It also saves the last word on a line (in the variable prev) for comparison with the rst word on the next line. The rst two statements make sure that the line is all lowercase, so that, for example, The and the compare equal to each other. The next statement replaces nonalphanumeric and nonwhitespace characters with spaces, so that punctuation does not aect the comparison either. The characters are replaced with spaces so that formatting controls dont create nonsense words (e.g., the Texinfo @code{NF} becomes codeNF if punctuation is simply deleted). The record is then resplit into elds, yielding just the actual words on the line, and ensuring that there are no empty elds.

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If there are no elds left after removing all the punctuation, the current record is skipped. Otherwise, the program loops through each word, comparing it to the previous one: # dupword.awk --- find duplicate words in text { $0 = tolower($0) gsub(/[^[:alnum:][:blank:]]/, " "); $0 = $0 # re-split if (NF == 0) next if ($1 == prev) printf("%s:%d: duplicate %s\n", FILENAME, FNR, $1) for (i = 2; i <= NF; i++) if ($i == $(i-1)) printf("%s:%d: duplicate %s\n", FILENAME, FNR, $i) prev = $NF }

13.3.2 An Alarm Clock Program

Nothing cures insomnia like a ringing alarm clock. Arnold Robbins The following program is a simple alarm clock program. You give it a time of day and an optional message. At the specied time, it prints the message on the standard output. In addition, you can give it the number of times to repeat the message as well as a delay between repetitions. This program uses the gettimeofday function from Section 12.2.8 [Managing the Time of Day], page 191. All the work is done in the BEGIN rule. The rst part is argument checking and setting of defaults: the delay, the count, and the message to print. If the user supplied a message without the ASCII BEL character (known as the alert character, "\a"), then it is added to the message. (On many systems, printing the ASCII BEL generates an audible alert. Thus when the alarm goes o, the system calls attention to itself in case the user is not looking at the computer or terminal.) Here is the program: # alarm.awk --- set an alarm # # Requires gettimeofday library function # usage: alarm time [ "message" [ count [ delay ] ] ] BEGIN \ { # Initial argument sanity checking usage1 = "usage: alarm time [message [count [delay]]]" usage2 = sprintf("\t(%s) time ::= hh:mm", ARGV[1]) if (ARGC < 2) {

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} }

print usage1 > "/dev/stderr" print usage2 > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 else if (ARGC == 5) { delay = ARGV[4] + 0 count = ARGV[3] + 0 message = ARGV[2] else if (ARGC == 4) { count = ARGV[3] + 0 message = ARGV[2] else if (ARGC == 3) { message = ARGV[2] else if (ARGV[1] !~ /[0-9]?[0-9]:[0-9][0-9]/) { print usage1 > "/dev/stderr" print usage2 > "/dev/stderr" exit 1

} # set defaults for once we reach the desired time if (delay == 0) delay = 180 # 3 minutes if (count == 0) count = 5 if (message == "") message = sprintf("\aIt is now %s!\a", ARGV[1]) else if (index(message, "\a") == 0) message = "\a" message "\a" The next section of code turns the alarm time into hours and minutes, converts it (if necessary) to a 24-hour clock, and then turns that time into a count of the seconds since midnight. Next it turns the current time into a count of seconds since midnight. The dierence between the two is how long to wait before setting o the alarm: # split up alarm time split(ARGV[1], atime, ":") hour = atime[1] + 0 # force numeric minute = atime[2] + 0 # force numeric # get current broken down time gettimeofday(now) # if time given is 12-hour hours and its after that # hour, e.g., alarm 5:30 at 9 a.m. means 5:30 p.m., # then add 12 to real hour if (hour < 12 && now["hour"] > hour) hour += 12 # set target time in seconds since midnight

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target = (hour * 60 * 60) + (minute * 60) # get current time in seconds since midnight current = (now["hour"] * 60 * 60) + \ (now["minute"] * 60) + now["second"] # how long to sleep for naptime = target - current if (naptime <= 0) { print "time is in the past!" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } Finally, the program uses the system function (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141) to call the sleep utility. The sleep utility simply pauses for the given number of seconds. If the exit status is not zero, the program assumes that sleep was interrupted and exits. If sleep exited with an OK status (zero), then the program prints the message in a loop, again using sleep to delay for however many seconds are necessary: # zzzzzz..... go away if interrupted if (system(sprintf("sleep %d", naptime)) != 0) exit 1 # time to notify! command = sprintf("sleep %d", delay) for (i = 1; i <= count; i++) { print message # if sleep command interrupted, go away if (system(command) != 0) break } exit 0 }

13.3.3 Transliterating Characters

The system tr utility transliterates characters. For example, it is often used to map uppercase letters into lowercase for further processing: generate data | tr A-Z a-z | process data ... tr requires two lists of characters.3 When processing the input, the rst character in the rst list is replaced with the rst character in the second list, the second character in the rst list is replaced with the second character in the second list, and so on. If there are more characters in the from list than in the to list, the last character of the to list is used for the remaining characters in the from list.
3

On some older System V systems, tr may require that the lists be written as range expressions enclosed in square brackets ([a-z]) and quoted, to prevent the shell from attempting a le name expansion. This is not a feature.

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Some time ago, a user proposed that a transliteration function should be added to gawk. The following program was written to prove that character transliteration could be done with a user-level function. This program is not as complete as the system tr utility but it does most of the job. The translate program demonstrates one of the few weaknesses of standard awk: dealing with individual characters is very painful, requiring repeated use of the substr, index, and gsub built-in functions (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130).4 There are two functions. The rst, stranslate, takes three arguments: from to target A list of characters from which to translate. A list of characters to which to translate. The string on which to do the translation.

Associative arrays make the translation part fairly easy. t_ar holds the to characters, indexed by the from characters. Then a simple loop goes through from, one character at a time. For each character in from, if the character appears in target, gsub is used to change it to the corresponding to character. The translate function simply calls stranslate using $0 as the target. The main program sets two global variables, FROM and TO, from the command line, and then changes ARGV so that awk reads from the standard input. Finally, the processing rule simply calls translate for each record: # translate.awk --- do tr-like stuff # Bugs: does not handle things like: tr A-Z a-z, it has # to be spelled out. However, if to is shorter than from, # the last character in to is used for the rest of from. function stranslate(from, to, target, lf, lt, t_ar, i, c) { lf = length(from) lt = length(to) for (i = 1; i <= lt; i++) t_ar[substr(from, i, 1)] = substr(to, i, 1) if (lt < lf) for (; i <= lf; i++) t_ar[substr(from, i, 1)] = substr(to, lt, 1) for (i = 1; i <= lf; i++) { c = substr(from, i, 1) if (index(target, c) > 0) gsub(c, t_ar[c], target) } return target } function translate(from, to)
4

This program was written before gawk acquired the ability to split each character in a string into separate array elements.

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{ return $0 = stranslate(from, to, $0) } # main program BEGIN { if (ARGC < 3) { print "usage: translate from to" > "/dev/stderr" exit } FROM = ARGV[1] TO = ARGV[2] ARGC = 2 ARGV[1] = "-" } { translate(FROM, TO) print } While it is possible to do character transliteration in a user-level function, it is not necessarily ecient, and we (the gawk authors) started to consider adding a built-in function. However, shortly after writing this program, we learned that the System V Release 4 awk had added the toupper and tolower functions (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). These functions handle the vast majority of the cases where character transliteration is necessary, and so we chose to simply add those functions to gawk as well and then leave well enough alone. An obvious improvement to this program would be to set up the t_ar array only once, in a BEGIN rule. However, this assumes that the from and to lists will never change throughout the lifetime of the program.

13.3.4 Printing Mailing Labels

Here is a real world5 program. This script reads lists of names and addresses and generates mailing labels. Each page of labels has 20 labels on it, 2 across and 10 down. The addresses are guaranteed to be no more than 5 lines of data. Each address is separated from the next by a blank line. The basic idea is to read 20 labels worth of data. Each line of each label is stored in the line array. The single rule takes care of lling the line array and printing the page when 20 labels have been read. The BEGIN rule simply sets RS to the empty string, so that awk splits records at blank lines (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36). It sets MAXLINES to 100, since 100 is the maximum number of lines on the page (20 * 5 = 100). Most of the work is done in the printpage function. The label lines are stored sequentially in the line array. But they have to print horizontally; line[1] next to line[6],
5

Real world is dened as a program actually used to get something done.

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line[2] next to line[7], and so on. Two loops are used to accomplish this. The outer loop, controlled by i, steps through every 10 lines of data; this is each row of labels. The inner loop, controlled by j, goes through the lines within the row. As j goes from 0 to 4, i+j is the j-th line in the row, and i+j+5 is the entry next to it. The output ends up looking something like this: line line line line line ... 1 2 3 4 5 line line line line line 6 7 8 9 10

As a nal note, an extra blank line is printed at lines 21 and 61, to keep the output lined up on the labels. This is dependent on the particular brand of labels in use when the program was written. You will also note that there are 2 blank lines at the top and 2 blank lines at the bottom. The END rule arranges to ush the nal page of labels; there may not have been an even multiple of 20 labels in the data: # labels.awk --- print mailing labels # Each label is 5 lines of data that may have blank lines. # The label sheets have 2 blank lines at the top and 2 at # the bottom. BEGIN { RS = "" ; MAXLINES = 100 } i, j)

function printpage( { if (Nlines <= 0) return printf "\n\n"

# header

for (i = 1; i <= Nlines; i += 10) { if (i == 21 || i == 61) print "" for (j = 0; j < 5; j++) { if (i + j > MAXLINES) break printf " %-41s %s\n", line[i+j], line[i+j+5] } print "" } printf "\n\n" for (i in line) # footer

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line[i] = "" } # main rule { if (Count >= 20) { printpage() Count = 0 Nlines = 0 } n = split($0, a, "\n") for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) line[++Nlines] = a[i] for (; i <= 5; i++) line[++Nlines] = "" Count++ } END { } \ printpage()

13.3.5 Generating Word-Usage Counts

The following awk program prints the number of occurrences of each word in its input. It illustrates the associative nature of awk arrays by using strings as subscripts. It also demonstrates the for index in array mechanism. Finally, it shows how awk is used in conjunction with other utility programs to do a useful task of some complexity with a minimum of eort. Some explanations follow the program listing: # Print list of word frequencies { for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) freq[$i]++ } END { for (word in freq) printf "%s\t%d\n", word, freq[word] } This program has two rules. The rst rule, because it has an empty pattern, is executed for every input line. It uses awks eld-accessing mechanism (see Section 3.2 [Examining Fields], page 39) to pick out the individual words from the line, and the built-in variable NF (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108) to know how many elds are available. For each input word, it increments an element of the array freq to reect that the word has been seen an additional time.

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The second rule, because it has the pattern END, is not executed until the input has been exhausted. It prints out the contents of the freq table that has been built up inside the rst action. This program has several problems that would prevent it from being useful by itself on real text les: Words are detected using the awk convention that elds are separated just by whitespace. Other characters in the input (except newlines) dont have any special meaning to awk. This means that punctuation characters count as part of words. The awk language considers upper- and lowercase characters to be distinct. Therefore, bartender and Bartender are not treated as the same word. This is undesirable, since in normal text, words are capitalized if they begin sentences, and a frequency analyzer should not be sensitive to capitalization. The output does not come out in any useful order. Youre more likely to be interested in which words occur most frequently or in having an alphabetized table of how frequently each word occurs. The way to solve these problems is to use some of awks more advanced features. First, we use tolower to remove case distinctions. Next, we use gsub to remove punctuation characters. Finally, we use the system sort utility to process the output of the awk script. Here is the new version of the program: # wordfreq.awk --- print list of word frequencies { $0 = tolower($0) # remove case distinctions # remove punctuation gsub(/[^[:alnum:]_[:blank:]]/, "", $0) for (i = 1; i <= NF; i++) freq[$i]++ } END { for (word in freq) printf "%s\t%d\n", word, freq[word] } Assuming we have saved this program in a le named wordfreq.awk, and that the data is in file1, the following pipeline: awk -f wordfreq.awk file1 | sort -k 2nr produces a table of the words appearing in file1 in order of decreasing frequency. The awk program suitably massages the data and produces a word frequency table, which is not ordered. The awk scripts output is then sorted by the sort utility and printed on the terminal. The options given to sort specify a sort that uses the second eld of each input line (skipping one eld), that the sort keys should be treated as numeric quantities (otherwise 15 would come before 5), and that the sorting should be done in descending (reverse) order. The sort could even be done from within the program, by changing the END action to: END {

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sort = "sort -k 2nr" for (word in freq) printf "%s\t%d\n", word, freq[word] | sort close(sort) } This way of sorting must be used on systems that do not have true pipes at the commandline (or batch-le) level. See the general operating system documentation for more information on how to use the sort program.

13.3.6 Removing Duplicates from Unsorted Text

The uniq program (see Section 13.2.6 [Printing Nonduplicated Lines of Text], page 225), removes duplicate lines from sorted data. Suppose, however, you need to remove duplicate lines from a data le but that you want to preserve the order the lines are in. A good example of this might be a shell history le. The history le keeps a copy of all the commands you have entered, and it is not unusual to repeat a command several times in a row. Occasionally you might want to compact the history by removing duplicate entries. Yet it is desirable to maintain the order of the original commands. This simple program does the job. It uses two arrays. The data array is indexed by the text of each line. For each line, data[$0] is incremented. If a particular line has not been seen before, then data[$0] is zero. In this case, the text of the line is stored in lines[count]. Each element of lines is a unique command, and the indices of lines indicate the order in which those lines are encountered. The END rule simply prints out the lines, in order: # histsort.awk --- compact a shell history file # Thanks to Byron Rakitzis for the general idea { if (data[$0]++ == 0) lines[++count] = $0 } END { for (i = 1; i <= count; i++) print lines[i] } This program also provides a foundation for generating other useful information. For example, using the following print statement in the END rule indicates how often a particular command is used: print data[lines[i]], lines[i] This works because data[$0] is incremented each time a line is seen.

13.3.7 Extracting Programs from Texinfo Source Files

Both this chapter and the previous chapter (Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182) present a large number of awk programs. If you want to experiment with these

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programs, it is tedious to have to type them in by hand. Here we present a program that can extract parts of a Texinfo input le into separate les. This book is written in Texinfo, the GNU projects document formatting language. A single Texinfo source le can be used to produce both printed and online documentation. Texinfo is fully documented in the book TexinfoThe GNU Documentation Format, available from the Free Software Foundation. For our purposes, it is enough to know three things about Texinfo input les: The at symbol (@) is special in Texinfo, much as the backslash (\) is in C or awk. Literal @ symbols are represented in Texinfo source les as @@. Comments start with either @c or @comment. The le-extraction program works by using special comments that start at the beginning of a line. Lines containing @group and @end group commands bracket example text that should not be split across a page boundary. (Unfortunately, TEX isnt always smart enough to do things exactly right, and we have to give it some help.) The following program, extract.awk, reads through a Texinfo source le and does two things, based on the special comments. Upon seeing @c system ..., it runs a command, by extracting the command text from the control line and passing it on to the system function (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141). Upon seeing @c file filename , each subsequent line is sent to the le lename, until @c endfile is encountered. The rules in extract.awk match either @c or @comment by letting the omment part be optional. Lines containing @group and @end group are simply removed. extract.awk uses the join library function (see Section 12.2.7 [Merging an Array into a String], page 191). The example programs in the online Texinfo source for GAWK: Eective AWK Programming (gawk.texi) have all been bracketed inside file and endfile lines. The gawk distribution uses a copy of extract.awk to extract the sample programs and install many of them in a standard directory where gawk can nd them. The Texinfo le looks something like this: ... This program has a @code{BEGIN} rule, that prints a nice message: @example @c file examples/messages.awk BEGIN @{ print "Dont panic!" @} @c end file @end example It also prints some final advice: @example @c file examples/messages.awk END @{ print "Always avoid bored archeologists!" @} @c end file @end example ...

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extract.awk begins by setting IGNORECASE to one, so that mixed upper- and lowercase letters in the directives wont matter. The rst rule handles calling system, checking that a command is given (NF is at least three) and also checking that the command exits with a zero exit status, signifying OK: # extract.awk --- extract files and run programs # from texinfo files BEGIN { IGNORECASE = 1 } /^@c(omment)?[ \t]+system/ \ { if (NF < 3) { e = (FILENAME ":" FNR) e = (e ": badly formed system line") print e > "/dev/stderr" next } $1 = "" $2 = "" stat = system($0) if (stat != 0) { e = (FILENAME ":" FNR) e = (e ": warning: system returned " stat) print e > "/dev/stderr" } } The variable e is used so that the function ts nicely on the page. The second rule handles moving data into les. It veries that a le name is given in the directive. If the le named is not the current le, then the current le is closed. Keeping the current le open until a new le is encountered allows the use of the > redirection for printing the contents, keeping open le management simple. The for loop does the work. It reads lines using getline (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). For an unexpected end of le, it calls the unexpected_eof function. If the line is an endle line, then it breaks out of the loop. If the line is an @group or @end group line, then it ignores it and goes on to the next line. Similarly, comments within examples are also ignored. Most of the work is in the following few lines. If the line has no @ symbols, the program can print it directly. Otherwise, each leading @ must be stripped o. To remove the @ symbols, the line is split into separate elements of the array a, using the split function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). The @ symbol is used as the separator character. Each element of a that is empty indicates two successive @ symbols in the original line. For each two empty elements (@@ in the original le), we have to add a single @ symbol back in. When the processing of the array is nished, join is called with the value of SUBSEP, to rejoin the pieces back into a single line. That line is then printed to the output le: /^@c(omment)?[ \t]+file/ \

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{ if (NF != 3) { e = (FILENAME ":" FNR ": badly formed file line") print e > "/dev/stderr" next } if ($3 != curfile) { if (curfile != "") close(curfile) curfile = $3 } for (;;) { if ((getline line) <= 0) unexpected_eof() if (line ~ /^@c(omment)?[ \t]+endfile/) break else if (line ~ /^@(end[ \t]+)?group/) continue else if (line ~ /^@c(omment+)?[ \t]+/) continue if (index(line, "@") == 0) { print line > curfile continue } n = split(line, a, "@") # if a[1] == "", means leading @, # dont add one back in. for (i = 2; i <= n; i++) { if (a[i] == "") { # was an @@ a[i] = "@" if (a[i+1] == "") i++ } } print join(a, 1, n, SUBSEP) > curfile } } An important thing to note is the use of the > redirection. Output done with > only opens the le once; it stays open and subsequent output is appended to the le (see Section 4.6 [Redirecting Output of print and printf], page 65). This makes it easy to mix program text and explanatory prose for the same sample source le (as has been done here!) without any hassle. The le is only closed when a new data le name is encountered or at the end of the input le. Finally, the function unexpected_eof prints an appropriate error message and then exits. The END rule handles the nal cleanup, closing the open le:

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function unexpected_eof() { printf("%s:%d: unexpected EOF or error\n", FILENAME, FNR) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } END { if (curfile) close(curfile) }

13.3.8 A Simple Stream Editor

The sed utility is a stream editor, a program that reads a stream of data, makes changes to it, and passes it on. It is often used to make global changes to a large le or to a stream of data generated by a pipeline of commands. While sed is a complicated program in its own right, its most common use is to perform global substitutions in the middle of a pipeline: command1 < orig.data | sed s/old/new/g | command2 > result Here, s/old/new/g tells sed to look for the regexp old on each input line and globally replace it with the text new, i.e., all the occurrences on a line. This is similar to awks gsub function (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). The following program, awksed.awk, accepts at least two command-line arguments: the pattern to look for and the text to replace it with. Any additional arguments are treated as data le names to process. If none are provided, the standard input is used: # awksed.awk --- do s/foo/bar/g using just print # Thanks to Michael Brennan for the idea function usage() { print "usage: awksed pat repl [files...]" > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } BEGIN { # validate arguments if (ARGC < 3) usage() RS = ARGV[1] ORS = ARGV[2] # dont use arguments as files ARGV[1] = ARGV[2] = "" }

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# look ma, no hands! { if (RT == "") printf "%s", $0 else print } The program relies on gawks ability to have RS be a regexp, as well as on the setting of RT to the actual text that terminates the record (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36). The idea is to have RS be the pattern to look for. gawk automatically sets $0 to the text between matches of the pattern. This is text that we want to keep, unmodied. Then, by setting ORS to the replacement text, a simple print statement outputs the text we want to keep, followed by the replacement text. There is one wrinkle to this scheme, which is what to do if the last record doesnt end with text that matches RS. Using a print statement unconditionally prints the replacement text, which is not correct. However, if the le did not end in text that matches RS, RT is set to the null string. In this case, we can print $0 using printf (see Section 4.5 [Using printf Statements for Fancier Printing], page 60). The BEGIN rule handles the setup, checking for the right number of arguments and calling usage if there is a problem. Then it sets RS and ORS from the command-line arguments and sets ARGV[1] and ARGV[2] to the null string, so that they are not treated as le names (see Section 6.5.3 [Using ARGC and ARGV], page 114). The usage function prints an error message and exits. Finally, the single rule handles the printing scheme outlined above, using print or printf as appropriate, depending upon the value of RT.

13.3.9 An Easy Way to Use Library Functions

Using library functions in awk can be very benecial. It encourages code reuse and the writing of general functions. Programs are smaller and therefore clearer. However, using library functions is only easy when writing awk programs; it is painful when running them, requiring multiple -f options. If gawk is unavailable, then so too is the AWKPATH environment variable and the ability to put awk functions into a library directory (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). It would be nice to be able to write programs in the following manner: # library functions @include getopt.awk @include join.awk ... # main program BEGIN { while ((c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "a:b:cde")) != -1) ... ...

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} The following program, igawk.sh, provides this service. It simulates gawks searching of the AWKPATH variable and also allows nested includes; i.e., a le that is included with @include can contain further @include statements. igawk makes an eort to only include les once, so that nested includes dont accidentally include a library function twice. igawk should behave just like gawk externally. This means it should accept all of gawks command-line arguments, including the ability to have multiple source les specied via -f, and the ability to mix command-line and library source les. The program is written using the POSIX Shell (sh) command language.6 It works as follows: 1. Loop through the arguments, saving anything that doesnt represent awk source code for later, when the expanded program is run. 2. For any arguments that do represent awk text, put the arguments into a shell variable that will be expanded. There are two cases: a. Literal text, provided with --source or --source=. This text is just appended directly. b. Source le names, provided with -f. We use a neat trick and append @include filename to the shell variables contents. Since the le-inclusion program works the way gawk does, this gets the text of the le included into the program at the correct point. 3. Run an awk program (naturally) over the shell variables contents to expand @include statements. The expanded program is placed in a second shell variable. 4. Run the expanded program with gawk and any other original command-line arguments that the user supplied (such as the data le names). This program uses shell variables extensively; for storing command line arguments, the text of the awk program that will expand the users program, for the users original program, and for the expanded program. Doing so removes some potential problems that might arise were we to use temporary les instead, at the cost of making the script somewhat more complicated. The initial part of the program turns on shell tracing if the rst argument is debug. The next part loops through all the command-line arguments. There are several cases of interest: --W This ends the arguments to igawk. Anything else should be passed on to the users awk program without being evaluated. This indicates that the next option is specic to gawk. To make argument processing easier, the -W is appended to the front of the remaining arguments and the loop continues. (This is an sh programming trick. Dont worry about it if you are not familiar with sh.) These are saved and passed on to gawk.

-v, -F
6

Fully explaining the sh language is beyond the scope of this book. We provide some minimal explanations, but see a good shell programming book if you wish to understand things in more depth.

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-f, --file, --file=, -Wfile= The le name is appended to the shell variable program with an @include statement. The expr utility is used to remove the leading option part of the argument (e.g., --file=). (Typical sh usage would be to use the echo and sed utilities to do this work. Unfortunately, some versions of echo evaluate escape sequences in their arguments, possibly mangling the program text. Using expr avoids this problem.) --source, --source=, -Wsource= The source text is appended to program. --version, -Wversion igawk prints its version number, runs gawk --version to get the gawk version information, and then exits. If none of the -f, --file, -Wfile, --source, or -Wsource arguments are supplied, then the rst nonoption argument should be the awk program. If there are no commandline arguments left, igawk prints an error message and exits. Otherwise, the rst argument is appended to program. In any case, after the arguments have been processed, program contains the complete text of the original awk program. The program is as follows: #! /bin/sh # igawk --- like gawk but do @include processing if [ "$1" = debug ] then set -x shift fi # A literal newline, so that program text is formatted correctly n= # Initialize variables to empty program= opts= while [ $# -ne 0 ] # loop over arguments do case $1 in --) shift; break;; -W) shift # The ${x?message here} construct prints a # diagnostic if $x is the null string set -- -W"${@?missing operand}" continue;;

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-[vF])

opts="$opts $1 ${2?missing operand}" shift;;

-[vF]*) opts="$opts $1" ;; -f) program="$program$n@include ${2?missing operand}" shift;; f=expr "$1" : -f\(.*\) program="$program$n@include $f";;

-f*)

-[W-]file=*) f=expr "$1" : -.file=\(.*\) program="$program$n@include $f";; -[W-]file) program="$program$n@include ${2?missing operand}" shift;; -[W-]source=*) t=expr "$1" : -.source=\(.*\) program="$program$n$t";; -[W-]source) program="$program$n${2?missing operand}" shift;; -[W-]version) echo igawk: version 2.0 1>&2 gawk --version exit 0 ;; -[W-]*) opts="$opts $1" ;; *) esac shift done break;;

if [ -z "$program" ] then program=${1?missing program} shift fi # At this point, program has the program.

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The awk program to process @include directives is stored in the shell variable expand_ prog. Doing this keeps the shell script readable. The awk program reads through the users program, one line at a time, using getline (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). The input le names and @include statements are managed using a stack. As each @include is encountered, the current le name is pushed onto the stack and the le named in the @include directive becomes the current le name. As each le is nished, the stack is popped, and the previous input le becomes the current input le again. The process is started by making the original le the rst one on the stack. The pathto function does the work of nding the full path to a le. It simulates gawks behavior when searching the AWKPATH environment variable (see Section 11.4 [The AWKPATH Environment Variable], page 180). If a le name has a / in it, no path search is done. Otherwise, the le name is concatenated with the name of each directory in the path, and an attempt is made to open the generated le name. The only way to test if a le can be read in awk is to go ahead and try to read it with getline; this is what pathto does.7 If the le can be read, it is closed and the le name is returned: expand_prog= function pathto(file, i, t, junk) { if (index(file, "/") != 0) return file for (i = 1; i <= ndirs; i++) { t = (pathlist[i] "/" file) if ((getline junk < t) > 0) { # found it close(t) return t } } return "" } The main program is contained inside one BEGIN rule. The rst thing it does is set up the pathlist array that pathto uses. After splitting the path on :, null elements are replaced with ".", which represents the current directory: BEGIN { path = ENVIRON["AWKPATH"] ndirs = split(path, pathlist, ":") for (i = 1; i <= ndirs; i++) { if (pathlist[i] == "") pathlist[i] = "." }
7

On some very old versions of awk, the test getline junk < t can loop forever if the le exists but is empty. Caveat emptor.

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The stack is initialized with ARGV[1], which will be /dev/stdin. The main loop comes next. Input lines are read in succession. Lines that do not start with @include are printed verbatim. If the line does start with @include, the le name is in $2. pathto is called to generate the full path. If it cannot, then we print an error message and continue. The next thing to check is if the le is included already. The processed array is indexed by the full le name of each included le and it tracks this information for us. If the le is seen again, a warning message is printed. Otherwise, the new le name is pushed onto the stack and processing continues. Finally, when getline encounters the end of the input le, the le is closed and the stack is popped. When stackptr is less than zero, the program is done: stackptr = 0 input[stackptr] = ARGV[1] # ARGV[1] is first file for (; stackptr >= 0; stackptr--) { while ((getline < input[stackptr]) > 0) { if (tolower($1) != "@include") { print continue } fpath = pathto($2) if (fpath == "") { printf("igawk:%s:%d: cannot find %s\n", input[stackptr], FNR, $2) > "/dev/stderr" continue } if (! (fpath in processed)) { processed[fpath] = input[stackptr] input[++stackptr] = fpath # push onto stack } else print $2, "included in", input[stackptr], "already included in", processed[fpath] > "/dev/stderr" } close(input[stackptr]) } # close quote ends expand_prog variable

processed_program=gawk -- "$expand_prog" /dev/stdin <<EOF $program EOF The shell construct command << marker is called a here document. Everything in the shell script up to the marker is fed to command as input. The shell processes the contents of the here document for variable and command substitution (and possibly other things as well, depending upon the shell).

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The shell construct ... is called command substitution. The output of the command between the two backquotes (grave accents) is substituted into the command line. It is saved as a single string, even if the results contain whitespace. The expanded program is saved in the variable processed_program. Its done in these steps: 1. Run gawk with the @include-processing program (the value of the expand_prog shell variable) on standard input. 2. Standard input is the contents of the users program, from the shell variable program. Its contents are fed to gawk via a here document. 3. The results of this processing are saved in the shell variable processed_program by using command substitution. The last step is to call gawk with the expanded program, along with the original options and command-line arguments that the user supplied. eval gawk $opts -- "$processed_program" "$@" The eval command is a shell construct that reruns the shells parsing process. This keeps things properly quoted. This version of igawk represents my fourth attempt at this program. There are four key simplications that make the program work better: Using @include even for the les named with -f makes building the initial collected awk program much simpler; all the @include processing can be done once. Not trying to save the line read with getline in the pathto function when testing for the les accessibility for use with the main program simplies things considerably. Using a getline loop in the BEGIN rule does it all in one place. It is not necessary to call out to a separate loop for processing nested @include statements. Instead of saving the expanded program in a temporary le, putting it in a shell variable avoids some potential security problems. This has the disadvantage that the script relies upon more features of the sh language, making it harder to follow for those who arent familiar with sh. Also, this program illustrates that it is often worthwhile to combine sh and awk programming together. You can usually accomplish quite a lot, without having to resort to low-level programming in C or C++, and it is frequently easier to do certain kinds of string and argument manipulation using the shell than it is in awk. Finally, igawk shows that it is not always necessary to add new features to a program; they can often be layered on top. With igawk, there is no real reason to build @include processing into gawk itself. As an additional example of this, consider the idea of having two les in a directory in the search path: default.awk This le contains a set of default library functions, such as getopt and assert. site.awk This le contains library functions that are specic to a site or installation; i.e., locally developed functions. Having a separate le allows default.awk to

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change with new gawk releases, without requiring the system administrator to update it each time by adding the local functions. One user suggested that gawk be modied to automatically read these les upon startup. Instead, it would be very simple to modify igawk to do this. Since igawk can process nested @include directives, default.awk could simply contain @include statements for the desired library functions.

Appendix A: The Evolution of the awk Language 253

Appendix A The Evolution of the awk Language

This book describes the GNU implementation of awk, which follows the POSIX specication. Many long-time awk users learned awk programming with the original awk implementation in Version 7 Unix. (This implementation was the basis for awk in Berkeley Unix, through 4.3-Reno. Subsequent versions of Berkeley Unix, and systems derived from 4.4BSD-Lite, use various versions of gawk for their awk.) This chapter briey describes the evolution of the awk language, with cross-references to other parts of the book where you can nd more information.

A.1 Major Changes Between V7 and SVR3.1

The awk language evolved considerably between the release of Version 7 Unix (1978) and the new version that was rst made generally available in System V Release 3.1 (1987). This section summarizes the changes, with cross-references to further details: The requirement for ; to separate rules on a line (see Section 1.6 [awk Statements Versus Lines], page 20). User-dened functions and the return statement (see Section 8.2 [User-Dened Functions], page 150). The delete statement (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121). The do-while statement (see Section 6.4.3 [The do-while Statement], page 102). The built-in functions atan2, cos, sin, rand, and srand (see Section 8.1.2 [Numeric Functions], page 128). The built-in functions gsub, sub, and match (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). The built-in functions close and system (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141). The ARGC, ARGV, FNR, RLENGTH, RSTART, and SUBSEP built-in variables (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). Assignable $0. The conditional expression using the ternary operator ?: (see Section 5.12 [Conditional Expressions], page 90). The expression index in array outside of for statements (see Section 7.2 [Referring to an Array Element], page 118). The exponentiation operator ^ (see Section 5.5 [Arithmetic Operators], page 79) and its assignment operator form ^= (see Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). C-compatible operator precedence, which breaks some old awk programs (see Section 5.14 [Operator Precedence (How Operators Nest)], page 92). Regexps as the value of FS (see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43) and as the third argument to the split function (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130), rather than using only the rst character of FS. Dynamic regexps as operands of the ~ and !~ operators (see Section 2.1 [How to Use Regular Expressions], page 24).

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The escape sequences \b, \f, and \r (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). (Some vendors have updated their old versions of awk to recognize \b, \f, and \r, but this is not something you can rely on.) Redirection of input for the getline function (see Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51). Multiple BEGIN and END rules (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). Multidimensional arrays (see Section 7.9 [Multidimensional Arrays], page 123).

A.2 Changes Between SVR3.1 and SVR4

The System V Release 4 (1989) version of Unix awk added these features (some of which originated in gawk): The ENVIRON variable (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). Multiple -f options on the command line (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The -v option for assigning variables before program execution begins (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The -- option for terminating command-line options. The \a, \v, and \x escape sequences (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). A dened return value for the srand built-in function (see Section 8.1.2 [Numeric Functions], page 128). The toupper and tolower built-in string functions for case translation (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). A cleaner specication for the %c format-control letter in the printf function (see Section 4.5.2 [Format-Control Letters], page 60). The ability to dynamically pass the eld width and precision ("%*.*d") in the argument list of the printf function (see Section 4.5.2 [Format-Control Letters], page 60). The use of regexp constants, such as /foo/, as expressions, where they are equivalent to using the matching operator, as in $0 ~ /foo/ (see Section 5.2 [Using Regular Expression Constants], page 74). Processing of escape sequences inside command-line variable assignments (see Section 5.3.2 [Assigning Variables on the Command Line], page 76).

A.3 Changes Between SVR4 and POSIX awk

The POSIX Command Language and Utilities standard for awk (1992) introduced the following changes into the language: The use of -W for implementation-specic options (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The use of CONVFMT for controlling the conversion of numbers to strings (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77). The concept of a numeric string and tighter comparison rules to go with it (see Section 5.10 [Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions], page 85).

Appendix A: The Evolution of the awk Language 255

More complete documentation of many of the previously undocumented features of the language. The following common extensions are not permitted by the POSIX standard: \x escape sequences are not recognized (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). Newlines do not act as whitespace to separate elds when FS is equal to a single space (see Section 3.2 [Examining Fields], page 39). Newlines are not allowed after ? or : (see Section 5.12 [Conditional Expressions], page 90). The synonym func for the keyword function is not recognized (see Section 8.2.1 [Function Denition Syntax], page 150). The operators ** and **= cannot be used in place of ^ and ^= (see Section 5.5 [Arithmetic Operators], page 79, and Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). Specifying -Ft on the command line does not set the value of FS to be a single TAB character (see Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43). The locales decimal point character is used for parsing input data (see Section 2.9 [Where You Are Makes A Dierence], page 35). The fflush built-in function is not supported (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141).

A.4 Extensions in the Bell Laboratories awk

Brian Kernighan, one of the original designers of Unix awk, has made his version available via his home page (see Section B.6 [Other Freely Available awk Implementations], page 278). This section describes extensions in his version of awk that are not in POSIX awk: The -mf N and -mr N command-line options to set the maximum number of elds and the maximum record size, respectively (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). As a side note, his awk no longer needs these options; it continues to accept them to avoid breaking old programs. The fflush built-in function for ushing buered output (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141). The ** and **= operators (see Section 5.5 [Arithmetic Operators], page 79 and Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). The use of func as an abbreviation for function (see Section 8.2.1 [Function Denition Syntax], page 150). The Bell Laboratories awk also incorporates the following extensions, originally developed for gawk: The \x escape sequence (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). The /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, and /dev/stderr special les (see Section 4.7 [Special File Names in gawk], page 68). The ability for FS and for the third argument to split to be null strings (see Section 3.5.2 [Making Each Character a Separate Field], page 44). The nextfile statement (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107).

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The ability to delete all of an array at once with delete array (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121).

A.5 Extensions in gawk Not in POSIX awk

The GNU implementation, gawk, adds a large number of features. This section lists them in the order they were added to gawk. They can all be disabled with either the --traditional or --posix options (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Version 2.10 of gawk introduced the following features: The AWKPATH environment variable for specifying a path search for the -f commandline option (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The IGNORECASE variable and its eects (see Section 2.6 [Case Sensitivity in Matching], page 32). The /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, /dev/stderr and /dev/fd/N special le names (see Section 4.7 [Special File Names in gawk], page 68). Version 2.13 of gawk introduced the following features: The FIELDWIDTHS variable and its eects (see Section 3.6 [Reading Fixed-Width Data], page 47). The systime and strftime built-in functions for obtaining and printing timestamps (see Section 8.1.5 [Using gawks Timestamp Functions], page 143). The -W lint option to provide error and portability checking for both the source code and at runtime (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The -W compat option to turn o the GNU extensions (see Section 11.2 [CommandLine Options], page 174). The -W posix option for full POSIX compliance (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). Version 2.14 of gawk introduced the following feature: The next file statement for skipping to the next data le (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107). Version 2.15 of gawk introduced the following features: The ARGIND variable, which tracks the movement of FILENAME through ARGV (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). The ERRNO variable, which contains the system error message when getline returns 1 or close fails (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). The /dev/pid, /dev/ppid, /dev/pgrpid, and /dev/user le name interpretation (see Section 4.7 [Special File Names in gawk], page 68). The ability to delete all of an array at once with delete array (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121). The ability to use GNU-style long-named options that start with -- (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The --source option for mixing command-line and library-le source code (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174).

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Version 3.0 of gawk introduced the following features: IGNORECASE changed, now applying to string comparison as well as regexp operations (see Section 2.6 [Case Sensitivity in Matching], page 32). The RT variable that contains the input text that matched RS (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36). Full support for both POSIX and GNU regexps (see Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24). The gensub function for more powerful text manipulation (see Section 8.1.3 [StringManipulation Functions], page 130). The strftime function acquired a default time format, allowing it to be called with no arguments (see Section 8.1.5 [Using gawks Timestamp Functions], page 143). The ability for FS and for the third argument to split to be null strings (see Section 3.5.2 [Making Each Character a Separate Field], page 44). The ability for RS to be a regexp (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36). The next file statement became nextfile (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107). The --lint-old option to warn about constructs that are not available in the original Version 7 Unix version of awk (see Section A.1 [Major Changes Between V7 and SVR3.1], page 253). The -m option and the fflush function from the Bell Laboratories research version of awk (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174; also see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141). The --re-interval option to provide interval expressions in regexps (see Section 2.3 [Regular Expression Operators], page 27). The --traditional option was added as a better name for --compat (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The use of GNU Autoconf to control the conguration process (see Section B.2.1 [Compiling gawk for Unix], page 265). Amiga support (see Section B.3.1 [Installing gawk on an Amiga], page 267). Version 3.1 of gawk introduced the following features: The BINMODE special variable for non-POSIX systems, which allows binary I/O for input and/or output les (see Section B.3.3.4 [Using gawk on PC Operating Systems], page 271). The LINT special variable, which dynamically controls lint warnings (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). The PROCINFO array for providing process-related information (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108). The TEXTDOMAIN special variable for setting an applications internationalization text domain (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108, and Chapter 9 [Internationalization with gawk], page 157). The ability to use octal and hexadecimal constants in awk program source code (see Section 5.1.2 [Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers], page 73).

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The |& operator for two-way I/O to a coprocess (see Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167). The /inet special les for TCP/IP networking using |& (see Section 10.3 [Using gawk for Network Programming], page 169). The optional second argument to close that allows closing one end of a two-way pipe to a coprocess (see Section 10.2 [Two-Way Communications with Another Process], page 167). The optional third argument to the match function for capturing text-matching subexpressions within a regexp (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). Positional speciers in printf formats for making translations easier (see Section 9.4.2 [Rearranging printf Arguments], page 161). The asort and asorti functions for sorting arrays (see Section 7.11 [Sorting Array Values and Indices with gawk], page 125). The bindtextdomain, dcgettext and dcngettext functions for internationalization (see Section 9.3 [Internationalizing awk Programs], page 159). The extension built-in function and the ability to add new built-in functions dynamically (see Section C.3 [Adding New Built-in Functions to gawk], page 284). The mktime built-in function for creating timestamps (see Section 8.1.5 [Using gawks Timestamp Functions], page 143). The and, or, xor, compl, lshift, rshift, and strtonum built-in functions (see Section 8.1.6 [Bit-Manipulation Functions of gawk], page 148). The support for next file as two words was removed completely (see Section 6.4.9 [Using gawks nextfile Statement], page 107). The --dump-variables option to print a list of all global variables (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The --gen-po command-line option and the use of a leading underscore to mark strings that should be translated (see Section 9.4.1 [Extracting Marked Strings], page 161). The --non-decimal-data option to allow non-decimal input data (see Section 10.1 [Allowing Nondecimal Input Data], page 166). The --profile option and pgawk, the proling version of gawk, for producing execution proles of awk programs (see Section 10.5 [Proling Your awk Programs], page 170). The --use-lc-numeric option to force gawk to use the locales decimal point for parsing input data (see Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77). The --enable-portals conguration option to enable special treatment of pathnames that begin with /p as BSD portals (see Section 10.4 [Using gawk with BSD Portals], page 170). The --disable-directories-fatal conguration option which causes gawk to silently skip directories named on the command line (see Section B.2.2 [Additional Conguration Options], page 265). The use of GNU Automake to help in standardizing the conguration process (see Section B.2.1 [Compiling gawk for Unix], page 265).

Appendix A: The Evolution of the awk Language 259

The use of GNU gettext for gawks own message output (see Section 9.6 [gawk Can Speak Your Language], page 164). BeOS support (see Section B.3.2 [Installing gawk on BeOS], page 267). Tandem support (see Section B.4.2 [Installing gawk on a Tandem], page 276). The Atari port became ocially unsupported (see Section B.4.1 [Installing gawk on the Atari ST], page 275). The source code now uses new-style function denitions, with ansi2knr to convert the code on systems with old compilers. The --disable-lint conguration option to disable lint checking at compile time (see Section B.2.2 [Additional Conguration Options], page 265). POSIX compliance for sub and gsub (see Section 8.1.3.1 [More About \ and & with sub, gsub, and gensub], page 138). The --exec option, for use in CGI scripts (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). The length function was extended to accept an array argument and return the number of elements in the array (see Section 8.1.3 [String-Manipulation Functions], page 130). The strftime function acquired a third argument to enable printing times as UTC (see Section 8.1.5 [Using gawks Timestamp Functions], page 143).

A.6 Major Contributors to gawk

Always give credit where credit is due. Anonymous This section names the major contributors to gawk and/or this book, in approximate chronological order: Dr. Alfred V. Aho, Dr. Peter J. Weinberger, and Dr. Brian W. Kernighan, all of Bell Laboratories, designed and implemented Unix awk, from which gawk gets the majority of its feature set. Paul Rubin did the initial design and implementation in 1986, and wrote the rst draft (around 40 pages) of this book. Jay Fenlason nished the initial implementation. Diane Close revised the rst draft of this book, bringing it to around 90 pages. Richard Stallman helped nish the implementation and the initial draft of this book. He is also the founder of the FSF and the GNU project. John Woods contributed parts of the code (mostly xes) in the initial version of gawk. In 1988, David Trueman took over primary maintenance of gawk, making it compatible with new awk, and greatly improving its performance. Pat Rankin provided the VMS port and its documentation. Conrad Kwok, Scott Garnkle, and Kent Williams did the initial ports to MS-DOS with various versions of MSC. Hal Peterson provided help in porting gawk to Cray systems. Kai Uwe Rommel provided the initial port to OS/2 and its documentation.

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Michal Jaegermann provided the port to Atari systems and its documentation. He continues to provide portability checking with DEC Alpha systems, and has done a lot of work to make sure gawk works on non-32-bit systems. Fred Fish provided the port to Amiga systems and its documentation. Scott Deik currently maintains the MS-DOS port. Juan Grigera maintains the port to Windows32 systems. Dr. Darrel Hankerson acts as coordinator for the various ports to dierent PC platforms and creates binary distributions for various PC operating systems. He is also instrumental in keeping the documentation up to date for the various PC platforms. Christos Zoulas provided the extension built-in function for dynamically adding new modules. J urgen Kahrs contributed the initial version of the TCP/IP networking code and documentation, and motivated the inclusion of the |& operator. Stephen Davies provided the initial port to Tandem systems and its documentation. Matthew Woehlke provided improvements for Tandems POSIX-compliant systems. Martin Brown provided the port to BeOS and its documentation. Arno Peters did the initial work to convert gawk to use GNU Automake and gettext. Alan J. Broder provided the initial version of the asort function as well as the code for the new optional third argument to the match function. Andreas Buening updated the gawk port for OS/2. Isamu Hasegawa, of IBM in Japan, contributed support for multibyte characters. Michael Benzinger contributed the initial code for switch statements. Patrick T.J. McPhee contributed the code for dynamic loading in Windows32 environments. Arnold Robbins has been working on gawk since 1988, at rst helping David Trueman, and as the primary maintainer since around 1994.

Appendix B: Installing gawk 261

Appendix B Installing gawk

This appendix provides instructions for installing gawk on the various platforms that are supported by the developers. The primary developer supports GNU/Linux (and Unix), whereas the other ports are contributed. See Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277, for the electronic mail addresses of the people who did the respective ports.

B.1 The gawk Distribution

This section describes how to get the gawk distribution, how to extract it, and then what is in the various les and subdirectories.

B.1.1 Getting the gawk Distribution

There are three ways to get GNU software: Copy it from someone else who already has it. Order gawk directly from the Free Software Foundation. Software distributions are available for Gnu/Linux, Unix, and MS-Windows, in several CD packages. Their address is: Free Software Foundation 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA Phone: +1-617-542-5942 Fax (including Japan): +1-617-542-2652 Email: [email protected] URL: http://www.gnu.org Ordering from the FSF directly contributes to the support of the foundation and to the production of more free software. Retrieve gawk by using anonymous ftp to the Internet host ftp.gnu.org, in the directory /gnu/gawk. The GNU software archive is mirrored around the world. The up-to-date list of mirror sites is available from the main FSF web site. Try to use one of the mirrors; they will be less busy, and you can usually nd one closer to your site.

B.1.2 Extracting the Distribution

gawk is distributed as a tar le compressed with the GNU Zip program, gzip. Once you have the distribution (for example, gawk-3.1.6.tar.gz), use gzip to expand the le and then use tar to extract it. You can use the following pipeline to produce the gawk distribution: # Under System V, add o to the tar options gzip -d -c gawk-3.1.6.tar.gz | tar -xvpf This creates a directory named gawk-3.1.6 in the current directory. The distribution le name is of the form gawk-V.R.P.tar.gz. The V represents the major version of gawk, the R represents the current release of version V, and the P represents a patch level, meaning that minor bugs have been xed in the release. The current patch

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level is 6, but when retrieving distributions, you should get the version with the highest version, release, and patch level. (Note, however, that patch levels greater than or equal to 80 denote beta or nonproduction software; you might not want to retrieve such a version unless you dont mind experimenting.) If you are not on a Unix system, you need to make other arrangements for getting and extracting the gawk distribution. You should consult a local expert.

B.1.3 Contents of the gawk Distribution

The gawk distribution has a number of C source les, documentation les, subdirectories, and les related to the conguration process (see Section B.2 [Compiling and Installing gawk on Unix], page 265), as well as several subdirectories related to dierent non-Unix operating systems: Various .c, .y, and .h les The actual gawk source code. README README_d/README.* Descriptive les: README for gawk under Unix and the rest for the various hardware and software combinations. INSTALL A le providing an overview of the conguration and installation process.

ChangeLog A detailed list of source code changes as bugs are xed or improvements made. NEWS COPYING FUTURES A list of changes to gawk since the last release or patch. The GNU General Public License. A brief list of features and changes being contemplated for future releases, with some indication of the time frame for the feature, based on its diculty.

LIMITATIONS A list of those factors that limit gawks performance. Most of these depend on the hardware or operating system software and are not limits in gawk itself. POSIX.STD A description of one area in which the POSIX standard for awk is incorrect as well as how gawk handles the problem. doc/awkforai.txt A short article describing why gawk is a good language for AI (Articial Intelligence) programming.

Appendix B: Installing gawk 263

doc/README.card doc/ad.block doc/awkcard.in doc/cardfonts doc/colors doc/macros doc/no.colors doc/setter.outline The troff source for a ve-color awk reference card. A modern version of troff such as GNU troff (groff) is needed to produce the color version. See the le README.card for instructions if you have an older troff. doc/gawk.1 The troff source for a manual page describing gawk. This is distributed for the convenience of Unix users. doc/gawk.texi The Texinfo source le for this book. It should be processed with TEX to produce a printed document, and with makeinfo to produce an Info or HTML le. doc/gawk.info The generated Info le for this book. doc/gawkinet.texi The Texinfo source le for TCP/IP Internetworking with gawk. It should be processed with TEX to produce a printed document and with makeinfo to produce an Info or HTML le. doc/gawkinet.info The generated Info le for TCP/IP Internetworking with gawk. doc/igawk.1 The troff source for a manual page describing the igawk program presented in Section 13.3.9 [An Easy Way to Use Library Functions], page 245. doc/Makefile.in The input le used during the conguration process to generate the actual Makefile for creating the documentation. Makefile.am */Makefile.am Files used by the GNU automake software for generating the Makefile.in les used by autoconf and configure.

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Makefile.in acconfig.h acinclude.m4 aclocal.m4 configh.in configure.in configure custom.h missing_d/* m4/* These les and subdirectories are used when conguring gawk for various Unix systems. They are explained in Section B.2 [Compiling and Installing gawk on Unix], page 265. po/* The po library contains message translations.

awklib/extract.awk awklib/Makefile.am awklib/Makefile.in awklib/eg/* The awklib directory contains a copy of extract.awk (see Section 13.3.7 [Extracting Programs from Texinfo Source Files], page 240), which can be used to extract the sample programs from the Texinfo source le for this book. It also contains a Makefile.in le, which configure uses to generate a Makefile. Makefile.am is used by GNU Automake to create Makefile.in. The library functions from Chapter 12 [A Library of awk Functions], page 182, and the igawk program from Section 13.3.9 [An Easy Way to Use Library Functions], page 245, are included as ready-to-use les in the gawk distribution. They are installed as part of the installation process. The rest of the programs in this book are available in appropriate subdirectories of awklib/eg. unsupported/atari/* Files needed for building gawk on an Atari ST (see Section B.4.1 [Installing gawk on the Atari ST], page 275, for details). unsupported/tandem/* Files needed for building gawk on a Tandem (see Section B.4.2 [Installing gawk on a Tandem], page 276, for details). posix/* pc/* vms/* test/* Files needed for building gawk on POSIX-compliant systems. Files needed for building gawk under MS-DOS, MS Windows and OS/2 (see Section B.3.3 [Installation on PC Operating Systems], page 268, for details). Files needed for building gawk under VMS (see Section B.3.4 [How to Compile and Install gawk on VMS], page 272, for details). A test suite for gawk. You can use make check from the top-level gawk directory to run your version of gawk against the test suite. If gawk successfully passes make check, then you can be condent of a successful port.

Appendix B: Installing gawk 265

B.2 Compiling and Installing gawk on Unix

Usually, you can compile and install gawk by typing only two commands. However, if you use an unusual system, you may need to congure gawk for your system yourself.

B.2.1 Compiling gawk for Unix

After you have extracted the gawk distribution, cd to gawk-3.1.6. Like most GNU software, gawk is congured automatically for your Unix system by running the configure program. This program is a Bourne shell script that is generated automatically using GNU autoconf. (The autoconf software is described fully in AutoconfGenerating Automatic Conguration Scripts, which is available from the Free Software Foundation.) To congure gawk, simply run configure: sh ./configure This produces a Makefile and config.h tailored to your system. The config.h le describes various facts about your system. You might want to edit the Makefile to change the CFLAGS variable, which controls the command-line options that are passed to the C compiler (such as optimization levels or compiling for debugging). Alternatively, you can add your own values for most make variables on the command line, such as CC and CFLAGS, when running configure: CC=cc CFLAGS=-g sh ./configure See the le INSTALL in the gawk distribution for all the details. After you have run configure and possibly edited the Makefile, type: make Shortly thereafter, you should have an executable version of gawk. Thats all there is to it! To verify that gawk is working properly, run make check. All of the tests should succeed. If these steps do not work, or if any of the tests fail, check the les in the README_d directory to see if youve found a known problem. If the failure is not described there, please send in a bug report (see Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277.)

B.2.2 Additional Conguration Options

There are several additional options you may use on the configure command line when compiling gawk from scratch, including: --enable-portals Treat pathnames that begin with /p as BSD portal les when doing two-way I/O with the |& operator (see Section 10.4 [Using gawk with BSD Portals], page 170). --enable-switch Enable the recognition and execution of C-style switch statements in awk programs (see Section 6.4.5 [The switch Statement], page 103.) --disable-lint This option disables all lint checking within gawk. The --lint and --lint-old options (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174) are accepted, but silently do nothing. Similarly, setting the LINT variable (see

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Section 6.5.1 [Built-in Variables That Control awk], page 108) has no eect on the running awk program. When used with GCCs automatic dead-code-elimination, this option cuts almost 200K bytes o the size of the gawk executable on GNU/Linux x86 systems. Results on other systems and with other compilers are likely to vary. Using this option may bring you some slight performance improvement. Using this option will cause some of the tests in the test suite to fail. This option may be removed at a later date. --disable-nls Disable all message-translation facilities. This is usually not desirable, but it may bring you some slight performance improvement. --disable-directories-fatal Causes gawk to silently skip directories named on the command line. As of version 3.1.5, the --with-included-gettext conguration option is no longer available, since gawk expects the GNU gettext library to be installed as an external library.

B.2.3 The Conguration Process

This section is of interest only if you know something about using the C language and the Unix operating system. The source code for gawk generally attempts to adhere to formal standards wherever possible. This means that gawk uses library routines that are specied by the ISO C standard and by the POSIX operating system interface standard. When using an ISO C compiler, function prototypes are used to help improve the compile-time checking. Many Unix systems do not support all of either the ISO or the POSIX standards. The missing_d subdirectory in the gawk distribution contains replacement versions of those functions that are most likely to be missing. The config.h le that configure creates contains denitions that describe features of the particular operating system where you are attempting to compile gawk. The three things described by this le are: what header les are available, so that they can be correctly included, what (supposedly) standard functions are actually available in your C libraries, and various miscellaneous facts about your variant of Unix. For example, there may not be an st_blksize element in the stat structure. In this case, HAVE_ST_BLKSIZE is undened. It is possible for your C compiler to lie to configure. It may do so by not exiting with an error when a library function is not available. To get around this, edit the le custom.h. Use an #ifdef that is appropriate for your system, and either #define any constants that configure should have dened but didnt, or #undef any constants that configure dened and should not have. custom.h is automatically included by config.h. It is also possible that the configure program generated by autoconf will not work on your system in some other fashion. If you do have a problem, the le configure.in is the input for autoconf. You may be able to change this le and generate a new version of configure that works on your system (see Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277, for information on how to report problems in conguring gawk). The same mechanism may be used to send in updates to configure.in and/or custom.h.

Appendix B: Installing gawk 267

B.3 Installation on Other Operating Systems

This section describes how to install gawk on various non-Unix systems.

B.3.1 Installing gawk on an Amiga

You can install gawk on an Amiga system using a Unix emulation environment, available via anonymous ftp from ftp.ninemoons.com in the directory pub/ade/current. This includes a shell based on pdksh. The primary component of this environment is a Unix emulation library, ixemul.lib. A more complete distribution for the Amiga is available on the Geek Gadgets CD-ROM, available from: CRONUS 1840 E. Warner Road #105-265 Tempe, AZ 85284 USA US Toll Free: (800) 804-0833 Phone: +1-602-491-0442 FAX: +1-602-491-0048 Email: [email protected] WWW: http://www.ninemoons.com Anonymous ftp site: ftp.ninemoons.com Once you have the distribution, you can congure gawk simply by running configure: configure -v m68k-amigaos Then run make and you should be all set! If these steps do not work, please send in a bug report (see Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277).

B.3.2 Installing gawk on BeOS

Since BeOS DR9, all the tools that you should need to build gawk are included with BeOS. The process is basically identical to the Unix process of running configure and then make. Full instructions are given below. You can compile gawk under BeOS by extracting the standard sources and running configure. You must specify the location prex for the installation directory. For BeOS DR9 and beyond, the best directory to use is /boot/home/config, so the configure command is: configure --prefix=/boot/home/config This installs the compiled application into /boot/home/config/bin, which is already specied in the standard PATH. Once the conguration process is completed, you can run make, and then make install: $ make ... $ make install BeOS uses bash as its shell; thus, you use gawk the same way you would under Unix. If these steps do not work, please send in a bug report (see Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277).

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B.3.3 Installation on PC Operating Systems

This section covers installation and usage of gawk on x86 machines running DOS, any version of Windows, or OS/2. In this section, the term Windows32 refers to any of Windows-95/98/ME/NT/2000. The limitations of DOS (and DOS shells under Windows or OS/2) has meant that various DOS extenders are often used with programs such as gawk. The varying capabilities of Microsoft Windows 3.1 and Windows32 can add to the confusion. For an overview of the considerations, please refer to README_d/README.pc in the distribution.

B.3.3.1 Installing a Prepared Distribution for PC Systems

If you have received a binary distribution prepared by the DOS maintainers, then gawk and the necessary support les appear under the gnu directory, with executables in gnu/bin, libraries in gnu/lib/awk, and manual pages under gnu/man. This is designed for easy installation to a /gnu directory on your drivehowever, the les can be installed anywhere provided AWKPATH is set properly. Regardless of the installation directory, the rst line of igawk.cmd and igawk.bat (in gnu/bin) may need to be edited. The binary distribution contains a separate le describing the contents. In particular, it may include more than one version of the gawk executable. OS/2 (32 bit, EMX) binary distributions are prepared for the /usr directory of your preferred drive. Set UNIXROOT to your installation drive (e.g., e:) if you want to install gawk onto another drive than the hardcoded default c:. Executables appear in /usr/bin, libraries under /usr/share/awk, manual pages under /usr/man, Texinfo documentation under /usr/info and NLS les under /usr/share/locale. If you already have a le /usr/info/dir from another package do not overwrite it! Instead enter the following commands at your prompt (replace x: by your installation drive): install-info --info-dir=x:/usr/info x:/usr/info/gawk.info install-info --info-dir=x:/usr/info x:/usr/info/gawkinet.info However, the les can be installed anywhere provided AWKPATH is set properly. The binary distribution may contain a separate le containing additional or more detailed installation instructions.

B.3.3.2 Compiling gawk for PC Operating Systems

gawk can be compiled for MS-DOS, Windows32, and OS/2 using the GNU development tools from DJ Delorie (DJGPP; MS-DOS only) or Eberhard Mattes (EMX; MS-DOS, Windows32 and OS/2). Microsoft Visual C/C++ can be used to build a Windows32 version, and Microsoft C/C++ can be used to build 16-bit versions for MS-DOS and OS/2. (As of gawk 3.1.2, the MSC version doesnt work. However, the maintainer is working on xing it.) The le README_d/README.pc in the gawk distribution contains additional notes, and pc/Makefile contains important information on compilation options. To build gawk for MS-DOS, Windows32, and OS/2 (16 bit only; for 32 bit (EMX) you can use the configure script and skip the following paragraphs; for details see below), copy the les in the pc directory (except for ChangeLog) to the directory with the rest of the gawk sources. The Makefile contains a conguration section with comments and may need to be edited in order to work with your make utility.

Appendix B: Installing gawk 269

The Makefile contains a number of targets for building various MS-DOS, Windows32, and OS/2 versions. A list of targets is printed if the make command is given without a target. As an example, to build gawk using the DJGPP tools, enter make djgpp. (The DJGPP tools may be found at ftp://ftp.delorie.com/pub/djgpp/current/v2gnu/.) Using make to run the standard tests and to install gawk requires additional Unix-like tools, including sh, sed, and cp. In order to run the tests, the test/*.ok les may need to be converted so that they have the usual DOS-style end-of-line markers. Most of the tests work properly with Stewartsons shell along with the companion utilities or appropriate GNU utilities. However, some editing of test/Makefile is required. It is recommended that you copy the le pc/Makefile.tst over the le test/Makefile as a replacement. Details can be found in README_d/README.pc and in the le pc/Makefile.tst. The 32 bit EMX version of gawk works out of the box under OS/2. In principle, it is possible to compile gawk the following way: $ ./configure $ make This is not recommended, though. To get an OMF executable you should use the following commands at your sh prompt: $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ CPPFLAGS="-D__ST_MT_ERRNO__" export CPPFLAGS CFLAGS="-O2 -Zomf -Zmt" export CFLAGS LDFLAGS="-s -Zcrtdll -Zlinker /exepack:2 -Zlinker /pm:vio -Zstack 0x6000" export LDFLAGS RANLIB="echo" export RANLIB ./configure --prefix=c:/usr --without-included-gettext make AR=emxomfar

These are just suggestions. You may use any other set of (self-consistent) environment variables and compiler ags. To get an FHS-compliant le hierarchy it is recommended to use the additional configure options --infodir=c:/usr/share/info, --mandir=c:/usr/share/man and --libexecdir=c:/usr/lib. If you use GCC 2.95 it is recommended to use also: $ LIBS="-lgcc" $ export LIBS You can also get an a.out executable if you prefer: $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ CPPFLAGS="-D__ST_MT_ERRNO__" export CPPFLAGS CFLAGS="-O2 -Zmt" export CFLAGS LDFLAGS="-s -Zstack 0x6000" LIBS="-lgcc" unset RANLIB ./configure --prefix=c:/usr

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$ make NOTE: Versions later than GCC 2.95, i.e., GCC 3.x using the Innotek libc were not tested. NOTE: Even if the compiled gawk.exe (a.out) executable contains a DOS header, it does not work under DOS. To compile an executable that runs under DOS, "-DPIPES_SIMULATED" must be added to CPPFLAGS. But then some nonstandard extensions of gawk (e.g., |&) do not work! After compilation the internal tests can be performed. Enter make check CMP="diff -a" at your command prompt. All tests except for the pid test are expected to work properly. The pid test fails because child processes are not started by fork(). make install works as expected. NOTE: Most OS/2 ports of GNU make are not able to handle the Makeles of this package. If you encounter any problems with make try GNU Make 3.79.1 or later versions. You should nd the latest version on http://www.unixos2.org/sw/pub/binary/make/ or on ftp://hobbes.nmsu.edu/pub/os2/.

B.3.3.3 Compiling gawk For Dynamic Libraries

To compile gawk with dynamic extension support, uncomment the denitions of DYN_FLAGS, DYN_EXP, DYN_OBJ, and DYN_MAKEXP in the conguration section of the Makefile. There are two denitions for DYN_MAKEXP: pick the one that matches your target. To build some of the example extension libraries, cd to the extension directory and copy Makefile.pc to Makefile. You can then build using the same two targets. To run the example awk scripts, youll need to either change the call to the extension function to match the name of the library (for instance, change "./ordchr.so" to "ordchr.dll" or simply "ordchr"), or rename the library to match the call (for instance, rename ordchr.dll to ordchr.so). If you build gawk.exe with one compiler but want to build an extension library with the other, you need to copy the import library. Visual C uses a library called gawk.lib, while MinGW uses a library called libgawk.a. These les are equivalent and will interoperate if you give them the correct name. The resulting shared libraries are also interoperable. To create your own extension library, you can use the examples as models, but youre essentially on your own. Post to comp.lang.awk or send electronic mail to [email protected] if you have problems getting started. If you need to access functions or variables which are not exported by gawk.exe, add them to gawkw32.def and rebuild. You should also add ATTRIBUTE_EXPORTED to the declaration in awk.h of any variables you add to gawkw32.def. Note that extension libraries have the name of the awk executable embedded in them at link time, so they will work only with gawk.exe. In particular, they wont work if you rename gawk.exe to awk.exe or if you try to use pgawk.exe. You can perform proling by temporarily renaming pgawk.exe to gawk.exe. You can resolve this problem by changing the program name in the denition of DYN_MAKEXP for your compiler. On Windows32, libraries are sought rst in the current directory, then in the directory containing gawk.exe, and nally through the PATH environment variable.

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B.3.3.4 Using gawk on PC Operating Systems

With the exception of the Cygwin environment, the |& operator and TCP/IP networking (see Section 10.3 [Using gawk for Network Programming], page 169) are not supported for MS-DOS or MS-Windows. EMX (OS/2 only) does support at least the |& operator. The OS/2 and MS-DOS versions of gawk search for program les as described in Section 11.4 [The AWKPATH Environment Variable], page 180. However, semicolons (rather than colons) separate elements in the AWKPATH variable. If AWKPATH is not set or is empty, then the default search path for OS/2 (16 bit) and MS-DOS versions is ".;c:/lib/awk;c:/gnu/lib/awk". The search path for OS/2 (32 bit, EMX) is determined by the prex directory (most likely /usr or c:/usr) that has been specied as an option of the configure script like it is the case for the Unix versions. If c:/usr is the prex directory then the default search path contains . and c:/usr/share/awk. Additionally, to support binary distributions of gawk for OS/2 systems whose drive c: might not support long le names or might not exist at all, there is a special environment variable. If UNIXROOT species a drive then this specic drive is also searched for program les. E.g., if UNIXROOT is set to e: the complete default search path is ".;c:/usr/share/awk;e:/usr/share/awk". An sh-like shell (as opposed to command.com under MS-DOS or cmd.exe under OS/2) may be useful for awk programming. Ian Stewartson has written an excellent shell for MSDOS and OS/2, Daisuke Aoyama has ported GNU bash to MS-DOS using the DJGPP tools, and several shells are available for OS/2, including ksh. The le README_d/README.pc in the gawk distribution contains information on these shells. Users of Stewartsons shell on DOS should examine its documentation for handling command lines; in particular, the setting for gawk in the shell conguration may need to be changed and the ignoretype option may also be of interest. Under OS/2 and DOS, gawk (and many other text programs) silently translate end-ofline "\r\n" to "\n" on input and "\n" to "\r\n" on output. A special BINMODE variable allows control over these translations and is interpreted as follows: If BINMODE is "r", or (BINMODE & 1) is nonzero, then binary mode is set on read (i.e., no translations on reads). If BINMODE is "w", or (BINMODE & 2) is nonzero, then binary mode is set on write (i.e., no translations on writes). If BINMODE is "rw" or "wr", binary mode is set for both read and write (same as (BINMODE & 3)). BINMODE=non-null-string is the same as BINMODE=3 (i.e., no translations on reads or writes). However, gawk issues a warning message if the string is not one of "rw" or "wr". The modes for standard input and standard output are set one time only (after the command line is read, but before processing any of the awk program). Setting BINMODE for standard input or standard output is accomplished by using an appropriate -v BINMODE=N option on the command line. BINMODE is set at the time a le or pipe is opened and cannot be changed mid-stream. The name BINMODE was chosen to match mawk (see Section B.6 [Other Freely Available awk Implementations], page 278). Both mawk and gawk handle BINMODE similarly; however,

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mawk adds a -W BINMODE=N option and an environment variable that can set BINMODE, RS, and ORS. The les binmode[1-3].awk (under gnu/lib/awk in some of the prepared distributions) have been chosen to match mawks -W BINMODE=N option. These can be changed or discarded; in particular, the setting of RS giving the fewest surprises is open to debate. mawk uses RS = "\r\n" if binary mode is set on read, which is appropriate for les with the DOS-style end-of-line. To illustrate, the following examples set binary mode on writes for standard output and other les, and set ORS as the usual DOS-style end-of-line: gawk -v BINMODE=2 -v ORS="\r\n" ... or: gawk -v BINMODE=w -f binmode2.awk ... These give the same result as the -W BINMODE=2 option in mawk. The following changes the record separator to "\r\n" and sets binary mode on reads, but does not aect the mode on standard input: gawk -v RS="\r\n" --source "BEGIN { BINMODE = 1 }" ... or: gawk -f binmode1.awk ... With proper quoting, in the rst example the setting of RS can be moved into the BEGIN rule.

B.3.3.5 Using gawk In The Cygwin Environment

gawk can be used out of the box under Windows if you are using the Cygwin environment.1 This environment provides an excellent simulation of Unix, using the GNU tools, such as bash, the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), GNU Make, and other GNU tools. Compilation and installation for Cygwin is the same as for a Unix system: tar -xvpzf gawk-3.1.6.tar.gz cd gawk-3.1.6 ./configure make When compared to GNU/Linux on the same system, the configure step on Cygwin takes considerably longer. However, it does nish, and then the make proceeds as usual. NOTE: The |& operator and TCP/IP networking (see Section 10.3 [Using gawk for Network Programming], page 169) are fully supported in the Cygwin environment. This is not true for any other environment for MS-DOS or MSWindows.

B.3.4 How to Compile and Install gawk on VMS

This subsection describes how to compile and install gawk under VMS.

B.3.4.1 Compiling gawk on VMS

To compile gawk under VMS, there is a DCL command procedure that issues all the necessary CC and LINK commands. There is also a Makefile for use with the MMS utility. From the source directory, use either:
1

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$ @[.VMS]VMSBUILD.COM or: $ MMS/DESCRIPTION=[.VMS]DESCRIP.MMS GAWK Depending upon which C compiler you are using, follow one of the sets of instructions in this table: VAX C V3.x Use either vmsbuild.com or descrip.mms as CC/OPTIMIZE=NOLINE, which is essential for Version 3.0. is. These use

VAX C V2.x You must have Version 2.3 or 2.4; older ones wont work. Edit either vmsbuild.com or descrip.mms according to the comments in them. For vmsbuild.com, this just entails removing two ! delimiters. Also edit config.h (which is a copy of le [.config]vms-conf.h) and comment out or delete the two lines #define __STDC__ 0 and #define VAXC_BUILTINS near the end. GNU C Edit vmsbuild.com or descrip.mms; the changes are dierent from those for VAX C V2.x but equally straightforward. No changes to config.h are needed. Edit vmsbuild.com or descrip.mms according to their comments. changes to config.h are needed. No

DEC C

gawk has been tested under VAX/VMS 5.5-1 using VAX C V3.2, and GNU C 1.40 and 2.3. It should work without modications for VMS V4.6 and up.

B.3.4.2 Installing gawk on VMS

To install gawk, all you need is a foreign command, which is a DCL symbol whose value begins with a dollar sign. For example: $ GAWK :== $disk1:[gnubin]GAWK Substitute the actual location of gawk.exe for $disk1:[gnubin]. The symbol should be placed in the login.com of any user who wants to run gawk, so that it is dened every time the user logs on. Alternatively, the symbol may be placed in the system-wide sylogin.com procedure, which allows all users to run gawk. Optionally, the help entry can be loaded into a VMS help library: $ LIBRARY/HELP SYS$HELP:HELPLIB [.VMS]GAWK.HLP (You may want to substitute a site-specic help library rather than the standard VMS library HELPLIB.) After loading the help text, the command: $ HELP GAWK provides information about both the gawk implementation and the awk programming language. The logical name AWK_LIBRARY can designate a default location for awk program les. For the -f option, if the specied le name has no device or directory path information in it, gawk looks in the current directory rst, then in the directory specied by the translation of AWK_LIBRARY if the le is not found. If, after searching in both directories, the le still

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is not found, gawk appends the sux .awk to the lename and retries the le search. If AWK_LIBRARY is not dened, that portion of the le search fails benignly.

B.3.4.3 Running gawk on VMS

Command-line parsing and quoting conventions are signicantly dierent on VMS, so examples in this book or from other sources often need minor changes. They are minor though, and all awk programs should run correctly. Here are a couple of trivial tests: $ gawk -- "BEGIN {print ""Hello, World!""}" $ gawk -"W" version ! could also be -"W version" or "-W version" Note that uppercase and mixed-case text must be quoted. The VMS port of gawk includes a DCL-style interface in addition to the original shellstyle interface (see the help entry for details). One side eect of dual command-line parsing is that if there is only a single parameter (as in the quoted string program above), the command becomes ambiguous. To work around this, the normally optional -- ag is required to force Unix style rather than DCL parsing. If any other dash-type options (or multiple parameters such as data les to process) are present, there is no ambiguity and -- can be omitted. The default search path, when looking for awk program les specied by the -f option, is "SYS$DISK:[],AWK_LIBRARY:". The logical name AWKPATH can be used to override this default. The format of AWKPATH is a comma-separated list of directory specications. When dening it, the value should be quoted so that it retains a single translation and not a multitranslation RMS searchlist.

B.3.4.4 Building and Using gawk on VMS POSIX

Ignore the instructions above, although vms/gawk.hlp should still be made available in a help library. The source tree should be unpacked into a container le subsystem rather than into the ordinary VMS lesystem. Make sure that the two scripts, configure and vms/posix-cc.sh, are executable; use chmod +x on them if necessary. Then execute the following two commands: psx> CC=vms/posix-cc.sh configure psx> make CC=c89 gawk The rst command constructs les config.h and Makefile out of templates, using a script to make the C compiler t configures expectations. The second command compiles and links gawk using the C compiler directly; ignore any warnings from make about being unable to redene CC. configure takes a very long time to execute, but at least it provides incremental feedback as it runs. This has been tested with VAX/VMS V6.2, VMS POSIX V2.0, and DEC C V5.2. Once built, gawk works like any other shell utility. Unlike the normal VMS port of gawk, no special command-line manipulation is needed in the VMS POSIX environment.

B.3.4.5 Some VMS Systems Have An Old Version of gawk

Some versions of VMS have an old version of gawk. To access it, dene a symbol, as follows:

Appendix B: Installing gawk 275

$ gawk :== $ sys$common:[syshlp.examples.tcpip.snmp]gawk.exe This is apparently version 2.15.6, which is quite old. We recommend compiling and using the current version.

B.4 Unsupported Operating System Ports

This sections describes systems for which the gawk port is no longer supported.

B.4.1 Installing gawk on the Atari ST

The Atari port is no longer supported. It is included for those who might want to use it but it is no longer being actively maintained. There are no substantial dierences when installing gawk on various Atari models. Compiled gawk executables do not require a large amount of memory with most awk programs, and should run on all Motorola processor-based models (called further ST, even if that is not exactly right). In order to use gawk, you need to have a shell, either text or graphics, that does not map all the characters of a command line to uppercase. Maintaining case distinction in option ags is very important (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174). These days this is the default and it may only be a problem for some very old machines. If your system does not preserve the case of option ags, you need to upgrade your tools. Support for I/O redirection is necessary to make it easy to import awk programs from other environments. Pipes are nice to have but not vital.

B.4.1.1 Compiling gawk on the Atari ST

A proper compilation of gawk sources when sizeof(int) diers from sizeof(void *) requires an ISO C compiler. An initial port was done with gcc. You may actually prefer executables where ints are four bytes wide but the other variant works as well. You may need quite a bit of memory when trying to recompile the gawk sources, as some source les (regex.c in particular) are quite big. If you run out of memory compiling such a le, try reducing the optimization level for this particular le, which may help. With a reasonable shell (bash will do), you have a pretty good chance that the configure utility will succeed, and in particular if you run GNU/Linux, MiNT or a similar operating system. Otherwise sample versions of config.h and Makefile.st are given in the atari subdirectory and can be edited and copied to the corresponding les in the main source directory. Even if configure produces something, it might be advisable to compare its results with the sample versions and possibly make adjustments. Some gawk source code fragments depend on a preprocessor dene atarist. This basically assumes the TOS environment with gcc. Modify these sections as appropriate if they are not right for your environment. Also see the remarks about AWKPATH and envsep in Section B.4.1.2 [Running gawk on the Atari ST], page 276. As shipped, the sample config.h claims that the system function is missing from the libraries, which is not true, and an alternative implementation of this function is provided in unsupported/atari/system.c. Depending upon your particular combination of shell and operating system, you might want to change the le to indicate that system is available.

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B.4.1.2 Running gawk on the Atari ST

An executable version of gawk should be placed, as usual, anywhere in your PATH where your shell can nd it. While executing, the Atari version of gawk creates a number of temporary les. When using gcc libraries for TOS, gawk looks for either of the environment variables, TEMP or TMPDIR, in that order. If either one is found, its value is assumed to be a directory for temporary les. This directory must exist, and if you can spare the memory, it is a good idea to put it on a RAM drive. If neither TEMP nor TMPDIR are found, then gawk uses the current directory for its temporary les. The ST version of gawk searches for its program les, as described in Section 11.4 [The AWKPATH Environment Variable], page 180. The default value for the AWKPATH variable is taken from DEFPATH dened in Makefile. The sample gcc/TOS Makefile for the ST in the distribution sets DEFPATH to ".,c:\lib\awk,c:\gnu\lib\awk". The search path can be modied by explicitly setting AWKPATH to whatever you want. Note that colons cannot be used on the ST to separate elements in the AWKPATH variable, since they have another reserved meaning. Instead, you must use a comma to separate elements in the path. When recompiling, the separating character can be modied by initializing the envsep variable in unsupported/atari/gawkmisc.atr to another value. Although awk allows great exibility in doing I/O redirections from within a program, this facility should be used with care on the ST running under TOS. In some circumstances, the OS routines for le-handle pool processing lose track of certain events, causing the computer to crash and requiring a reboot. Often a warm reboot is sucient. Fortunately, this happens infrequently and in rather esoteric situations. In particular, avoid having one part of an awk program using print statements explicitly redirected to /dev/stdout, while other print statements use the default standard output, and a calling shell has redirected standard output to a le. When gawk is compiled with the ST version of gcc and its usual libraries, it accepts both / and \ as path separators. While this is convenient, it should be remembered that this removes one technically valid character (/) from your le name. It may also create problems for external programs called via the system function, which may not support this convention. Whenever it is possible that a le created by gawk will be used by some other program, use only backslashes. Also remember that in awk, backslashes in strings have to be doubled in order to get literal backslashes (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25).

B.4.2 Installing gawk on a Tandem

The Tandem port is only minimally supported. The ports contributor no longer has access to a Tandem system. The Tandem port was done on a Cyclone machine running D20. The port is pretty clean and all facilities seem to work except for the I/O piping facilities (see Section 3.8.5 [Using getline from a Pipe], page 54, Section 3.8.6 [Using getline into a Variable from a Pipe], page 55, and Section 4.6 [Redirecting Output of print and printf], page 65), which is just too foreign a concept for Tandem. To build a Tandem executable from source, download all of the les so that the le names on the Tandem box conform to the restrictions of D20. For example, array.c becomes ARRAYC, and awk.h becomes AWKH. The totally Tandem-specic les are in the tandem

Appendix B: Installing gawk 277

subvolume (unsupported/tandem in the gawk distribution) and should be copied to the main source directory before building gawk. The le compit can then be used to compile and bind an executable. Alas, there is no configure or make. Usage is the same as for Unix, except that D20 requires all { and } characters to be escaped with ~ on the command line (but not in script les). Also, the standard Tandem syntax for /in filename,out filename/ must be used instead of the usual Unix < and > for le redirection. (Redirection options on getline, print etc., are supported.) The -mr val option (see Section 11.2 [Command-Line Options], page 174) has been stolen to enable Tandem users to process xed-length records with no end-of-line character. That is, -mr 74 tells gawk to read the input le as xed 74-byte records.

B.5 Reporting Problems and Bugs

There is nothing more dangerous than a bored archeologist. The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy If you have problems with gawk or think that you have found a bug, please report it to the developers; we cannot promise to do anything but we might well want to x it. Before reporting a bug, make sure you have actually found a real bug. Carefully reread the documentation and see if it really says you can do what youre trying to do. If its not clear whether you should be able to do something or not, report that too; its a bug in the documentation! Before reporting a bug or trying to x it yourself, try to isolate it to the smallest possible awk program and input data le that reproduces the problem. Then send us the program and data le, some idea of what kind of Unix system youre using, the compiler you used to compile gawk, and the exact results gawk gave you. Also say what you expected to occur; this helps us decide whether the problem is really in the documentation. Once you have a precise problem, send email to [email protected]. Please include the version number of gawk you are using. You can get this information with the command gawk --version. Using this address automatically sends a carbon copy of your mail to me. If necessary, I can be reached directly at [email protected]. The bug reporting address is preferred since the email list is archived at the GNU Project. All email should be in English, since that is my native language. Caution: Do not try to report bugs in gawk by posting to the Usenet/Internet newsgroup comp.lang.awk. While the gawk developers do occasionally read this newsgroup, there is no guarantee that we will see your posting. The steps described above are the ocial recognized ways for reporting bugs. Non-bug suggestions are always welcome as well. If you have questions about things that are unclear in the documentation or are just obscure features, ask me; I will try to help you out, although I may not have the time to x the problem. You can send me electronic mail at the Internet address noted previously. If you nd bugs in one of the non-Unix ports of gawk, please send an electronic mail message to the person who maintains that port. They are named in the following list, as well as in the README le in the gawk distribution. Information in the README le should be considered authoritative if it conicts with this book.

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The people maintaining the non-Unix ports of gawk are as follows: Amiga BeOS MS-DOS Fred Fish, [email protected]. Martin Brown, [email protected]. Scott Deik, [email protected] and Darrel Hankerson, [email protected]. Juan Grigera, [email protected]. The Unix for OS/2 team, [email protected]. Stephen Davies, [email protected]. Pat Rankin, [email protected].

MS-Windows OS/2 Tandem VMS

If your bug is also reproducible under Unix, please send a copy of your report to the [email protected] email list as well.

B.6 Other Freely Available awk Implementations

Its kind of fun to put comments like this in your awk code. // Do C++ comments work? answer: yes! of course Michael Brennan There are a number of other freely available awk implementations. This section briey describes where to get them: Unix awk Brian Kernighan has made his implementation of awk freely available. You can retrieve this version via the World Wide Web from his home page.2 It is available in several archive formats: Shell archive http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk/awk.shar Compressed tar le http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk/awk.tar.gz Zip le http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk/awk.zip

This version requires an ISO C (1990 standard) compiler; the C compiler from GCC (the GNU Compiler Collection) works quite nicely. See Section A.4 [Extensions in the Bell Laboratories awk], page 255, for a list of extensions in this awk that are not in POSIX awk. mawk Michael Brennan has written an independent implementation of awk, called mawk. It is available under the GPL (see [GNU General Public License], page 313), just as gawk is.

http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk

Appendix B: Installing gawk 279

You can get it via anonymous ftp to the host ftp.whidbey.net. Change directory to /pub/brennan. Use binary or image mode, and retrieve mawk1.3.3.tar.gz (or the latest version that is there). gunzip may be used to decompress this le. Installation is similar to gawks (see Section B.2 [Compiling and Installing gawk on Unix], page 265). mawk has the following extensions that are not in POSIX awk: The fflush built-in function for ushing buered output (see Section 8.1.4 [Input/Output Functions], page 141). The ** and **= operators (see Section 5.5 [Arithmetic Operators], page 79 and also see Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81). The use of func as an abbreviation for function (see Section 8.2.1 [Function Denition Syntax], page 150). The \x escape sequence (see Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25). The /dev/stdout, and /dev/stderr special les (see Section 4.7 [Special File Names in gawk], page 68). Use "-" instead of "/dev/stdin" with mawk. The ability for FS and for the third argument to split to be null strings (see Section 3.5.2 [Making Each Character a Separate Field], page 44). The ability to delete all of an array at once with delete array (see Section 7.6 [The delete Statement], page 121). The ability for RS to be a regexp (see Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36). The BINMODE special variable for non-Unix operating systems (see Section B.3.3.4 [Using gawk on PC Operating Systems], page 271). The next version of mawk will support nextfile. awka Written by Andrew Sumner, awka translates awk programs into C, compiles them, and links them with a library of functions that provides the core awk functionality. It also has a number of extensions. The awk translator is released under the GPL, and the library is under the LGPL. To get awka, go to http://awka.sourceforge.net. You can reach Andrew Sumner at [email protected]. pawk Nelson H.F. Beebe at the University of Utah has modied the Bell Labs awk to provide timing and proling information. It is dierent from pgawk (see Section 10.5 [Proling Your awk Programs], page 170), in that it uses CPU-based proling, not line-count proling. You may nd it at ftp://ftp.math.utah.edu/pub/pawk/pawk-20020210.tar.gz or either http://www.math.utah.edu/pub/pawk/pawk-20020210.tar.gz.

The OpenSolaris POSIX awk The version of awk in /usr/xpg4/bin on Solaris is POSIX compliant. It is based on the awk from Mortice Kern Systems for PCs. The source code can be

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downloaded from the OpenSolaris web site.3 This author was able to make it compile and work under GNU/Linux with 12 hours of work. Making it more generally portable (using GNU Autoconf and/or Automake) would take more work, and this has not been done, at least to our knowledge. jawk This is an interpreter for awk written in Java. It claims to be a full interpreter, although because it uses Java facilities for I/O and for regexp matching, the language it supports is dierent from POSIX awk. More information is available on the projects home page.4 .

3 4

http://www.opensolaris.org http://jawk.sourceforge.net

Appendix C: Implementation Notes

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Appendix C Implementation Notes

This appendix contains information mainly of interest to implementors and maintainers of gawk. Everything in it applies specically to gawk and not to other implementations.

C.1 Downward Compatibility and Debugging

See Section A.5 [Extensions in gawk Not in POSIX awk], page 256, for a summary of the GNU extensions to the awk language and program. All of these features can be turned o by invoking gawk with the --traditional option or with the --posix option. If gawk is compiled for debugging with -DDEBUG, then there is one more option available on the command line: -W parsedebug --parsedebug Prints out the parse stack information as the program is being parsed. This option is intended only for serious gawk developers and not for the casual user. It probably has not even been compiled into your version of gawk, since it slows down execution.

C.2 Making Additions to gawk

If you nd that you want to enhance gawk in a signicant fashion, you are perfectly free to do so. That is the point of having free software; the source code is available and you are free to change it as you want (see [GNU General Public License], page 313). This section discusses the ways you might want to change gawk as well as any considerations you should bear in mind.

C.2.1 Adding New Features

You are free to add any new features you like to gawk. However, if you want your changes to be incorporated into the gawk distribution, there are several steps that you need to take in order to make it possible for me to include your changes: 1. Before building the new feature into gawk itself, consider writing it as an extension module (see Section C.3 [Adding New Built-in Functions to gawk], page 284). If thats not possible, continue with the rest of the steps in this list. 2. Get the latest version. It is much easier for me to integrate changes if they are relative to the most recent distributed version of gawk. If your version of gawk is very old, I may not be able to integrate them at all. (See Section B.1.1 [Getting the gawk Distribution], page 261, for information on getting the latest version of gawk.) 3. Follow the GNU Coding Standards. This document describes how GNU software should be written. If you havent read it, please do so, preferably before starting to modify gawk. (The GNU Coding Standards are available from the GNU Projects ftp site, at ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/GNUinfo/standards.text. An HTML version, suitable for reading with a WWW browser, is available at http://www.gnu.org/prep/standards_ toc.html. Texinfo, Info, and DVI versions are also available.)

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4. Use the gawk coding style. The C code for gawk follows the instructions in the GNU Coding Standards, with minor exceptions. The code is formatted using the traditional K&R style, particularly as regards to the placement of braces and the use of tabs. In brief, the coding rules for gawk are as follows: Use ANSI/ISO style (prototype) function headers when dening functions. Put the name of the function at the beginning of its own line. Put the return type of the function, even if it is int, on the line above the line with the name and arguments of the function. Put spaces around parentheses used in control structures (if, while, for, do, switch, and return). Do not put spaces in front of parentheses used in function calls. Put spaces around all C operators and after commas in function calls. Do not use the comma operator to produce multiple side eects, except in for loop initialization and increment parts, and in macro bodies. Use real tabs for indenting, not spaces. Use the K&R brace layout style. Use comparisons against NULL and \0 in the conditions of if, while, and for statements, as well as in the cases of switch statements, instead of just the plain pointer or character value. Use the TRUE, FALSE and NULL symbolic constants and the character constant \0 where appropriate, instead of 1 and 0. Use the ISALPHA, ISDIGIT, etc. macros, instead of the traditional lowercase versions; these macros are better behaved for non-ASCII character sets. Provide one-line descriptive comments for each function. Do not use #elif. Many older Unix C compilers cannot handle it. Do not use the alloca function for allocating memory o the stack. Its use causes more portability trouble than is worth the minor benet of not having to free the storage. Instead, use malloc and free. NOTE: If I have to reformat your code to follow the coding style used in gawk, I may not bother to integrate your changes at all. 5. Be prepared to sign the appropriate paperwork. In order for the FSF to distribute your changes, you must either place those changes in the public domain and submit a signed statement to that eect, or assign the copyright in your changes to the FSF. Both of these actions are easy to do and many people have done so already. If you have questions, please contact me (see Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277), or [email protected]. 6. Update the documentation. Along with your new code, please supply new sections and/or chapters for this book. If at all possible, please use real Texinfo, instead of just supplying unformatted ASCII text (although even that is better than no documentation at all). Conventions to be followed in GAWK: Eective AWK Programming are provided after the @bye at the end of the Texinfo source le. If possible, please update the man page as well. You will also have to sign paperwork for your documentation changes.

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7. Submit changes as context dis or unied dis. Use diff -c -r -N or diff -u -r -N to compare the original gawk source tree with your version. (I nd context dis to be more readable but unied dis are more compact.) I recommend using the GNU version of diff. Send the output produced by either run of diff to me when you submit your changes. (See Section B.5 [Reporting Problems and Bugs], page 277, for the electronic mail information.) Using this format makes it easy for me to apply your changes to the master version of the gawk source code (using patch). If I have to apply the changes manually, using a text editor, I may not do so, particularly if there are lots of changes. 8. Include an entry for the ChangeLog le with your submission. This helps further minimize the amount of work I have to do, making it easier for me to accept patches. Although this sounds like a lot of work, please remember that while you may write the new code, I have to maintain it and support it. If it isnt possible for me to do that with a minimum of extra work, then I probably will not.

C.2.2 Porting gawk to a New Operating System

If you want to port gawk to a new operating system, there are several steps: 1. Follow the guidelines in the previous section concerning coding style, submission of dis, and so on. 2. When doing a port, bear in mind that your code must coexist peacefully with the rest of gawk and the other ports. Avoid gratuitous changes to the system-independent parts of the code. If at all possible, avoid sprinkling #ifdefs just for your port throughout the code. If the changes needed for a particular system aect too much of the code, I probably will not accept them. In such a case, you can, of course, distribute your changes on your own, as long as you comply with the GPL (see [GNU General Public License], page 313). 3. A number of the les that come with gawk are maintained by other people at the Free Software Foundation. Thus, you should not change them unless it is for a very good reason; i.e., changes are not out of the question, but changes to these les are scrutinized extra carefully. The les are getopt.h, getopt.c, getopt1.c, regex.h, regex.c, regcomp.c, regex_internal.c, regex_internal.h, regexec.c, dfa.h, dfa.c, install-sh, and mkinstalldirs. 4. Be willing to continue to maintain the port. Non-Unix operating systems are supported by volunteers who maintain the code needed to compile and run gawk on their systems. If noone volunteers to maintain a port, it becomes unsupported and it may be necessary to remove it from the distribution. 5. Supply an appropriate gawkmisc.??? le. Each port has its own gawkmisc.??? that implements certain operating system specic functions. This is cleaner than a plethora of #ifdefs scattered throughout the code. The gawkmisc.c in the main source directory includes the appropriate gawkmisc.??? le from each subdirectory. Be sure to update it as well. Each ports gawkmisc.??? le has a sux reminiscent of the machine or operating system for the portfor example, pc/gawkmisc.pc and vms/gawkmisc.vms. The

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use of separate suxes, instead of plain gawkmisc.c, makes it possible to move les from a ports subdirectory into the main subdirectory, without accidentally destroying the real gawkmisc.c le. (Currently, this is only an issue for the PC operating system ports.) 6. Supply a Makefile as well as any other C source and header les that are necessary for your operating system. All your code should be in a separate subdirectory, with a name that is the same as, or reminiscent of, either your operating system or the computer system. If possible, try to structure things so that it is not necessary to move les out of the subdirectory into the main source directory. If that is not possible, then be sure to avoid using names for your les that duplicate the names of les in the main source directory. 7. Update the documentation. Please write a section (or sections) for this book describing the installation and compilation steps needed to compile and/or install gawk for your system. 8. Be prepared to sign the appropriate paperwork. In order for the FSF to distribute your code, you must either place your code in the public domain and submit a signed statement to that eect, or assign the copyright in your code to the FSF. Following these steps makes it much easier to integrate your changes into gawk and have them coexist happily with other operating systems code that is already there. In the code that you supply and maintain, feel free to use a coding style and brace layout that suits your taste.

C.3 Adding New Built-in Functions to gawk

Danger Will Robinson! Danger!! Warning! Warning! The Robot Beginning with gawk 3.1, it is possible to add new built-in functions to gawk using dynamically loaded libraries. This facility is available on systems (such as GNU/Linux) that support the dlopen and dlsym functions. This section describes how to write and use dynamically loaded extensions for gawk. Experience with programming in C or C++ is necessary when reading this section. Caution: The facilities described in this section are very much subject to change in a future gawk release. Be aware that you may have to re-do everything, perhaps from scratch, at some future time. Caution: If you have written your own dynamic extensions, be sure to recompile them for each new gawk release. There is no guarantee of binary compatibility between dierent releases, nor will there ever be such a guarantee.

C.3.1 A Minimal Introduction to gawk Internals

The truth is that gawk was not designed for simple extensibility. The facilities for adding functions using shared libraries work, but are something of a bag on the side. Thus, this tour is brief and simplistic; would-be gawk hackers are encouraged to spend some time reading the source code before trying to write extensions based on the material presented here. Of particular note are the les awk.h, builtin.c, and eval.c. Reading awkgram.y in order to see how the parse tree is built would also be of use.

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With the disclaimers out of the way, the following types, structure members, functions, and macros are declared in awk.h and are of use when writing extensions. The next section shows how they are used: AWKNUM NODE An AWKNUM is the internal type of awk oating-point numbers. Typically, it is a C double. Just about everything is done using objects of type NODE. These contain both strings and numbers, as well as variables and arrays.

AWKNUM force_number(NODE *n) This macro forces a value to be numeric. It returns the actual numeric value contained in the node. It may end up calling an internal gawk function. void force_string(NODE *n) This macro guarantees that a NODEs string value is current. It may end up calling an internal gawk function. It also guarantees that the string is zeroterminated. size_t get_curfunc_arg_count(void) This function returns the actual number of parameters passed to the current function. Inside the code of an extension this can be used to determine the maximum index which is safe to use with stack_ptr. If this value is greater than tree->param_cnt, the function was called incorrectly from the awk program. Caution: This function is new as of gawk 3.1.4. n->param_cnt Inside an extension function, this is the maximum number of expected parameters, as set by the make_builtin function. n->stptr n->stlen The data and length of a NODEs string value, respectively. The string is not guaranteed to be zero-terminated. If you need to pass the string value to a C library function, save the value in n->stptr[n->stlen], assign \0 to it, call the routine, and then restore the value. The type of the NODE. This is a C enum. Values should be either Node_var or Node_var_array for function parameters. The variable name of a node. This is not of much use inside externally written extensions.

n->type n->vname

void assoc_clear(NODE *n) Clears the associative array pointed to by n. Make sure that n->type == Node_var_array rst. NODE **assoc_lookup(NODE *symbol, NODE *subs, int reference) Finds, and installs if necessary, array elements. symbol is the array, subs is the subscript. This is usually a value created with tmp_string (see below). reference should be TRUE if it is an error to use the value before it is created. Typically, FALSE is the correct value to use from extension functions.

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NODE *make_string(char *s, size_t len) Take a C string and turn it into a pointer to a NODE that can be stored appropriately. This is permanent storage; understanding of gawk memory management is helpful. NODE *make_number(AWKNUM val) Take an AWKNUM and turn it into a pointer to a NODE that can be stored appropriately. This is permanent storage; understanding of gawk memory management is helpful. NODE *tmp_string(char *s, size_t len); Take a C string and turn it into a pointer to a NODE that can be stored appropriately. This is temporary storage; understanding of gawk memory management is helpful. NODE *tmp_number(AWKNUM val) Take an AWKNUM and turn it into a pointer to a NODE that can be stored appropriately. This is temporary storage; understanding of gawk memory management is helpful. NODE *dupnode(NODE *n) Duplicate a node. In most cases, this increments an internal reference count instead of actually duplicating the entire NODE; understanding of gawk memory management is helpful. void free_temp(NODE *n) This macro releases the memory associated with a NODE allocated with tmp_ string or tmp_number. Understanding of gawk memory management is helpful. void make_builtin(char *name, NODE *(*func)(NODE *), int count) Register a C function pointed to by func as new built-in function name. name is a regular C string. count is the maximum number of arguments that the function takes. The function should be written in the following manner: /* do_xxx --- do xxx function for gawk */ NODE * do_xxx(NODE *tree) { ... } NODE *get_argument(NODE *tree, int i) This function is called from within a C extension function to get the i-th argument from the function call. The rst argument is argument zero. NODE *get_actual_argument(NODE *tree, unsigned int i, int optional, int wantarray); This function retrieves a particular argument i. wantarray is TRUE if the argument should be an array, FALSE otherwise. If optional is TRUE, the argument need not have been supplied. If it wasnt, the return value is NULL. It is a fatal error if optional is TRUE but the argument was not provided.

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Caution: This function is new as of gawk 3.1.4. get_scalar_argument(t, i, opt) This is a convenience macro that calls get_actual_argument. Caution: This macro is new as of gawk 3.1.4. get_array_argument(t, i, opt) This is a convenience macro that calls get_actual_argument. Caution: This macro is new as of gawk 3.1.4. void set_value(NODE *tree) This function is called from within a C extension function to set the return value from the extension function. This value is what the awk program sees as the return value from the new awk function. void update_ERRNO(void) This function is called from within a C extension function to set the value of gawks ERRNO variable, based on the current value of the C errno variable. It is provided as a convenience. void update_ERRNO_saved(int errno_saved) This function is called from within a C extension function to set the value of gawks ERRNO variable, based on the saved value of the C errno variable provided as the argument. It is provided as a convenience. Caution: This function is new as of gawk 3.1.5. void register_deferred_variable(const char *name, NODE *(*load_func)(void)) This function is called to register a function to be called when a reference to an undened variable with the given name is encountered. The callback function will never be called if the variable exists already, so, unless the calling code is running at program startup, it should rst check whether a variable of the given name already exists. The argument function must return a pointer to a NODE containing the newly created variable. This function is used to implement the builtin ENVIRON and PROCINFO variables, so you can refer to them for examples. Caution: This function is new as of gawk 3.1.5. void register_open_hook(void *(*open_func)(IOBUF *)) This function is called to register a function to be called whenever a new data le is opened, leading to the creation of an IOBUF structure in iop_alloc. After creating the new IOBUF, iop_alloc will call (in reverse order of registration, so the last function registered is called rst) each open hook until one returns non-NULL. If any hook returns a non-NULL value, that value is assigned to the IOBUFs opaque eld (which will presumably point to a structure containing additional state associated with the input processing), and no further open hooks are called. The function called will most likely want to set the IOBUF get_record method to indicate that future input records should be retrieved by calling that method instead of using the standard gawk input processing.

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And the function will also probably want to set the IOBUF close_func method to be called when the le is closed to clean up any state associated with the input. Finally, hook functions should be prepared to receive an IOBUF structure where the fd eld is set to INVALID_HANDLE, meaning that gawk was not able to open the le itself. In this case, the hook function must be able to successfully open the le and place a valid le descriptor there. Currently, for example, the hook function facility is used to implement the XML parser shared library extension. For more info, please look in awk.h and in io.c. Caution: This function is new as of gawk 3.1.5. An argument that is supposed to be an array needs to be handled with some extra code, in case the array being passed in is actually from a function parameter. In versions of gawk up to and including 3.1.2, the following boilerplate code shows how to do this:
NODE *the_arg; the_arg = get_argument(tree, 2); /* assume need 3rd arg, 0-based */ /* if a parameter, get it off the stack */ if (the_arg->type == Node_param_list) the_arg = stack_ptr[the_arg->param_cnt]; /* parameter referenced an array, get it */ if (the_arg->type == Node_array_ref) the_arg = the_arg->orig_array; /* check type */ if (the_arg->type != Node_var && the_arg->type != Node_var_array) fatal("newfunc: third argument is not an array"); /* force it to be an array, if necessary, clear it */ the_arg->type = Node_var_array; assoc_clear(the_arg);

For versions 3.1.3 and later, the internals changed. In particular, the interface was actually simplied drastically. The following boilerplate code now suces:
NODE *the_arg; the_arg = get_argument(tree, 2); /* assume need 3rd arg, 0-based */ /* force it to be an array: */ the_arg = get_array(the_arg); /* if necessary, clear it: */ assoc_clear(the_arg);

As of version 3.1.4, the internals improved again, and became even simpler:
NODE *the_arg; the_arg = get_array_argument(tree, 2, FALSE); /* assume need 3rd arg, 0-based */

Again, you should spend time studying the gawk internals; dont just blindly copy this code.

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C.3.2 Directory and File Operation Built-ins

Two useful functions that are not in awk are chdir (so that an awk program can change its directory) and stat (so that an awk program can gather information about a le). This section implements these functions for gawk in an external extension library.

C.3.2.1 Using chdir and stat

This section shows how to use the new functions at the awk level once theyve been integrated into the running gawk interpreter. Using chdir is very straightforward. It takes one argument, the new directory to change to: ... newdir = "/home/arnold/funstuff" ret = chdir(newdir) if (ret < 0) { printf("could not change to %s: %s\n", newdir, ERRNO) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } ... The return value is negative if the chdir failed, and ERRNO (see Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108) is set to a string indicating the error. Using stat is a bit more complicated. The C stat function lls in a structure that has a fair amount of information. The right way to model this in awk is to ll in an associative array with the appropriate information: file = "/home/arnold/.profile" fdata[1] = "x" # force fdata to be an array ret = stat(file, fdata) if (ret < 0) { printf("could not stat %s: %s\n", file, ERRNO) > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 } printf("size of %s is %d bytes\n", file, fdata["size"]) The stat function always clears the data array, even if the stat fails. It lls in the following elements: "name" "dev" "ino" "mode" "nlink" "uid" "gid" "size" The name of the le that was stated. The les device and inode numbers, respectively. The les mode, as a numeric value. This includes both the les type and its permissions. The number of hard links (directory entries) the le has. The numeric user and group ID numbers of the les owner. The size in bytes of the le.

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"blocks" "atime" "mtime" "ctime"

The number of disk blocks the le actually occupies. This may not be a function of the les size if the le has holes.

The les last access, modication, and inode update times, respectively. These are numeric timestamps, suitable for formatting with strftime (see Section 8.1 [Built-in Functions], page 128). The les printable mode. This is a string representation of the les type and permissions, such as what is produced by ls -lfor example, "drwxr-xr-x". A printable string representation of the les type. The value is one of the following: "blockdev" "chardev" The le is a block or character device (special le). "directory" The le is a directory. "fifo" "file" "socket" "symlink" The le is a symbolic link. The le is a named-pipe (also known as a FIFO). The le is just a regular le. The le is an AF_UNIX (Unix domain) socket in the lesystem.

"pmode" "type"

Several additional elements may be present depending upon the operating system and the type of the le. You can test for them in your awk program by using the in operator (see Section 7.2 [Referring to an Array Element], page 118): "blksize" The preferred block size for I/O to the le. This eld is not present on all POSIX-like systems in the C stat structure. "linkval" If the le is a symbolic link, this element is the name of the le the link points to (i.e., the value of the link). "rdev" "major" "minor"

If the le is a block or character device le, then these values represent the numeric device number and the major and minor components of that number, respectively.

C.3.2.2 C Code for chdir and stat

Here is the C code for these extensions. They were written for GNU/Linux. The code needs some more work for complete portability to other POSIX-compliant systems:1
1

This version is edited slightly for presentation. extension/filefuncs.c in the gawk distribution.

The complete version can be found in

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#include "awk.h" #include <sys/sysmacros.h> /* do_chdir --- provide dynamically loaded chdir() builtin for gawk */

static NODE * do_chdir(tree) NODE *tree; { NODE *newdir; int ret = -1; if (do_lint && get_curfunc_arg_count() != 1) lintwarn("chdir: called with incorrect number of arguments"); newdir = get_scalar_argument(tree, 0); The le includes the "awk.h" header le for denitions for the gawk internals. It includes <sys/sysmacros.h> for access to the major and minor macros. By convention, for an awk function foo, the function that implements it is called do_foo. The function should take a NODE * argument, usually called tree, that represents the argument list to the function. The newdir variable represents the new directory to change to, retrieved with get_argument. Note that the rst argument is numbered zero. This code actually accomplishes the chdir. It rst forces the argument to be a string and passes the string value to the chdir system call. If the chdir fails, ERRNO is updated. The result of force_string has to be freed with free_temp: (void) force_string(newdir); ret = chdir(newdir->stptr); if (ret < 0) update_ERRNO(); free_temp(newdir); Finally, the function returns the return value to the awk level, using set_value. Then it must return a value from the call to the new built-in (this value ignored by the interpreter): /* Set the return value */ set_value(tmp_number((AWKNUM) ret)); /* Just to make the interpreter happy */ return tmp_number((AWKNUM) 0); } The stat built-in is more involved. First comes a function that turns a numeric mode into a printable representation (e.g., 644 becomes -rw-r--r--). This is omitted here for brevity: /* format_mode --- turn a stat mode field into something readable */

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static char * format_mode(fmode) unsigned long fmode; { ... } Next comes the actual do_stat function itself. First come the variable declarations and argument checking: /* do_stat --- provide a stat() function for gawk */ static NODE * do_stat(tree) NODE *tree; { NODE *file, *array; struct stat sbuf; int ret; NODE **aptr; char *pmode; /* printable mode */ char *type = "unknown";

if (do_lint && get_curfunc_arg_count() > 2) lintwarn("stat: called with too many arguments"); Then comes the actual work. First, we get the arguments. Then, we always clear the array. To get the le information, we use lstat, in case the le is a symbolic link. If theres an error, we set ERRNO and return: /* directory is first arg, array to hold results is second */ file = get_scalar_argument(tree, 0, FALSE); array = get_array_argument(tree, 1, FALSE); /* empty out the array */ assoc_clear(array); /* lstat the file, if error, set ERRNO and return */ (void) force_string(file); ret = lstat(file->stptr, & sbuf); if (ret < 0) { update_ERRNO(); set_value(tmp_number((AWKNUM) ret)); free_temp(file); return tmp_number((AWKNUM) 0); }

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Now comes the tedious part: lling in the array. Only a few of the calls are shown here, since they all follow the same pattern: /* fill in the array */ aptr = assoc_lookup(array, tmp_string("name", 4), FALSE); *aptr = dupnode(file); aptr = assoc_lookup(array, tmp_string("mode", 4), FALSE); *aptr = make_number((AWKNUM) sbuf.st_mode); aptr = assoc_lookup(array, tmp_string("pmode", 5), FALSE); pmode = format_mode(sbuf.st_mode); *aptr = make_string(pmode, strlen(pmode)); When done, we free the temporary value containing the le name, set the return value, and return: free_temp(file); /* Set the return value */ set_value(tmp_number((AWKNUM) ret)); /* Just to make the interpreter happy */ return tmp_number((AWKNUM) 0); } Finally, its necessary to provide the glue that loads the new function(s) into gawk. By convention, each library has a routine named dlload that does the job: /* dlload --- load new builtins in this library */ NODE * dlload(tree, dl) NODE *tree; void *dl; { make_builtin("chdir", do_chdir, 1); make_builtin("stat", do_stat, 2); return tmp_number((AWKNUM) 0); } And thats it! As an exercise, consider adding functions to implement system calls such as chown, chmod, and umask.

C.3.2.3 Integrating the Extensions

Now that the code is written, it must be possible to add it at runtime to the running gawk interpreter. First, the code must be compiled. Assuming that the functions are in a le named filefuncs.c, and idir is the location of the gawk include les, the following steps create a GNU/Linux shared library: $ gcc -shared -DHAVE_CONFIG_H -c -O -g -Iidir filefuncs.c $ ld -o filefuncs.so -shared filefuncs.o

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Once the library exists, it is loaded by calling the extension built-in function. This function takes two arguments: the name of the library to load and the name of a function to call when the library is rst loaded. This function adds the new functions to gawk. It returns the value returned by the initialization function within the shared library: # file testff.awk BEGIN { extension("./filefuncs.so", "dlload") chdir(".") # no-op

data[1] = 1 # force data to be an array print "Info for testff.awk" ret = stat("testff.awk", data) print "ret =", ret for (i in data) printf "data[\"%s\"] = %s\n", i, data[i] print "testff.awk modified:", strftime("%m %d %y %H:%M:%S", data["mtime"]) } Here are the results of running the program: $ gawk -f testff.awk Info for testff.awk ret = 0 data["blksize"] = 4096 data["mtime"] = 932361936 data["mode"] = 33188 data["type"] = file data["dev"] = 2065 data["gid"] = 10 data["ino"] = 878597 data["ctime"] = 971431797 data["blocks"] = 2 data["nlink"] = 1 data["name"] = testff.awk data["atime"] = 971608519 data["pmode"] = -rw-r--r-data["size"] = 607 data["uid"] = 2076 testff.awk modified: 07 19 99 08:25:36

C.4 Probable Future Extensions

AWK is a language similar to PERL, only considerably more elegant. Arnold Robbins Hey! Larry Wall

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This section briey lists extensions and possible improvements that indicate the directions we are currently considering for gawk. The le FUTURES in the gawk distribution lists these extensions as well. Following is a list of probable future changes visible at the awk language level: Loadable module interface It is not clear that the awk-level interface to the modules facility is as good as it should be. The interface needs to be redesigned, particularly taking namespace issues into account, as well as possibly including issues such as library search path order and versioning. RECLEN variable for xed-length records Along with FIELDWIDTHS, this would speed up the processing of xed-length records. PROCINFO["RS"] would be "RS" or "RECLEN", depending upon which kind of record processing is in eect. Additional printf speciers The 1999 ISO C standard added a number of additional printf format speciers. These should be evaluated for possible inclusion in gawk. Databases It may be possible to map a GDBM/NDBM/SDBM le into an awk array. More lint warnings There are more things that could be checked for portability. Following is a list of probable improvements that will make gawks source code easier to work with: Loadable module mechanics The current extension mechanism works (see Section C.3 [Adding New Builtin Functions to gawk], page 284), but is rather primitive. It requires a fair amount of manual work to create and integrate a loadable module. Nor is the current mechanism as portable as might be desired. The GNU libtool package provides a number of features that would make using loadable modules much easier. gawk should be changed to use libtool. Loadable module internals The API to its internals that gawk exports should be revised. Too many things are needlessly exposed. A new API should be designed and implemented to make module writing easier. Better array subscript management gawks management of array subscript storage could use revamping, so that using the same value to index multiple arrays only stores one copy of the index value. Integrating the DBUG library Integrating Fred Fishs DBUG library would be helpful during development, but its a lot of work to do. Following is a list of probable improvements that will make gawk perform better:

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Compilation of awk programs gawk uses a Bison (YACC-like) parser to convert the script given it into a syntax tree; the syntax tree is then executed by a simple recursive evaluator. This method incurs a lot of overhead, since the recursive evaluator performs many procedure calls to do even the simplest things. It should be possible for gawk to convert the scripts parse tree into a C program which the user would then compile, using the normal C compiler and a special gawk library to provide all the needed functions (regexps, elds, associative arrays, type coercion, and so on). An easier possibility might be for an intermediate phase of gawk to convert the parse tree into a linear byte code form like the one used in GNU Emacs Lisp. The recursive evaluator would then be replaced by a straight line byte code interpreter that would be intermediate in speed between running a compiled program and doing what gawk does now. Finally, the programs in the test suite could use documenting in this book. See Section C.2 [Making Additions to gawk], page 281, if you are interested in tackling any of these projects.

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Appendix D Basic Programming Concepts

This appendix attempts to dene some of the basic concepts and terms that are used throughout the rest of this book. As this book is specically about awk, and not about computer programming in general, the coverage here is by necessity fairly cursory and simplistic. (If you need more background, there are many other introductory texts that you should refer to instead.)

D.1 What a Program Does

At the most basic level, the job of a program is to process some input data and produce results. Data Program Results

The program in the gure can be either a compiled program1 (such as ls), or it may be interpreted. In the latter case, a machine-executable program such as awk reads your program, and then uses the instructions in your program to process the data. When you write a program, it usually consists of the following, very basic set of steps: Initialization More Data? Yes Process Initialization These are the things you do before actually starting to process data, such as checking arguments, initializing any data you need to work with, and so on. This step corresponds to awks BEGIN rule (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). If you were baking a cake, this might consist of laying out all the mixing bowls and the baking pan, and making sure you have all the ingredients that you need. Processing This is where the actual work is done. Your program reads data, one logical chunk at a time, and processes it as appropriate. In most programming languages, you have to manually manage the reading of data, checking to see if there is more each time you read a chunk. awks pattern-action paradigm (see Chapter 1 [Getting Started with awk], page 11) handles the mechanics of this for you. In baking a cake, the processing corresponds to the actual labor: breaking eggs, mixing the our, water, and other ingredients, and then putting the cake into the oven.
1

No

Clean Up

Compiled programs are typically written in lower-level languages such as C, C++, Fortran, or Ada, and then translated, or compiled, into a form that the computer can execute directly.

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Clean Up

Once youve processed all the data, you may have things you need to do before exiting. This step corresponds to awks END rule (see Section 6.1.4 [The BEGIN and END Special Patterns], page 97). After the cake comes out of the oven, you still have to wrap it in plastic wrap to keep anyone from tasting it, as well as wash the mixing bowls and utensils.

An algorithm is a detailed set of instructions necessary to accomplish a task, or process data. It is much the same as a recipe for baking a cake. Programs implement algorithms. Often, it is up to you to design the algorithm and implement it, simultaneously. The logical chunks we talked about previously are called records, similar to the records a company keeps on employees, a school keeps for students, or a doctor keeps for patients. Each record has many component parts, such as rst and last names, date of birth, address, and so on. The component parts are referred to as the elds of the record. The act of reading data is termed input, and that of generating results, not too surprisingly, is termed output. They are often referred to together as input/output, and even more often, as I/O for short. (You will also see input and output used as verbs.) awk manages the reading of data for you, as well as the breaking it up into records and elds. Your programs job is to tell awk what to with the data. You do this by describing patterns in the data to look for, and actions to execute when those patterns are seen. This data-driven nature of awk programs usually makes them both easier to write and easier to read.

D.2 Data Values in a Computer

In a program, you keep track of information and values in things called variables. A variable is just a name for a given value, such as first_name, last_name, address, and so on. awk has several predened variables, and it has special names to refer to the current input record and the elds of the record. You may also group multiple associated values under one name, as an array. Data, particularly in awk, consists of either numeric values, such as 42 or 3.1415927, or string values. String values are essentially anything thats not a number, such as a name. Strings are sometimes referred to as character data, since they store the individual characters that comprise them. Individual variables, as well as numeric and string variables, are referred to as scalar values. Groups of values, such as arrays, are not scalars. Within computers, there are two kinds of numeric values: integers and oating-point. In school, integer values were referred to as whole numbersthat is, numbers without any fractional part, such as 1, 42, or 17. The advantage to integer numbers is that they represent values exactly. The disadvantage is that their range is limited. On most modern systems, this range is 2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. Integer values come in two avors: signed and unsigned. Signed values may be negative or positive, with the range of values just described. Unsigned values are always positive. On most modern systems, the range is from 0 to 4,294,967,295. Floating-point numbers represent what are called real numbers; i.e., those that do have a fractional part, such as 3.1415927. The advantage to oating-point numbers is that they can represent a much larger range of values. The disadvantage is that there are numbers that they cannot represent exactly. awk uses double-precision oating-point numbers, which

Appendix D: Basic Programming Concepts 299

can hold more digits than single-precision oating-point numbers. Floating-point issues are discussed more fully in Section D.3 [Floating-Point Number Caveats], page 299. At the very lowest level, computers store values as groups of binary digits, or bits. Modern computers group bits into groups of eight, called bytes. Advanced applications sometimes have to manipulate bits directly, and gawk provides functions for doing so. While you are probably used to the idea of a number without a value (i.e., zero), it takes a bit more getting used to the idea of zero-length character data. Nevertheless, such a thing exists. It is called the null string. The null string is character data that has no value. In other words, it is empty. It is written in awk programs like this: "". Humans are used to working in decimal; i.e., base 10. In base 10, numbers go from 0 to 9, and then roll over into the next column. (Remember grade school? 42 is 4 times 10 plus 2.) There are other number bases though. Computers commonly use base 2 or binary, base 8 or octal, and base 16 or hexadecimal. In binary, each column represents two times the value in the column to its right. Each column may contain either a 0 or a 1. Thus, binary 1010 represents 1 times 8, plus 0 times 4, plus 1 times 2, plus 0 times 1, or decimal 10. Octal and hexadecimal are discussed more in Section 5.1.2 [Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers], page 73. Programs are written in programming languages. Hundreds, if not thousands, of programming languages exist. One of the most popular is the C programming language. The C language had a very strong inuence on the design of the awk language. There have been several versions of C. The rst is often referred to as K&R C, after the initials of Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, the authors of the rst book on C. (Dennis Ritchie created the language, and Brian Kernighan was one of the creators of awk.) In the mid-1980s, an eort began to produce an international standard for C. This work culminated in 1989, with the production of the ANSI standard for C. This standard became an ISO standard in 1990. Where it makes sense, POSIX awk is compatible with 1990 ISO C. In 1999, a revised ISO C standard was approved and released. Future versions of gawk will be as compatible as possible with this standard.

D.3 Floating-Point Number Caveats

As mentioned earlier, oating-point numbers represent what are called real numbers, i.e., those that have a fractional part. awk uses double-precision oating-point numbers to represent all numeric values. This section describes some of the issues involved in using oating-point numbers. There is a very nice paper on oating-point arithmetic by David Goldberg, What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-point Arithmetic, ACM Computing Surveys 23, 1 (1991-03), 5-48.2 This is worth reading if you are interested in the details, but it does require a background in computer science.
2

http://www.validlab.com/goldberg/paper.ps.

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D.3.1 The String Value Can Lie

Internally, awk keeps both the numeric value (double-precision oating-point) and the string value for a variable. Separately, awk keeps track of what type the variable has (see Section 5.10 [Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions], page 85), which plays a role in how variables are used in comparisons. It is important to note that the string value for a number may not reect the full value (all the digits) that the numeric value actually contains. The following program (values.awk) illustrates this: { $1 = $2 + $3 # see it for what it is printf("$1 = %.12g\n", $1) # use CONVFMT a = "<" $1 ">" print "a =", a # use OFMT print "$1 =", $1 } This program shows the full value of the sum of $2 and $3 using printf, and then prints the string values obtained from both automatic conversion (via CONVFMT) and from printing (via OFMT). Here is what happens when the program is run: $ echo 2 3.654321 1.2345678 | awk -f values.awk $1 = 4.8888888 a = <4.88889> $1 = 4.88889 This makes it clear that the full numeric value is dierent from what the default string representations show. CONVFMTs default value is "%.6g", which yields a value with at least six signicant digits. For some applications, you might want to change it to specify more precision. On most modern machines, most of the time, 17 digits is enough to capture a oating-point numbers value exactly.3

D.3.2 Floating Point Numbers Are Not Abstract Numbers

Unlike numbers in the abstract sense (such as what you studied in high school or college math), numbers stored in computers are limited in certain ways. They cannot represent an innite number of digits, nor can they always represent things exactly. In particular, oating-point numbers cannot always represent values exactly. Here is an example: $ awk { printf("%010d\n", $1 * 100) } 515.79 0000051579 515.80 0000051579
3

Pathological cases can require up to 752 digits (!), but we doubt that you need to worry about this.

Appendix D: Basic Programming Concepts 301

515.81 0000051580 515.82 0000051582 Ctrl-d This shows that some values can be represented exactly, whereas others are only approximated. This is not a bug in awk, but simply an artifact of how computers represent numbers. Another peculiarity of oating-point numbers on modern systems is that they often have more than one representation for the number zero! In particular, it is possible to represent minus zero as well as regular, or positive zero. This example shows that negative and positive zero are distinct values when stored internally, but that they are in fact equal to each other, as well as to regular zero:
$ > > > gawk BEGIN { mz = -0 ; pz = 0 printf "-0 = %g, +0 = %g, (-0 == +0) -> %d\n", mz, pz, mz == pz printf "mz == 0 -> %d, pz == 0 -> %d\n", mz == 0, pz == 0 } -0 = -0, +0 = 0, (-0 == +0) -> 1 mz == 0 -> 1, pz == 0 -> 1

It helps to keep this in mind should you process numeric data that contains negative zero values; the fact that the zero is negative is noted and can aect comparisons.

D.3.3 Standards Versus Existing Practice

Historically, awk has converted any non-numeric looking string to the numeric value zero, when required. Furthermore, the original denition of the language and the original POSIX standards specied that awk only understands decimal numbers (base 10), and not octal (base 8) or hexadecimal numbers (base 16). As of this writing (February, 2007), changes in the language of the current POSIX standard can be interpreted to imply that awk should support additional features. These features are: Interpretation of oating point data values specied in hexadecimal notation (0xDEADBEEF). (Note: data values, not source code constants.) Support for the special IEEE 754 oating point values Not A Number (NaN), positive Innity (inf) and negative Innity (inf). In particular, the format for these values is as specied by the ISO C99 standard, which ignores case and can allow machinedependent additional characters after the nan and allow either inf or infinity. The rst problem is that both of these are clear changes to historical practice: The gawk maintainer feels that hexadecimal oating point values, in particular, is ugly, and was never intended by the original designers to be part of the language. Allowing completely alphabetic strings to have valid numeric values is also a very severe departure from historical practice. The second problem is that the gawk maintainer feels that this interpretation of the standard, which requires a certain amount of language lawyering to arrive at in the rst place, was not intended by the standard developers, either. In other words, we see how you got where you are, but we dont think that thats where you want to be.

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Nevertheless, on systems that support IEEE oating point, it seems reasonable to provide some way to support NaN and Innity values. The solution implemented in gawk, as of version 3.1.6, is as follows: 1. With the --posix command-line option, gawk becomes hands o. String values are passed directly to the system librarys strtod() function, and if it successfuly returns a numeric value, that is whats used. By denition, the results are not portable across dierent systems.4 They are also a little surprising: $ echo nanny | gawk --posix { print $1 + 0 } nan $ echo 0xDeadBeef | gawk --posix { print $1 + 0 } 3735928559 2. Without --posix, gawk interprets the four strings +inf, -inf, +nan, and -nan specially, producing the corresponding special numeric values. The leading sign acts a signal to gawk (and the user) that the value is really numeric. Hexadecimal oating point is not supported (unless you also use --non-decimal-data, which is not recommended). For example: $ echo nanny | gawk { print $1 + 0 } 0 $ echo +nan | gawk { print $1 + 0 } nan $ echo 0xDeadBeef | gawk { print $1 + 0 } 0 gawk does ignore case distinction in the four special values. Thus +nan and +NaN are the same.

You asked for it, you got it.

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Glossary
Action A series of awk statements attached to a rule. If the rules pattern matches an input record, awk executes the rules action. Actions are always enclosed in curly braces. (See Section 6.3 [Actions], page 99.)

Amazing awk Assembler Henry Spencer at the University of Toronto wrote a retargetable assembler completely as sed and awk scripts. It is thousands of lines long, including machine descriptions for several eight-bit microcomputers. It is a good example of a program that would have been better written in another language. You can get it from ftp://ftp.freefriends.org/arnold/Awkstuff/aaa.tgz. Amazingly Workable Formatter (awf) Henry Spencer at the University of Toronto wrote a formatter that accepts a large subset of the nroff -ms and nroff -man formatting commands, using awk and sh. It is available over the Internet from ftp://ftp.freefriends.org/arnold/Awkstuff/awf.tgz. Anchor ANSI The regexp metacharacters ^ and $, which force the match to the beginning or end of the string, respectively. The American National Standards Institute. This organization produces many standards, among them the standards for the C and C++ programming languages. These standards often become international standards as well. See also ISO. A grouping of multiple values under the same name. Most languages just provide sequential arrays. awk provides associative arrays. A statement in a program that a condition is true at this point in the program. Useful for reasoning about how a program is supposed to behave. An awk expression that changes the value of some awk variable or data object. An object that you can assign to is called an lvalue. The assigned values are called rvalues. See Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81. Associative Array Arrays in which the indices may be numbers or strings, not just sequential integers in a xed range. awk Language The language in which awk programs are written. awk Program An awk program consists of a series of patterns and actions, collectively known as rules. For each input record given to the program, the programs rules are all processed in turn. awk programs may also contain function denitions. awk Script Another name for an awk program. Bash The GNU version of the standard shell (the Bourne-Again SHell). See also Bourne Shell.

Array Assertion Assignment

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BBS Bit

See Bulletin Board System. Short for Binary Digit. All values in computer memory ultimately reduce to binary digits: values that are either zero or one. Groups of bits may be interpreted dierentlyas integers, oating-point numbers, character data, addresses of other memory objects, or other data. awk lets you work with oatingpoint numbers and strings. gawk lets you manipulate bit values with the builtin functions described in Section 8.1.6 [Bit-Manipulation Functions of gawk], page 148. Computers are often dened by how many bits they use to represent integer values. Typical systems are 32-bit systems, but 64-bit systems are becoming increasingly popular, and 16-bit systems are waning in popularity.

Boolean Expression Named after the English mathematician Boole. See also Logical Expression. Bourne Shell The standard shell (/bin/sh) on Unix and Unix-like systems, originally written by Steven R. Bourne. Many shells (bash, ksh, pdksh, zsh) are generally upwardly compatible with the Bourne shell. Built-in Function The awk language provides built-in functions that perform various numerical, I/O-related, and string computations. Examples are sqrt (for the square root of a number) and substr (for a substring of a string). gawk provides functions for timestamp management, bit manipulation, and runtime string translation. (See Section 8.1 [Built-in Functions], page 128.) Built-in Variable ARGC, ARGV, CONVFMT, ENVIRON, FILENAME, FNR, FS, NF, NR, OFMT, OFS, ORS, RLENGTH, RSTART, RS, and SUBSEP are the variables that have special meaning to awk. In addition, ARGIND, BINMODE, ERRNO, FIELDWIDTHS, IGNORECASE, LINT, PROCINFO, RT, and TEXTDOMAIN are the variables that have special meaning to gawk. Changing some of them aects awks running environment. (See Section 6.5 [Built-in Variables], page 108.) Braces See Curly Braces.

Bulletin Board System A computer system allowing users to log in and read and/or leave messages for other users of the system, much like leaving paper notes on a bulletin board. C The system programming language that most GNU software is written in. The awk programming language has C-like syntax, and this book points out similarities between awk and C when appropriate. In general, gawk attempts to be as similar to the 1990 version of ISO C as makes sense. Future versions of gawk may adopt features from the newer 1999 standard, as appropriate. C++ A popular object-oriented programming language derived from C.

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305

Character Set The set of numeric codes used by a computer system to represent the characters (letters, numbers, punctuation, etc.) of a particular country or place. The most common character set in use today is ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). Many European countries use an extension of ASCII known as ISO-8859-1 (ISO Latin-1). CHEM A preprocessor for pic that reads descriptions of molecules and produces pic input for drawing them. It was written in awk by Brian Kernighan and Jon Bentley, and is available from http://cm.bell-labs.com/netlib/typesetting/chem.gz.

Coprocess A subordinate program with which two-way communications is possible. Compiler A program that translates human-readable source code into machine-executable object code. The object code is then executed directly by the computer. See also Interpreter.

Compound Statement A series of awk statements, enclosed in curly braces. Compound statements may be nested. (See Section 6.4 [Control Statements in Actions], page 100.) Concatenation Concatenating two strings means sticking them together, one after another, producing a new string. For example, the string foo concatenated with the string bar gives the string foobar. (See Section 5.6 [String Concatenation], page 80.) Conditional Expression An expression using the ?: ternary operator, such as expr1 ? expr2 : expr3 . The expression expr1 is evaluated; if the result is true, the value of the whole expression is the value of expr2 ; otherwise the value is expr3. In either case, only one of expr2 and expr3 is evaluated. (See Section 5.12 [Conditional Expressions], page 90.) Comparison Expression A relation that is either true or false, such as (a < b). Comparison expressions are used in if, while, do, and for statements, and in patterns to select which input records to process. (See Section 5.10 [Variable Typing and Comparison Expressions], page 85.) Curly Braces The characters { and }. Curly braces are used in awk for delimiting actions, compound statements, and function bodies. Dark Corner An area in the language where specications often were (or still are) not clear, leading to unexpected or undesirable behavior. Such areas are marked in this book with the picture of a ashlight in the margin and are indexed under the heading dark corner.

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Data Driven A description of awk programs, where you specify the data you are interested in processing, and what to do when that data is seen. Data Objects These are numbers and strings of characters. Numbers are converted into strings and vice versa, as needed. (See Section 5.4 [Conversion of Strings and Numbers], page 77.) Deadlock The situation in which two communicating processes are each waiting for the other to perform an action.

Double-Precision An internal representation of numbers that can have fractional parts. Doubleprecision numbers keep track of more digits than do single-precision numbers, but operations on them are sometimes more expensive. This is the way awk stores numeric values. It is the C type double. Dynamic Regular Expression A dynamic regular expression is a regular expression written as an ordinary expression. It could be a string constant, such as "foo", but it may also be an expression whose value can vary. (See Section 2.8 [Using Dynamic Regexps], page 34.) Environment A collection of strings, of the form name=val, that each program has available to it. Users generally place values into the environment in order to provide information to various programs. Typical examples are the environment variables HOME and PATH. Empty String See Null String. Epoch The date used as the beginning of time for timestamps. Time values in Unix systems are represented as seconds since the epoch, with library functions available for converting these values into standard date and time formats. The epoch on Unix and POSIX systems is 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC. See also GMT and UTC.

Escape Sequences A special sequence of characters used for describing nonprinting characters, such as \n for newline or \033 for the ASCII ESC (Escape) character. (See Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25.) FDL Field See Free Documentation License. When awk reads an input record, it splits the record into pieces separated by whitespace (or by a separator regexp that you can change by setting the builtin variable FS). Such pieces are called elds. If the pieces are of xed length, you can use the built-in variable FIELDWIDTHS to describe their lengths. (See Section 3.5 [Specifying How Fields Are Separated], page 43, and Section 3.6 [Reading Fixed-Width Data], page 47.)

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Flag

A variable whose truth value indicates the existence or nonexistence of some condition.

Floating-Point Number Often referred to in mathematical terms as a rational or real number, this is just a number that can have a fractional part. See also Double-Precision and Single-Precision. Format Format strings are used to control the appearance of output in the strftime and sprintf functions, and are used in the printf statement as well. Also, data conversions from numbers to strings are controlled by the format string contained in the built-in variable CONVFMT. (See Section 4.5.2 [Format-Control Letters], page 60.)

Free Documentation License This document describes the terms under which this book is published and may be copied. (See [GNU Free Documentation License], page 324.) Function A specialized group of statements used to encapsulate general or programspecic tasks. awk has a number of built-in functions, and also allows you to dene your own. (See Chapter 8 [Functions], page 128.) See Free Software Foundation.

FSF

Free Software Foundation A nonprot organization dedicated to the production and distribution of freely distributable software. It was founded by Richard M. Stallman, the author of the original Emacs editor. GNU Emacs is the most widely used version of Emacs today. gawk The GNU implementation of awk.

General Public License This document describes the terms under which gawk and its source code may be distributed. (See [GNU General Public License], page 313.) GMT GNU Greenwich Mean Time. This is the old term for UTC. It is the time of day used as the epoch for Unix and POSIX systems. See also Epoch and UTC. GNUs not Unix. An on-going project of the Free Software Foundation to create a complete, freely distributable, POSIX-compliant computing environment.

GNU/Linux A variant of the GNU system using the Linux kernel, instead of the Free Software Foundations Hurd kernel. Linux is a stable, ecient, full-featured clone of Unix that has been ported to a variety of architectures. It is most popular on PC-class systems, but runs well on a variety of other systems too. The Linux kernel source code is available under the terms of the GNU General Public License, which is perhaps its most important aspect. GPL See General Public License.

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Hexadecimal Base 16 notation, where the digits are 09 and AF, with A representing 10, B representing 11, and so on, up to F for 15. Hexadecimal numbers are written in C using a leading 0x, to indicate their base. Thus, 0x12 is 18 (1 times 16 plus 2). I/O Abbreviation for Input/Output, the act of moving data into and/or out of a running program.

Input Record A single chunk of data that is read in by awk. Usually, an awk input record consists of one line of text. (See Section 3.1 [How Input Is Split into Records], page 36.) Integer A whole number, i.e., a number that does not have a fractional part. Internationalization The process of writing or modifying a program so that it can use multiple languages without requiring further source code changes. Interpreter A program that reads human-readable source code directly, and uses the instructions in it to process data and produce results. awk is typically (but not always) implemented as an interpreter. See also Compiler. Interval Expression A component of a regular expression that lets you specify repeated matches of some part of the regexp. Interval expressions were not traditionally available in awk programs. ISO The International Standards Organization. This organization produces international standards for many things, including programming languages, such as C and C++. In the computer arena, important standards like those for C, C++, and POSIX become both American national and ISO international standards simultaneously. This book refers to Standard C as ISO C throughout. In the awk language, a keyword is a word that has special meaning. Keywords are reserved and may not be used as variable names. gawks keywords are: BEGIN, END, if, else, while, do...while, for, for...in, break, continue, delete, next, nextfile, function, func, and exit. If gawk was congured with the --enable-switch option (see Section 6.4.5 [The switch Statement], page 103), then switch, case, and default are also keywords.

Keyword

Lesser General Public License This document describes the terms under which binary library archives or shared objects, and their source code may be distributed. Linux LGPL See GNU/Linux. See Lesser General Public License.

Localization The process of providing the data necessary for an internationalized program to work in a particular language.

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Logical Expression An expression using the operators for logic, AND, OR, and NOT, written &&, ||, and ! in awk. Often called Boolean expressions, after the mathematician who pioneered this kind of mathematical logic. Lvalue An expression that can appear on the left side of an assignment operator. In most languages, lvalues can be variables or array elements. In awk, a eld designator can also be used as an lvalue. The act of testing a string against a regular expression. If the regexp describes the contents of the string, it is said to match it.

Matching

Metacharacters Characters used within a regexp that do not stand for themselves. Instead, they denote regular expression operations, such as repetition, grouping, or alternation. Null String A string with no characters in it. It is represented explicitly in awk programs by placing two double quote characters next to each other (""). It can appear in input data by having two successive occurrences of the eld separator appear next to each other. Number A numeric-valued data object. Modern awk implementations use doubleprecision oating-point to represent numbers. Very old awk implementations use single-precision oating-point. Base-eight notation, where the digits are 07. Octal numbers are written in C using a leading 0, to indicate their base. Thus, 013 is 11 (one times 8 plus 3). See POSIX. Patterns tell awk which input records are interesting to which rules. A pattern is an arbitrary conditional expression against which input is tested. If the condition is satised, the pattern is said to match the input record. A typical pattern might compare the input record against a regular expression. (See Section 6.1 [Pattern Elements], page 94.) The name for a series of standards that specify a Portable Operating System interface. The IX denotes the Unix heritage of these standards. The main standard of interest for awk users is IEEE Standard for Information Technology, Standard 1003.2-1992, Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) Part 2: Shell and Utilities. Informally, this standard is often referred to as simply P1003.2. The order in which operations are performed when operators are used without explicit parentheses. Private Variables and/or functions that are meant for use exclusively by library functions and not for the main awk program. Special care must be taken when naming such variables and functions. (See Section 12.1 [Naming Library Function Global Variables], page 182.)

Octal P1003.2 Pattern

POSIX

Precedence

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Range (of input lines) A sequence of consecutive lines from the input le(s). A pattern can specify ranges of input lines for awk to process or it can specify single lines. (See Section 6.1 [Pattern Elements], page 94.) Recursion When a function calls itself, either directly or indirectly. If this isnt clear, refer to the entry for recursion. Redirection Redirection means performing input from something other than the standard input stream, or performing output to something other than the standard output stream. You can redirect the output of the print and printf statements to a le or a system command, using the >, >>, |, and |& operators. You can redirect input to the getline statement using the <, |, and |& operators. (See Section 4.6 [Redirecting Output of print and printf], page 65, and Section 3.8 [Explicit Input with getline], page 51.) Regexp Short for regular expression. A regexp is a pattern that denotes a set of strings, possibly an innite set. For example, the regexp R.*xp matches any string starting with the letter R and ending with the letters xp. In awk, regexps are used in patterns and in conditional expressions. Regexps may contain escape sequences. (See Chapter 2 [Regular Expressions], page 24.)

Regular Expression See regexp. Regular Expression Constant A regular expression constant is a regular expression written within slashes, such as /foo/. This regular expression is chosen when you write the awk program and cannot be changed during its execution. (See Section 2.1 [How to Use Regular Expressions], page 24.) Rule A segment of an awk program that species how to process single input records. A rule consists of a pattern and an action. awk reads an input record; then, for each rule, if the input record satises the rules pattern, awk executes the rules action. Otherwise, the rule does nothing for that input record. A value that can appear on the right side of an assignment operator. In awk, essentially every expression has a value. These values are rvalues. A single value, be it a number or a string. Regular variables are scalars; arrays and functions are not.

Rvalue Scalar

Search Path In gawk, a list of directories to search for awk program source les. In the shell, a list of directories to search for executable programs. Seed sed Shell The initial value, or starting point, for a sequence of random numbers. See Stream Editor. The command interpreter for Unix and POSIX-compliant systems. The shell works both interactively, and as a programming language for batch les, or shell scripts.

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Short-Circuit The nature of the awk logical operators && and ||. If the value of the entire expression is determinable from evaluating just the lefthand side of these operators, the righthand side is not evaluated. (See Section 5.11 [Boolean Expressions], page 89.) Side Eect A side eect occurs when an expression has an eect aside from merely producing a value. Assignment expressions, increment and decrement expressions, and function calls have side eects. (See Section 5.7 [Assignment Expressions], page 81.) Single-Precision An internal representation of numbers that can have fractional parts. Singleprecision numbers keep track of fewer digits than do double-precision numbers, but operations on them are sometimes less expensive in terms of CPU time. This is the type used by some very old versions of awk to store numeric values. It is the C type float. Space Special File A le name interpreted internally by gawk, instead of being handed directly to the underlying operating systemfor example, /dev/stderr. (See Section 4.7 [Special File Names in gawk], page 68.) Stream Editor A program that reads records from an input stream and processes them one or more at a time. This is in contrast with batch programs, which may expect to read their input les in entirety before starting to do anything, as well as with interactive programs which require input from the user. String A datum consisting of a sequence of characters, such as I am a string. Constant strings are written with double quotes in the awk language and may contain escape sequences. (See Section 2.2 [Escape Sequences], page 25.) The character generated by hitting the TAB key on the keyboard. It usually expands to up to eight spaces upon output. The character generated by hitting the space bar on the keyboard.

Tab

Text Domain A unique name that identies an application. Used for grouping messages that are translated at runtime into the local language. Timestamp A value in the seconds since the epoch format used by Unix and POSIX systems. Used for the gawk functions mktime, strftime, and systime. See also Epoch and UTC. Unix A computer operating system originally developed in the early 1970s at AT&T Bell Laboratories. It initially became popular in universities around the world and later moved into commercial environments as a software development system and network server system. There are many commercial versions of Unix,

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as well as several work-alike systems whose source code is freely available (such as GNU/Linux, NetBSD, FreeBSD, and OpenBSD). UTC The accepted abbreviation for Universal Coordinated Time. This is standard time in Greenwich, England, which is used as a reference time for day and date calculations. See also Epoch and GMT. A sequence of space, TAB, or newline characters occurring inside an input record or a string.

Whitespace

GNU General Public License 313

GNU General Public License

Version 3, 29 June 2007 Copyright c 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. http://fsf.org/ Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
The GNU General Public License is a free, copyleft license for software and other kinds of works. The licenses for most software and other practical works are designed to take away your freedom to share and change the works. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change all versions of a programto make sure it remains free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation, use the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it applies also to any other work released this way by its authors. You can apply it to your programs, too. When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for them if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs, and that you know you can do these things. To protect your rights, we need to prevent others from denying you these rights or asking you to surrender the rights. Therefore, you have certain responsibilities if you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it: responsibilities to respect the freedom of others. For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must pass on to the recipients the same freedoms that you received. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights. Developers that use the GNU GPL protect your rights with two steps: (1) assert copyright on the software, and (2) oer you this License giving you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify it. For the developers and authors protection, the GPL clearly explains that there is no warranty for this free software. For both users and authors sake, the GPL requires that modied versions be marked as changed, so that their problems will not be attributed erroneously to authors of previous versions. Some devices are designed to deny users access to install or run modied versions of the software inside them, although the manufacturer can do so. This is fundamentally incompatible with the aim of protecting users freedom to change the software. The systematic pattern of such abuse occurs in the area of products for individuals to use, which is precisely where it is most unacceptable. Therefore, we have designed this version of the GPL to prohibit the practice for those products. If such problems arise substantially in other domains, we stand ready to extend this provision to those domains in future versions of the GPL, as needed to protect the freedom of users.

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Finally, every program is threatened constantly by software patents. States should not allow patents to restrict development and use of software on general-purpose computers, but in those that do, we wish to avoid the special danger that patents applied to a free program could make it eectively proprietary. To prevent this, the GPL assures that patents cannot be used to render the program non-free. The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modication follow.

TERMS AND CONDITIONS

0. Denitions. This License refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License. Copyright also means copyright-like laws that apply to other kinds of works, such as semiconductor masks. The Program refers to any copyrightable work licensed under this License. Each licensee is addressed as you. Licensees and recipients may be individuals or organizations. To modify a work means to copy from or adapt all or part of the work in a fashion requiring copyright permission, other than the making of an exact copy. The resulting work is called a modied version of the earlier work or a work based on the earlier work. A covered work means either the unmodied Program or a work based on the Program. To propagate a work means to do anything with it that, without permission, would make you directly or secondarily liable for infringement under applicable copyright law, except executing it on a computer or modifying a private copy. Propagation includes copying, distribution (with or without modication), making available to the public, and in some countries other activities as well. To convey a work means any kind of propagation that enables other parties to make or receive copies. Mere interaction with a user through a computer network, with no transfer of a copy, is not conveying. An interactive user interface displays Appropriate Legal Notices to the extent that it includes a convenient and prominently visible feature that (1) displays an appropriate copyright notice, and (2) tells the user that there is no warranty for the work (except to the extent that warranties are provided), that licensees may convey the work under this License, and how to view a copy of this License. If the interface presents a list of user commands or options, such as a menu, a prominent item in the list meets this criterion. 1. Source Code. The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making modications to it. Object code means any non-source form of a work. A Standard Interface means an interface that either is an ocial standard dened by a recognized standards body, or, in the case of interfaces specied for a particular programming language, one that is widely used among developers working in that language.

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The System Libraries of an executable work include anything, other than the work as a whole, that (a) is included in the normal form of packaging a Major Component, but which is not part of that Major Component, and (b) serves only to enable use of the work with that Major Component, or to implement a Standard Interface for which an implementation is available to the public in source code form. A Major Component, in this context, means a major essential component (kernel, window system, and so on) of the specic operating system (if any) on which the executable work runs, or a compiler used to produce the work, or an object code interpreter used to run it. The Corresponding Source for a work in object code form means all the source code needed to generate, install, and (for an executable work) run the object code and to modify the work, including scripts to control those activities. However, it does not include the works System Libraries, or general-purpose tools or generally available free programs which are used unmodied in performing those activities but which are not part of the work. For example, Corresponding Source includes interface denition les associated with source les for the work, and the source code for shared libraries and dynamically linked subprograms that the work is specically designed to require, such as by intimate data communication or control ow between those subprograms and other parts of the work. The Corresponding Source need not include anything that users can regenerate automatically from other parts of the Corresponding Source. The Corresponding Source for a work in source code form is that same work. 2. Basic Permissions. All rights granted under this License are granted for the term of copyright on the Program, and are irrevocable provided the stated conditions are met. This License explicitly arms your unlimited permission to run the unmodied Program. The output from running a covered work is covered by this License only if the output, given its content, constitutes a covered work. This License acknowledges your rights of fair use or other equivalent, as provided by copyright law. You may make, run and propagate covered works that you do not convey, without conditions so long as your license otherwise remains in force. You may convey covered works to others for the sole purpose of having them make modications exclusively for you, or provide you with facilities for running those works, provided that you comply with the terms of this License in conveying all material for which you do not control copyright. Those thus making or running the covered works for you must do so exclusively on your behalf, under your direction and control, on terms that prohibit them from making any copies of your copyrighted material outside their relationship with you. Conveying under any other circumstances is permitted solely under the conditions stated below. Sublicensing is not allowed; section 10 makes it unnecessary. 3. Protecting Users Legal Rights From Anti-Circumvention Law. No covered work shall be deemed part of an eective technological measure under any applicable law fullling obligations under article 11 of the WIPO copyright treaty adopted on 20 December 1996, or similar laws prohibiting or restricting circumvention of such measures.

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When you convey a covered work, you waive any legal power to forbid circumvention of technological measures to the extent such circumvention is eected by exercising rights under this License with respect to the covered work, and you disclaim any intention to limit operation or modication of the work as a means of enforcing, against the works users, your or third parties legal rights to forbid circumvention of technological measures. 4. Conveying Verbatim Copies. You may convey verbatim copies of the Programs source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice; keep intact all notices stating that this License and any non-permissive terms added in accord with section 7 apply to the code; keep intact all notices of the absence of any warranty; and give all recipients a copy of this License along with the Program. You may charge any price or no price for each copy that you convey, and you may oer support or warranty protection for a fee. 5. Conveying Modied Source Versions. You may convey a work based on the Program, or the modications to produce it from the Program, in the form of source code under the terms of section 4, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: a. The work must carry prominent notices stating that you modied it, and giving a relevant date. b. The work must carry prominent notices stating that it is released under this License and any conditions added under section 7. This requirement modies the requirement in section 4 to keep intact all notices. c. You must license the entire work, as a whole, under this License to anyone who comes into possession of a copy. This License will therefore apply, along with any applicable section 7 additional terms, to the whole of the work, and all its parts, regardless of how they are packaged. This License gives no permission to license the work in any other way, but it does not invalidate such permission if you have separately received it. d. If the work has interactive user interfaces, each must display Appropriate Legal Notices; however, if the Program has interactive interfaces that do not display Appropriate Legal Notices, your work need not make them do so. A compilation of a covered work with other separate and independent works, which are not by their nature extensions of the covered work, and which are not combined with it such as to form a larger program, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an aggregate if the compilation and its resulting copyright are not used to limit the access or legal rights of the compilations users beyond what the individual works permit. Inclusion of a covered work in an aggregate does not cause this License to apply to the other parts of the aggregate. 6. Conveying Non-Source Forms. You may convey a covered work in object code form under the terms of sections 4 and 5, provided that you also convey the machine-readable Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, in one of these ways:

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a. Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by the Corresponding Source xed on a durable physical medium customarily used for software interchange. b. Convey the object code in, or embodied in, a physical product (including a physical distribution medium), accompanied by a written oer, valid for at least three years and valid for as long as you oer spare parts or customer support for that product model, to give anyone who possesses the object code either (1) a copy of the Corresponding Source for all the software in the product that is covered by this License, on a durable physical medium customarily used for software interchange, for a price no more than your reasonable cost of physically performing this conveying of source, or (2) access to copy the Corresponding Source from a network server at no charge. c. Convey individual copies of the object code with a copy of the written oer to provide the Corresponding Source. This alternative is allowed only occasionally and noncommercially, and only if you received the object code with such an oer, in accord with subsection 6b. d. Convey the object code by oering access from a designated place (gratis or for a charge), and oer equivalent access to the Corresponding Source in the same way through the same place at no further charge. You need not require recipients to copy the Corresponding Source along with the object code. If the place to copy the object code is a network server, the Corresponding Source may be on a dierent server (operated by you or a third party) that supports equivalent copying facilities, provided you maintain clear directions next to the object code saying where to nd the Corresponding Source. Regardless of what server hosts the Corresponding Source, you remain obligated to ensure that it is available for as long as needed to satisfy these requirements. e. Convey the object code using peer-to-peer transmission, provided you inform other peers where the object code and Corresponding Source of the work are being oered to the general public at no charge under subsection 6d. A separable portion of the object code, whose source code is excluded from the Corresponding Source as a System Library, need not be included in conveying the object code work. A User Product is either (1) a consumer product, which means any tangible personal property which is normally used for personal, family, or household purposes, or (2) anything designed or sold for incorporation into a dwelling. In determining whether a product is a consumer product, doubtful cases shall be resolved in favor of coverage. For a particular product received by a particular user, normally used refers to a typical or common use of that class of product, regardless of the status of the particular user or of the way in which the particular user actually uses, or expects or is expected to use, the product. A product is a consumer product regardless of whether the product has substantial commercial, industrial or non-consumer uses, unless such uses represent the only signicant mode of use of the product. Installation Information for a User Product means any methods, procedures, authorization keys, or other information required to install and execute modied versions of a covered work in that User Product from a modied version of its Corresponding Source.

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The information must suce to ensure that the continued functioning of the modied object code is in no case prevented or interfered with solely because modication has been made. If you convey an object code work under this section in, or with, or specically for use in, a User Product, and the conveying occurs as part of a transaction in which the right of possession and use of the User Product is transferred to the recipient in perpetuity or for a xed term (regardless of how the transaction is characterized), the Corresponding Source conveyed under this section must be accompanied by the Installation Information. But this requirement does not apply if neither you nor any third party retains the ability to install modied object code on the User Product (for example, the work has been installed in ROM). The requirement to provide Installation Information does not include a requirement to continue to provide support service, warranty, or updates for a work that has been modied or installed by the recipient, or for the User Product in which it has been modied or installed. Access to a network may be denied when the modication itself materially and adversely aects the operation of the network or violates the rules and protocols for communication across the network. Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information provided, in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly documented (and with an implementation available to the public in source code form), and must require no special password or key for unpacking, reading or copying. 7. Additional Terms. Additional permissions are terms that supplement the terms of this License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions. Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall be treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent that they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by this License without regard to the additional permissions. When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work, for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders of that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms: a. Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability dierently from the terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or b. Requiring preservation of specied reasonable legal notices or author attributions in that material or in the Appropriate Legal Notices displayed by works containing it; or c. Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of that material, or requiring that modied versions of such material be marked in reasonable ways as dierent from the original version; or

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d. Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or authors of the material; or e. Declining to grant rights under trademark law for use of some trade names, trademarks, or service marks; or f. Requiring indemnication of licensors and authors of that material by anyone who conveys the material (or modied versions of it) with contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, for any liability that these contractual assumptions directly impose on those licensors and authors. All other non-permissive additional terms are considered further restrictions within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is governed by this License along with a term that is a further restriction, you may remove that term. If a license document contains a further restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this License, you may add to a covered work material governed by the terms of that license document, provided that the further restriction does not survive such relicensing or conveying. If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you must place, in the relevant source les, a statement of the additional terms that apply to those les, or a notice indicating where to nd the applicable terms. Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the above requirements apply either way. 8. Termination. You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third paragraph of section 11). However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and nally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation. Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder noties you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the rst time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same material under section 10. 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies. You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance.

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However, nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so. 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients. Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License. An entity transaction is a transaction transferring control of an organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered work results from an entity transaction, each party to that transaction who receives a copy of the work also receives whatever licenses to the work the partys predecessor in interest had or could give under the previous paragraph, plus a right to possession of the Corresponding Source of the work from the predecessor in interest, if the predecessor has it or can get it with reasonable eorts. You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the rights granted or armed under this License. For example, you may not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of rights granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that any patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, oering for sale, or importing the Program or any portion of it. 11. Patents. A contributor is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The work thus licensed is called the contributors contributor version. A contributors essential patent claims are all patent claims owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version, but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a consequence of further modication of the contributor version. For purposes of this denition, control includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License. Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free patent license under the contributors essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, oer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and propagate the contents of its contributor version. In the following three paragraphs, a patent license is any express agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent (such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to sue for patent infringement). To grant such a patent license to a party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a patent against the party. If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license, and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a publicly available network server or other readily accessible means, then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so

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available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benet of the patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent license to downstream recipients. Knowingly relying means you have actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the covered work in a country, or your recipients use of the covered work in a country, would infringe one or more identiable patents in that country that you have reason to believe are valid. If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify or convey a specic copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it. A patent license is discriminatory if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specically granted under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection with specic products or compilations that contain the covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007. Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of Others Freedom. If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Aero General Public License. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under version 3 of the GNU Aero General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but the special requirements of the GNU Aero General Public License, section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License.

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The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may dier in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program species that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License or any later version applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program species that a proxy can decide which future versions of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxys public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Program. Later license versions may give you additional or dierent permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15. Disclaimer of Warranty. THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 16. Limitation of Liability. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal eect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in return for a fee.

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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source le to most eectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each le should have at least the copyright line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
one line to give the programs name and a brief idea of what it does. Copyright (C) year name of author This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses/.

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
program Copyright (C) year name of author This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type show w. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type show c for details.

The hypothetical commands show w and show c should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your programs commands might be dierent; for a GUI interface, you would use an about box. You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see http://www.gnu.org/licenses/. The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But rst, please read http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html.

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GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002 c Copyright 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the eective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modications made by others. This License is a kind of copyleft, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference. 1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The Document, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as you. You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. A Modied Version of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modications and/or translated into another language. A Secondary Section is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Documents overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. The Invariant Sections are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released

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under this License. If a section does not t the above denition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none. The Cover Texts are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. A Transparent copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specication is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent le format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modication by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not Transparent is called Opaque. Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ascii without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTEX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modication. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only. The Title Page means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, Title Page means the text near the most prominent appearance of the works title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text. A section Entitled XYZ means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specic section name mentioned below, such as Acknowledgements, Dedications, Endorsements, or History.) To Preserve the Title of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section Entitled XYZ according to this denition. The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no eect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and

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that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3. You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Documents license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects. If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to t legibly, you should put the rst ones listed (as many as t reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public. It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS You may copy and distribute a Modied Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modied Version under precisely this License, with the Modied Version lling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modication of the Modied Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modied Version: A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.

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B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modications in the Modied Version, together with at least ve of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than ve), unless they release you from this requirement. C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modied Version, as the publisher. D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document. E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modications adjacent to the other copyright notices. F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modied Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Documents license notice. H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. I. Preserve the section Entitled History, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modied Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled History in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modied Version as stated in the previous sentence. J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the History section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission. K. For any section Entitled Acknowledgements or Dedications, Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles. M. Delete any section Entitled Endorsements. Such a section may not be included in the Modied Version. N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled Endorsements or to conict in title with any Invariant Section. O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers. If the Modied Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modied Versions license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

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You may add a section Entitled Endorsements, provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modied Version by various partiesfor example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative denition of a standard. You may add a passage of up to ve words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modied Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one. The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modied Version. 5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms dened in section 4 above for modied versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodied, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers. The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but dierent contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work. In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled History in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled History; likewise combine any sections Entitled Acknowledgements, and any sections Entitled Dedications. You must delete all sections Entitled Endorsements. 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects. You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called

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an aggregate if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilations users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document. If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Documents Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate. 8. TRANSLATION Translation is considered a kind of modication, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If a section in the Document is Entitled Acknowledgements, Dedications, or History, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMINATION You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may dier in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/. Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document species that a particular numbered version of this License or any later version applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specied version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

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ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (C) year your name. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the with...Texts. line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with the Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts being list.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.

Index 331

Index
!
! (exclamation point), ! operator . . . . . . 90, 93, 219 ! (exclamation point), != operator . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 ! (exclamation point), !~ operator . . 24, 32, 34, 74, 87, 88, 93, 95 ! operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 219 * (asterisk), * operator, null strings, matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 * (asterisk), ** operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 92, 177 * (asterisk), **= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93, 177 * (asterisk), *= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93

+ "
" (double quote) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 15 " (double quote), regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 + + + + + (plus (plus (plus (plus (plus sign) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sign), + operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sign), ++ operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, sign), += operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, sign), decrement/increment operators . . . 28 93 92 93 84

#
# (number sign), #! (executable scripts) . . . . . . . . 13 # (number sign), #! (executable scripts), portability issues with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 # (number sign), commenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

,
, (comma), in range patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

- (hyphen), - operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 - (hyphen), -- (decrement/increment) operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 - (hyphen), -- operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 - (hyphen), -= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93 - (hyphen), lenames beginning with . . . . . . . . . 175 - (hyphen), in character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 --assign option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 --compat option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 --copyleft option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 --copyright option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 --disable-directories-fatal conguration option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 --disable-lint conguration option . . . . . . . . . 265 --disable-nls conguration option . . . . . . . . . . 266 --dump-variables option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 183 --enable-portals conguration option . . 170, 265 --enable-switch conguration option . . . . . . . . 265 --exec option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 --field-separator option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 --file option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 --gen-po option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161, 176 --help option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 --lint option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174, 176 --lint-old option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 --non-decimal-data option . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 177 --non-decimal-data option, strtonum function and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 --posix option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 --posix option, --traditional option and . . . 177 --profile option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 178 --re-interval option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 --source option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178, 179 --traditional option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 --traditional option, --posix option and . . . 177

$
$ $ $ $ (dollar sign) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (dollar sign), $ eld operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, (dollar sign), incrementing elds and arrays . . eld operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 92 84 39

%
% (percent sign), % operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 % (percent sign), %= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93

&
& (ampersand), && operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 93 & (ampersand), gsub/gensub/sub functions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

(single quote) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 13, 15 (single quote), vs. apostrophe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 (single quote), with double quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

(
() (parentheses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 () (parentheses), pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

*
* (asterisk), * operator, as multiplication operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 * (asterisk), * operator, as regexp operator . . . . . 28

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--usage option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 --use-lc-numeric option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 --version option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 -f option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 174 -F option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 174 -F option, -Ft sets FS to TAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 -f option, on command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 -F option, troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 -mf/-mr options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 -v option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 -v option, variables, assigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 -W option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

> (right angle bracket), >> operator (I/O) . . 66, 93

?
? (question mark) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 31 ? (question mark), ?: operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

[
[] (square brackets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

.
. (period) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 .mo les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 .mo les, converting from .po . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 .mo les, specifying directory of . . . . . . . . . . 158, 159 .po les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 160 .po les, converting to .mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

^
^ ^ ^ ^ (caret) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 31 (caret), ^ operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 177 (caret), ^= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93, 177 (caret), in character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

/
(forward slash) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 (forward slash), / operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 (forward slash), /= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93 (forward slash), /= operator, vs. /=.../ regexp constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 / (forward slash), patterns and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 /= operator vs. /=.../ regexp constant . . . . . . . . 84 /dev/... special les (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 /inet/ les (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 /p les (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 / / / /

_ (underscore), _ C macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ (underscore), in names of private variables . . _ (underscore), translatable string . . . . . . . . . . . . _gr_init user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _pw_init user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

158 183 160 207 204

{
{} (braces), actions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 {} (braces), pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 {} (braces), statements, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

\ ;
; (semicolon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ; (semicolon), AWKPATH variable and . . . . . . . . . . . 271 ; (semicolon), separating statements in actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 100 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ (backslash) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 14, 15, 27 (backslash), \" escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 (backslash), \ operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \/ escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 (backslash), \< operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \> operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \ operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \a escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \b escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \B operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \f escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \n escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \nnn escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \r escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \t escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \v escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \w operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \W operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), \x escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 (backslash), \y operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (backslash), as eld separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 (backslash), continuing lines and . . . . . . . . 21, 220

<
< (left angle bracket), < operator . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 < (left angle bracket), < operator (I/O) . . . . . . . . . 53 < (left angle bracket), <= operator . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93

=
= (equals sign), = operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 = (equals sign), == operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93

>
> (right angle bracket), > operator . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 > (right angle bracket), > operator (I/O) . . . . . . . 65 > (right angle bracket), >= operator . . . . . . . . . 87, 93

Index 333

\ (backslash), continuing lines and, comments and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 \ (backslash), continuing lines and, in csh . . 20, 21 \ (backslash), gsub/gensub/sub functions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 \ (backslash), in character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 \ (backslash), in escape sequences . . . . . . . . . . 25, 26 \ (backslash), in escape sequences, POSIX and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 \ (backslash), regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

|
(vertical bar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 (vertical bar), | operator (I/O) . . . . . . . 54, 66, 93 (vertical bar), |& operator (I/O) . . 55, 66, 93, 167 (vertical bar), |& operator (I/O), pipes, closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 | (vertical bar), |& operator (I/O), two-way communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 | (vertical bar), || operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 93 | | | |

~
~ (tilde), ~ operator . . . . . . 32, 34, 74, 87, 88, 93, 95

A
accessing elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 account information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 206 actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 actions, control statements in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 actions, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 actions, empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 adding, features to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 adding, elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 adding, functions to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 advanced features, buering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142, 143 advanced features, close function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 advanced features, constants, values of . . . . . . . . . 74 advanced features, data les as single record . . . 39 advanced features, xed-width data . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 advanced features, FNR/NR variables . . . . . . . . . . . 114 advanced features, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 advanced features, gawk, BSD portals . . . . . . . . . 170 advanced features, gawk, network programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 advanced features, gawk, nondecimal input data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 advanced features, gawk, processes, communicating with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 advanced features, network connections, See Also networks, connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 advanced features, null strings, matching . . . . . . 140 advanced features, operators, precedence . . . . . . . 85 advanced features, piping into sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 advanced features, regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Aho, Alfred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 259

alarm clock example program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 alarm.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Alpha (DEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 amazing awk assembler (aaa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 amazingly workable formatter (awf) . . . . . . . . . . . 303 ambiguity, syntactic: /= operator vs. /=.../ regexp constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 amiga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 ampersand (&), && operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 ampersand (&), &&operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 ampersand (&), gsub/gensub/sub functions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 AND bitwise operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 and Boolean-logic operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 and function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 ANSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 archeologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 ARGC/ARGV variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 114 ARGC/ARGV variables, command-line arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 ARGC/ARGV variables, portability and . . . . . . . . . . . 14 ARGIND variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 ARGIND variable, command-line arguments . . . . . 179 arguments, command-line . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 114, 179 arguments, command-line, invoking awk . . . . . . . 174 arguments, in function calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 arguments, processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 arguments, retrieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 arithmetic operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 arrays, as parameters to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 arrays, associative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 arrays, associative, clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 arrays, associative, library functions and . . . . . . 183 arrays, deleting entire contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 arrays, elements, assigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 arrays, elements, deleting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 arrays, elements, installing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 arrays, elements, order of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 arrays, elements, referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 arrays, elements, retrieving number of . . . . . . . . 130 arrays, for statement and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 arrays, IGNORECASE variable and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 arrays, indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 arrays, merging into strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 arrays, multidimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 arrays, multidimensional, scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 arrays, names of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 arrays, scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 arrays, sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 arrays, sorting, IGNORECASE variable and . . . . . . 127 arrays, sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 arrays, subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 arrays, subscripts, uninitialized variables as . . . 123 articial intelligence, gawk and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 asort function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 130

334

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

asort function (gawk), arrays, sorting . . . . . . . . . 125 asorti function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 assert function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 assert user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 assignment operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 assignment operators, evaluation order . . . . . . . . . 83 assignment operators, lvalues/rvalues . . . . . . . . . . 82 assignments as lenames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 assoc_clear internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 assoc_lookup internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 associative arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 asterisk (*), * operator, as multiplication operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 asterisk (*), * operator, as regexp operator . . . . . 28 asterisk (*), * operator, null strings, matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 asterisk (*), ** operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 92, 177 asterisk (*), **= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93, 177 asterisk (*), *= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93 atan2 function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 atari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 awf (amazingly workable formatter) program . . 303 awk language, POSIX version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 awk programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 13, 19 awk programs, complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 awk programs, documenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 182 awk programs, examples of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 awk programs, execution of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 awk programs, internationalizing . . . . . . . . . 150, 159 awk programs, lengthy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 awk programs, lengthy, assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 awk programs, location of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174, 176 awk programs, one-line examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 awk programs, proling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 awk programs, proling, enabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 awk programs, running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 12 awk programs, running, from shell scripts . . . . . . 11 awk programs, running, without input les . . . . . 12 awk programs, shell variables in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 awk, function of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 awk, gawk and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 5 awk, history of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 awk, implementation issues, pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 awk, implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 awk, implementations, limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 awk, invoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 awk, new vs. old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 awk, new vs. old, OFMT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 awk, POSIX and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 awk, POSIX and, See Also POSIX awk . . . . . . . . . . 3 awk, regexp constants and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 awk, See Also gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 awk, terms describing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 awk, uses for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 11, 22 awk, versions of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 253 awk, versions of, changes between SVR3.1 and SVR4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

awk, versions of, changes between SVR4 and POSIX awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 awk, versions of, changes between V7 and SVR3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 awk, versions of, See Also Bell Laboratories awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 awk.h le (internal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 awka compiler for awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 AWKNUM internal type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 AWKPATH environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 AWKPATH environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 awkprof.out le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 awksed.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 awkvars.out le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

B
backslash (\) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 14, 15, 27 backslash (\), \" escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 backslash (\), \ operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \/ escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 backslash (\), \< operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \> operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \ operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \a escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \b escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \B operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \f escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \n escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \nnn escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \r escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \t escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \v escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \w operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \W operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), \x escape sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 backslash (\), \y operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 backslash (\), as eld separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 backslash (\), continuing lines and . . . . . . . . 21, 220 backslash (\), continuing lines and, comments and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 backslash (\), continuing lines and, in csh . . 20, 21 backslash (\), gsub/gensub/sub functions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 backslash (\), in character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 backslash (\), in escape sequences . . . . . . . . . . 25, 26 backslash (\), in escape sequences, POSIX and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 backslash (\), regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 BBS-list le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Beebe, Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Beebe, Nelson H.F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 BEGIN pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 43, 97 BEGIN pattern, assert user-dened function and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 BEGIN pattern, Boolean patterns and . . . . . . . . . . . 95 BEGIN pattern, exit statement and . . . . . . . . . . . 107 BEGIN pattern, getline and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Index 335

BEGIN pattern, headings, adding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 BEGIN pattern, next/nextfile statements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 106 BEGIN pattern, OFS/ORS variables, assigning values to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 BEGIN pattern, operators and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 BEGIN pattern, pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 BEGIN pattern, print statement and . . . . . . . . . . . 98 BEGIN pattern, pwcat program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 BEGIN pattern, running awk programs and . . . . . 212 BEGIN pattern, TEXTDOMAIN variable and . . . . . . 160 beginfile user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Bell Laboratories awk extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Benzinger, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 BeOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Berry, Karl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 binary input/output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 bindtextdomain function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . 158 bindtextdomain function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . 150, 159 bindtextdomain function (gawk), portability and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 BINMODE variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 271 bits2str user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 bitwise, complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 bitwise, operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 bitwise, shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 body, in actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 body, in loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Boolean expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Boolean expressions, as patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Boolean operators, See Boolean expressions . . . . 89 Bourne shell, quoting rules for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 braces ({}), actions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 braces ({}), pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 braces ({}), statements, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 bracket expressions, See character lists . . . . . . . . . 27 break statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Brennan, Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122, 167, 244, 278 Broder, Alan J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Brown, Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 260, 278 BSD portals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 BSD-based operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Buening, Andreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 260 buering, input/output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143, 168 buering, interactive vs. noninteractive . . . . . . . 142 buers, ushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 143 buers, operators for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 bug reports, email address, [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 [email protected] bug reporting address . . . . . 277 built-in functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 built-in functions, evaluation order . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 built-in variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 built-in variables, -v option, setting with . . . . . . 175 built-in variables, conveying information . . . . . . 111 built-in variables, user-modiable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

C
call by reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 call by value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 caret (^) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 31 caret (^), ^ operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 177 caret (^), ^= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93, 177 caret (^), in character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 case keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 case sensitivity, array indices and . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 case sensitivity, converting case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 case sensitivity, example programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 case sensitivity, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 case sensitivity, regexps and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 109 case sensitivity, string comparisons and . . . . . . . 109 CGI, awk scripts for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 character encodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27, 29 character lists, character classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 character lists, collating elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 character lists, collating symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 character lists, complemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 character lists, equivalence classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 character lists, non-ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 character lists, range expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 character sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 character sets (machine character encodings) . . 304 character sets, See Also character lists . . . . . . . . . 27 characters, counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 characters, transliterating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 characters, values of as numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Chassell, Robert J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 chdir function, implementing in gawk . . . . . . . . . 289 chem utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 chr user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Cli random numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 cliff_rand user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 close function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 70, 141 close function, return values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 close function, two-way pipes and . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Close, Diane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 259 close_func input method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 collating elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 collating symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 columns, aligning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 columns, cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 comma (,), in range patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 command line, arguments . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 114, 179 command line, formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 command line, FS on, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 command line, invoking awk from . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 command line, options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 45, 174 command line, options, end of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 command line, variables, assigning on . . . . . . . . . . 76 command-line options, processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 command-line options, string extraction . . . . . . . 161 commenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 commenting, backslash continuation and . . . . . . . 22 comp.lang.awk newsgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

336

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

comparison expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 comparison expressions, as patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 comparison expressions, string vs. regexp . . . . . . . 88 compatibility mode (gawk), extensions . . . . . . . . 256 compatibility mode (gawk), le names . . . . . . . . . . 70 compatibility mode (gawk), hexadecimal numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 compatibility mode (gawk), octal numbers . . . . . . 74 compatibility mode (gawk), specifying . . . . . . . . . 175 compiled programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297, 305 compl function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 complement, bitwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 compound statements, control statements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 concatenating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 conditional expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 conguration option, --disable-directories-fatal . . . . . . . . . . 266 conguration option, --disable-lint . . . . . . . . . 265 conguration option, --disable-nls . . . . . . . . . . 266 conguration option, --enable-portals . . . . . . 265 conguration option, --enable-switch . . . . . . . 265 conguration options, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 constants, nondecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 constants, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 continue statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 control statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 converting, case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 converting, dates to timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 converting, during subscripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 converting, numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 converting, numbers, to strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 converting, strings to numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 CONVFMT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 109 CONVFMT variable, array subscripts and . . . . . . . . 122 coprocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 167 coprocesses, closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 coprocesses, getline from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 cos function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 csh utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 csh utility, |& operator, comparison with . . . . . . 167 csh utility, backslash continuation and . . . . . . . . . 20 csh utility, POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 ctime user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 currency symbols, localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 custom.h le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 cut utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 cut.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

dark dark dark dark dark

D
d.c., See dark corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 dark corner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 62, 84, 85, 305 dark corner, array subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 dark corner, break statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 dark corner, close function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

corner, command-line arguments . . . . . . . . . . 77 corner, continue statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 corner, CONVFMT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 corner, escape sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 corner, escape sequences, for metacharacters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 dark corner, exit statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 dark corner, eld separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 dark corner, FILENAME variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 112 dark corner, FNR/NR variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 dark corner, format-control characters . . . . . . . . . 61 dark corner, FS as null string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 dark corner, input les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 dark corner, invoking awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 dark corner, multiline records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 dark corner, NF variable, decrementing . . . . . . . . . 42 dark corner, OFMT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 dark corner, regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 dark corner, regexp constants, /= operator and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 dark corner, regexp constants, as arguments to user-dened functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 dark corner, split function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 dark corner, strings, storing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 data, xed-width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 data-driven languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 database, group, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 database, users, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 date utility, GNU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 date utility, POSIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 dates, converting to timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 dates, information related to, localization . . . . . 159 Davies, Stephen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 278 dcgettext function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 159 dcgettext function (gawk), portability and . . . 162 dcngettext function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 159 dcngettext function (gawk), portability and . . 162 deadlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 debugging gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 debugging gawk, bug reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 decimal point character, locale specic . . . . . . . . 177 decrement operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 default keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Deik, Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 260, 278 delete statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 deleting elements in arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 deleting entire arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dierences between gawk and awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 dierences in awk and gawk, ARGC/ARGV variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 dierences in awk and gawk, ARGIND variable . . 111 dierences in awk and gawk, array elements, deleting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 dierences in awk and gawk, AWKPATH environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 dierences in awk and gawk, BEGIN/END patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Index 337

dierences in awk and gawk, BINMODE variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 271 dierences in awk and gawk, close function . . . . 71, 72 dierences in awk and gawk, ERRNO variable . . . . 112 dierences in awk and gawk, error messages . . . . . 68 dierences in awk and gawk, FIELDWIDTHS variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 dierences in awk and gawk, function arguments (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 dierences in awk and gawk, getline command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 dierences in awk and gawk, IGNORECASE variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 dierences in awk and gawk, implementation limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 67 dierences in awk and gawk, input/output operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 66 dierences in awk and gawk, line continuations . . 90 dierences in awk and gawk, LINT variable . . . . . 110 dierences in awk and gawk, match function . . . 132 dierences in awk and gawk, next/nextfile statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 dierences in awk and gawk, print/printf statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 dierences in awk and gawk, PROCINFO array . . . 113 dierences in awk and gawk, record separators . . 38 dierences in awk and gawk, regexp constants . . . 75 dierences in awk and gawk, regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 dierences in awk and gawk, RS/RT variables . . . . 38 dierences in awk and gawk, RT variable . . . . . . . 114 dierences in awk and gawk, single-character elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 dierences in awk and gawk, split function . . . 133 dierences in awk and gawk, strings . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 dierences in awk and gawk, strings, storing . . . . 39 dierences in awk and gawk, strtonum function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 dierences in awk and gawk, TEXTDOMAIN variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 dierences in awk and gawk, trunc-mod operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 directories, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 directories, searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180, 251 division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 do-while statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 102 documentation, of awk programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 documentation, online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 documents, searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 dollar sign ($) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 dollar sign ($), $ eld operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 92 dollar sign ($), incrementing elds and arrays . . 84 double quote (") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 15 double quote ("), regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 double-precision oating-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Drepper, Ulrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 dupnode internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

dupword.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

E
EBCDIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 egrep utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 216 egrep.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 elements in arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 elements in arrays, assigning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 elements in arrays, deleting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 elements in arrays, order of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 elements in arrays, scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 email address for bug reports, [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 EMISTERED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 empty pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 empty strings, See null strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 END pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 END pattern, assert user-dened function and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 END pattern, backslash continuation and . . . . . . 220 END pattern, Boolean patterns and . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 END pattern, exit statement and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 END pattern, next/nextfile statements and . . . 98, 106 END pattern, operators and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 END pattern, pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 END pattern, print statement and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 endfile user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 endgrent function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 endgrent user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 endpwent function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 endpwent user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 ENVIRON variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112, 287 environment variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 epoch, denition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 equals sign (=), = operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 equals sign (=), == operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 EREs (Extended Regular Expressions) . . . . . . . . . 29 ERRNO variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51, 112, 287 error handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 error handling, ERRNO variable and . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 error output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 escape processing, gsub/gensub/sub functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 escape sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 escape sequences, unrecognized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 evaluation order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 evaluation order, concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 evaluation order, functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 examining elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 exclamation point (!), ! operator . . . . . . 90, 93, 219 exclamation point (!), != operator . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 exclamation point (!), !~ operator . . 24, 32, 34, 74, 87, 88, 93, 95 exit statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 exp function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 expand utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

338

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 expressions, as patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 expressions, assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 expressions, Boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 expressions, comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 expressions, conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 expressions, matching, See comparison expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 expressions, selecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Extended Regular Expressions (EREs) . . . . . . . . . 29 extension function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 extensions, Bell Laboratories awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 extensions, in gawk, not in POSIX awk . . . . . . . . 256 extensions, mawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 extract.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 extraction, of marked strings (internationalization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

F
false, logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 FDL (Free Documentation License) . . . . . . . . . . . 324 features, adding to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 features, advanced, See advanced features . . . . . 181 features, deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 features, undocumented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Fenlason, Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 259 fflush function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 fflush function, unsupported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 eld numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 eld operator $ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 eld operators, dollar sign as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 eld separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 109, 110 eld separators, choice of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 eld separators, FIELDWIDTHS variable and . . . . 109 eld separators, in multiline records . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 eld separators, on command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 eld separators, POSIX and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 46 eld separators, regular expressions as . . . . . . 43, 44 eld separators, See Also OFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 eld separators, spaces as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 39, 298 elds, adding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 elds, changing contents of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 elds, cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 elds, examining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 elds, number of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 elds, numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 elds, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 elds, separating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 elds, single-character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 FIELDWIDTHS variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 109 le descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 le names, distinguishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 le names, in compatibility mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 le names, standard streams in gawk . . . . . . . . . . . 68 FILENAME variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 112 FILENAME variable, getline, setting with . . . . . . . 56

lenames, assignments as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 les, .mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 les, .mo, converting from .po . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 les, .mo, specifying directory of . . . . . . . . . 158, 159 les, .po . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 160 les, .po, converting to .mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 les, /dev/... special les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 les, /inet/ (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 les, /p (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 les, as single records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 les, awk programs in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 les, awkprof.out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 les, awkvars.out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 les, closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 les, descriptors, See le descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 les, for process information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 les, group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 les, information about, retrieving . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 les, initialization and cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 les, input, See input les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 les, log, timestamps in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 les, managing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 les, managing, data le boundaries . . . . . . . . . . 193 les, message object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 les, message object, converting from portable object les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 les, message object, specifying directory of . . 158, 159 les, multiple passes over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 les, multiple, duplicating output into . . . . . . . . 224 les, output, See output les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 les, password . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 les, portable object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 160 les, portable object, converting to message object les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 les, portable object, generating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 les, portal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 les, processing, ARGIND variable and . . . . . . . . . . 111 les, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 les, reading, multiline records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 les, searching for regular expressions . . . . . . . . . 216 les, skipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 les, source, search path for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 les, splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 les, Texinfo, extracting programs from . . . . . . . 240 Fish, Fred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 278 xed-width data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 ag variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 224 oating-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 oating-point, numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 oating-point, numbers, AWKNUM internal type . . 285 FNR variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 112 FNR variable, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 for statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 for statement, in arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 force_number internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 force_string internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Index 339

format speciers, mixing regular with positional speciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 format speciers, printf statement . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 format speciers, strftime function (gawk) . . . 145 format strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 formats, numeric output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 formatting output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 forward slash (/) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 forward slash (/), / operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 forward slash (/), /= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93 forward slash (/), /= operator, vs. /=.../ regexp constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 forward slash (/), patterns and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Free Documentation License (FDL) . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Free Software Foundation (FSF) . . . . . . . 7, 261, 307 free_temp internal macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 FreeBSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 FS variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 109 FS variable, --field-separator option and . . . 174 FS variable, as null string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 FS variable, as TAB character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 FS variable, changing value of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43, 181 FS variable, running awk programs and . . . . . . . . 212 FS variable, setting from command line . . . . . . . . 45 FSF (Free Software Foundation) . . . . . . . 7, 261, 307 function calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 functions, arrays as parameters to . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 functions, built-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91, 128 functions, built-in, adding to gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 functions, built-in, evaluation order . . . . . . . . . . . 128 functions, dening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 functions, library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 functions, library, assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 functions, library, associative arrays and . . . . . . 183 functions, library, C library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 functions, library, character values as numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 functions, library, Cli random numbers . . . . . . 189 functions, library, command-line options . . . . . . 197 functions, library, example program for using . . 245 functions, library, group database, reading . . . . 206 functions, library, managing data les . . . . . . . . . 193 functions, library, managing time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 functions, library, merging arrays into strings . . 191 functions, library, nextfile statement . . . . . . . . 184 functions, library, rounding numbers . . . . . . . . . . 188 functions, library, user database, reading . . . . . . 202 functions, names of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 151 functions, recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 functions, return values, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 functions, string-translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 functions, undened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 functions, user-dened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 functions, user-dened, calling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 functions, user-dened, counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 functions, user-dened, library of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 functions, user-dened, next/nextfile statements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 107

G
G-d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Garnkle, Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 gawk, awk and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 5 gawk, bitwise operations in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 gawk, break statement in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 gawk, built-in variables and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 gawk, character classes and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 gawk, coding style in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 gawk, command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 gawk, comparison operators and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 gawk, conguring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 gawk, conguring, options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 gawk, continue statement in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 gawk, debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 gawk, distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 gawk, escape sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 gawk, extensions, disabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 gawk, features, adding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 gawk, features, advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 gawk, fflush function in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 gawk, eld separators and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 gawk, FIELDWIDTHS variable in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 gawk, le names in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 gawk, format-control characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 gawk, function arguments and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 gawk, functions, adding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 gawk, hexadecimal numbers and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 gawk, IGNORECASE variable in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 gawk, implementation issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 gawk, implementation issues, debugging . . . . . . . 281 gawk, implementation issues, downward compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 gawk, implementation issues, limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 gawk, implementation issues, pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 gawk, installing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 gawk, internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 gawk, internationalization and, See internationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 gawk, interpreter, adding code to . . . . . . . . . 293, 296 gawk, interval expressions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 gawk, line continuation in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 gawk, LINT variable in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 gawk, list of contributors to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 gawk, MS-DOS version of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 gawk, newlines in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 gawk, next file statement in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 gawk, nextfile statement in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107, 184 gawk, octal numbers and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 gawk, OS/2 version of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 gawk, regexp constants and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 gawk, regular expressions, case sensitivity . . . . . . 32 gawk, regular expressions, operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 gawk, regular expressions, precedence . . . . . . . . . . 29 gawk, See Also awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 gawk, source code, obtaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 gawk, splitting elds and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 gawk, string-translation functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

340

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

gawk, timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 gawk, uses for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 gawk, versions of, information about, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 gawk, word-boundary operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 General Public License (GPL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 General Public License, See GPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 gensub function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 136 gensub function (gawk), escape processing . . . . . 138 get_actual_argument internal function . . . . . . . 286 get_argument internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 get_array_argument internal macro . . . . . . . . . . 287 get_curfunc_arg_count internal function . . . . . 285 get_record input method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 get_scalar_argument internal macro . . . . . . . . . 287 getgrent function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 209 getgrent user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 210 getgrgid function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 getgrgid user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 getgrnam function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 getgrnam user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 getgruser function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 getgruser function, user-dened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 getline command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 getline command, _gr_init user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 getline command, _pw_init function . . . . . . . . 204 getline command, coprocesses, using from . . . . 55, 70 getline command, deadlock and . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 getline command, explicit input with . . . . . . . . . 51 getline command, FILENAME variable and . . . . . 56 getline command, return values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 getline command, variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 getopt function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 getopt user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 getpwent function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 205 getpwent user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . 202, 205 getpwnam function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 getpwnam user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 getpwuid function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 getpwuid user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 getservbyname function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . 169 gettext function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 gettext library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 gettext library, locale categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 gettimeofday user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . 191 GNITS mailing list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 GNU awk, See gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 GNU General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . 308 GNU long options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 GNU long options, printing list of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 GNU Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 307 GNU/Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 164, 275, 311 GPL (General Public License) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 307 GPL (General Public License), printing . . . . . . . 175

grcat program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grigera, Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, group database, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . group le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . groups, information about . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gsub function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, gsub function, arguments of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gsub function, escape processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

206 278 206 206 206 136 135 138

H
Hankerson, Darrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 260, 278 Hartholz, Elaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Hartholz, Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Hasegawa, Isamu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 260 hexadecimal numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 hexadecimal values, enabling interpretation of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 histsort.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Hughes, Phil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 HUP signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 hyphen (-), - operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 hyphen (-), -- (decrement/increment) operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 hyphen (-), -- operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 hyphen (-), -= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93 hyphen (-), lenames beginning with . . . . . . . . . 175 hyphen (-), in character lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

I
id utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 id.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 if statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 100 if statement, actions, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 igawk.sh program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 IGNORECASE variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 109 IGNORECASE variable, array sorting and . . . . . . . . 127 IGNORECASE variable, array subscripts and . . . . . 118 IGNORECASE variable, in example programs . . . . 182 implementation issues, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 implementation issues, gawk, limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 implementation issues, gawk, debugging . . . . . . . 281 implementation issues, gawk, limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 in operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93, 221 in operator, arrays and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118, 120 increment operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 index function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 indexing arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 initialization, automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 input les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 input les, closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 input les, counting elements in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 input les, examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 input les, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 input les, running awk without . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 input les, skipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 input les, variable assignments and . . . . . . . . . . 179

Index 341

input pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 input redirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 input, data, nondecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 input, explicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 input, les, See input les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 input, multiline records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 input, splitting into records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 input, standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 68 input/output, binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 input/output, from BEGIN and END . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 input/output, two-way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 insomnia, cure for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 installation, amiga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 installation, atari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 installation, beos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 installation, tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 installation, vms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 installing gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 int function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 INT signal (MS-DOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 integers, unsigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 interacting with other programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 internationalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150, 157 internationalization, localization . . . . . . . . . 111, 157 internationalization, localization, character classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 internationalization, localization, gawk and . . . . 157 internationalization, localization, locale categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 internationalization, localization, marked strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 internationalization, localization, portability and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 internationalizing a program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 interpreted programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297, 308 interval expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 inventory-shipped le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 IOBUF internal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 iop_alloc internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 ISO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 ISO 8859-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 ISO Latin-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

kill command, dynamic proling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Knights, jedi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Kwok, Conrad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

L
labels.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 languages, data-driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 LC_ALL locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 LC_COLLATE locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 LC_CTYPE locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 LC_MESSAGES locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 LC_MESSAGES locale category, bindtextdomain function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 LC_MONETARY locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 LC_NUMERIC locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 LC_RESPONSE locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 LC_TIME locale category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 left angle bracket (<), < operator . . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 left angle bracket (<), < operator (I/O) . . . . . . . . . 53 left angle bracket (<), <= operator . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 left shift, bitwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 leftmost longest match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 length function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Lesser General Public License (LGPL) . . . . . . . . 308 LGPL (Lesser General Public License) . . . . . . . . 308 libraries of awk functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 libraries of awk functions, assertions . . . . . . . . . . . 186 libraries of awk functions, associative arrays and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 libraries of awk functions, character values as numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 libraries of awk functions, command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 libraries of awk functions, example program for using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 libraries of awk functions, group database, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 libraries of awk functions, managing, data les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 libraries of awk functions, managing, time . . . . . 191 libraries of awk functions, merging arrays into strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 libraries of awk functions, nextfile statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 libraries of awk functions, rounding numbers . . 188 libraries of awk functions, user database, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 line breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 line continuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 line continuations, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 line continuations, in print statement . . . . . . . . . 58 line continuations, with C shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 lines, blank, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 lines, counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 lines, duplicate, removing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 lines, matching ranges of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 lines, skipping between markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

J
Jacobs, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jaegermann, Michal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, Java implementation of awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jedi knights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . join user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 260 280 280 181 191

K
Kahrs, J urgen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 260 Kenobi, Obi-Wan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Kernighan, Brian . . . 4, 7, 9, 80, 255, 259, 278, 299

342

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

lint lint lint lint lint lint

checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 checking, array elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 checking, array subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 checking, empty programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 checking, issuing warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 checking, POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 lint checking, undened functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 LINT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 164, 275, 311 locale categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 locale decimal point character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 locale, denition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 localization, See internationalization, localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 log les, timestamps in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 log function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 logical false/true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 logical operators, See Boolean expressions . . . . . . 89 login information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 long options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 loops, continue statements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 loops, count for header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 loops, exiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 loops, See Also while statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Lost In Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 ls utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 lshift function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 lvalues/rvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

message object les, specifying directory of . . . 158, 159 metacharacters, escape sequences for . . . . . . . . . . . 27 mktime function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 modiers, in format speciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 monetary information, localization . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 msgfmt utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

N
names, arrays/variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 182 names, functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151, 182 namespace issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117, 182 namespace issues, functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 nawk utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 negative zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 NetBSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 networks, programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 networks, support for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 newlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 90, 177 newlines, as eld separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 newlines, as record separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 newlines, in dynamic regexps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 newlines, in regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 newlines, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 newlines, separating statements in actions . . . . . 99, 100 next file statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 next file statement, deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 next file statement, in gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 next statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 106 next statement, BEGIN/END patterns and . . . . . . . 98 next statement, user-dened functions and . . . . 106 nextfile statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 nextfile statement, BEGIN/END patterns and . . 98 nextfile statement, implementing . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 nextfile statement, in gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 nextfile statement, next file statement and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 nextfile statement, user-dened functions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 nextfile user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 NF variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 112 NF variable, decrementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 noassign.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 NODE internal type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 nodes, duplicating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 not Boolean-logic operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 NR variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 113 NR variable, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 null strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37, 44, 85, 299 null strings, array elements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 null strings, as array subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 null strings, converting numbers to strings . . . . . 77 null strings, matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 null strings, quoting and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 number sign (#), #! (executable scripts) . . . . . . . . 13

M
mailing labels, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 mailing list, GNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 make_builtin internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 make_number internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 make_string internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 mark parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 marked string extraction (internationalization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 marked strings, extracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Marx, Groucho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 match function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 match function, RSTART/RLENGTH variables . . . . . 132 matching, expressions, See comparison expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 matching, leftmost longest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 matching, null strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 mawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 McPhee, Patrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 memory, releasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 memory, setting limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 message object les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 message object les, converting from portable object les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Index 343

number sign (#), #! (executable scripts), portability issues with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 number sign (#), commenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 numbers, as array subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 numbers, as values of characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 numbers, Cli random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 numbers, converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 numbers, converting, to strings . . . . . . 109, 110, 149 numbers, oating-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 numbers, oating-point, AWKNUM internal type . . 285 numbers, hexadecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 numbers, NODE internal type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 numbers, octal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 numbers, random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 numbers, rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 numeric, constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 numeric, output format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 numeric, strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 numeric, values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

O
oawk utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 obsolete features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 octal numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 octal values, enabling interpretation of . . . . . . . . 177 OFMT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 78, 110 OFMT variable, POSIX awk and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 OFS variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 59, 110 OpenBSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 OpenSolaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 operating systems, BSD-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 170 operating systems, PC, gawk on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 operating systems, PC, gawk on, installing . . . . 268 operating systems, porting gawk to . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 operating systems, See Also GNU/Linux, PC operating systems, Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 operations, bitwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 operators, arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 operators, assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 82 operators, assignment, evaluation order . . . . . . . . 83 operators, Boolean, See Boolean expressions . . . . 89 operators, decrement/increment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 operators, GNU-specic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 operators, input/output . . . . . 53, 54, 55, 65, 66, 93 operators, logical, See Boolean expressions . . . . . 89 operators, precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 92 operators, relational, See operators, comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 operators, short-circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 operators, string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 operators, string-matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 operators, string-matching, for buers . . . . . . . . . . 31 operators, word-boundary (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 options, command-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 45, 174 options, command-line, end of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 options, command-line, invoking awk . . . . . . . . . . 174

options, command-line, processing . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 options, deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 options, long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 options, printing list of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 OR bitwise operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 or Boolean-logic operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 or function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 ord user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 order of evaluation, concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 ORS variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 110 output eld separator, See OFS variable . . . . . . . . 41 output record separator, See ORS variable . . . . . . 59 output redirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 output, buering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141, 143 output, duplicating into les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 output, les, closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 output, format specier, OFMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 output, formatted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 output, pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 output, printing, See printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 output, records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 output, standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

P
P1003.2 POSIX standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 param_cnt internal variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 parameters, number of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 parentheses () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 parentheses (), pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 password le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 patterns, comparison expressions as . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 patterns, counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 patterns, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 patterns, empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 patterns, expressions as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 patterns, ranges in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 patterns, regexp constants as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 patterns, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 pawk proling Bell Labs awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 PC operating systems, gawk on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 PC operating systems, gawk on, installing . . . . . 268 percent sign (%), % operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 percent sign (%), %= operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83, 93 period (.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 PERL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Peters, Arno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Peterson, Hal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 pgawk program, awkprof.out le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 pgawk program, dynamic proling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 pipes, closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 pipes, input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 pipes, output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 plus sign (+) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 plus sign (+), + operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 plus sign (+), ++ operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 92

344

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plus sign (+), += operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 93 plus sign (+), decrement/increment operators . . . 84 portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 portability, #! (executable scripts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 portability, ** operator and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 portability, **= operator and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 portability, ARGV variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 portability, backslash continuation and . . . . . . . . . 21 portability, backslash in escape sequences . . . . . . 26 portability, close function and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 portability, data les as single record . . . . . . . . . . . 39 portability, deleting array elements . . . . . . . . . . . 122 portability, example programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 portability, fflush function and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 portability, functions, dening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 portability, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 portability, gettext library and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 portability, internationalization and . . . . . . . . . . . 162 portability, length function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 portability, new awk vs. old awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 portability, next statement in user-dened functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 portability, NF variable, decrementing . . . . . . . . . . 42 portability, operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 portability, operators, not in POSIX awk . . . . . . . 93 portability, POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 portability, substr function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 portable object les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 160 portable object les, converting to message object les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 portable object les, generating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 portal les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 porting gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 positional speciers, printf statement . . . . . . . . . 62 positional speciers, printf statement . . . . . . . . 161 positional speciers, printf statement, mixing with regular formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 positive zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 POSIX awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 83 POSIX awk, **= operator and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 POSIX awk, < operator and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 POSIX awk, | I/O operator and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 POSIX awk, arithmetic operators and . . . . . . . . . . 79 POSIX awk, backslashes in string constants . . . . 26 POSIX awk, BEGIN/END patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 POSIX awk, break statement and . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 POSIX awk, changes in awk versions . . . . . . . . . . 254 POSIX awk, character lists and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 POSIX awk, character lists and, character classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 31 POSIX awk, continue statement and . . . . . . . . . 106 POSIX awk, CONVFMT variable and . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 POSIX awk, date utility and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 POSIX awk, eld separators and . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 46 POSIX awk, FS variable and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 POSIX awk, function keyword in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 POSIX awk, functions and, gsub/sub . . . . . . . . . 138

POSIX awk, functions and, length . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 POSIX awk, GNU long options and . . . . . . . . . . . 174 POSIX awk, interval expressions in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 POSIX awk, next/nextfile statements and . . . 106 POSIX awk, numeric strings and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 POSIX awk, OFMT variable and . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 78 POSIX awk, period (.), using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 POSIX awk, printf format strings and . . . . . . . . . 64 POSIX awk, regular expressions and . . . . . . . . . . . 29 POSIX awk, timestamps and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 POSIX mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177, 179 POSIX, awk and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 POSIX, gawk extensions not included in . . . . . . 256 POSIX, programs, implementing in awk . . . . . . . 211 POSIXLY_CORRECT environment variable . . . . . . . 179 precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 92 precedence, regexp operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 print statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 print statement, BEGIN/END patterns and . . . . . . 98 print statement, commas, omitting . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 print statement, I/O operators in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 print statement, line continuations and . . . . . . . . 58 print statement, OFMT variable and . . . . . . . . . . . 110 print statement, See Also redirection, of output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 print statement, sprintf function and . . . . . . . 188 printf statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 60 printf statement, columns, aligning . . . . . . . . . . . 58 printf statement, format-control characters . . . 60 printf statement, I/O operators in . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 printf statement, modiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 printf statement, positional speciers . . . . 62, 161 printf statement, positional speciers, mixing with regular formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 printf statement, See Also redirection, of output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 printf statement, sprintf function and . . . . . . 188 printf statement, syntax of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 printing, list of options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 printing, mailing labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 printing, unduplicated lines of text . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 printing, user information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 private variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 process information, les for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 processes, two-way communications with . . . . . . 167 processing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 PROCINFO array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 113, 202, 206 PROCINFO variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 proling awk programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 proling awk programs, dynamically . . . . . . . . . . 173 proling gawk, See pgawk program . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 program, denition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 programmers, attractiveness of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 programming conventions, --non-decimal-data option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 programming conventions, ARGC/ARGV variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Index 345

programming conventions, exit statement . . . . 108 programming conventions, function parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 programming conventions, functions, calling . . . 128 programming conventions, functions, writing . . 151 programming conventions, gawk internals . . . . . 291, 293 programming conventions, nextfile statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 programming conventions, private variable names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 programming language, recipe for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 programming languages, data-driven vs. procedural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 programming, basic steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 programming, concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 pwcat program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Q
question mark (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 31 question mark (?), ?: operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 QUIT signal (MS-DOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 quoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 13, 14 quoting, rules for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 quoting, tricks for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

R
Rakitzis, Byron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 rand function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 random numbers, Cli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 random numbers, rand/srand functions . . . . . . . 129 random numbers, seed of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 range expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 range patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Rankin, Pat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 83, 259, 278 raw sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 readable data les, checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 readable.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 recipe for a programming language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 record separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 110 record separators, changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 record separators, regular expressions as . . . . . . . 38 record separators, with multiline records . . . . . . . 49 records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 298 records, multiline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 records, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 records, splitting input into . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 records, terminating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 records, treating les as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 recursive functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 redirection of input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 redirection of output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 reference counting, sorting arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 74, 88 regexp constants, /=.../, /= operator and . . . . . 84 regexp constants, as patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

regexp constants, in gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 regexp constants, slashes vs. quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 regexp constants, vs. string constants . . . . . . . . . . 34 regexp, See regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 register_deferred_variable internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 register_open_hook internal function . . . . . . . . 287 regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 regular expressions as eld separators . . . . . . . . . . 43 regular expressions, anchors in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 regular expressions, as eld separators . . . . . . . . . 44 regular expressions, as patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 94 regular expressions, as record separators . . . . . . . 38 regular expressions, case sensitivity . . . . . . . . 32, 109 regular expressions, computed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 regular expressions, constants, See regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 regular expressions, dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 regular expressions, dynamic, with embedded newlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 regular expressions, gawk, command-line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 regular expressions, interval expressions and . . 178 regular expressions, leftmost longest match . . . . . 33 regular expressions, operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 27 regular expressions, operators, for buers . . . . . . 31 regular expressions, operators, for words . . . . . . . 31 regular expressions, operators, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 regular expressions, operators, precedence of . . . 29 regular expressions, searching for . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 relational operators, See comparison operators . . 85 return statement, user-dened functions . . . . . . 155 return values, close function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 rev user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 rewind user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 right angle bracket (>), > operator . . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 right angle bracket (>), > operator (I/O) . . . . . . . 65 right angle bracket (>), >= operator . . . . . . . . . 87, 93 right angle bracket (>), >> operator (I/O) . . 66, 93 right shift, bitwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Ritchie, Dennis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 RLENGTH variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 RLENGTH variable, match function and . . . . . . . . . 132 Robbins, Arnold . . . 46, 54, 203, 232, 260, 277, 294 Robbins, Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Robbins, Harry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Robbins, Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Robbins, Miriam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 54, 203 Robinson, Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 robot, the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Rommel, Kai Uwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 259 round user-dened function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 rounding numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 RS variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 110 RS variable, multiline records and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 rshift function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 RSTART variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

346

GAWK: Eective AWK Programming

RSTART variable, match function and . . . . . . . . . . 132 RT variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 51, 114 Rubin, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 259 rule, denition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 rvalues/lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

S
scalar values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Schreiber, Bert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Schreiber, Rita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 search paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 274 search paths, for source les . . . . . . . . . 180, 251, 274 searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 searching, les for regular expressions . . . . . . . . . 216 searching, for words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 sed utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 244, 303 semicolon (;) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 semicolon (;), AWKPATH variable and . . . . . . . . . . . 271 semicolon (;), separating statements in actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 100 separators, eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 110 separators, eld, FIELDWIDTHS variable and . . . . 109 separators, eld, POSIX and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 separators, for records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 37 separators, for records, regular expressions as . . 38 separators, for statements in actions . . . . . . . . . . . 99 separators, record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 separators, subscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 set_value internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 shells, piping commands into . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 shells, quoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 shells, quoting, rules for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 shells, scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 shells, variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 shift, bitwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 short-circuit operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 side eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 84, 85 side eects, array indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 side eects, asort function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 side eects, assignment expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 side eects, Boolean operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 side eects, conditional expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 side eects, decrement/increment operators . . . . 84 side eects, FILENAME variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 side eects, function calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 side eects, statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 signals, HUP/SIGHUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 signals, INT/SIGINT (MS-DOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 signals, QUIT/SIGQUIT (MS-DOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 signals, USR1/SIGUSR1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 sin function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 single quote () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 13, 15 single quote (), vs. apostrophe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 single quote (), with double quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 single-character elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 single-precision oating-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Skywalker, Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

sleep utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Solaris, POSIX compliant awk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 sort function, arrays, sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 sort utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 sort utility, coprocesses and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 sorting characters in dierent languages . . . . . . . 158 source code, awka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 source code, Bell Laboratories awk . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 source code, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 source code, mawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 source code, mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 source les, search path for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 sparse arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Spencer, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 split function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 split function, array elements, deleting . . . . . . . 122 split utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 split.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 sprintf function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 134 sprintf function, OFMT variable and . . . . . . . . . . 110 sprintf function, print/printf statements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 sqrt function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 square brackets ([]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 srand function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Stallman, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 9, 259, 307 standard input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 68 standard output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 stat function, implementing in gawk . . . . . . . . . . 289 statements, compound, control statements and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 statements, control, in actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 statements, multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 stlen internal variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 stptr internal variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 stream editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 244 strftime function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 string constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 string constants, vs. regexp constants . . . . . . . . . . 34 string extraction (internationalization) . . . . . . . . 161 string operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 string-matching operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 strings, converting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 strings, converting, numbers to . . . . . . 109, 110, 149 strings, empty, See null strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 strings, extracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 strings, for localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 strings, length of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 strings, merging arrays into . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 strings, NODE internal type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 strings, null . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 strings, numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 strings, splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 strtonum function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 strtonum function (gawk), --non-decimal-data option and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Index 347

sub function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75, 134 sub function, arguments of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 sub function, escape processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 subscript separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 subscripts in arrays, multidimensional . . . . . . . . . 123 subscripts in arrays, multidimensional, scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 subscripts in arrays, numbers as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 subscripts in arrays, uninitialized variables as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 SUBSEP variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 SUBSEP variable, multidimensional arrays . . . . . . 123 substr function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Sumner, Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 switch statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 syntactic ambiguity: /= operator vs. /=.../ regexp constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 system function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 systime function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

T
tandem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Tcl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 TCP/IP, support for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 tee utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 tee.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 terminating records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 testbits.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Texinfo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 182, 231, 241, 263, 282 Texinfo, chapter beginnings in les . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Texinfo, extracting programs from source les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 text, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 text, printing, unduplicated lines of . . . . . . . . . . . 225 textdomain function (C library) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 TEXTDOMAIN variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 159 TEXTDOMAIN variable, BEGIN pattern and . . . . . . 160 TEXTDOMAIN variable, portability and . . . . . . . . . . 162 tilde (~), ~ operator . . 24, 32, 34, 74, 87, 88, 93, 95 time, alarm clock example program . . . . . . . . . . . 232 time, localization and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 time, managing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 time, retrieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143, 144 timestamps, converting dates to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 timestamps, formatted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 tmp_number internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 tmp_string internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 tolower function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 toupper function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 tr utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 translate.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 troubleshooting, --non-decimal-data option . . 177 troubleshooting, -F option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 troubleshooting, == operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 troubleshooting, awk uses FS not IFS . . . . . . . . . . . 43

troubleshooting, backslash before nonspecial character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 troubleshooting, division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 troubleshooting, fatal errors, eld widths, specifying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 troubleshooting, fatal errors, printf format strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 troubleshooting, fflush function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 troubleshooting, function call syntax . . . . . . . . . . . 91 troubleshooting, gawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 281 troubleshooting, gawk, bug reports . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 troubleshooting, gawk, fatal errors, function arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 troubleshooting, getline function . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 troubleshooting, gsub/sub functions . . . . . . . . . . 136 troubleshooting, match function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 troubleshooting, print statement, omitting commas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 troubleshooting, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 troubleshooting, quotes with le names . . . . . . . . 69 troubleshooting, readable data les . . . . . . . . . . . 195 troubleshooting, regexp constants vs. string constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 troubleshooting, string concatenation . . . . . . . . . . 80 troubleshooting, substr function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 troubleshooting, system function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 troubleshooting, typographical errors, global variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 true, logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Trueman, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 9, 259 trunc-mod operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 truth values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 type conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 type internal variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

U
undened functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 underscore (_), _ C macro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 underscore (_), in names of private variables . . 183 underscore (_), translatable string . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 undocumented features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 uninitialized variables, as array subscripts . . . . . 123 uniq utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 uniq.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Unix awk, backslashes in escape sequences . . . . . . 26 Unix awk, close function and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Unix awk, password les, eld separators and . . . 46 Unix, awk scripts and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 unsigned integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 update_ERRNO internal function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 update_ERRNO_saved internal function . . . . . . . . 287 user database, reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 user-dened, functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 user-dened, functions, counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 user-dened, variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 user-modiable variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

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users, information about, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 users, information about, retrieving . . . . . . . . . . . 202 USR1 signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

W
w utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Wall, Larry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 warnings, issuing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 wc utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 wc.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Weinberger, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 259 while statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 101 whitespace, as eld separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 whitespace, functions, calling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 whitespace, newlines as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Williams, Kent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Woods, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 word boundaries, matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 word, regexp denition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 word-boundary operator (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 wordfreq.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 words, counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 words, duplicate, searching for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 words, usage counts, generating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

V
values, numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 values, string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 variable typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 298 variables, assigning on command line . . . . . . . . . . . 76 variables, built-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 108 variables, built-in, -v option, setting with . . . . . 175 variables, built-in, conveying information . . . . . . 111 variables, ag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 variables, getline command into, using . . . 52, 53, 55, 56 variables, global, for library functions . . . . . . . . . 182 variables, global, printing list of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 variables, initializing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 variables, names of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 variables, private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 variables, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 variables, shadowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 variables, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 variables, types of, comparison expressions and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 variables, uninitialized, as array subscripts . . . . 123 variables, user-dened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 vertical bar (|) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 vertical bar (|), | operator (I/O) . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 93 vertical bar (|), |& I/O operator (I/O) . . . . . . . . 167 vertical bar (|), |& operator (I/O) . . . . . . . . . . 55, 93 vertical bar (|), |& operator (I/O), two-way communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 vertical bar (|), || operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 93 vname internal variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

X
xgettext utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XOR bitwise operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xor function (gawk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 287 148 148

Z
Zaretskii, Eli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 zero, negative vs. positive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 zerofile.awk program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Zoulas, Christos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260