DOMINICAN MEDICINAL PLANTS: A GUIDE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS

Second EditionWeb Text Version (without illustrations)

Compiled and Edited By Jolene E. Yukes and Michael J. Balick, PhD
Advisory Board and Collaborators
Milagros Batista, MSW Hetty Cunningham, MD Linda Cushman, PhD Johanny Garca, MD Sezelle Haddon, MD Benjamin Kligler, MD, MPH Fredi Kronenberg, PhD Rafael Lantigua, MD Elizabeth Lee-Rey, MD, MPH Mary McCord, MD Dodi Meyer, MD Lewis Nelson, MD Hal Strelnick, MD Ina Vandebroek, PhD

Institutional Collaborators
The New York Botanical Garden, Institute of Economic Botany Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University Family Medicine and Hispanic Center of Excellence Alianza Dominicana Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons and Mailman School of Public Health, Center for Population and Family Health Columbia University Medical Center, Community Pediatrics, Morgan Stanley Childrens Hospital of New York-Presbyterian Columbia University, Associates in Internal Medicine Clinic and Charles B. Rangel Community Health Center New York University School of Medicine, Emergency Medicine New York Poison Control Center

With generous support from The Jacob and Valeria Langeloth Foundation, The United Hospital Fund and The New York Community Trust.
2010 The New York Botanical Garden

IMPORTANT NOTICE:
This book is a work of reference and is not intended to medically prescribe or promote any product or substance, nor is it intended to replace medical care. Readers should consult with a qualified physician or health care provider before administering or undertaking any course of medical treatment. No endorsement of any product or substance is implied by its inclusion in this book. Even plants that are commonly consumed as food and reported to be generally recognized as safe may have adverse effects, including drug interactions and allergic reactions in some individuals. The authors, editors and publisher disclaim all warranties, expressed and implied, to the extent permitted by law, that the contents are in every respect accurate and complete, and they are not responsible for errors, omissions or any consequences from the application of this books contents.

Este libro est dedicado a la comunidad Dominicana de la Ciudad de Nueva York, y especialmente a las/los especialistas en plantas medicinales, dueas/dueos y trabajadores de botnicas, curanderas/curanderos, espiritistas, santeras/santeros y otra gente que ha dado su sabidura y tiempo con tanta generosidad para hacer posible esta publicacin. This book is dedicated to the Dominican community of New York City and especially to the herbalists, healers, botnica proprietors and staff, espiritistas, santeras/santeros and others who have so generously given of their time and knowledge to make this publication possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have contributed their time, support and expertise to the compilation and preparation of this reference manual. First we would like to express our profound gratitude to the Dominican community in New York City, particularly to those individuals who have shared with us their knowledge of herbal medicine and healing traditions from the Dominican Republic. Although they will remain anonymous for purposes of confidentiality, this publication would not have been possible without their collaboration. We extend our deep appreciation to the Jacob and Valeria Langeloth Foundation for generously supporting not only the preparation and publication of this manual, but also for the integration of this guidebook into cultural competency training programs for health care providers in New York City. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge The United Hospital Fund and The New York Community Trust for their most generous support of the compilation of the first edition of this manual and the pilot-testing of a preliminary version of this publication. Researching, preparing and editing this volume has been a collaborative endeavor from the beginning, involving partnerships with the following organizations and institutions: The New York Botanical Garden, Institute of Economic Botany; Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, Family Medicine and Hispanic Center of Excellence; Alianza Dominicana; Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Associates in Internal Medicine Clinic and Mailman School of Public Health, Center for Population and Family Health; Columbia University Medical Center, Community Pediatrics; New York-Presbyterian Hospital, Charles B. Rangel Community Health Center and Morgan Stanley Childrens Hospital; New York University School of Medicine, Emergency Medicine; and the New York Poison Control Center. We extend our sincere appreciation to the many wonderful research assistants, interns and volunteers whose efforts have contributed to the making of this book: Yadira Arias, Levenia Durn, Jessica Fried, Saralinda Lugo Hart, Athalia Caro Keffield, Saneddy Quezada and Sam Stein. In particular, we wish to thank Frans Beltran, Dr. Algernon Churchill, Jillian De Gezelle and Rachel Corey-Pacheco who helped considerably with data analysis and MEDLINE literature research. The following design professionals contributed their talent, creativity and skills to the graphics and layout of this publication: Marilan Lund, Ben Munson and Doris Straus. Several clinicians and other medical experts have pilot-tested or reviewed portions of the contents of this manuscript and offered helpful feedback and suggestions. We wish to recognize and thank them for their insightful contributions: Matthew Anderson, MD; Mark Blumenthal; Hetty Cunningham, MD; Norm Farnsworth, PhD; Deborah Finkelstein, MD; Robin Flam, MD; Anna Flattau, MD; Johanny Garcia, MD; Melanie Gissen, MD; Sezelle Haddon, MD; Emily Jackson, MD; Pablo Joo, MD; Elaine Fleck, MD; Edward Kennelly, PhD; Nicole Kirchen, MD; Ben Kligler, MD; Kathleen Klink, MD; Fredi Kronenberg, PhD; Rafael Lantigua, MD; Roberta Lee, MD; Mary McCord, MD; Gretchen Mockler, MD; Melanie Rausche, MD; Pran Saha, MD; Lionel Robineau, MD; Vincent Silenzio, MD; Ellen Tattelman, MD; and Robert Wolkow, MD. Numerous individuals have granted us permission to use their photographs, illustrations or digitized images of plants for this publication, and we appreciate their willingness to share their artistic work so that this volume could be fully illustrated: Irina Adam, Francesca Anderson, Michael J. Balick, PhD, Bruce Hoffman, PhD, Edward Kennelly, PhD, Andreana Ososki, PhD, Ina Vandebroek, PhD, Keith Weller and Jolene Yukes. For more information on photographers and their photographs, please see: Appendix C: Photo Credits. The ethnobotanical information in this book is the culmination of more than ten years of ethnomedical research in the New York City area. As such, we wish to acknowledge the efforts of collaborators and co-investigators from the Urban Ethnobotany Project, a previous ethnomedical research initiative which paved the way for the present endeavor: Fredi Kronenberg, Marian Reiff, Andreana Ososki, Kimberly Johnson, Patricia Lohr, Maria Roble, Bonnie OConnor, Adriane Fugh-Berman and

Gilda Prez. We thank the Rosenthal Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine Research at Columbia University for their long-standing partnership and collaboration over many years. Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the Educational Foundation of America for their support for the ethnobotanical and medical anthropology research on Dominican traditional medicine in New York City upon which this book was initially developed. Additional information on Dominican medicinal plants and their uses has been added to this revised edition of the guidebook based on the preliminary results of the Dominican Ethnomedicine in New York City project funded by an R21 grant from the National Institutes of Health, National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Principal Investigator: Michael J. Balick, PhD; Grant # R21-AT001889). We sincerely thank Dr. Ina Vandebroek, the director of that project, who has generously shared this information with us to enhance the scope and relevance of the ethnomedicial data in this publication. She wishes to extend her gratitude to the following research assistants, interns and volunteers who assisted her with this project: Yadira Arias, Frans Beltran, Tomas Diaz, Levenia Durn, Ashley Duval, Daniel Kulakowski, Greta Meyers, Saneddy Quezada, Claudia Remes, Kate Sokol, Samuel Stein and Margaret Terrero. At The New York Botanical Garden, Michael J. Balick is a MetLife Fellow, and we gratefully acknowledge the following foundations which have supported his work on this project: The MetLife Foundation, Edward P. Bass and the Philecology Trust, the Prospect Hill Foundation and the Freed Foundation. Finally, as the primary authors of this guidebook, we express our heartfelt gratitude and sincere appreciation to our family and friends for their support and encouragement throughout the process of writing and editing this publication. Jolene Yukes gives special thanks to Anthony Louis Piscitella for his patience, support and joyful companionship throughout the compilation of this manuscript.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1 Introduction and How to Use this Book Part 2 Quick Guide to Dominican Home Remedies Part 3 Medicinal Plant Monographs

APPENDICES
A. Key to Abbreviations and Symbols B. Glossary of Botanical Terms

PART 1 INTRODUCTION AND HOW TO USE THIS BOOK:

BACKGROUND, METHODS AND EXPLANATION OF LAYOUT INTRODUCTION
During ethnomedical interviews while conducting fieldwork for this publication, practitioners of traditional medicine from the Dominican Republic repeatedly responded with the same popular expression when asked about medicinal plants: Hay plantas que curan y plantas que matan (There are plants that heal and plants that kill). This wise saying encapsulates one of the primary goals of this book. Knowing the difference between potentially harmful substances and beneficial therapies is of crucial importance for anyone, especially health care providers and individuals who self-medicate with herbal remedies. However, sometimes the difference between potentially toxic vs. safe therapies is not as clear-cut as it might seem at first glance. As physicians have known since the time of Paracelsus, the difference between poison and medicine is in the dose. Even foods or pharmaceutical drugs that are generally regarded as safe can be toxic or cause adverse effects depending on the context of their use. Herb-drug interactions are another important concern as research has shown that many popular botanical therapies may negatively affect drug metabolism. Reliable information on the safety, contraindications and potential drug interactions of complementary and alternative therapies is needed now more than ever before. Although abundant research data is available for mainstream dietary supplements and herbs, very little attention has been given to the botanical therapies and traditional remedies used by immigrant communities and minority ethnic groups here in the United States, particularly among low-income and underserved populations. In an era of globalization characterized by increasing urbanization and transnational migration, health care providers frequently encounter patients from diverse backgrounds. Clinicians may not speak the same language as their patients or be familiar with their health-related cultural beliefs and practices, some of which may affect adherence to treatment protocols and health outcomes. With widespread use of complementary and alternative therapies, including traditional herbal remedies, how can clinicians determine the safety of the non-pharmaceutical therapies that their patients may be using, especially if they are unfamiliar or referred to by regional vernacular or unknown names? The primary aim of this book is to address these questions with respect to immigrants from the Dominican Republic in New York City by providing information on traditional Dominican uses of medicinal plants and a review of the available scientific literature on their safety and efficacy. The present volume, Dominican Medicinal Plants: A Guide for Health Care Providers, is intended as a reference manual for clinicians to support culturally effective health care and greater understanding of the traditional medical practices of immigrants from the Dominican Republic in New York City. By providing information about complementary and alternative therapies, including traditional herbal remedies, among Latino/Caribbean immigrants in the United States, this book can be used to help facilitate informed dialogue and enhance disclosure regarding patients use of medicinal plants. As an informational and educational tool, this book can support patient-provider communication and enhance cross-cultural understanding in a clinical setting. In addition to information about the plants themselves, this guidebook also provides explanations of key ethnomedical concepts and customs related to the use of herbal medicine to clarify the cultural context of Dominican ethnomedical traditions. Ultimately, the main goal of this guidebook is to enhance the quality of patient care for Dominicans in New York City by supporting informed patient-provider communication and raising awareness about the use of home remedies and their relevance to health care. We sincerely hope that this book can serve as a model for other educational initiatives to enhance the quality of health care for

underserved, minority or immigrant populations with strong traditions of herbal medicine through relevant cultural competency training and curricular materials. The ethnobotanical information in this book is based on ongoing ethnographic fieldwork conducted in New York City with immigrants from the Dominican Republic between 1995-2009. Although there are notable cross-cultural similarities between traditional medical practices among Spanish-speaking populations from different Latin American countries, the reader is advised that common names and ethnomedical uses of medicinal plants may vary considerably between different Latino/Hispanic cultural groups or even within a particular community. Therefore, the Dominican ethnomedical information included in this book may not reflect the herbal medicine practices of other Latin American or Caribbean populations. Please keep this regional and cultural specify in mind when reading this book.

BACKGROUND
Beginning in 1985, researchers from The New York Botanical Gardens Institute of Economic Botany, in collaboration with scientists and medical doctors from The Richard and Hinda Rosenthal Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine at Columbia Universitys College of Physicians and Surgeons have worked with traditional healers from diverse immigrant communities in New York City to document their use of medicinal plants. In 1995, this research team chose to focus on Dominican healing traditions as practiced in an urban, cosmopolitan setting and conducted ethnobotanical research with specialists in Dominican herbal medicine from predominantly Latin-American and Caribbean immigrant neighborhoods in the Bronx and Northern Manhattan. Since that time, researchers have documented detailed information on the ethnobotany and ethnomedicine of commonly used medicinal plants, particularly within the context of womens health and general concepts of disease etiology (see Balick et al. 2000, Ososki et al. 2002, Reiff et al. 2003, Yukes et al. 2003). In 2005 ethnobotanists from The New York Botanical Garden (NYBG), in collaboration with institutions in the United States and the Caribbean, initiated a comparative survey entitled: Dominican Ethnomedicine in New York City and the Dominican Republic: Medicinal Plants for Common Health Conditions. The purpose of this survey was to study the use of medicinal plants by Dominicans in New York City and the Dominican Republic, investigating both generalist knowledge (i.e. of laypersons who self-medicate with home remedies) and specialist knowledge (i.e. of healers and practitioners of Dominican traditional medicine). This project, supported by an R21 grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM; grant number R21-AT001889, Principal Investigator: Michael J. Balick, PhD), included questions about herbs used for a wide range of common health conditions (Vandebroek et al. 2007). As a result of the past decade of research on Dominican urban ethnomedical practices, the authors embarked on the present applied research project to facilitate the dissemination of information on Dominican medicinal plants to health care providers who work with Dominican patients. Throughout the preparation of this publication, the authors have collaborated with an Advisory Board consisting of physicians, ethnobotanists, medical anthropologists and representatives from Dominican community-based organizations (see Advisory Board and Collaborators listed on the title page. The present volume is the result of the combined efforts of the following organizations: The New York Botanical Garden, Institute of Economic Botany; Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, Family Medicine and Hispanic Center of Excellence, Alianza Dominicana; Community Pediatrics, New York-Presbyterian Hospital; and Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, Mailman School of Public Health, Center for Population and Family Health; Columbia University Medical Center, Community Pediatrics, Morgan Stanley Childrens Hospital of New YorkPresbyterian; Columbia University, Associates in Internal Medicine Clinic and Charles B. Rangel Community Health Center; New York University School of Medicine, Emergency Medicine and the New

York Poison Control Center. Support for this project was generously provided by the United Hospital Fund, The New York Community Trust and The Jacob and Valeria Langeloth Foundation. From January through March 2006, the first edition of this guidebook was pilot tested with a select group of twenty-five health care providers and medical professionals in the New York City area. The goal of this pilot testing was to determine the usefulness of this book as a clinical reference and as a tool for facilitating cultural understanding in a primary care setting. Participants in this pilot-testing phase completed a short survey after consulting the book, evaluating its relevance, ease-of-use and efficacy in supporting culturally sensitive and knowledgeable discussion of the use of botanical therapies with Dominican patients. Feedback and suggestions for improvement from these pilot-testing surveys have been incorporated into the revised second edition of this guidebook.

METHODS
This reference manual is a synthesis of three general disciplines, each encompassing different types of information and involving unique methodological approaches: 1. medical ethnobotany and anthropology: original ethnomedical and ethnobotanical research on the use of herbal remedies by Dominicans in New York City for common health conditions; 2. botany and taxonomy: collection of botanical specimens utilized by Dominicans in healing and taxonomic identification of commonly used medicinal plants to determine their Latin binomial (genus and species); and, 3. biomedical literature research: a review of the available scientific literature on the safety and efficacy of selected medicinal plants, including database searches of published results from toxicology and pharmacology studies. Ethnobotany and Medical Anthropology Ethnobotany is the study of the complex relationships between people and plants, such as cultural beliefs and practices associated with the use of plants for food, medicine and ritual, local systems for naming and classifying plants species, traditional knowledge about ecological relationships and botany-related songs, stories and legends. Medical anthropology, including the sub discipline ethnomedicine, is the academic field devoted to the cultural dimensions of medicine and health care, including traditional systems of healing. Both disciplines are interrelated, especially medical ethnobotany and ethnomedicine, and are highly relevant to health care in an era of medical pluralism in which multiple systems of medicine operate simultaneously. In this book, the term traditional medicine is used to describe medical traditions, health beliefs and healing practices that historically have been passed down orally and which are typically associated with a particular cultural group or region. Traditional medicine is a type of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) that is often used alongside, in combination with or instead of allopathic medicine and may incorporate elements of conventional health care, such as pharmaceutical pills or injections, terminology and diagnostic techniques. The terms biomedicine or conventional medicine are used to describe allopathic health care, particularly the dominant system of standard practice medicine. Dominican health-related cultural practices and beliefs as reported in this guidebook are based on research conducted using ethnomedical and ethnobotanical methods. These methods include semistructured interviews, exploratory ethnography, market studies, participant-observation and qualitative data analysis. Study participants were identified through informal social networks. Both specialists and generalists in Dominican herbal medicine were interviewed. Specialists were defined as recognized experts in plant-based healing, such as herbalists and practitioners of traditional medicine, whereas generalists included individuals who reported that they used home remedies for self-care or sought the health advice of traditional healers but were not considered experts themselves. All study participants stated that they acquired their knowledge of medicinal plants while in the Dominican Republic or from Dominican family members, friends, relatives or healers in the United States. All interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed. Interview questions addressed the following topics: concepts of health and illness, disease etiology, anatomical terms, methods of diagnosis, spiritual aspects of healing, treatment choice and health decision making. Results were entered into a MS Access

database and interview transcripts were coded using qualitative data analysis software (Atlas.ti). Plants included in this book were selected based on their frequency of use as reported by more than one of the following sources: traditional healers, herbal specialists at Latino herb shops (botnicas) or Dominican study participants who use plant-based home remedies and prepare them for family members and relatives. Botany and Plant Taxonomy One key component of ethnobotanical research is determining the correct scientific name for Dominican medicinal plants because the biomedical literature on botanical therapies is typically indexed by Latin binomial rather than the Dominican Spanish common name as reported by participants in ethnobotanical interviews. To determine the correct scientific names of medicinal plants included in this guidebook, botanical specimens were collected whenever possible for identification by ethnobotanists and plant taxonomy specialists at The New York Botanical Garden. However, since most plants used were only available as food items from grocery stores or sterile plant fragments, in many cases a reference collection of plant photographs and purchased plant material was used. The following references were consulted to determine the appropriate botanical descriptions, synonyms, family classification and spelling of authors for each species: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (Stevens 2008), Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de La Espaola (Liogier 2000), Flora of St. John (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996), Harvard University Herbaria Index of Botanists, International Plant Names Index (Stevens 2008), International Plant Names Index (IPNI 2004), Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition (Gleason & Cronquist 1991) and the Missouri Botanical Garden's VAST (VAScular Tropicos) nomenclatural database (VAST 2008). Additional botanical references consulted are cited in the Botanical Description section of each monograph. Because of the importance of knowing the genus and species for plant-based home remedies in order to evaluate the scientific literature on their safety and efficacy, botanical research institutions such as The New York Botanical Garden can play a unique role in mediating between the realms of traditional healing systems and biomedical health care. Biomedical Literature Research To compile relevant biomedical literature on the safety and efficacy of medicinal plants included in this guidebook, several databases and references have been consulted. For clinical, preclinical (in vitro and in vivo), pharmacological and toxicity studies of the plants in this book, searches for the scientific name (Latin binomial) and English common name, when appropriate, of each plant species were conducted in PubMed (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed/). Additional information was compiled from the following databases: BIOSIS (http://www.biosis.org/), FDA GRAS (http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/fcf182.html), Jim Dukes Phytochemical Database (http://www.arsgrin.gov/duke/), NAPRALERT (http://www.napralert.org/), ToxNet (http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/) and the USDA Nutritional Database (http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata). For information on safety, precautions, biological activity, indications and usage, reliable clinical references were consulted, including: A Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia (Germosn-Robineau 2007), The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult (Fugh-Berman 2003), the German Commission E Monographs (Blumenthal et al. 1998) and the Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines (Gruenwald et al. 2004). For information on contraindications and potential drug interactions, the above sources as well as Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed (Brinker 1998) were consulted. Many of these books, particularly publications by TRAMIL such as A Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, served as informative models for the organization and presentation of information in this volume. For all reported studies from the biomedical literature, it is important to pay attention to the plant part used, form of preparation and mode of administration evaluated in each experiment. Those that reflect traditional uses are most relevant. When available, data from randomized, double-blind, placebo

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controlled clinical trials is given priority over preclinical studies. However, many plant species have not been tested in humans. Preclinical and laboratory studies are also included in this guidebook, even though generally their results cannot be applied to humans. Such in vitro and in vivo studies may be useful when they validate traditional uses of medicinal plants or when they elucidate biological activities that may interfere with medication or other therapies. For example, if a particular plant is applied topically as an herbal remedy for dermatological conditions, in vitro or animal studies that demonstrate the antimicrobial or antiinflammatory activity of the traditional preparation of the plant could support or validate its external use as long as the plant has been shown to be nontoxic. It is important to keep in mind that considerable variation exists in the amount of published clinical and pharmacological research available for a given plant. For example, widely used plants such as ajo (garlic, Allium sativum) and sbila (aloe, Aloe vera) have been studied extensively in human clinical trials and laboratory studies; however, for other plants that are lesser known outside of the Caribbean and Latin America, such as batata de burro (Caribbean coralfruit, Doyerea emetocathartica), very little information is available on their pharmacological activity or clinical applications. Plants for which more research has been conducted (particularly those that are sold commercially on a large scale) will have more information available on safety, contraindications, herb-drug interactions and clinical applications. Other less-studied plants may also have important contraindications and herb-drug interactions, but not enough research has been conducted on their use in conjunction with medications and in special populations to be able to provide this information. In many cases, a plant species relative safety or efficacy cannot be determined based on the available data.

CONTENT AND LAYOUT OF THIS GUIDEBOOK

Several clinical references on botanical medicine have served as informative models for this guidebook. In particular, the following publications were key references in the preparation of this manual: the Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (Germosn-Robineau 2007), the German Commission E Monographs (Blumenthal et al. 1998), the Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines (Gruenwald et al. 2004) and other clinical guides for herbal medicine (Brinker 1998, Fugh-Berman 2003). These references provide reliable information about the therapeutic applications of botanical therapies, including both traditional cultural uses (historical and contemporary) and biomedical data, such as pharmacological activity, clinical trials, chemical constituents, herb-drug interactions, contraindications and indications and usage. All of the above publications were consulted extensively in the preparation of this manuscript. Most notably, the publications of the non-governmental organization TRAMIL (formerly known as Traditional Medicine in the Islands) have inspired and informed the approach of this guidebook. TRAMIL is a multidisciplinary network dedicated to applied research on medicinal plants of the Caribbean region. In addition to the Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (in Spanish and English, Germosn-Robineau 2005 & 2007), other TRAMIL publications include several volumes of Elements for a Caribbean Pharmacopeia (Germosn-Robineau 1995), each containing numerous monographs describing medicinal plants commonly used in the Caribbean. Members of the interdisciplinary network TRAMIL not only review and synthesize data on the safety and biological activity of medicinal plants, they also conduct original research on the pharmacology and potential toxicity of medicinal plants. TRAMIL members include experts from the disciplines of medicine, botany, chemistry, toxicology, pharmacology, natural products development and pharmacognosy. As a group, TRAMIL convenes regularly at scientific workshops and editorial meetings to evaluate the available data on commonly used Caribbean medicinal plants in order to assess their safety and efficacy. Based on this information, TRAMIL classifies the traditional use of each evaluated medicinal plant as either REC (recommended), INV (needs more investigation) or TOX (toxic). REC or recommended means that the particular traditional use specified (including part used, preparation and mode of administration) is recommended for human use based on significant documented

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traditional use and available biomedical data on safety and efficacy. INV or needs more investigation means that there is insufficient evidence to support the clinical use of the particular plant and more research is needed to make a recommendation. TOX or toxic means that the plant has shown significant toxic effects in biomedical studies and is therefore not recommended for human use. In addition to print and electronic publications, TRAMIL has made this information on medicinal plants available to the public through an online database, which was consulted for information on medicinal plants included in the present volume. This database is a valuable resource for those interested in further study on Caribbean medicinal plants: http://www.funredes.org/tramil/. The most recent TRAMIL publication, the Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition, is an excellent reference for physicians and clinicians who provide health care to patients from Latin American and Caribbean countries. It is currently printed in Spanish and published in English and French as an electronic book on CD-ROM. Please refer to the above website for more details.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

To provide easy-to-use and detailed information about Dominican medicinal uses of herbal remedies along with a review of the scientific literature on their safety and efficacy, this book uses two different formats for presenting medicinal plant information: a Quick Guide (Part 2) and Medicinal Plant Profiles (Part 3). For a brief summary of the clinically relevant information on a particular plant, consult Part 2: A Quick Guide to Home Remedies by searching for the common name of the plant. Information in this section is organized alphabetically by Spanish or English common name. For more detailed information about medicinal plants, including botanical descriptions, photographs or illustrations, indications and usage (if available) and references cited, see Part 3: Medicinal Plant Profiles. Entries are arranged in alphabetical order according to the Spanish common name most frequently used by Dominicans in New York City based on previous and ongoing ethnobotanical and ethnomedical fieldwork (Balick et al. 2000, Ososki et al. 2002, Vandebroek et al. 2007, Vandebroek et al. 2008, Yukes et al. 2003) and current research with healers and herbal medicine specialists. In this section, each medicinal plant profile contains the following information organized according to the headings and subheadings listed in the table below. Main headings are indicated in small caps font and subheadings are italicized.

Heading SPANISH COMMON NAME Note OTHER COMMON NAMES SCIENTIFIC NAME

Explanation The most widely used Spanish common name for each plant is provided as the title for the entry. Dominican Spanish plant names are based on ethnobotanical fieldwork with immigrants from the Dominican Republic in New York City. If the same plant species has more than one common name, or if more than one plant species is referred to by the same common name, an explanation is provided as a Note below the Latin name. Other Spanish and English common names, besides the one most frequently reported for that species, are listed. The Latin binomial for the plant (genus and species) is provided. Botanical synonyms (other accepted scientific names that are used widely in the literature), are listed when appropriate. The Latin name of the plant family to which each species belongs is designated in brackets, and the corresponding common name for the family is included in parentheses. For an explanation of naming conventions and plant identification, see A Note on Botanical Nomenclature at the end of this section.

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Heading DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

Plant Part Used

Traditional Preparation

Traditional Uses Availability

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Distribution SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS

Animal Toxicity Studies

Explanation Traditional medicinal uses of each plant are listed in alphabetical order. This information is based on data from ethnobotanical interviews with Dominican traditional medicine practitioners, herbal experts and individuals who selfmedicate with home remedies in New York City. For each health condition, the part of the plant used is indicated along with its basic preparation and possible combination with other ingredients or herbs (see subheadings in italics below). Indicates which part of the plant is used most frequently as a remedy. Knowing the part of the plant used for preparing herbal remedies is extremely important as each part of a plant may have substantially different chemical constituents or varying concentrations of the same constituents, which will affect their potential toxicity and pharmacological activity. Frequently reported modes of preparation (i.e. tea or bath) and administration (i.e. oral or topical) are described in this section. Detailed explanations of each type of preparation are provided in the Quick Guide section of this book, listed by Spanish name (see Part 2). A detailed description of the reported traditional therapeutic uses of the plant, including possible combinations with other herbs, is provided in this section. Sources from which each plant is typically procured in the New York City area (or other urban areas in the United States) are listed in this section based on botanical collection and ethnomedical interviews with Dominican New Yorkers. When relevant, information on how each plant is sold is included. A description of the key morphological features of each plant is provided to aid in distinguishing it from other plants that might have the same or similar common names*. These key features include the following: type of plant (habit) and size (length, height); notable characteristics of the stem, bark or roots; and leaf, flower and fruit shape and structure. These descriptions are written using nontechnical terms whenever possible for ease-of-use by non-botanists. However, where botanical terms were necessary, they are defined in the Glossary of Botanical Terms in the back of the book (See Appendix B). *Important Note: Positive identification of a plant sample typically requires a specimen of the entire plant, including reproductive parts, and confirmation from a botanist or individual trained in plant taxonomy who is familiar with the botanical family of the species in question. The origin and range of each plant, including preferred habitat, is included when available. The exact origin of a particular species may be difficult to determine and is often disputed within the botanical community. Any information identified in the scientific literature on the safety and potential adverse effects of each plant is provided in this section, including precautions, contraindications, drug interactions and results of toxicity studies when available (see subheadings below). Results of in vivo studies of toxicity in animals are included here. This information is separated from the initial description on safety and precautions because it is difficult (if not impossible) to apply and extrapolate the results from animal toxicity studies to humans. However, when no clinical safety or toxicity studies are available, in vivo studies in animal models or case reports of livestock poisoning are reported when appropriate.

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Heading Contraindications

Drug Interactions

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

INDICATIONS AND USAGE

CLINICAL AND PRECLINICAL AND LABORATORY DATA TABLES

REFERENCES

Explanation Precautions and special considerations are described in this section, including cases, conditions or particular populations in which this plant should not be used, such as children, pregnant women, lactating women or persons with particular health conditions. Based on consulting standard references on herb-drug interactions and other publications, this section summarizes any published information identified in the available literature on potential or documented adverse reactions or precautions associated with combining the use of this medicinal plant with pharmaceutical drugs. A review of the scientific literature on the pharmacological activity and therapeutic efficacy of each plant species is summarized. If numerous relevant biomedical studies have been published on a particular plant, these are presented in table format for ease-of-use at the end of each plant entry (see Clinical, Preclinical and Laboratory Data Tables section below); otherwise, results are summarized in paragraph form. Major chemical constituents are listed based on relative abundance and/or biological activity when this information is available. For plants with substantial scientific research supporting their safety and efficacy, information on potential indications and usage are provided based on reputable medical references, recommendations from botanical medicine regulation committees or documented historical use. Standard dosage and administration suggestions are provided if published by a formally recognized institution or publication, such as the German Commission E Monographs or TRAMIL. NOTE: The information provided in this book is for educational purposes only and is not intended to diagnose, prescribe or substitute for appropriate medical care from a qualified health professional (see Disclaimer and Important Notice at the beginning of this book). Published laboratory research (in vitro and in vivo animal studies) and human clinical trials that have been identified in the scientific literature for each plant are summarized in table form, including the following information: pharmacological activity or effect being tested, plant preparation (type of extract, parts used), study design (in vitro, in vivo or human clinical trial), results (observed activity and significance) and reference information (author-date format; see bibliography at the end of each entry for details). Studies for which no activity or effect was demonstrated (i.e. those which showed negative results) are listed in a separate table entitled Effect Not Demonstrated located at the end of the monograph. A list of the literature cited is provided at the end of each entry.

IMPORTANT NOTE ON PLANT IDENTIFICATION

The authors have made every attempt to be botanically accurate, but regional variations in plant names, growing conditions and availability may affect the accuracy of the information provided. In some cases a particular plant species may have more than one common name, or the same name may refer to more than one species. To confirm the identity of a specific plant and to make sure that the information consulted in this book is relevant to the plant in question, please review the botanical description and photo or illustration in the Plant Profiles section of this book. A positive identification of an individual plant specimen is most likely when a freshly collected part of the plant, including leaves and flowers or fruits, is presented to a knowledgeable botanist or horticulturist. For more information on plant identification, please see the Methods: Botany and Plant Taxonomy section of this introduction. A Note on Botanical Nomenclature: The botanical identification of each plant is based on collecting voucher specimens of the plant whenever possible, consulting the botanical literature and

14

comparing these specimens with herbarium collections at The New York Botanical Garden and other herbaria to determine the correct scientific name of the plant (for more detailed information on this process, see the Methods section of this introduction). Botanical nomenclature is based on the taxonomic work of Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), the botanist who established the binomial system of plant nomenclature. Linnaeus helped to standardize botanical nomenclature by establishing a genus and species name for each plant, followed by its designator. A plants botanical (binomial) name consists of both the genus and the species, e.g. Allium sativum (the Latin name for garlic). By convention, both genus and species names are italicized or underlined. Allium is the name of the genus, and the first letter is always capitalized. A genus (the plural of which is genera) may be composed of a single species or several hundred. The second part of the binomial, in this case sativum, is the particular species within the genus, and it is always written in lower case letters. When first citing a particular plant species, it is important to include the name of the person (often abbreviated) who named the particular species as part of the scientific name in order to minimize confusion between similar or related plant species. This person is called the author of the species name; for example, in the case above, the complete name, which would allow for the most precise identification, is Allium sativum L.; L. is the accepted abbreviation for Carolus Linnaeus, the author of the species name.

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54(3):344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin, TX: American Botanical Council and Boston, MA: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Fugh-Berman A. 2003. The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 475 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2007. Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (e-book). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: TRAMIL, CD-ROM. Gleason H, Cronquist A. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden Press, 910 pp. Harvard University Herbaria, Index of Botanists. [Accessed October 2007 February 2008.] http://asaweb.huh.harvard.edu:8080/databases/botanist_index.html

15

IPNI. 2004. The International Plant Names Index. Plant Names Project. Published on the Internet http://www.ipni.org [Accessed: May 2005 February 2008]. Liogier HA. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de La Espaola. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: Jardn Botnico Nacional, 598 pp. Ososki AL, Lohr P, Reiff M, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B. 2002. Ethnobotanical literature survey of medicinal plants in the Dominican Republic used for womens health conditions. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 79(3):285-98. Reiff M, OConnor B, Kronenberg F, Balick M, Lohr P, Roble M, Fugh-Berman A, Johnson KD. 2003. Ethnomedicine in the urban environment: Dominican healers in New York City. Human Organization 62 (1):12-26. Stevens PF. 2008. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 8, June 2007 [and more or less continuously updated since]. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/ [Accessed: October 2007-February 2008]. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Vandebroek I, Balick MJ, Yukes J, Durn L, Kronenberg F, Wade C, Ososki A, Cushman L, Lantigua R, Meja M, Robineau L. 2007. Use of medicinal plants by Dominican immigrants in New York City for treatment of common health problems A comparative analysis with literature data from the Dominican Republic. In: Traveling Cultures and Plants: The Ethnobiology and Ethnopharmacy of Human Migrations. A Pieroni and I Vandebroek, Eds. New York: Berghahn Books, 283 p. Vandebroek I, Balick MJ. 2009. Microsoft Access Database sets of the NIH/NCCAM-funded study on Dominican Ethnomedicine. Unpublished data. Bronx, New York: Institute of Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden. VAST. 2009. VAST (VAScular Tropicos) nomenclatural database. The Missouri Botanical Garden. [Accessed: May 2005-February 2009]. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Ososki A. 2003. Botnicas, botellas and herbal remedies: an urban ethnobotanical study of Dominican traditional healing in New York City. Annual Meeting of the Society for Economic Botany, Tucson, AZ, June 2-5.

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PART 2: QUICK GUIDE TO HOME REMEDIES

This Quick Guide to Home Remedies includes a brief summary of clinically-relevant information for medicinal plants used by Dominicans in New York City. Entries are organized alphabetically by the most frequently reported common name for each plant based on ethnomedical fieldwork. For more detailed information about medicinal plants from this section, including a botanical description, illustration or photograph and references cited for each plant, see Part 3: Medicinal Plant Profiles. The following Quick Guide also includes brief explanations and English translations of Spanish terms that are associated with Dominican traditional medicine and home remedies, including types of herbal preparations, plant parts used, non-plant-based ingredients in home remedies and descriptions of other relevant healing practices. If you do not find a particular plant listed in this section, check the index in the back of the book as it may be included under a different common name. Also, while hundreds of Dominican medicinal plant species have been documented in ethnobotanical studies, this book includes information on only 85 commonly used medicinal plants. The example below shows how information is organized for each medicinal plant described in this Quick Guide and explains each of the headings. Entries for other items besides plants are presented as brief descriptions and do not follow the format specified below.

Spanish name
English name (Scientific name). Plant Part Used Part(s) of the plant used as medicine (i.e. leaf, root, flower, fruit, bulb, bark or whole plant). Dominican Medicinal Uses Plant part used: preparation (i.e. tea), mode of administration and illnesses or therapeutic activities for which it is used as a remedy. Safety Results of toxicity studies and case reports of adverse effects from the available literature. Contraindications Conditions in which use is to be avoided. Drug Interactions Description of potential herb-drug interactions. Clinical Data Summary of effects investigated in clinical trials involving human subjects. Laboratory and Preclinical Data Summary of biological activities investigated in preclinical studies using in vitro or animal models.

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Aceite de __________
Means oil of (plant or animal name); look up the plant or animal name specified for more information. The most common plant-based oils used for medicine include: coconut (coco), castor bean plant (higuereta), sesame (ajonjol), olive (aceituna) and avocado (aguacate) oils. For certain illnesses (particularly asthma), these oils are taken by the spoonful, sometimes in combination with oils from animal sources such as snake (culebra), turtle (tortuga), shark (tiburn) and cod fish (bacalao). These animalbased oils are reportedly used by some individuals in an asthma remedy called botella de aceites which is typically given to children.

Agua de rosas
Rosewater; the hydrosol of the distillate of rose petals; a byproduct of making rose essential oil; may also contain other ingredients, including alcohol, glycerine, coloring or flavoring agents and preservatives; may be attributed therapeutic properties and used for physical illness treatments and spiritual cleansing rituals.

Agua florida
Floral water; a popular alcohol-based cologne or perfume with a floral scent; used in baths and as part of spiritual cleansing and healing practices.

Achiote
See Bija.

Aguacate*
Avocado (Persea americana). Plant Part Used Leaves, seed, fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaves are traditionally prepared as an infusion and taken orally for diabetes, diarrhea, inducing abortion, intestinal worms, menstrual cramps, parasites and vaginal infections, and the seed decoction is taken for contraception. The fruit is typically used for nutritional and culinary purposes. Safety No data on the safety of the leaf or the seed in humans has been identified in the available literature; animal toxicity studies have shown equivocal results. The fruit is commonly consumed as food and generally regarded as safe. Contraindications Oral use of the leaves is contraindicated during pregnancy (due to emmenagogue and uterine muscle stimulating effects) and lactation (due to potential for harmful effects based on case reports in goats). No information on the safety of the leaves in children has been identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions

Agave
See Maguey.

Agua
Water or water infused with herbs when used in the context of energetic/spiritual healing; such preparations are often scented with perfume oil, extracted in alcohol and/or tinted with artificial coloring agents. These aguas are often associated with attracting good luck or dispelling undesirable energy and frequently used as ingredients in baths (baos) or for cleansing rituals (limpiezas).

Agua bendita
Holy water or water that has been blessed and sanctified by a priest or bishop, typically in the Catholic church and some other religions. This water may be attributed healing properties and used in spiritual and ritual healing or in therapies for physical ailments.

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Warfarin: fruit may inhibit anticoagulant effect. Monoamine-oxidase inhibitors (MAOI): one case of hypertension crisis has been reported due to concomitant ingestion of the fruit and MAOI. Clinical Data The following effects of this plant have been investigated in human clinical trials: fruit: cholesterol and lipid-lowering, treatment of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus and triglyceride-lowering; avocado/soybean unsaponifiables: treatment of osteoarthritis; and oil: treatment of plaque psoriasis. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of this plant have been investigated in laboratory and preclinical studies (in vitro or animal models): analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antihemorrhage, hepatoprotective, immuno-modulating, uterine muscle stimulant, trypanocidal, uterine stimulant and vasorelaxant. * See entry for Aguacate in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Aj*
Pepper, bell pepper, chili pepper, cayenne (Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens & C. chinense). Plant Part Used Leaf, fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf is traditionally prepared as a warm poultice and applied topically for skin abscesses, boils or infections, or prepared as a tea and taken orally for menstrual cramps and related disorders. The fruit is typically used for culinary and nutritional purposes and is said to increase heat in the body. Safety No data on the safety of the leaf in humans (for internal or external use) has been identified in the available literature; however, in animal studies, topical application of the leaf did not show signs of toxicity or adverse effects. The fruit is widely consumed and considered safe in moderate amounts. Prolonged or excessive use may cause irritation of the mucosa or other adverse effects. Contraindications

No data on the safety of this plant during pregnancy, lactation or in children has been identified in the available literature. The fruit should not be taken by patients with inflammatory gastro-intestinal or renal disorders. Avoid contact with the eyes or open wounds due to potential irritation of the mucosa. Drug Interactions Consumption of the fruit may inhibit liver microsomal enzymes and potentiate drugs metabolized by these enzymes. Aspirin and salicylic acid compounds: bioavailability may be reduced by concurrent use of peppers. Barbiturates: concomitant use of the dried fruit has been shown to potentiate the effects of hexobarbital. Anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, thrombolytic agents: concomitant use of the fruit may increase the risk of bleeding. Clinical Data No human clinical trials of the leaf have been identified in the available literature. The fruit has been investigated in clinical trials for the following effects: analgesic, carotenoid bioavailability enhancement, gastroprotective, swallowing dysfunction treatment and urinary incontinence treatment. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of this plant have been investigated in laboratory and preclinical studies (in vitro or animal models): antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, chemopreventive, cytotoxic, learning enhancement, learning impairment amelioration and renoprotective. * See entry for Aj in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Ajo*
Garlic (Allium sativum). Plant Part Used Bulb. Dominican Medicinal Uses The bulb is traditionally ingested raw for high blood pressure, upper-respiratory infection, common cold, flu-like symptoms and cough, and the alcohol extract is taken internally for sinusitis. The bulb skins are traditionally prepared as a tea and taken internally for indigestion and gastro-intestinal complaints.

19

Safety The bulb is generally regarded as safe for human consumption. Reported adverse effects include skin burns due to topical application (especially in children with prolonged exposure). Adverse effects associated with internal use include halitosis, body odor, gastrointestinal irritation, constipation, headache, nausea, fatigue and vertigo. Contraindications Not to be taken at therapeutic doses for 10 days prior to surgery due to antiplatelet activity and risk of excessive bleeding. The bulb is contraindicated during lactation. Drug Interactions Chlorzoxazone: garlic may reduce drug metabolism. Indomethacin and NSAIDs: risk of excessive bleeding. Protease inhibitors: reduced blood levels. Drugs metabolized by cytochrome P450 2E1: garlic may inhibit efficacy. Forskilin: garlic may potentiate antiplatelet activity. Clinical Data The following effects have been investigated in human clinical trials: treatment of atherosclerosis, common cold, coronary artery disease, hyperlipidemia, hypertension and unstable angina pectoris. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities have been investigated in laboratory and preclinical studies (in vitro or animal models): antibacterial, anticarcinogenic, antifungal, antihypertensive, antineoplastic, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antiplatelet-aggregant, antithrombic, antiviral and immune enhancing.

Contraindications None identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions None identified in the available literature. Clinical Data The following effects of the seed oil or seeds have been investigated in human clinical trials: antidiabetic, dry nasal mucosa treatment, enterolactone precursor, hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive, infant growth stimulus, postmenopausal support, sex hormone binding globulin increase, sleep improvement, thiobarbituric acid reacting substance decrease and Vitamin E status improvement. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities have been investigated in laboratory and preclinical studies (in vitro or animal models): antitumor, antineoplasm, antihypertensive, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic and improved Vitamin E bioavailability. * See entry for Ajonjol in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Albahaca*
Basil (Ocimum basilicum). Plant Part Used Aerial parts: leaf, stem, flower. Dominican Medicinal Uses The aerial parts or leaves are traditionally prepared as a tea and taken orally for stomach ache, indigestion, gastro-intestinal pain, internal cleansing and womens health conditions. Safety This herb is generally regarded as safe for human consumption in moderate amounts and widely used as a culinary seasoning. Contraindications The essential oil should not be used during pregnancy, lactation or in small children. Drug Interactions Synergistic effects may occur with drugs that share similar pharmacological activities as those described for this plant in the Laboratory and Preclinical Data section; metabolism of one of basils active constituents, estragole, may be hindered by concomitant use of medications metabolized by UGT2B7 or UGT1A9 phase II enzymes.

Ajonjol*
Sesame (Sesamum indicum). Plant Part Used Seed, seed oil. Dominican Medicinal Uses The seed oil is traditionally taken orally for asthma, bronchitis, common cold, flu and pneumonia, and the seed emulsion is taken orally for asthma, administered to both children and adults. Safety The seed and seed oil are generally regarded as safe for human consumption, and no adverse reactions have been reported in clinical studies.

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Clinical Data No human clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of this plant have been investigated in laboratory and preclinical studies (in vitro or animal models): analgesic, antifungal, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, anti-ulcerogenic, gastric antiulcerogenic, glutathione S-transferase and smooth muscle relaxant. * See entry for Albahaca in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

stimulant, antiplatelet, Demodex rosacea treatment and ophthalmic disorder treatment. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of the essential oil or its constituents have been investigated using in vitro or animal models: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, biosurfactant, cytotoxic, positively inotropic, ribosome inactivation, smooth muscle stimulant and superoxide dismutase. * See entry for Alcanfor in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Alcanfor*
Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora). Plant Part Used Essential oil. Dominican Medicinal Uses The crystallized essential oil is traditionally prepared as an ointment and applied topically for treating sinusitis, headache, upper-respiratory tract infections, muscle pain, joint pain, asthma, bronchitis, difficulty breathing and phlegm in the lungs. For internal use, a small amount of the essential oil is dissolved in water and taken orally for gas, indigestion and stomach ache. Safety Internal use of the essential oil can be highly toxic (adult lethal dose = 20 g; toxic at 2 g; child lethal dose < 1 g). External use may cause skin irritation. Overdose symptoms include: delirium, spasms, intoxicated states and irregular breathing. Contraindications Caution advised when administered topically to children, and external use is contraindicated in cases of broken skin. In infants and small children (< 2 years), the oil should not be administered near the nose or via inhalation due to potential nervous system overstimulation or possibility of seizures. Avoid internal use during pregnancy (due to emmenagogue and uterine stimulant effects) and lactation (due to potential toxicity). Clinical Data The following effects of the essential oil have been investigated in human clinical trials: nasal sensation of cold, central nervous system

Algodn*
Cotton, creole cotton (Gossypium barbadense). Plant Part Used Leaf, flower, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf is traditionally prepared as a decoction and taken orally for vaginal infections, genitourinary inflammation, excess vaginal discharge and infections in general. The flower is typically prepared as a decoction and administered as a douche for excess vaginal discharge and genitourinary infections. Safety No information on the safety of the leaf, root or flower has been identified in the available literature. In human clinical trials the isolated constituent gossypol showed the following adverse effects: hypokalemia, irreversible antifertility (in men), fatigue, decreased libido and gastrointestinal disorders. Contraindications Insufficient information has been identified in the available literature. Drug interactions Insufficient information has been identified in the available literature. Clinical Data The isolated constituent gossypol has been investigated in human clinical trials for antifertility effects in men. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies the leaf aqueous extract has shown hypotensive effects. In vitro, gossypol has shown antifertility effects against sperm cells.

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* See entry for Algodn in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Aloe
See Sbila.

Aloe vera
See Sbila.

The following activities of this plant have been shown in laboratory and preclinical studies: antiinflammatory, antioxidant, chondroprotective, gastro-protective, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, radical scavenging and wound-healing. * See entry for Alquitira in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Altamisa*
Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia and A. peruviana). Plant Part Used Leaf, aerial parts. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf is traditionally prepared as a tea and taken orally for arthritis, delayed menses, diarrhea (in children and adults), infections, kidney ailments, menstrual pain, postpartum cleansing and stomach ache. It is also used externally as a poultice for menstrual pain and as a bath for energetic cleansing, good luck and spiritual protection. Safety The pollen of Ambrosia species is a common allergen and may cause symptoms of hayfever in hypersensitive individuals. Plant material should be washed thoroughly before use to remove pollen. Cases of contact dermatitis, eczema, allergic conjunctivitis and other adverse effects have been associated with this plant. Contraindications Due to lack of available safety information, avoid use during pregnancy or lactation and in children under 5 years of age. Drug Interactions Synergistic interactions may occur with medications that share similar biological activities to those demonstrated by this herb (see Clinical Data and Laboratory & Preclinical Data below). Clinical Data The following effects of Ambrosia artemisiifolia have been investigated in human clinical trials: allergenic, immunotherapeutic and irritant. Laboratory & Preclinical Data Ambrosia species have shown the following biological activities in laboratory or preclinical studies using in vitro or animal models:

Alquitira*
Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica). Plant Part Used Cactus pad (leaf-stem). Dominican Medicinal Uses The fresh cactus pad is traditionally prepared as a juice taken orally for diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, stomach ailments and indigestion. The gel from inside the leaf-stem is typically applied topically for wound-healing. Safety The cactus pad and fruit are widely consumed and generally considered safe. Caution is advised during handling due to sharp spines and glochids which cover the surface; these spiny projections should be removed before use. Cases of contact dermatitis have been reported. Contraindications Contraindicated in individuals with a history of allergy or hypersensitivity to Opuntia and other cactus species. Due to lack of available data, avoid use during pregnancy or breastfeeding and in small children. Drug Interactions Besides potential synergistic effects with drugs that share similar biological activities to this plant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data), particularly diabetes and blood-sugar modulating medications, insufficient information has been identified on herb-drug interactions in the available literature. Clinical Data The following effects of this plant have been investigated in human clinical trials: antihangover, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-lipid peroxidation. Laboratory & Preclinical Data

22

analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimycobacterial and cytotoxic. * See entry for Altamisa in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

* See entry for Alucema in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Anam*
Guinea-hen-weed (Petiveria alliacea). Plant Part Used Leaf, root, stem. Dominican Medicinal Uses The root is traditionally prepared as a tincture in alcohol and taken orally for arthritis, joint and muscle pain. The leaf and/or root is typically prepared as an infusion and taken orally for nausea and stomach ailments, womens health conditions (dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, menopausal symptoms, ovarian cysts, labor pains, postpartum recovery, uterine fibroids) and to cleanse the blood. The leaf is also prepared as a poultice and applied topically for skin infections. Safety No data on the safety of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature. Animal studies of the leaf have shown relatively low toxicity, and TRAMIL has approved this herb for particular traditional uses. Contraindications Avoid use during pregnancy, lactation and in children under 12 years of age. Drug Interactions Concomitant use of this herb with insulin and hypoglycemic drugs may potentiate their effects. Clinical Data No human clinical trials have been identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities have been demonstrated in laboratory and preclinical studies (using in vitro or animal models): analgesic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, chemopreventive, cytotoxic and hypoglycemic. * See entry for Anam in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Alucema*
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia). Plant Part Used Dried flower buds. Dominican Medicinal Uses The dried flower buds are traditionally prepared as a tea and taken orally for anxiety/nervousness, stomach ache, indigestion, gas, menopausal hot flashes, common cold and flu. Safety Lavender is generally regarded as safe when used in moderation. Potential adverse effects include drowsiness, gastrointestinal upset and skin irritation. Contraindications Excessive internal use of this herb is contraindicated during early pregnancy due to its emmenagogue effect demonstrated in laboratory studies. Due to lack of sufficient data on safety, avoid use during lactation and in small children. Drug Interactions Concomitant use of this herb with sedative or tranquilizing drugs, such as pentobarbital, may potentiate their effects based on evidence from animal studies. Additional herb-drug interactions may occur in medications with effects similar to those demonstrated by this plant clinical and preclinical studies (see below). Clinical Data The following effects of this plant have been investigated in human clinical trials: antianxiety, antidepressant, anti-stress, anxiolytic, dysmenorrhea treatment, hypnotic, insomnia treatment, retrospective pain perception and sedative. Laboratory & Preclinical Data This plant has shown the following biological activities in laboratory and preclinical studies: acaricidal, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antineoplastic, antitumor, sedative and hypolipidemic.

Ans
There are at least five different species of aniselike medicinal plants that are recognized in

23

Dominican healing traditions. Those that are included in the present edition of this book are listed below in bold along with their other common Spanish names: - Ans chiquito = ans de comer, ans de cocinar, ans pequeo, aniscito (Pimpinella anisum) - Ans comino = comino (Cuminum cyminum) or hinojo - Hinojo = ans hinojo (Foeniculum vulgare) or ans comino - Ans de estrella = ans estrellada, ans grande (Illicium verum) - Aniseto = aniceto (Piper marginatum) The common names of the first three types of ans are easily confused because their dried fruits or seeds (the part of the plant traditionally used for medicine) are similar in appearance, taste and shape. For more information on a specific type of ans, see the plant entry for the appropriate common name listed in bold above.

Ans chiquito*
Anise, anise burnet-saxifrage (Pimpinella anisum). Plant Part Used Fruit (seed). Dominican Medicinal Uses The seeds are traditionally prepared as a decoction and taken orally for colic (in children and adults), common cold, empacho, flatulence, flu, gastrointestinal disorders, headache, indigestion, nervous tension, pasmo and stress. Safety The seeds are generally regarded as safe for human consumption in moderation and widely used as a culinary spice. Caution is advised if this herbal remedy is combined with ans de estrella due to potential contamination with a toxic look-alike (see entry for Ans de estrella). Contraindications Studies show conflicting recommendations regarding safety of internal use during pregnancy and lactation. Use of this herb in combination with ans de estrella is contraindicated in children (due to potential for contamination with the toxic look-alike Illicium anisatum (see Ans de estrella); however, ans

chiquito is considered safe for children when used appropriately. Drug interactions Anticoagulants, NSAIDS, antiplatelet drugs, warfarin: Avoid use of ans chiquito if taking any of these medications due to potential risk of excessive bleeding as a result of interaction with coumarin derivatives. Clinical Data No clinical trials of the oral use of this herb have been identified in the available literature. One open clinical trial has evaluated the pediculicidal effects of anise oil in combination with other ingredients. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of this plant have been investigated in laboratory studies using in vitro or animal models: anticonvulsant, antidiuretic, antiflatulent, antifungal, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, estrogenic, expectorant, hypotensive, liver regeneration, muscle stimulant and mutagenic. * See entry for Ans chiquito in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Ans comino
See Hinojo. May also be comino (cumin; Cuminum cyminum) which is not included in this book.

Ans de comer
See Ans chiquito.

Ans de cocinar
See Ans chiquito.

Ans de estrella*
Chinese star anise (Illicium verum). Plant Part Used Fruit, seed. Dominican Medicinal Uses The fruits or seeds are traditionally prepared as a decoction and taken orally for flatulence, headache, indigestion, stomach ache, upper respiratory tract infection and cleansing the intestines.

24

Safety The fruit is generally considered safe for human consumption in small amounts and is widely used as a culinary spice. When taken in excessive quantities, isolated compounds from the fruit have shown neurotoxic effects in animal studies. Caution is advised due to possible adulteration with the highly poisonous lookalike, Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum). Contraindications Avoid use in small children due to potential contamination with misidentified toxic lookalike. Caution and avoidance is advised in patients with a history of convulsive disorders including epilepsy due to case reports of seizures associated with internal use of the tea. Caution advised in patients prior to surgery due to potential risk of increased bleeding. Drug Interactions Anticoagulants, antiplatelet medications and NSAIDS: based on animal studies in mice, star anise increases cytochrome P450 dependent 7ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase activity which may affect the metabolism of these drugs. Clinical Data No human clinical trials evaluating this plant species have been identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of this plant have been demonstrated in laboratory and preclinical studies using in vitro or animal models: antiangiogenic, antibacterial, antimicrobial, insecticidal, neurotropic and sepsis prevention. * See entry for Ans de estrella in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Aniscito
See Ans chiquito if the seed or fruit is the part of the plant most commonly used as an herbal remedy. If the leaves or other plant parts are used, see Aniseto.

Anise
See Ans.

Aniseto*
Cake bush (Piper marginatum). Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf is traditionally prepared as a decoction and taken orally for flatulence, indigestion and stomach pain. Safety No data on the safety of this plant in humans or animals has been identified in the available literature. Contraindications Insufficient information has been identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions Insufficient information has been identified in the available literature. Clinical Data No human clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of the essential oil or plant extracts have been demonstrated in laboratory studies using in vitro assays: antibacterial, antifungal and antiparasitic. * See entry for Aniseto in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Ans estrellada
See Ans de estrella.

Ans grande
See Ans de estrella.

Anisito
See Ans chiquito if the seeds are used most commonly. If the leaves or other plant parts are used, see Aniseto.

Ans pequeo
See Ans chiquito.

Apasote*
25

Wormseed (Chenopodium ambrosioides). Plant Part Used Leaf, aerial parts. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf and aerial parts are traditionally prepared as an infusion or crushed to extract their juice which is administered orally for colic, diarrhea, stomach ache, intestinal parasites and gas. Safety The leaves are widely consumed as a culinary seasoning in small amounts. Cases of contact dermatitis due to handling the plant have been reported. The leaves have shown relatively low toxicity in animal studies, and the seed oil and isolated constituents can be highly toxic. Contraindications Avoid use of the oil in pregnancy (due to abortifacient effects) and young children (< 4 y). Internal use is contraindicated in the following conditions: gastro-intestinal inflammation (mucosal irritant), heart disease (cardiac depressive), liver disease (hepatotoxic) and kidney disease (renotoxic). Drug Interactions Insufficient information identified in the available literature. Clinical Data The leaf and plant extract have been investigated in human clinical trials for the following effects: antiparasitic and antiascariasis. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following biological activities of this plant have been demonstrated in laboratory and preclinical studies using in vitro or animal models: in vivo: analgesic, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antiulcerogenic, sedative (plant extracts or constituents); anthelmintic, antifungal (essential oil). In vitro: analgesic, antibacterial, antimalarial, insecticidal, sedative (plant extracts or constituents); antifungal (essential oil). * See entry for Apasote in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Dominican Medicinal Uses The stalks and leaves are traditionally eaten raw or taken as a juice for treating obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes and menopausal hot flashes. Safety The stalks, leaf and root are widely consumed and generally considered safe. Cases of allergic reaction to the root have been reported. Plants infected with pink rot fungus can cause phototoxicoses. Contraindications Internal use of the seeds and essential oil are contraindicated during pregnancy (emmenagoge, abortifacient, uterine stimulating effects) and patients with renal disorders (potential kidneyirritating effect of oil). Drug Interactions Celery seeds and seed extract: anticoagulants, warfarin (risk of bleeding, drug potentiation); thyroxine (lowered T4 levels). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (plant extract); hepatoprotective (seeds). In vitro: antimicrobial, antioxidant (plant extract); cercaricidal (essential oil); vasodilation (chemical constituent). * See entry for Apio in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Apple
See Manzana.

Avena*
Oats, oatmeal, oatstraw (Avena sativa). Plant Part Used Seeds (oat grain), fruiting tops. Dominican Medicinal Uses Oats are traditionally boiled in water to make oatmeal or an oatmeal-like beverage and taken orally for high cholesterol, to stimulate lactation, for nutrition and strength and to relieve menopausal hot flashes. Safety Oats are commonly consumed and generally regarded as safe. They have shown low potential

Apio*
Celery (Apium graveolens variety dulce). Plant Part Used Stalk, leaves, roots, seeds.

26

for allergic reaction in gluten-sensitive individuals. Contraindications In patients with celiac disease, oats may cause gastrointestinal irritation, but they have been shown to be well-tolerated in recent clinical studies. Drug Interactions Lovastatin and statin drugs (impaired absorption of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors). Clinical Data The following effects of oats or oat extracts have been investigated in human clinical trials: antidiabetic, cholesterol-lowering, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, smoking cessation (grain extract or oat bran); antihyperlipidemic, antihypertensive, reduced heart disease risk, stimulation of bile acid secretion and synthesis, tolerance in celiac patients (whole-grain and oat bran); anti-skin irritant, burn wound-healing, itch reduction (topical oil-based preparation). * See entry for Avena in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

The following effects of the seed or seed extracts have been investigated in human clinical trials: improved urinary symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia and inhibited urolithiasis. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies the plant or seed extract has shown antiallergenic and hepatoprotective effects. In vitro, isolated compounds from the seed have shown antiproliferative activity. Nutritionally the fruit and flower are a significant source of pro-vitamin A and the seeds are a source of L-tryptophan. * See entry for Auyama in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Bao
Bath; common ingredients in baths include herbs, flowers, aguas (fragrant flower or plant essences, usually alcohol-based and artificially colored) and scented oils or perfumes; popular bath ingredients can be used individually or combined as a mixture of dried herbs and powders in packets or already prepared and infused in water. They are often sold at botnicas as packets or already prepared in litersize bottles (usually recycled plastic soda bottles, juice jugs or milk containers). Bath preparations are used therapeutically for physical illness or as part of spiritual healing traditions to attract positive energy or dispel unwanted energy.

Avocado
See Aguacate.

Auyama*
Squash, pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo & C. moschata). Plant Part Used Seeds, fruit pulp, oil. Dominican Medicinal Uses The seeds are traditionally prepared as an infusion and taken orally for diarrhea, intestinal parasites and worms. The fruit pulp is traditionally prepared as an infusion or juice for the common cold and flu. Safety The fruit and seeds are commonly consumed and generally regarded as safe. In animal studies the fruit was shown to be relatively nontoxic. Drug Interactions Warfarin (increased clotting time 1 case; based on a study using the multi-herb supplement Cucurbicin). Clinical Data

Basil
See Albahaca.

Batata*
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Plant Part Used Root (tuber), leaf, stem. Dominican Medicinal Uses The fresh root is traditionally prepared as a poultice and applied topically for burns and wounds. The root is also cooked and ingested, for womens health conditions and nutrition. The leaves and stems may be prepared as an aqueous

27

maceration and applied topically for woundhealing. Safety The tuber is widely consumed and generally considered safe except if contaminated by a toxic fungal infection. No data has been identified in the available literature on the safety of the leaves and stems. Clinical Data Human clinical trials: antidiabetic, improved vitamin A status (tuber). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antidiabetic, antioxidant, hypoglycemic (tuber, extracts or constituents). In vitro: aldose reductase inhibition, antimicrobial, antioxidant, immune-enhancing (tuber, extracts or constituents) * See entry for Batata in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Literally, drink; a mixture of plants (can be a few or several; i.e. up to 20-30 different plant species) prepared as a strong decoction, boiled for a long time and often sweetened and thickened after boiling with either molasses (melaza) or honey (miel de abeja); similar to a botella; often prescribed for womens health conditions, especially as a postpartum tonic.

Bejuco de barraco
See Timacle.

Bejuco de indio*
Chewstick (Gouania lupuloides). Plant Part Used Stem, leaf, root, water from inside stem. Dominican Medicinal Uses The stem is traditionally used in multi-herb preparations and taken orally for infections, kidney ailments, reproductive disorders, venereal disease, blood-cleansing, menstrual disorders, uterine fibroids and menopause symptoms. Safety No data on the safety of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature. This plant has shown some evidence of toxicity in animal studies, but more research is needed. Contraindications Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies the leaf and branch extract has shown muscle-relaxant effects. In vitro isolated compounds have demonstrated antiinflammatory and antimicrobial activity and CNS sedative effects and the plant extract has shown vasodilatory effects. * See entry for Bejuco de indio in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Batata de burro*
Caribbean coralfruit (Doyerea emetocathartica). Plant Part Used Leaf, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: tea for diabetes. Root: infusion or multiherb tincture, orally, for sexually transmitted infections, menstrual disorders, uterine fibroids, digestive and colon ailments. Safety No studies on the safety of this plant in humans or animals have been identified in the available literature. Contraindications Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. Clinical, Laboratory & Preclinical Data Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. * See entry for Batata de burro in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Bebedizo

Berenjena*
Eggplant (Solanum melongena). Plant Part Used

28

Fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses The raw fruit is traditionally chopped and soaked in water to extract its bitter constituents, and this water is taken as a drink for diabetes, high cholesterol and obesity. Safety The fruit is considered safe as a widely consumed vegetable. Clinical Data The fruit has been investigated in human clinical trials as a potential treatment for eye and vision problems due to its interocular pressurelowering effects. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In laboratory and preclinical studies the fruit constituents have shown antioxidant activity in animal models. The following activities of this plant have been demonstrated using in vitro assays: antioxidant, antitumor and spasmogenic. * See entry for Berenjena in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Bicarbonato de sodio
Baking soda; used as a gargle for sore throat and tonsillitis, sometimes combined with vinagre blanco (white vinegar) or with limn (lemon) and miel de abeja (honey); can be combined with other herbal remedies such as poultices that are applied externally.

Bija*
Annatto (Bixa orellana). Plant Part Used Seed coats, leaves. Dominican Medicinal Uses The powdered seed coats are traditionally combined with other plants to make a tea or vegetable juice drink for treating anemia, cysts, dysmenorrhea, tumors, uterine fibroids and to support post-partum recovery. The seeds coats and/or leaves are also used externally for topical burns, injury and musculoskeletal trauma. Safety The seeds and seed coats are generally regarded as safe and commonly used as a culinary flavoring and coloring agent. Animal studies have shown this plant to be relatively nontoxic, although allergic reactions reported. Contraindications Hypersensitivity; history of allergic reaction. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The seed extract has shown the following activities in animal studies: anti-inflammatory, chemopreventive, hyperglycemic. In vitro the plant extract has demonstrated antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial and antiplatelet effects, and the seed extract has shown antiinflammatory, anti-tumor and immunomodulatory activity. * See entry for Bija in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Berro*
Watercress (Nasturtium officinale). Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses The fresh leaf is traditionally eaten raw or juiced and administered orally for anemia, diabetes, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, heart disease, upper respiratory tract infection, bronchitis and tuberculosis. Safety The leaves and stems of this plant are widely consumed and generally regarded as safe. Caution is advised as this plant may carry liver flukes or other parasites if grown in contaminated water. Contraindications Pregnancy, children under 4 y, stomach or intestinal ulcers, inflammatory renal disease. Clinical Data Clinical: anticancer, chemopreventive, potential inhibition of oxidative metabolism of acetaminophen (fresh plant). * See entry for Berro in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Bitter melon
See Cundeamor.

Bitter orange
See Naranja agria.

29

Black nightshade
See Hierba mora.

Botella
Literally bottle; refers to multi-herb preparations that are administered orally or topically and are often stored in bottles; typically there are four different types of botellas: 1. multi-herb decoction made by boiling several plants (usually roots ) for a long time to make a strong brew and adding other ingredients for flavor, therapeutic effect and/or as preservatives; (see also bebedizo); 2. alcohol-based tincture prepared by steeping a combination of plants in alcohol (usually gin, rum or wine) for several days or weeks and using the alcohol extract medicinally; 3. oil mixture prepared by combining a number of vegetable and/or animal oils; usually administered by the spoonful; (see aceite). 4. juice mixture prepared by combining the fresh fruit, leaf or root juice (zumo or jugo) of different plants. The first two types of preparations are the most common ones referred to by the term botella.

Bohuco de indio
See Bejuco de indio.

Borraja
Indian heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum). Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaves are traditionally boiled in water and taken as a tea or bath for skin conditions including rash, papules, pustules, measles and chicken pox. Safety This plant contains toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. No studies on the safety of this plant in humans have been identified in the available literature. Cases of mortality in grazing animals due to ingestion of this plant have been reported. Clinical Data In human clinical trials, isolated plant constituents (alkaloids) have been investigated for their anti-cancer effects. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The leaves have shown anti-inflammatory activity in animal studies, and the ethanolic extract has shown wound-healing effects. In vitro, plant extracts have demonstrated antitumor activity.

Brasil*
Brazilwood (Caesalpinia brasiliensis and related species). Plant Part Used Wood. Dominican Medicinal Uses The wood is traditionally prepared as a cold infusion and taken orally for diabetes, high blood pressure, kidney infections, womens health conditions, menstrual disorders, poor circulation, uterine fibroids and cysts. Safety No studies on the safety of this plant in humans have been identified in the available literature. However, a related species has shown relatively low toxicity in animal studies. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The following activities have been reported in Caesalpinia species related to Brasil and may not reflect the bioactivity of Caesalpinia brasiliensis. In animal studies the seed kernel extract has shown antidiabetic and hypoglycemic activity and the leaf extract has shown muscle stimulant activity. In vitro, plant extracts have shown anticancer, antibacterial, antioxidant, antitumor and inhibition of nitric

Botnica
Store that sells herbs and religious or spiritual items from Latino and Afro-Caribbean traditions, such as candles, beads, statues of saints, perfume oils, incense, fragrant sprays, baths, plant-infused water, etc. Many botnicas offer consultations (consultas) with healers, herbalists or spiritual counselors. Botnicas can also serve as community gathering place similar to a church or place of worship and celebration for Espiritismo, Santera and other religions.

30

oxide formation, serine proteinase and xanthine oxidase effects. * See entry for Brasil in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Cabbage
See Repollo.

Cacao*
Chocolate (Theobroma cacao). Plant Part Used Leaf, seeds. Dominican Medicinal Uses The seeds are traditionally prepared as a tea by decoction (i.e. hot chocolate) taken orally for fatigue and weakness. The leaf decoction is used for kidney and urinary tract disorders. Safety Chocolate is widely consumed and generally regarded as safe. No data on the safety of the leaf has been identified in the available literature. Contraindications Avoid use in individuals with a history of heart disorders (due to cardiac stimulant effects) or hypersensitivity (due to potential skin reactions or migraines). Drug Interactions Avoid concomitant use with phenelzine due to potential for high blood pressure. The following medications may inhibit caffeine metabolism or clearance: oral contraceptives, cimetidine, furafylline, verapamil, disulfiram, fluconoazole, mexiletine, phenylpropanolamine, numerous quinolone antibiotics (i.e. enoxacin, pipemidic acid, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin), idrocilamide and methoxsalen. Clinical Data The following effects of the seed extract have been investigated in human clinical trials: antiulcer, antioxidant and decreased platelet function. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies the seed extract has shown anti-ulcer effects. In vitro the seed extracts and/or constituents have shown antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-tumor, cardio-protective, dopaminergic, immunomodulatory and red blood cell production stimulant effects. * See entry for Cacao in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Brazilwood
See Brasil.

Bruja*
Life plant (Kalanchoe pinnata). Note: this name can also refer to: Mala madre. Distinguishing feature: bruja leaves are shorter than those of mala madre. Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaves are traditionally heated until wilted and squeezed to extract the juice from inside the leaf which is applied topically for earache. The bruised, fresh leaves are also applied topically for headache, and the fresh leaves or leaf juice are taken orally for stomach ache and ulcers. Safety In a clinical case report, the leaf extract (30 g fresh leaves per day taken orally for 14 days) did not show any signs of toxicity or adverse effects in one adult female patient. The leaf orally administered to mice for 30 days did not show signs of toxicity to the liver, heart or kidney. Contraindications No information has been identified in the available literature on the safety of this plant in children or during pregnancy or lactation. Clinical Data In one clinical case report the leaf extract was investigated for its potential in treating leishmaniasis. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies the leaf extract has shown antitumor effects and the leaf juice has shown hepatoprotective activity. In vitro, the leaf extract or constituents have demonstrated antitumor and uterine stimulant effects. * See entry for Bruja in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

31

Cadillo de gato*
Cockleburr (Xanthium strumarium). Plant Part Used Leaf, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf and root are traditionally prepared as a tea by decoction and taken orally for kidney, gallbladder, liver disorders and hepatitis. Safety No data on the safety of this plant has been identified in the available literature. Animal toxicity studies suggest that therapeutic use of this plant may be considered safe in moderation. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies the leaf extract has shown antitrypanosomal and cytotoxic effects and the fruit extract has exhibited CNS depressant and antidiabetic activity. In vitro, isolated plant constituents have shown anti-tumor, antimalarial and antimicrobial effects and the leaf extract has demonstrated cytotoxic effects. * See entry for Cadillo de gato in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

* See entry for Cadillo de gato in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Caf*
Coffee (Coffea arabica). Plant Part Used Seed, leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses The roasted seeds are traditionally brewed to prepare coffee and taken orally as a laxative, diuretic, stimulant, blood cleanser and for treating sexually transmitted infections or used as a mouthwash for toothache and inflammation of the mouth or gums. The seeds tinctured in alcohol are applied topically for arthritis and muscle pain. The leaves are typically prepared as a tea by infusion and taken orally for diarrhea, and may also be prepared as a bath for skin ailments. Safety The seeds and seed decoction are widely consumed and generally considered safe. One of the primary active constituents in coffee is caffeine. Potential adverse effects from excess coffee intake include diarrhea, insomnia, headache, heart palpitations, hyperacidity and stomach irritation. No data on the safety of the leaf in humans has been identified in the available literature. In animal studies, the leaf showed no evident signs of toxicity. Contraindications Excess caffeine consumption (including coffee) is not advised during pregnancy or lactation. Caution is advised in patients with renal dysfunction and hyperthyroidism. No data on the safety of the leaves in pregnancy, lactation or small children has been identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions Coffee may interfere with drug resorption. The following medications may inhibit caffeine metabolism or clearance: oral contraceptives, cimetidine, furafylline, verapamil, disulfiram, fluconoazole, mexiletine, phenylpropanolamine, numerous quinolone antibiotics (i.e. enoxacin, pipemidic acid, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin), idrocilamide and methoxsalen. Clinical Data

Cadillo tres pies

Gingerbush (Pavonia spinifex). Plant Part Used Leaf, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf and root are traditionally prepared as a tea by decoction and administered orally for disorders of the kidney, gallbladder or liver, blood in the urine, hepatitis, sexually transmitted infections, uterine fibroids, tumors, cysts and menopausal hot flashes. Safety Insufficient information identified. Contraindications Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data The chloroform extract of the plant has shown antibacterial activity in vitro.

32

Caffeine has been investigated in human clinical trials for its cognitive enhancement effects, and coffee has been studied as a colonic stimulant and common cold treatment. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies, coffee has shown hypercholesterolemic effects, and in vitro it has shown antioxidant activity. * See entry for Caf in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Calabaza
See Auyama.

Calaguala
Rabbits foot fern (Polypodium aureum). Plant Part Used Leaf (fern frond). Dominican Medicinal Uses The leaf is traditionally prepared as an infusion and taken orally for the common cold, flu and upper respiratory tract infections. Safety In a human clinical trial of the plant extract, no toxic or adverse effects were reported. Contraindications Insufficient information identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions Insufficient information identified in the available literature. Clinical Data The plant extract has been studied in one human clinical trial for its photoprotective effects and was recommended as a potential therapy. Laboratory & Preclinical Data Plant extracts have shown antiparasitic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, immunosuppressant effects in animal studies. Isolated constituents (calagualine) or plant extracts have shown antitumor, antiviral, immunomodulatory and leukotriene formation inhibition activity in vitro.

Cajuil*
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale). Plant Part Used Seed case, dried bark. Dominican Medicinal Uses Traditionally the dried bark or seed case is prepared as a decoction by boiling in water and taken orally for diarrhea in both children and adults. Safety The fresh seed case is a potent skin irritant and is considered poisonous although roasting neutralizes this toxin. The juice of the fruit-stem is widely consumed as a beverage and generally considered safe. The seeds are commonly eaten and considered safe as long as they are properly roasted and processed. No information on the safety of the dried seed case or bark has been identified in the available literature. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In animal studies, the nut extract in milk has demonstrated antiarthritic and antioxidant effects, and the aqueous plant extract has shown antidiabetic activity. Extracts of the bark have shown anti-inflammatory and hypoglycemic activity, and the nut shell oil and fruit stem juice have demonstrated antioxidant effects in vivo. In vitro, extracts of the plant or bark have exhibited antibacterial, antifungal, antileishmaniasis, tyrosinase inhibition and vasorelaxant activity. * See entry for Cajuil in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Calcio
Calcium; this powdered mineral is often added as a supplement to herbal and other medicinal preparations and is often used in the treatment of anemia.

Camphor
See Alcanfor.

Canela*
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum or Cinnamomum cassia). Plant Part Used Inner bark.

Calabash
See Higero.

33

Dominican Medicinal Uses The inner bark is traditionally prepared as a decoction and taken orally for allergy, anxiety, arthritis, low blood pressure, kidney ailments, common cold, flu, sinusitis and womens health conditions. Safety The bark is generally regarded as safe and widely consumed as a culinary spice. Excessive or prolonged use may cause irritation. Contraindications Large quantities of cinnamon should not be during pregnancy due to potential teratogenic effects. Drug Interactions Methacyclines (interferes with dissolution). Clinical Data Human clinical trials: antidiabetic (bark). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antioxidant (bark). In vitro: antibacterial, antifungal, headlice treatment, HEp-2 treatment (essential oil). * See entry for Canela in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

* See entry for Canelilla in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Canfor
See Alcanfor.

Caafstula*
Golden shower tree (Cassia fistula). Plant Part Used Fruit (seed pod). Dominican Medicinal Uses Seed pods: decoction, orally, for constipation, to expel worms and as a laxative. Safety No health risks identified in literature for proper use; however, long-term or excessive use can have adverse effects. Contraindications Pregnancy, lactation, children under 12 y; persons with acute intestinal inflammatory disease or appendicitis. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-diabetic (leaf and bark extracts), antifertility, sedative, CNS depressant (seed extract), anti-inflammatory (leaf extract), antineoplastic, anti-tumor (fruit extract), antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic. In vitro: anti-alzheimers (root extract), antibacterial. * See entry for Caafstula in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Canelilla*
Allspice, bay rum tree (Pimenta dioica). Plant Part Used Leaf, berry, essential oil. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: tea for common cold, flu; externally: mashed and applied topically for arthritis, joint pain; multi-herb tincture: taken internally for impotence, infertility, sexually transmitted infections. Berries, essential oil: externally for joint pain. Safety Potential hypersensitivity to essential oil. Leaf extract: low to moderate toxicity when taken orally. Contraindications Lack of information on use in pregnancy, lactation or young children. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: antibacterial, antifungal (essential oil). In vivo: anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive (leaf extract).

Cardo Santo*
Mexican prickly poppy (Argemone mexicana). Plant Part Used Leaf, flower, root and stem. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf/whole herb: prepared as a tea for bloodcleansing, cancer, stomach ulcers, delayed menstruation, vaginal infection, menopause symptoms; prepared as a douche for vaginal infection and inflammation; as a multi-herb mixture for ovarian cysts, uterine fibroids and tumors; root: boiled tea for stomach pain. Safety

34

Entire plant shown to be hepatotoxic due to sanguinarine and alkaloid content, especially concentrated in the seeds; internal use strongly cautioned against. Contraindications Pregnancy, lactation, children. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: antifungal, anti-HIV, anti-tumor, morphine-withdrawal alleviation, uterine stimulant (organic plant extracts). * See entry for Cardo santo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Cartlago de tiburn
Shark cartilage; reported for use in preventing or treating cancer, tumors and uterine fibroids, sometimes combined with medicinal plants in home remedies; it is also taken for nourishing brain function.

Bulb. Dominican Medicinal Uses Bulb: raw, taken internally, for asthma, bronchitis, common cold, flu, upper respiratory tract infections. Safety Commonly consumed as food; generally considered safe; potentially irritating to stomach or skin if taken in large quantities. Contraindications None identified. Drug Interactions Platelet aggregation inhibitors (potentiated). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antiasthmatic, antihyperlipidemic, antiartherosclerosis, antioxidant, anti-platelet aggregant, anti-tumor. In vitro: (oil, aqueous extract) antibacterial, antifungal. * See entry for Cebolla in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Carrot
See Zanahoria.

Cebolla roja
See Cebolla.

Cscara de _________
Typically means bark or fruit rind of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Cebolln
See Cebolla.

Celery
See Apio.

Cashew
See Cajuil.

Chamomile
See Manzanilla.

Cataplasma
Poultice; an external application of herbs (either mashed up fresh or boiled and then cooled before applying to the affected area); often used for skin conditions or muscle pain.

Chocolate
See Cacao.

Cats claw
See Ua de gato.

Cilantro*
Cilantro, coriander (Coriandrum sativum). Plant Part Used Leaf, seed. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: infusion/decoction, orally, for gastrointestinal disorders: flatulence, gastritis, acidreflux, heartburn, indigestion and stomach pain.

Cebolla*
Onion (Allium cepa; cebolln = var. aggregata). Plant Part Used

35

Safety Widely consumed as a condiment; generally considered safe; potential for hypersensitivity. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: hypolipidemic (seeds), inflammatory bowel disease treatment (multi-herbal extract). In vitro: antioxidant (seed aqueous extract). * See entry for Cilantro in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Cilantro ancho
See Cilantro.

Cinnamon
See Canela.

Coco*
Coconut (Cocos nucifera). Plant Part Used Fruit, oil. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: milk, orally, for kidney infection, kidney stones, intestinal parasites, asthma; oil, orally, for asthma, cough, bronchitis and pulmonary infection. Safety Widely consumed and generally considered safe; potential for cross-reactivity in individuals with nut allergies Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: hypolipidemic (flavonoids). In vitro: anti-tumor (husk extract), antibacterial (plant extracts). * See entry for Coco in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Leaves and stems: decoction, orally, for bladder, urinary tract or kidney infection, kidney stones, kidney ailments (general), infections (general), vaginal infections, menstrual cramps, to cleanse the blood and as a diuretic. Safety Considered safe when used appropriately; must be taken with plenty of water due to diuretic effect; high silica content may be toxic if plant is ingested. Contraindications Children, case of heart or kidney disorders. Drug Interactions Cardiac glycosides, digitalis (may enhance toxicity); thiamine (breaks down vitamin). Clinical Data Human clinical trials: diuretic (aqueous plant extract), metabolism effects and renal excretion (standardized extract). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: diuretic, anti-ulcer, gastroprotective, hypoglycemic (organic plant extracts). In vitro: anti-platelet-aggregant, antimicrobial, contractile response enhancement, cytogenic, hepatoprotective, radical scavenging (plant extracts and constituents). * See entry for Cola de caballo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Corteza de __________
Means bark of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Cranberry*
Cranberry (Scientific name). Plant Part Used Fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: juice, orally, urinary tract infection, kidney ailments, high cholesterol. Safety Juice is widely consumed and generally considered safe. In a clinical trail, ingestion of fruit extract tablets caused increase in urinary oxalate levels and may indicate risk of nephrolithiasis. Drug Interactions

Coffee
See Caf.

Cola de caballo*
Horsetail (Equisetum species). Plant Part Used Leaf-stem. Dominican Medicinal Uses

36

Warfarin (risk of bleeding). Clinical Data Human clinical trials: anti-inflammatory, antiadhesion of urinary bacteria, antioxidant, heart disease prevention, urinary tract infection treatment and prevention (juice). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: antibacterial, anticancer, antifungal, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral (fruit juice or constituents). * See entry for Cranberry in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Cristal
Gel; the clear gel from inside the leaves of Aloe vera; see Sbila.

Leaf, stem: decoction, orally, for diabetes, fever, stomach problems, menstrual disorders, dysmenorrhea, vaginal infection, excess vaginal discharge, sexually transmitted infection, menopausal hot flashes, cancer; fresh juice or decoction, poultice or wash, topically, for skin rash, measles, insect bites, itching and skin infection. Safety Shown to be relatively non-toxic for internal and external use in animal studies. Contraindications Pregnancy, lactation, children < 3 years. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: anthelmintic (fresh fruit juice), antimicrobial (leaf and extracts). * See entry for Cundeamor in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Cuaba*
Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea). Plant Part Used Wood. Dominican Medicinal Uses Wood: decoction, gargle for sore throat; decoction, for arthritis, joint pain, body aches, blood-cleansing, menopausal symptoms and to induce abortion. Safety No adverse effects known associated with proper use of needles or oil; however, data is needed on the safety of the internal use of the wood decoction. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In laboratory studies, Pinus species have shown the following effects: anti-influenza virus (pine cone extract), anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant (pitch/tar extracts); antitumor (cone constituents); antiviral (plant extracts). * See entry for Cuaba in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Dandelion
See Diente de len.

Decoction
An aqueous extract of one or a few herbs ; a common method for preparing tea (t) or tizana; typically 2 teaspoons of dried plant material (1/4 cup if fresh) are boiled in hot water, either in a covered pot to trap volatile oils or with the cover removed so that the water boils off for a more concentrated brew; typically, roots and woody, fibrous plant matter are boiled for a longer period of time and flowers or leaves are boiled for a shorter period of time because less time is needed to extract their properties; most Dominican herbal remedies are prepared as decoctions; see also infusion and t.

Despojo
Energetic cleansing; literally, dispossession; often done ritually, using the recitation of prayers, burning of incense and bundles of herbs which are swept or shaken over the body or in ones living space to dispel negative or unwanted energy. This can also be accomplished through using a medicinal bath (bao) and/or washing ones living area with an herbal preparation.

Cundeamor*
Bitter melon (Momordica charantia). Plant Part Used Leaf, stem, aerial parts. Dominican Medicinal Uses

37

See Apasote.

Diente de len*
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Plant Part Used Leaf, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: fresh juice, orally, for liver conditions. Safety Leaves are widely consumed and generally considered safe; root and leaf: relatively nontoxic. Contraindications Root: digestive, biliary or gallbladder conditions, stomach inflammation, irritable bowel, digestive weakness, bowel obstruction (due to laxative, stomach acid stimulating& cholagogue effects); Drug Interactions Lithium (potential exacerbation of toxicity). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, bile flow stimulant (root extracts); diuretic, hypoglycemic (leaf water extract). In vitro: anti-inflammatory in CNS, anti-tumor, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, nitric oxide production, insulin secretion (root or plant extract); antioxidant (flowers), Nutritional: potassium. * See entry for Diente de Len in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Eucalipto*
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). Plant Part Used Leaf, essential oil. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: infusion or decoction, orally or inhaled vapor, for asthma, common cold, flu-like symptoms, congestion, cough and pulmonary infection. Safety Leaves considered safe for internal and external use if administered appropriately; essential oil is highly toxic if taken internally and may cause allergic reaction when administered topically; vapor inhalation may transmit fungal spores. Contraindications Young children and infants (inhalation or topical administration my lead to respiratory disorders); gastro-intestinal inflammatory conditions (internal use may irritate mucosa), history of allergy or hypersensitivity to eugenol (essential oil constituent). Drug Interactions Antidiabetic drugs (may potentiate effect), barbiturates (may decrease effect), pyrrolizidinecontaining herbs (may exacerbate hepatotoxic effects). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-inflammatory, bronchitis treatment (essential oil). In vitro: antibacterial, antioxidant (essential oil) * See entry for Eucalipto in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Ducha
Douche; also means shower when used in a non-therapeutic context; for a vaginal douche, herbs or other preparations are used to wash or irrigate the vagina. Also called ducha vaginal or lavado vaginal.

Eucalyptus
See Eucalipto.

Ducha vaginal
Vaginal douche; see ducha.

Extracto de malta
Malt extract; contains alcohol; sometimes added to herbal preparations.

Eggplant
See Berenjena.

Fennel
See Hinojo.

Epazote

38

Flecha
An aromatic, alcohol-based liniment containing menthol, eucalyptus oil, methyl salicylate and other ingredients; Chinese formula; manufactured in the Dominican Republic; used externally for joint and muscle pain.

Flor de __________
Means flower of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Fruta de __________
Means fruit of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Leaf: considered safe when used appropriately; low toxicity of shown in animal and clinical studies. No information on safety of the bark. Contraindications No information on safety of leaf or bark in children and pregnant or lactating women. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antidiabetic, hypoglycemic (bark extracts). In vitro: antibacterial, antiprotozoal and antioxidant (organic plant extracts); antisecretory (bark extract); enzyme inhibition (bark extracts). * See entry for Gucima in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Guajabo*
Senna (Senna alata). Plant Part Used Leaf, flower. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: decoction, orally, for blood-cleansing, infection, diarrhea, parasites; topically as a wash for skin disease and pao. Safety Considered safe for therapeutic use when administered appropriately; relatively low toxicity shown in animal studies; avoid prolonged or excessive use. Contraindications Intestinal obstruction, gastro-intestinal inflammatory disease, anal prolapse, hemorrhoids, pregnancy, lactation, children < 12 y, abdominal pain or appendicitis of unknown origin. Drug Interactions Diuretics, cardiac glycosides. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: bovine dermatophilosis treatment (leaf extract). In vitro: anti-inflammatory (leaf extract), antimicrobial (leaf and bark extracts), platelet aggregation inhibition (leaf constituent). * See entry for Guajabo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Grgara
Gargle; it is often used for sore throat, cough and inflammation of the gums or mouth. This remedy can be prepared as an infusion of medicinal plant(s) or as a mixture of the fresh plant juice and other ingredients such as salt (sal), baking soda (soda bicarbonato) or honey (miel de abeja); this preparation is typically used only as a gargle and is not swallowed. Similar terms: buche (mouthwash) and enjuague (mouthrinse).

Grapefruit
See Toronja.

Gucima*
West Indian elm (Guazuma ulmifolia). Plant Part Used Root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: decoction, orally, for cough, common cold and flu symptoms. Bark: multi-herb decoction, orally, for menstrual disorders, fibroids, ovarian cysts, menopausal symptoms. Safety

Guanbana*
39

Soursop (Annona muricata). Plant Part Used Leaf, fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: tea, orally, for common cold, flu, musculoskeletal injury, menopausal symptoms, nervousness/anxiety; externally as a bath for fever in children. Fruit: eaten, diuretic and feverreducing. Safety Fruits are commonly consumed; reports of toxicity from ingestion of leaves in humans; contradictory results from animal toxicity studies; possibly implicated in atypical parkinsonism in the Caribbean. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antioxidant (stem bark alcohol extract). In vitro: human serotonin receptor binding activity, antiviral (HSV-1), cytotoxic in cancer cells, molluscicidal in schistosomiasis vector (plant extracts and constituents). * See entry for Guanbana in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Fruit (dried seed pod). Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit (dried seed pod): decoction, gargle or mouthwash, for sore throat, tonsillitis, toothache, oral inflammation or infection; decoction, douche, for vaginal infection, inflammation of the ovaries, venereal disease, menstrual disorders, pelvic pain and cleansing the reproductive system; decoction, orally, fever, inflammation and infection. Safety Unknown; no information found. Clinical, Laboratory & Preclinical Data No data identified in the literature. See Brasil for information on closely related species. * See entry for Guatapanl in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Guayacn*
Lignum vitae (Guaiacum officinale). Plant Part Used Stem, wood. Dominican Medicinal Uses Stem, wood: tincture, orally, for upper respiratory tract infections, skin ailments, arthritis and venereal disease; tincture, externally, for arthritis, rheumatism, joint pain (also orally in small amount); decoction, externally, to prevent hair loss. Safety Considered safe is used appropriately; adverse effects include skin rash, diarrhea, gastroenteritis and intestinal colic. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In an animal study of a closely related Guaiacum species, the following effects were shown: anti-inflammatory and hypoglycemic. * See entry for Guayacn in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Guandl*
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Plant Part Used Leaf, root, seed (bean). Dominican Medicinal Uses Seeds: cooked as a legume for nutrition. Leaf: poultice, applied externally for arthritis and joint pain. Root: strong decoction, to induce abortion. Safety Seeds widely consumed and generally considered safe; plant extracts have shown toxic effects in animal studies; more information needed to determine safety of plant in humans. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: antibacterial, antimicrobial, antigonorrheal (leaf extracts); antimalarial (root constituents); antisickling (seed extract). * See entry for Guandl in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Guazuma
See Gucima.

Guatapanl*
Divi divi (Caesalpinia coriaria). Plant Part Used

Hierba mora*
Black nightshade (Solanum americanum; also, Solanum nigrescens).

40

Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: decoction, orally, for allergies, vaginal infections, cysts, fibroids, cancer (early stages), blood-cleansing, childbirth and postpartum recovery. Safety Leaf extracts in moderate amounts have shown relatively low toxicity; in excess, can cause adverse reactions; fruits contain toxic alkaloids. Clinical Data Human clinical trials: treatment of vaginal candidiasis (plant extract). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: immunomodulatory (leaf extract). In vitro: antidermatophytic, antifungal (plant extract); antimicrobial (leaf extract); antitrypanosomal (plant extract). * See entry for Hierba mora in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Higero*
Calabash (Crescentia cujete). Plant Part Used Fruit pulp. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit pulp: added fresh to multi-herb preparations, taken internally for infections in general, vaginal infections, infertility, fibroids, cysts, menopausal symptoms, childbirth and post-partum recovery. Safety Signs of toxicity exhibited in birds and cattle. Contraindications Pregnancy; not to be used for ear infection if ear secretions or perforation of ear drum is evident. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: antimicrobial (leaf and stem ethanol extracts, fruit pulp). In vivo: anti-inflammatory (hydroalcoholic leaf extract). * See entry for Higero in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Hierbabuena*
Mint (Mentha species). Plant Part Used Leaf, stalk, flower. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves and stems: tea, orally, for stomach pain, indigestion, stress, anxiety, diabetes, menstrual cramps; poultice, externally, for topical burns and minor abrasions. Safety Widely consumed and generally considered safe. Laboratory & Preclinical Data Antispasmodic, antiflatulent, stimulant, antimicrobial and sedative. * See entry for Hierbabuena in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Hinojo*
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). Plant Part Used Seeds. Dominican Medicinal Uses Seeds: decoction, orally, for digestive ailments, flatulence, stomach pain, pasmo, infant colic, inflammation, allergy, sinus infection and womens health. Leaves: decoction, orally, for stomach ache, indigestion and gas. Safety Widely consumed and considered safe; caution advised if used in anise tea: seeds are often combined with ans de estrella which may be adulterated by poisonous look-alike. Contraindications Essential oil: epileptics, young children, pregnancy; herb considered safe for children and pregnant women. Clinical Data Human clinical trial: infant colic treatment (seed extract and essential oil emulsion). * See entry for Hinojo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Hierro
Iron; used for the treatment of anemia and other illnesses; typically sold as a powder; added as an ingredient to botellas and herbal preparations; often sold in the amount of a single dose, packaged in an envelope (sobre).

41

Hoja de __________
Means leaf of (plant name; look up the plant name following this description of the plant part used.

Phytochemical: anti-tumor (identified active compounds in leaves and fruit). * See entry for Jagua in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Horsetail
See Cola de caballo.

Jarabe
Syrup; typically prepared one of two ways: 1. a strong aqueous decoction or infusion of a plant, reduced to a fraction of its original volume by boiling for an extended period of time and then thickened or sweetened with molasses (melaza), honey (miel de abeja) or sugar (azucar). 2. Jarabe can also be prepared with raw plant ingredients such as raw garlic (ajo), onion (cebolla, cebolln), aloe vera gel (sbila), fresh lemon juice (limn) and/or a sweetener (see above); administered orally by the spoonful.

Huevo
Egg; also, yema de huevo (egg yolk); used for treating anemia; said to fortify red blood cells; eggshell (cscara de huevo) can be added as an ingredient to home remedies.

Infusion
An aqueous extract of one or a few herbs ; a common method for preparing tea (t); typically 2 teaspoons of dried plant material (1/4 cup if fresh) in 1 cup of hot (boiling) water, infused for 10-15 minutes; technically, an infusion is not boiled, whereas when making a decoction, the herbs are boiled in water. Most Dominican herbal remedies are prepared as decoctions.

Jugo de __________
Means juice of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant preparation used.

Lavado vaginal
Vaginal wash; see ducha.

Jabn de cuaba
Pine tar soap, particularly from the Caribbean pine; used as an external treatment in home remedies.

Lavender
See Alhucema.

Jagua*
Genipap (Genipa americana). Plant Part Used Fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: juice or cold water extract, for high blood pressure, infection, inflammation, kidney ailments, blood purification, diuretic, headache, vaginal infection, menopausal symptoms, menstrual disorders, prevention of cysts, fibroids and tumors. Safety The fruit is widely consumed in tropical regions. Laboratory & Preclinical Data

Leche
Milk; usually cows milk; sometimes used as a substitute for water in the preparation of herbal remedies; can also be coconut milk (leche de coco); cows milk reported for use in treating kidney ailments and anemia and for preparing decoctions of calabaza or auyama seeds.

Lechosa*
Papaya (Carica papaya). Plant Part Used Fruit (ripe and unripe), papain enzymes. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: eaten for digestive ailments, flatulence, stomachache, intestinal pain, heartburn, heart

42

disease, hypertension, menopausal hot flashes, urinary tract infection, skin infection. Safety Ripe fruit is widely consumed and generally considered safe; topical application of the unripe fruit did not show toxicity in rabbits; other plant preparations have shown mixed results in animal toxicity studies. Contraindications Pregnancy and lactation (unripe fruit and papain); children under 12 years (due to lack of clinical data); history of hypersensitivity to fruit. Drug Interactions Warfarin (w/papain may cause excessive bleeding). Clinical Data Human clinical trials: guinea worm infection (leaves), immunomodulation (papain enzymes), burn wound-healing (fruit). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: abortifacient (unripe fruit constituents), anthelmintic (latex), antifertilityinhibits sperm motility (seed extract), antihypertensive (unripe fruit ethanolic extract); anti-ulcer (unripe fruit latex); diuretic (root); reversible azoospermia (seed extract). In vitro: antiamoebic (seed extract), antihypertensive (unripe fruit ethanolic extract), antimicrobial, antioxidant (unripe fruit and seed), anti-salmonella (leaf and root extracts), immunomodulatory, immunostimulatory (seed extract), uterine stimulatory (fruit latex extract). * See entry for Lechosa in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Fruit: juice or tea, orally for common cold, flu, kidney stones, musculoskeletal injury, diarrhea; juice, topically, for burns, bruises and dermatological conditions. Root: multi-herb decoction or tincture, orally, menstrual disorders. Safety Fruit is widely consumed and generally considered safe; little data available on safety of root and leaves. Laboratory & Preclinical Data Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, diuretic, nutritive. * See entry for Limn in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Limoncillo*
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus). Plant Part Used Leaf, stalk. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf/stalk: infusion, orally, for asthma, common cold, flu-symptoms, stomach ailments, indigestion, gastro-intestinal pain, diarrhea (in children), menopausal hot flashes, arthritis, internal bruising and musculoskeletal injury. Safety This plant is nontoxic according to clinical studies; the essential oil potential may cause allergic reaction to skin or lung irritation if inhaled. Contraindications Pregnancy. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, lowered heart rate (leaf infusion, essential oil); antinociceptive (essential oil); chemopreventive, inhibition of hepatocarcinogenesis (leaf extract); hypocholesterolemic (leaves). In vitro: antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, polyphenol oxidase inhibition (essential oil or constituents); enzyme inhibition, vasorelaxant (leaf/stalk extract). * See entry for Limoncillo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Lemon
See Limn.

Lemongrass
See Limoncillo.

Limn*
Lemon (Citrus spp.; typically Citrus limon). Plant Part Used Fruit, leaf, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses

Limpieza
43

Cleaning, cleansing or clearing; this term has two uses: to describe (1.) the internal cleansing action of remedies inside the body; or (2.) an external spiritual/energetic cleansing ritual: 1. Herbal preparations taken internally are sometimes said to cleanse the body [internally] (limpiar el sistema), particularly the digestive tract, kidneys, liver and/or reproductive system; in this sense, it can be used to describe laxative or diuretic herbs, remedies that cleanse the blood or preparations that clear obstruction in the reproductive system. 2. a cleansing ritual is performed using herbs and/or other items to ritually clear or dispel unwanted energy around a persons body or in a physical space (i.e. a room, house, office or car); this ritual often includes the use of incense, prayer and bundles of herbs that are swept or shaken over the body or in ones living space. Often, water-based preparations of herbs, fragrant aguas and/or perfume oils are used for washing ones living area, especially the floor; then a similar mixture of herbs is prepared as a bath for washing the physical body as part of this spiritual/energetic cleansing ritual.

(constituents), antinociceptive (seed and leaf extract), antitumor (leaf). In vitro: antiviral, immuno-enhancing, laxative and gastroprotective (extracts and compounds). * See entry for Llantn in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Lydia Pinkham
Manufactured herbal preparation sold at botnicas and used for womens health conditions, including menopause, infertility, vaginal infections, menstrual irregularities and uterine fibroids.

Maguey*
Agave, tequila plant (Agave species). Plant Part Used Leaf, husk/bark, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: tea, orally, for stomach ache, ulcers; fresh juice added to mixture for asthma, lung infection; applied externally for headache, sprains and muscle strain; alcohol tincture for sexually transmitted infections; decoction, douche for vaginal infection. Bark/husk: decoction, orally for arthritis, joint pain and to cleanse the blood; multi-herb internal mixture for cysts, fibroids, tumors. Safety Little data on toxicity; contact dermatitis reported due to oxalate crystals in leaves. Contraindications Pregnancy. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-inflammatory (plant extract). In vitro: inhibition of cell division and capillary permeability (plant extracts and constituents). * See entry for Maguey in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Linden
See Tilo.

Llantn*
Plantain (Plantago major or P. lanceolata). Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: fresh juice or tea, orally, for liver disorders, vaginal infections, high cholesterol, stomach ache, menopausal symptoms, abortion; juice, externally, wound-healing; as a salve or poultice, externally, for headache, migraine and nausea. Safety Results of toxicity studies and published literature. Clinical Data Human clinical trials: bronchitis treatment (plant extract). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antibacterial (leaf compound), antidiarrheal (leaf extract), chemopreventive

Mala madre*
Palm beach-bells (Kalanchoe gastonisbonnieri). Plant Part Used Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses

44

Leaf: decoction, orally, for pain, infection, inflammation; as a douche, for vaginal infection; added to multi-herb preparations for menstrual disorders, uterine fibroids, ovarian cysts, menopausal symptoms and tumors. Safety Animal studies have shown moderate- to low toxicity when administered orally. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antifertility and contraceptive effects on sperm (leaf juice). * See entry for Mala madre in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Malta alemana
German malt beverage; strong, bitter taste; used as a remedy by itself or combined with other ingredients; often added to botellas or bebedizos.

Manteca
Butter; can be butter from cows milk or the semi-solid fat of certain animals, such as snake butter (manteca de culebra) or iguana butter (manteca de iguana).

Malagueta*
Allspice (Pimenta dioica). Plant Part Used Unripe, dried fruit (seeds). Dominican Medicinal Uses Seeds: tea (decoction), orally for diabetes, depression, lack of energy, menstrual disorders, internal cleansing, post-partum depression, gastro-intestinal ailments, nausea, stress, anxiety, sinus infection, allergy and respiratory infection. Safety Widely used as a culinary spice, generally considered safe; low toxicity shown in animal studies. Contraindications No information available on use in children or during pregnancy or lactation. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-hemorrhage due to snake venom (organic plant extract). In vitro: antioxidant (seed/berry constituents). * See entry for Malagueta in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Manzana*
Apple (Malus pumila). Plant Part Used Leaf, root, flower, fruit, bulb, bark, whole plant. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: raw, ingested, for treatment or prevention of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease and nutrition; tea, orally, for common cold, flu-like symptoms, menopausal hot flashes and relaxation. Safety Fruit is widely consumed and generally considered safe. Clinical Data Human clinical trials: alleviation of gastrointestinal enteritis (fruit). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic (ethanol extract). In vitro: antioxidant (phenols). * See entry for Manzana in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Manzanilla*
Chamomile (Matricaria recutita & Chamaemelum nobile). Plant Part Used Flower. Dominican Medicinal Uses Flowers: decoction/infusion, orally, for anxiety, nervousness, stress, insomnia (adults and children), menstrual cramps, post-partum recovery, childbirth and regulating blood pressure.

Malta
Malt beverage; malt beverage; used as a remedy by itself or combined with other ingredients; two main brands: Malta India and Malta Morena; often added to botellas or bebedizos.

45

Safety Considered safe for internal use; slight potential for hypersensitivity, especially in patients with a history of allergic reaction to Aster species. Contraindications Pregnancy: oral administration of whole plant extract at high doses may have emmenagogue effects; however, flower extracts have not shown this effect. Clinical Data Clinical case report: mouthwash for oral mucositis (plant extract). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antipruritic, antiulcerogenic (plant extract); anxiolytic (constituents); hypoglycemic (aerial parts of Chamaemelum nobile). In vitro: antifungal (plant extracts). * See entry for Manzanilla in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Naranja agria*
Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium). Plant Part Used Leaf, fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: decoction, orally, common cold, flu, headache; poultice or salve, externally, for headache, sinusitis. Fruit: juice, decoction, for diarrhea. Safety Considered safe if used appropriately. Clinical Data Human clinical trial: antifungal (essential oil). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: antioxidant (constituent), insecticidal (fruit peel extract), relaxant (essential oil). * See entry for Naranja agria in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Melaza
Molasses; made from sugar cane; contains many minerals and vitamins that are not found in refined sugar; often added to home remedies or teas as a sweetener and for medicinal purposes; also called Miel de pulga.

Oat, oatmeal, oastraw

See Avena.

Onion
See Cebolla.

Miel, miel de abeja

Honey; bee honey; often used for sweetening teas and infusions or for making syrups (jarabes); used in treatments for asthma, gripe, pecho apretado and anemia; given to children.

Organo
This common name can refer to several different plant species, but most commonly designates organo de comer. Other types of oregano are listed below and will be included in forthcoming editions of this book. - Organo poleo (Coleus amboinicus) - Organo mejorana (Origanum marjorana) - Oreganillo (Lippia micromera)

Miel de rosa
Rose honey; used in home remedies; sometimes given to children when teething or if they have an infection in the mouth.

Organo de comer*
Oregano (Origanum vulgare). Plant Part Used Leaf, stem, aerial parts. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: decoction, orally, for indigestion, stomach complaints, gastro-intestinal inflammation, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, pasmo, gas, pelvic pain, padrejn; poultice or

Miel de pulga
Molasses; also called Melaza.

Mint
See Hierbabuena.

46

oil, topically, for sinus infection, allergies, nasal congestion and common cold. Safety Therapeutic use generally considered safe. Contraindications Pregnancy: avoid excess internal use. Clinical Data Human clinical trial: antiparasitic (essential oil). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: anticancer (constituent), antifungal, antimicrobial, antioxidant (essential oil and constituents). * See entry for Organo de comer in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Palo de __________
Means stick or wood of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used for medicine.

Papaya
See Lechosa.

menopausal hot flashes; fruit rind: fermented in sugar and water for internally cleansing and refreshing the body. Safety Commonly consumed as food; relatively nontoxic; repeated exposure can cause hypersensitivity. Contraindications Caution advised during pregnancy due to possible abortifacient effects of plant steroids. Drug Interactions For bromelain (protease enzymes from stem): antibiotics, tetracyclines (elevated drug serum levels), anticoagulants and thrombocyte aggregation inhibitors (increased bleeding). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antidiabetic, antioxidant, antidyslipidemic (ethanolic leaf extract); antifertility (unripe fruit juice); burn debridement (bromelainstem enzymes); diuretic (root extract). In vitro: antitumor (bromelainstem enzymes). * See entry for Pia in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Penca de __________
Means leaf of (plant name); usually refers to the rigid, cactus-like leaves of agave or aloe; look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Plantain
This English common name can refer to more than one species. For the banana-like plantain fruit, see Pltano; for the low-lying herb whose leaves are primarily used medicinally, see Llantn.

Pigeon pea
See Guandul.

Polvo de _____________
Powder of (plant or mineral name); see plant or mineral name specified.

Pineapple
See Pia.

Pomada
Pomade, salve or ointment; an oil-based preparation of medicinal plants for external application, often used for healing skin ailments, muscle pain or sinus conditions.

Pia*
Pineapple (Ananas comosus). Plant Part Used Fruit, fruit rind. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: juice, taken orally as a diuretic for urinary tract or kidney disorders, cleansing the body internally, for treating bacterial infection, cancer, high blood pressure, high cholesterol,

Pomada de manteca
Butter pomade; a slightly solidified nut butter used externally as an ointment or salve; for

47

example, made from peanuts (man) or sesame seeds (ajonjol).

Prickly pear cactus

See Alquitira.

anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, estrogenic, hypoglycemic, influenza-preventative (leaf). Nutritional: carotenes, fiber, iron (root). * See entry for Remolacha in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Pumpkin
See Calabaza.

Repollo*
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea variety capitata). Plant Part Used Leaves (cabbage head), juice from leaves. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: eaten raw, juiced, cooked, as a soup, taken internally for treating obesity, diabetes, heart disease, gynecological conditions (uterine fibroids), intestinal parasites or for nutrition; fresh leaves used externally for wound-healing. Safety Considered safe; widely consumed; shown to be nontoxic in animal studies. Contraindications Thyroid conditions (may interfere with thyroid iodine absorption). Drug Interactions Prothrombopenic anticoagulants (may be antagonized); hypothyroid drugs (may interfere). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antitumor, antiulcer (plant extracts). Nutrition: calcium, vitamins K and U. * See entry for Repollo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Quimaque
See Timacle.

Raz de _____________
Means root of (plant name); look up the plant name following this description of the plant part used.

Rama de ___________
Means branch of (plant name); this would include the leaves and stem of the plant; look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Ramita de __________
Means small branch or sprig of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Red Onion
See Cebolla.

Roble*
Indian bean (Catalpa longissima). Plant Part Used Bark. Dominican Medicinal Uses Bark: infusion, orally, for common cold, flu symptoms, menstrual disorders, uterine fibroids, dysmenorrhea and as an abortifacient. Safety Low toxicity shown in animal studies. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive(plant extracts and constituents); oxytocic, uterine relaxant (leaf decoction). In vivo: antiulcer (plant extracts).

Remolacha*
Beets (Beta vulgaris). Plant Part Used Root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Eaten raw, juiced or boiled for anemia, cysts, tumor, uterine fibroids. Safety Common food, generally considered safe. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic (plant extract); antidiabetic, antihepatotoxic,

48

* See entry for Roble in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Means seed of (plant name); look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant part used.

Sbila*
Aloe, aloe vera (Aloe vera). Plant Part Used Leaf, leaf gel. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf gel: applied topically for skin conditions: minor abrasions, burns, cuts, fungal infection, scrapes, sunburn, wound-healing; taken orally for common cold, flu-like symptoms, pulmonary infection. Safety Results of toxicity studies and published literature. Contraindications Internal use: pregnancy, lactation, children under 12 y, individuals with inflammatory intestinal disease. Drug Interactions Internal use: cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmic drugs (potential potassium loss and intensified drug effect); thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, licorice, corticosteroids (risk of potassium loss); antidiabetic drugs: (risk of hypoglycemia). Clinical Data Clinical: anesthetic, antiviral, burn-healing, wound-healing (leaf gel). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, chemomodulatory, hypothyroid, wound-healing (leaf pulp/gel). In vitro: antileukemic, antimutagenic, antitumor, cytotoxic, enzyme inhibition (chemical constituents). * See entry for Sbila in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Seora Mueller
Manufactured herbal preparation sold at botnicas and used for womens health conditions, including menopause, infertility, vaginal infections, menstrual irregularities and uterine fibroids.

Sesame
See Ajonjol.

Siempreviva
See Bruja.

Sopa
Soup; many different types of soups can be given as a nourishing food to support the immune system and strengthen the body to facilitate healing.

Soros
See Cundeamor.

Soursop
See Guanbana.

Squash
See Calabaza.

Star anise
See Ans de estrella.

Sal
Salt; used as an ingredient in gargles for sore throat or tonsillitis and as a douche with water for treating vaginal infections.

Sweet potato
See Batata.

Semilla de __________

Tabaco*
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Plant Part Used

49

Leaf. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: poultice, topically, for wounds, skin infections, bug bites, sinus infection and headache. Safety Cases of toxic effects in humans have been reported due to ingestion of the dried leaf or nicotine and excessive exposure to the fresh leaf. Contraindications Pregnancy, lactation, children under 5 years. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vitro: acaricidal, antifungal, insecticidal (methanolic leaf extracts); antifungal (seed). * See entry for Tabaco in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

T
Tea; a simple infusion of one or a few herbs; typically 2 teaspoons of dried plant material (1/4 cup if fresh) in 1 cup of water, infused for 10-15 minutes. This term may also refer to a decoction which is typically stronger than an infusion and prepared by boiling the plant material in water in a covered pot for an extended period of time.

Thyme
See Tomillo.

Tilo*
Linden (Tilia species). Plant Part Used Flower and attached leaf bract. Dominican Medicinal Uses Flower and leaf bract: infusion, orally, for relief from anxiety, insomnia, nervousness, stress; womens health: menorrhagia, uterine fibroids, menopausal hot flashes. Given to children. Safety Considered relatively safe; no adverse effects known; if taken in excess or for a long time, may be harmful to the heart. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory (leaf flavonoids); anxiolytic (flower extract). In vitro: antigenotoxic, antioxidant, GABAa receptor inhibition (water plant extract), ironabsorption promoting (flower extract). * See entry for Tilo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Tamarind
See Tamarindo.

Tamarindo*
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica). Plant Part Used Fruit pulp, leaf, root, branch. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit pulp: aqueous extract, orally, for insomnia, hormonal imbalance, hot flashes and nightsweats. Leaf, bark, branch: decoction, orally, liver, kidney and prostate disorders and hepatitis. Safety Fruit pulp: widely consumed and generally considered safe; fruit or seed pods may contain an irritating, hypoglycemic alkaloid. Bark/leaves: insufficient information available. Drug Interactions Ibuprofen (fruit extract increases bioavailability). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antidiabetic (seed extract), antiinflammatory (plant extracts), colonic cell proliferation effects (fruit pulp). In vitro: antioxidant (plant extract). * See entry for Tamarindo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Timacle*
West Indian snowberry (Chiococca alba). Plant Part Used Root, leaf, flower, aerial parts. Dominican Medicinal Uses Root: ingredient in alcohol-based herbal mixtures or strong infusions for genitourinary or sexually transmitted infections, reproductive disorders, respiratory tract infection, cleansing the body internally. Whole plant used as an astringent, diuretic, emetic, emollient. Safety

50

Aqueous root extract given at moderate dosages did not show toxic effects although ethanolic root extract showed signs of toxicity in animal studies. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-inflammatory. In vitro: antibacterial. * See entry for Timacle in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Timaque
See Timacle.

skin conditions or injuries, high fevers and heart conditions: avoid whole-body baths. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: antioxidant (essential oil), liver enzyme activity (leaf constituents). In vitro: antibacterial (essential oil, plant extracts), antifungal (essential oil), antiinflammatory (plant extracts), antioxidant (leaf extract), anti-platelet aggregant (leaf constituents), antiprotozoal (essential oil), antispasmodic (plant and ethanol extract), spasmolytic (flavonoids). * See entry for Tomillo in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Tisana
Strong tea; an infusion or decoction of several herbs; slightly stronger or thicker than a simple tea (t), meaning that it is often boiled or infused for a longer period of time or combined with thickening ingredients (i.e. molasses, powdered vitamins, honey, etc.). This preparation typically does not contain as many herbs as a botella or bebedizo which are stronger, more complex preparations. However, interpretations of this term vary, as some consider a t and a tisana to be the same thing.

Tope-tope
See Bruja.

Toronja*
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi). Plant Part Used Fruit. Dominican Medicinal Uses Fruit: juice, orally, for diabetes, constipation, indigestion and intestinal obstruction. Safety Fruit and juice are widely consumed and generally considered safe. Drug Interactions Cytochrome P450-metabolized drugs (may inhibit potency or potentiate activity). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anticancer, chemopreventive (essential oil); anti-ulcer, gatroprotective (seed extract). In vitro: inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity (essential oil), inhibition of cytochrome P450 enzymes (fruit juice). * See entry for Toronja in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Tobacco
See Tabaco.

Tomillo*
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Plant Part Used Leaf, branches. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaves: infusion, orally, for digestive and gastro-intestinal disorders, cough, upperrespiratory tract infection; bath, externally, for skin conditions. Safety Widely consumed as a culinary seasoning; generally considered safe; potential for allergic reaction. Contraindications Acute urinary tract or gastro-intestinal inflammation: avoid internal use of herb. Severe

Trementina
Turpentine; used in energetic cleansing and spiritual healing practices; derived from pine trees; known eye, mucous membrane and skin irritant; toxic if inhaled in large amounts or

51

ingested; central nervous system depressant; can cause convulsions.

Tuna
See Alquitira.

Steam; making a decoction of herbs and using the steam from the decoction for inhalation or for moistening and healing the skin, often used to treat sinus infections, congestion, or skin conditions.

Ua de gato*
Cats claw (Uncaria tomentosa). Plant Part Used Inner bark, stem, root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Bark, root, stem: infusion or multi-herb tincture, orally, for arthritis, cancer, diabetes, kidney disorders, leukemia, obesity and womens health. Safety No toxicity shown in clinical and animal studies; long-term use may affect hormone levels. Contraindications Pregnancy, lactation; autoimmune disorders or implanted organs (immune stimulating properties). Drug Interactions Anticoagulants, antiplatelet and thrombolytic agents and low molecular weight heparins (potential risk of excessive bleeding); immunosuppressants (may interfere with drug); P450 3A4-metabolyzed drugs (potential inhibition). Clinical Data Clinical: DNA repair, immune enhancement, immunostimulant, rheumatoid arthritis treatment (bark extract). Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: anti-amnesic (alkaloids), antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antimutagenic, antinociceptive, DNA repair, immune enhancement, immunomodulatory (plant extracts). In vitro: anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral, cytoprotective, immunomodulatory (bark or leaf extracts). * See entry for Ua de gato in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Verbena*
Porterweed (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis). Plant Part Used Aerial parts: leaf, stem, flower. Dominican Medicinal Uses Leaf: tea, orally, for indigestion, flatulence, diarrhea, anxiety, nervousness, stress and menopausal symptoms and to cleanse the blood. Safety Animal studies show low to moderate toxicity; leaves considered relatively atoxic. Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: analgesic, antioxidant, antispasmodic, hypotensive, hypertensive (plant/leaf extracts). In vitro: antioxidant, antispasmodic, insecticidal, nematicidal, spasmogenic (plant/leaf extracts). * See entry for Verbena in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Vinagre blanco
White vinegar; sometimes used as a gargle for treating sore throat and tonsillitis, combined with bicarbonato de sodio(baking soda); it is said to have a drying effect on the tonsils when used this way; vinegar is also used as a douche for treating vaginal infections, urogenital inflammation and menstrual disorders.

Watercress
See Berro.

Wormseed
See Apasote.

Yerba buena
See Hierbabuena.

Vapr

Yerba mora
52

See Hierba mora.

Zanahoria*
Carrot (Daucus carota). Plant Part Used Root. Dominican Medicinal Uses Root: juice, orally, for diabetes, anemia, cancer, improved vision, tumors, uterine fibroids, menopausal hot flashes, nourishment, to strengthen the blood, diarrhea, stomach ailments, gastrointestinal inflammation and liver disorders. Safety Generally considered safe; root is widely consumed. Clinical Data Human clinical trials: antioxidant, colonic motility, dental caries, hypocholesterolemic (root).

Laboratory & Preclinical Data In vivo: hepatoprotective (root). In vitro: antibacterial, antispasmodic, antitumor (seed extract or constituents), antioxidant, carotene bioavailability, hormonal effects (root). Nutrition: vitamin A precursors. * See entry for Zanahoria in Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles of this book for more information, including references.

Zumo de __________
Typically means fresh juice of (plant name); can also refer to the seed oil of a plant. Look up the plant name which follows this description of the plant preparation used. To prepare a zumo, the fresh or raw plant part used (whether a fruit, leaf, root, seed or entire plant) is squeezed, liquefied in a blender or juicer or grated and strained to extract its juice. This preparation may be administered orally or topically.

53

PART 3 MEDICINAL PLANT MONOGRAPHS:

BOTANICAL SPECIES USED MEDICINALLY BY DOMINICAN IMMIGRANTS IN NEW YORK CITY
Herb profiles are listed in alphabetical order according to the most frequently reported Spanish common name based on ethnomedical interviews.

54

Aguacate
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Hojas de aguacate (Spanish); avocado (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Persea americana Mill. [Lauraceae (Laurel Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Abortifacient - Arthritis - Diabetes - Diarrhea - Intestinal parasites - Intestinal worms - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaves, seed and fruit. Traditional Preparation: The leaves are typically prepared as a tea. To prepare an infusion, a handful of leaves are steeped in 8 oz boiling water for 15-20 minutes; a small cupful (roughly 2 oz) is taken orally 23 times daily. The seed may be crushed or pulverized and ingested or boiled in water as a decoction. The fruit is highly nutritious and commonly eaten raw. Traditional Uses: The leaves of aguacate morado (the dark-skinned variety) are used for arthritis and menstrual cramps. The seed is described as a bitter herbal remedy that is sometimes perceived to be poisonous and has been used for contraception. The leaves are sometimes combined with sweet orange (naranja) leaves when prepared as a tea or an infusion. Availability: In New York City, aguacate fruits are sold in grocery stores and neighborhood markets (bodegas). The dried leaves are often available at botnicas that sell herbal remedies.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Aguacate (Persea americana) is a tropical evergreen tree or shrub that can grow 20-30 m tall. Leaves of this tree grow in an alternate pattern and are simple, narrow, elliptical and pointed (10-20 cm long). Flowers are small and light green. Fruits are pear-shaped with glossy green or purple skin and contain light green or yellowish flesh of a buttery consistency with a single large, inedible seed (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: The range of this tree extends throughout tropical America, most likely originating in Central and South America, and it is cultivated widely in the Caribbean (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

55

Aguacate fruit is a highly nutritious food that is widely consumed and generally regarded as safe. Avocado oil has no known harmful side effects and is considered safe for use according to standard dosages (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Studies on the effects of the fruit and oil in humans have been conducted (see Clinical Data section below); however, no human clinical trials of the leaf, which is the part most often used as an herbal remedy, have been identified in the literature. Hypersensitivity to avocado has been correlated with allergic reactions to latex, chestnut and banana (Blanco et al. 1994). Animal Toxicity Studies: The fresh leaf (20 g/kg body weight) fed to lactating goats caused damage to the mammary glands and reduced milk production (Craigmill et al. 1989). Cases of poisoning due to ingestion of avocado leaves have been reported in goats (Stadler et al. 1991, Grant et al. 1991). Multiple varieties of the fresh leaf administered orally to sheep at variable dosages showed clinical signs of respiratory and cardiac distress and caused cardiomyopathy and myocardial lesions as revealed in autopsy (Grant et al. 1991). The LD50 in mice of the dry plant material (fruit and leaf) administered orally is 12.5 g/kg (Herrera 1988). The fruit and leaf (50% of each) prepared as an aqueous decoction (boiled for 10 minutes) and neutralized to pH7, given to mice orally and intraperitoneally for 10 days and administered to mice orally for 30 days at quantities of 25, 50 and 75% of the LD50 showed low toxicity. The LD50=12.5 g (dry plant)/kg orally and 8.828 g/kg intraperitoneally (Herrera 1988). Contraindications: Internal use of the leaves is contraindicated for pregnant women due to emmenagogue and uterine muscle stimulating effects (Herrera et al. 1986). The leaves are also contraindicated during lactation because of potentially harmful effects based on case reports in goats (Craigmill et al. 1989). No information on the safety of the leaves in children has been identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions: Ingestion of large amounts of avocado (fruit) has been shown to inhibit Warfarins anticoagulant effect (Wells et al. 1994). One case of a hypertension crisis in an individual who had ingested the fruit while concomitantly taking monoamine-oxidase inhibiting (MAOI) medication has been reported (Germosn Robineau 2007).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No clinical trials of the leaf or leaf extracts have been identified in the available literature; however, the fruit has been shown to lower total cholesterol levels and is recommended for dyslipidemia and hypercholesterolemia. An avocado-enriched diet has shown glycemic control and plasma lipid triglycerollowering effects in patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Avocado and soy unsaponifiables have been shown to alleviate pain, decrease use of painkillers and reduce joint space loss. A cream containing the oil was well-tolerated and showed long-term beneficial effects in the treatment of plaque psoriasis (see Clinical Data table below). In preclinical and laboratory studies, the following effects of this plant have been shown: analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antihemorrhage, anticancer, hepatoprotective, macrophage-stimulating, uterine muscle stimulant, trypanocidal and vasorelaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Major chemical constituents include the following: the leaf contains volatile oil, flavonoids and coumarins; the fruit contains sesquiterpenes and carbohydrates; the seed contains fixed oil consisting of vitamin A, D-3, alpha tocopherol and cholesterol (Germosn-Robineau 2005). The fruit is a significant source of protein, monounsaturated fatty acids, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin C, vitamin E, folate, vitamin K, pantothenic acid, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus and the amino acids tryptophan, valine, tyrosine, threonine, phenylalanine and methionine (US Department of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified this herb as REC meaning RECommended specifically for its use in treating amenorrhea (based on demonstrated significant documented traditional use, low toxicity and demonstrated pharmacological activity) and for asthma, bronchitis, flatulence, urinary

56

infections and cough (based on significant documented traditional use and low toxicity; GermosnRobineau 2007). The recommended dosage, as determined by TRAMIL, is an aqueous decoction of 3 spoonfuls (20 grams) of the crushed or pulverized leaf in 4 cups (1 liter) of water, administered in doses of half to 1 cup, 3-4 times daily (Germosn-Robineau 2007).

Clinical Data: Persea americana

Activity/Effect Cholesterol- & lipid lowering Preparation Fruit ingested Design & Model 13 patients with phenotype II dyslipidemia; prospective, transversal & comparative clinical study; random assignment of 4-wk diets: vegetarian, vegetarian & avocado vs. free diet with avocado Randomized trial; 15 females (age 37-59 yrs); duration of each dietary phase: 3 wks Results Reduced triglyceride & high density lipoprotein cholesterol serum levels Reference Carranza-Madrigal et al. 1997

Cholesterollowering

Fruit ingested; diet comparison: avocado-enriched diet (high in monounsaturated fatty acids) vs. high complex carbohydrate diet

Lipid-lowering

Avocado ingested in rich monounsaturated fatty acid (RMF)low saturated-fat diet; also added to free diet (FME) compared w/low-saturated fat (LSF) diet w/o avocado

Randomized 3-diet trial; 16 healthy volunteers; diet duration: 2 wks

Both diets showed decreased in total cholesterol levels; avocado-enriched diet more effective & also decreased low-densitylipoprotein cholesterol & apolipoprotein B; carbohydrate diet decreased high-density lipoprotein concentrations whereas they remained the same in avocado diet RMF & LSF diets reduced plasma total cholesterol & low-density lipoprotein levels; plasma levels of triacylglycerol were significantly reduced in RMF & FME diets but increased in LSF diet; avocado-enriched diet recommended for preventing hyperlipidemia

Colquhoun et al. 1992

Alvizouri-Munoz et al. 1992

57

Activity/Effect Treatment of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)

Treatment of osteoarthritis

Preparation Fruit ingested in controlled diet (2 isocaloric diets: one rich in oleic acid from avocado & olive oil, the other rich in complex carbohydrates) Avocado/soybean unsaponifiables; one capsule per day

Design & Model Randomized crossover study; 4 wks baseline period & 4-wk on each diet w/4 wks washout period btw diets; 12 women with NIDDM Prospective, randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled, parallelgroup trail; 163 patients w/primary femorotibial or hip osteoarthritis; duration: 3 mo Double blind, prospective, placebocontrolled study; duration: 3 mo; male & female patients with femoro-tibial knee osteoarthritis Prospective, doubleblind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial; 164 patients symptomatic of primary osteoarthritis (of the knee & hip) w/regular pain Randomized, parallel group, double-blind, placebo-controlled trail (2 yrs duration; 108 symptomatic patients with pain & loss of joint space)

Treatment of osteoarthritis

Avocado/soybean unsaponifiables; 300 mg or 600 mg dosage

Treatment of osteoarthritis

Treatment of osteoarthritis

Avocado/soybean unsaponifiables; duration: 6 mo w/2 mo followup after treatment; pretrial 15-day washout period for NSAIDs Avocado & soybean unsaponifiables

Results Avocado diet decreased postprandial serum triglyceride levels more than complex carbohydrate diet; both diets had similar effects on glycemic control; avocado-enriched diet recommended for management of NIDDM Reduced analgesic & nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID)-use; pain scores remained similar in placebo & treatment groups on visual analog scale pain score & functional index; treatment shown to be safe for human use Significant improvement of all efficacy parameters; decreased intake of analgesics by 50% & 71%; both dosages consistently performed superior to placebo without detectable differences between doses Significant decrease in pain, slight decrease in NSAID consumption, reduced overall functional disability (particularly for hip osteoarthritis); effect was persistent posttreatment Joint space loss progression was significantly reduced (in post-hoc analysis in subgroup of patients with advanced joint space narrowing); results may be due to structural effect

Reference Lerman-Garber et al. 1994

Blotman et al. 1997

Appelboom et al. 2001

Maheu et al. 1998

Lequesne et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Treatment of plaque psoriasis

Preparation Vitamin B(12) cream containing avocado oil; applied topically; compared with calcipotriol Ingestion of fruit in diet of restricted saturated fat & increased carbohydrates

Triglyceridelowering

Design & Model Randomized, prospective clinical trial; intraindividual right/left-side comparison (13 patients with chronic plaque psoriasis; observed for 12 wks) Crossover diet trial; patients w/8 phenotype IV & II; two-diet trial: monounsaturated fatty acid-rich diet w/avocado vs. lowsaturated fat diet without avocado (4 wks duration/diet)

Results Long-term beneficial effects shown; therapy was well-tolerated

Reference Stucker et al. 2001

Avocado diet showed mild Carranza et al. 1995 lowering of triglyceride levels whereas lowsaturated fat diet increased triglyceride levels; avocado increased HDL-cholesterol concentrations; avocado shown to be a good source of monounsaturated fatty acids

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Persea americana

Activity/Effect Analgesic & antiinflammatory Preparation Aqueous leaf extract Ethanolic, ethyl acetate & aqueous extracts Acetone plant extract Fruit Design & Model In vivo: rodent; acetic acid writhing, hot plate pain threshold & paw edema tests In vivo: mouse bioassay with hemorrhaging activity caused by Bothrops asper snake venom In vitro: androgendependent & independent prostate cancer cell lines In vivo: rats with liver damage induced by liver toxin (Dgalactosamine) In vitro In vitro: against Trypanosoma cruzi Results Active; showed dosedependent effects in all tests Active; showed total inhibition of hemorrhage Reference Adeyemi et al. 2002 Castro et al. 1999

Antihemorrhage

Antiproliferative

Hepatoprotective

Immunomodulating Trypanocidal (against agent of Chagas disease)

Fruit water extract Methanolic seed extract

Active; inhibited cancer cell growth; effect attributed to lipid-soluble carotenoids Active; showed remarkably potent liver injurysuppressing activity; active compounds isolated Active; showed macrophage stimulating activity Showed moderate activity against epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi

Lu et al. 2005

Kawagishi et al. 2001 Miwa et al. 1990 Abe et al. 2005

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Activity/Effect Uterine stimulant

Vasorelaxant

Preparation Aqueous decoction (steeped for 10 min) of fruit and leaf Leaf extract (aqueous)

Design & Model In vitro using the isolated uterus of mice (from animals in estrus) In vitro: isolated rat aorta

Results Significant stimulation of uterine muscle exhibited at a dosage of 16.66 mg plant/mL H2O Active; showed significant vasorelaxant effect

Reference Herrera 1986

Owolabi et al. 2005

REFERENCES
Abe F, Nagafuji S, Okawa M, Kinjo J, Akahane H, Ogura T, Martinez-Alfaro MA, Reyes-Chilpa R. 2005. Trypanocidal constituents in plants 5. Evaluation of some Mexican plants for their trypanocidal activity and active constituents in the seeds of Persea americana. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 28(7):13141317. Adeyemi OO, Okpo SO, Ogunti OO. 2002. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of leaves of Persea americana Mill (Lauraceae). Fitoterapia 73(5):375-380. Alvizouri-Munoz M, Carranza-Madrigal J, Herrera-Abarca JE, Chavez-Carbaial F, Amezcua-Gastelum JL. 1992. Effects of avocado as a source of monounsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipid levels. Arch Med Res 23(4):163-7. Appelboom T, Schuermans J, Verbruggen G, Henrotin Y, Reginster JY. 2001. Symptoms modifying effect of avocado/soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) in knee osteoarthritis. A double blind, prospective, placebocontrolled study. Scand J Rheumatol 30(4):242-7. Blanco C, Carrillo T, Castillo R, Quiralte J, Cuevas M. 1994. Avocado hypersensitivity. Allergy 49(6):454-9. Blotman F, Maheu E, Wulwik A, Caspard H, Lopez A. 1997. Efficacy and safety of avocado/soybean unsaponifiables in the treatment of symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. A prospective, multicenter, three-month, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trail. Rev Rhum Engl Ed 64(12):825-34. Carballo A. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1997). Clculo de concentracin y dosis de las drogas vegetales TRAMIL: mensuraciones farmacognsticas y aproximaciones tcnico-clnicas. TRAMIL VII. Isla San Andrs, Colombia, enda-caribe/UAG/U. Antioqua, 19 pp. Carranza-Madrigal J, Herrera-Abarca JE, Alvizouri-Munoz M, Alvarado-Jimenez MR, Chavez-Carbajal F. 1997. Effects of a vegetarian diet vs. a vegetarian diet enriched with avocado in hypercholesterolemic patients. Arch Med Res 28(4):537-41. Carranza J, Alvizouri M, Alvarado MR, Chavez F, Gomez M, Herrera JE. 1995. [Effects of avocado on the level of blood lipids in patients with phenotype II and IV dyslipidemias.] Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 65(4):342-8. Castro O, Gutierrez JM, Barrios M, Castro I, Romero M, Umana E. 1999. [Neutralization of the hemorrhagic effect induced by Bothrops asper (Serpentes: Viperidae) venom with tropical plant extracts]. [Spanish] Revista de Biologia Tropical 47(3):605-616. Colquhoun DM, Moores D, Somerset SM, Humphries JA. 1992. Comparison of the effects on lipoproteins and apolipoproteins of a diet high in monounsaturated fatty acids, enriched with avocado and a highcarbohydrate diet. Am J Clin Nutr 56(4):671-7.

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Craigmill AL, Seawright AA, Mattila T, Frost AJ. 1989. Pathological changes in the mammary gland and biochemical changes in milk of the goat following oral dosing with leaf of avocado (Persea americana) Aust Vet J 66(7):206-11. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1997. Farmacopea Caribea, (primera edicin). Tramil. Fort-de-France, Martinique: Ediciones Emile Dsormeaux. 360 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2007. Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (e-book). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: TRAMIL, CD-ROM. Herrera J. 1986. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1997). Determinacin de actividades biolgicas de vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional. TRAMIL II, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, enda-caribe/UASD. Herrera J. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1997). Determinacin de actividades biolgicas de vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Kawagishi H, Fukumoto Y, Hatakeyama M, et al. 2001. Liver injury suppressing compounds from avocado (Persea americana). J Agric Food Chem 49: 2215-21. Kasai T. 2001. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibitors from avocado (Persea americana Mill) fruits. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 65:1656-8. Kim OK, Murakami A, Nakamura Y, Takeda N, Yoshizumi H, Ohigashi H. 2000. Novel nitric oxide and superoxide generation inhibitors, persenone A and B, from avocado fruit. J Agric Food Chem 48:1557-63. Lequesne M, Maheu E, Cadet C, Dreiser RL. 2002. Structural effect of avocado/soybean unsaponifiables on joint space loss in osteoarthritis of the hip. Arthritis Rheum 47(1):50-8. Lerman-Garber I, Ichazo-Cerro S, Zamora-Gonzalez J, Cardoso-Saldana G, Posadas-Romero C. 1994. Effect of a high-monounsaturated fat diet enriched with avocado in NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care 17(4):311-5. Lu QY, Arteaga JR, Zhang Q, Huerta S, Go VL, Heber D. 2005. Inhibition of prostate cancer cell growth by an avocado extract: role of lipid-soluble bioactive substances. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 16(1):2330. Maheu E, Mazieres B, Valat JP, Loyau G, Le Loet X, Bourgeois P, Grouin JM, Rozenberg S. 1998. Symptomatic efficacy of avocado/soybean unsaponifiables in the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee and hip: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trial with a six-month treatment period and a two-month follow-up demonstrating a persistent effect. Arthritis Rheum 41(1):8191. Miwa M, Kong Z, Shinohara K, et al. 1990. Macrophage stimulating activity of foods. Agr Biol Chem 54(7):18631866. Owolabi MA, Jaja SI, Coker HA. 2005. Vasorelaxant action of aqueous extract of the leaves of Persea americana on isolated rat aorta. Fitoterapia 76(6):567-573. Stadler P, van Rensburg IB, Naude TW. 1991. Suspected avocado (Persea americana) poisoning in goats. J S Afr Vet Assoc 62(4):186-8. Stucker M, Memmel U, Hoffmann M, Hartung J, Altmeyer P. 2001. Vitamin B(12) cream containing avocado oil in the therapy of plaque psoriasis. Dermatology 203(2):141-7. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp.

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Wells PS, Holbrook AM, Crowther NR, Hirsh J. 1994. Interactions of warfarin with drugs and food. Ann Intern Med 121(9):676-83. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Aj
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Aj caballero, aj caribe, aj dulce, aj de gallina, aj jobito (Spanish); pepper, chili pepper, cayenne, paprika (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Capsicum annuum L., C. frutescens L., C. chinense Jacq. and varieties [Solanaceae (Nightshade Family)]. Note: Due to the wide variation in cultivars of each of these species, their tendency to hybridize and difficulty in distinguishing between subspecies in commerce, these plants are grouped together under the same common name. However, particular varieties do have distinct common names and are often associated with unique properties (i.e. pungency, color, size, culinary uses, etc.).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Abscesses - Boils (nacos) - Furuncles (fornculos) - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Skin infections - Sores Plant Part Used: Leaf, fruit (fresh or dried). Traditional Preparation: For skin conditions and dermatological infections, the leaves are heated and applied externally to the affected area as a poultice. For menstrual cramps and symptoms related to dysmenorrhea, the leaves are prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion. Traditional Uses: Most commonly known for treating infections of the skin, the specific dermatological conditions for which this plant is used include boils (nacos), sores or abscesses (llagas) and furuncles or staphylococcal infections of hair follicles (fornculos); the leaves are prepared by heating them and applying them to the affected area. Chili peppers, the fruits of this plant, are considered hot and spicy condiments that are said to warm the body and are often added to nutritious, healing soups.

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Availability: As a popular culinary seasoning, this plant is commonly available for purchase at grocery stores and supermarkets. Particular varieties from Latin American countries are sometimes sold at bodegas or open-air markets.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Aj (Capsicum annuum) is an upright, shrubby annual or perennial herb, 20-100 cm in height, with many branches. Leaves grow in an alternate pattern along stems and are narrowly-oval to lance-shaped (3-13 cm long) with smooth leaf-edges. Flowers grow singly at nodes along the stem and have 5-pointed petals arranged in a star-like shape that are whitish to cream or purple in color and fused together at the base (1.5 cm across). Fruits are pod-like berries with tough, leathery skins that can be deeply grooved or pitted, contain numerous circular or kidney-shaped seeds and change from green to red, orange or yellow when ripe; shape, color, size and pungency vary considerably between cultivars (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to tropical America with a range that extends from southern United States and Mexico to Colombia, this plant is cultivated widely in warm regions for its spicy peppers (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No data on the safety of the leaves in humans (either applied topically or taken internally) has been identified in the available literature. The fruits of Capsicum spp. are used widely as a foodstuff and culinary seasoning; however, when particular cultivars (especially cayenne) are taken in excess or for a prolonged duration, they can cause severe adverse reactions. Possible negative side effects of external use of cayenne include the following: skin irritation (sensations of burning or stinging and redness of the skin), especially of the eyes or mucous membranes if accidentally contacted and blistering. These negative effects usually subside within 3 days of initiating regular topical treatment and are lessened by applying no more than 3-4 times daily (Bernstein et al. 1989). When taken internally, potential adverse effects include: increased gastrointestinal peristalsis resulting in diarrhea, intestinal discomfort and gallstone colic (Gruenwald et al. 2004). In a case-control study of 972 persons in Mexico, high consumption of cayenne peppers as food correlated with increased risk of gastric carcinoma (Lopez-Carrillo et al. 1994); however, another study concluded that low doses of cayenne may be anti-carcinogenic (Surh et al. 1995). Should over dosage occur, life-threatening hypothermia can result from the effect of this herb on thermoreceptors; over extended periods, high doses of the herb can lead to chronic gastrointestinal disorders, kidney or liver damage and neurotoxic effects (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contact dermatitis from direct handling of chili peppers has been reported (Williams et al. 1995). Animal Toxicity Studies: Capsicum annuum leaves: Topical administration of the fresh leaves (0.6 g plant material in hot vegetable oil) to the shaved skin (6 cm2 patch) of three female New Zealand rabbits in the Draizes test showed no signs of edema or erythema during a 72 hour observation period (Martinez et al. 2005a). In Wistar rats, topical application of the fresh leaves (0.6 g plant material) in hot oil to the shaved skin (4 3 cm) for 24 hours did not show any signs of mortality or adverse effects during a 14 day observation period (Martinez et al. 2005b). Capsicum frutescens aerial parts: Intraperitoneal administration of the hydroalcoholic extract (1:1) of the aerial parts in mice showed an LD50 = 0.375 g/kg (Dhawan et al. 1977). Capsicum spp. fruit: In mice fed a control diet versus ground red chili mixed into their diet (at levels of 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10% by weight) for four weeks, no adverse effects were observed on general health, body weight and food intake although slight glycogen depletion and anisocytosis of hepatocytes was detected in the 10% group. This study concluded that chili is relatively non-toxic at the doses tested (Jang et al. 1992).

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Contraindications: Not to be applied to open wounds or the eyes or to be inhaled directly. Should not be taken internally by patients with stomach ulcers, gastric inflammation, irritable bowel syndrome and gastrointestinal or renal disorders (Palevitch & Craker 1993, Gruenwald et al. 2004). No information on the safety of the fruit or the leaves in children or during pregnancy or lactation has been identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions: Caution is advised due to Capsicum species potential inhibition of hepatic microsomal enzymes which may potentiate drugs metabolized by these enzymes, including the nifedipine group (Germosn-Robineau 2007). Barbiturates: concomitant use of hexobarbital and the dried fruit of Capsicum frutescens (dose: 200.0 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally and intragastrically) showed barbiturate potentiation and prolonged sleeping time in mice (Han et al .1984). Aspirin and salicylic acid compounds: bioavailability reduced when taken concurrently (100 mg capsaicin per gram of extract) due to gastrointestinal effects (Cruz et al. 1999). Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors: associated with cough (Hakas 1990, OHollaren & Porter 1990). Anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, thrombolytic agents and low molecular weight heparins: concurrent use may increase risk of bleeding; barbiturates: until clinical significance of interaction is determined, discourage concomitant use of capsaicin. Theophylline: caution is advised and symptoms of possible theophylline toxicity should be closely monitored (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical trials have shown the following effects: analgesic (in treating post-herpetic neuralgia, applied topically), carotenoid bioavailability enhancement, gastroprotective, swallowing dysfunction treatment and urinary incontinence treatment. The bioavailability of carotenoids from the fruit has also been studied. Laboratory and preclinical studies have demonstrated the following activities: antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, chemopreventive, learning enhancement and renoprotective (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). The majority of published scientific literature on this plant has focused on cayenne which is one particular variety of this species that is commonly used for medicine. None of the studies identified evaluated the biological activity of the leaves (the part of the plant most commonly used by Dominicans in New York City); instead, available research focuses on extracts of the fruit. Major chemical constituents of the fruit include: capsaicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide; Bernstein et al. 1987). The fruit (red bell pepper variety, raw) is a significant source of folate, iron, potassium and vitamins A, B6, C and K (U.S. Department of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Topical use of the leaf for skin boils and ganglion inflammation has been designated REC meaning RECommended due to its significant traditional use in the Caribbean as reported by TRAMIL surveys (Germosn-Robineau 2007). Cayenne, one variety of Capsicum annuum, has been approved by the German Commission E for muscular tension and rheumatism (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Use should be limited to 2 days duration, only to be used again after 2 weeks. Caution: Hands should be washed immediately after handling (unless treating the hands) to avoid accidental contact with the eyes or mucous membranes which can be highly irritating. When used externally as a cream, capsaicin content should be no more than 50 mg in 100 g neutral base, not to be applied more than 3-4 times daily; tincture (1:10); taken internally, 2 cups of tea per day (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Clinical Data: Capsicum spp.

Activity/Effect Analgesic Preparation Capsaicin cream vs. placebocream vehicle (6 wks duration) Capsaicin cream applied topically for 4 wks Capsaicin cream (0.075%) Design & Model Double-blind clinical trial: 32 elderly patients with chronic postherpetic neuralgia Preliminary clinical trial: 12 patients with postherpetic neuralgia Double-blind, vehiclecontrolled trial: 143 patients w/chronic postherpetic neuralgia; long term open-label followup for up to 2 y Clinical trial: human volunteers (n=9); ingested single dose after fasting overnight Results 80% pain relief based on visual analogue scales & clinical evaluation 75% experienced significant pain relief; 1 adverse reaction: burning sensation Showed significant improvement; recommended as a safe & effective treatment for pain due to postherpetic neuralgia Measured carotenoid presence in human chylomicrons; determined to be an adequate source of provitamin A carotenoids betacarotene & betacryptoxanthin & the macular pigment zeaxanthin Co-administration of capsaicin w/gastric mucosal irritant protected against microbleeding; mechanism attributed to sensory nerve ending stimulation Significantly improved protective upper respiratory reflexes Showed short-term efficacy over placebo; treatment was welltolerated overall; adverse effect of temporary pubic pain upon instillation Reference Bernstein et al. 1989 Bernstein et al. 1987 Watson et al. 1993

Analgesic

Analgesic

Carotenoid bioavailability enhancement

Paprika oleoresin containing: 6.4 mg zeaxanthin, 4.2 mg beta-cryptoxanthin, 6.2 mg betacarotene, 35.0 mg capsanthin & 2.0 mg capsorubin

Perez-Galvez et al. 2003

Gastroprotective

Capsaicin (1-8 g/mL, 100 mL); intragastric administration

Randomized controlled clinical trial: 84 healthy human subjects with ethanol- & indomethacin-induced gastric mucosal damage Randomized controlled clinical trial: 64 participants in nursing homes (age 81.9 1.0) Double blind, randomized placebocontrolled clinical trial: 33 patients with neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO); evaluated on days 0, 30 & 90

Mozsik et al. 2005

Swallowing dysfunction treatment Urinary incontinence treatment

Capsaicin troche; daily with meals for 4 wks Capsaicin (100 mL) in glucidic solvent; intravesical instillation vs. placebo of glucidic solvent only

Ebihara et al. 2005 De Seze et al. 2006

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Capsicum spp.

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial

Preparation Heated aqueous extract & 2 isolated compounds: capsaicin & dihydrocapsaicin Capsicum spp. at different stages of maturity; pepper juice models tested in vitro

Antioxidant

Design & Model In vitro: filter disk assay; Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium tetani & Streptococcus pyogenes In vitro & phytochemical analysis of carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids & ascorbic acid levels

Results Exhibited varying degrees of inhibition

Reference Cichewicz & Thorpe 1996

Antioxidant

Isolated capsaicin derivative 20% (w/w) lyophilized fruit powder; dietary Capsaicin (dietary antioxidants); 10 mg/kg/d by gavage

In vitro

Learning enhancement Renoprotective & antioxidant

In vivo: senescenceaccelerated mice (SAMP8) In vivo: rats with cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity

Concentration of antioxidant chemical constituents increased with maturity; combined with caffeic & ascorbic acid showed additive or competitive peroxyl radical scavenging ability Demonstrated the same antioxidant activity as capsaicin without the pungent taste Showed improved acquisition in passive avoidance tasks Significantly reduced lipid peroxidation & nephrotoxicity

Howard et al. 2000

Ochi et al. 2003

Suganuma et al. 1999 Shimeda et al. 2005

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Bernstein JE, Bickers DR, Dahl MV et al. 1987. Treatment of chronic postherpetic neuralgia with topical capsaicin: a preliminary study. J Am Acad Dermatol 17(1):93-96. Bernstein JE, Korman NJ, Bickers DR, Dahl MV, Millikan LE. 1989. Topical capsaicin treatment of chronic postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Acad Dermatol 21(2 pt 1):265-70. Blanc P, Liu D, Juarez C, Boushey HA. 1991. Cough in hot pepper workers. Chest 99(1):27-32. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Cichewicz RH, Thorpe PA. 1996. The antimicrobial properties of chile peppers (Capsicum spp.) and their uses in Mayan medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52(2):61-70.

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Cruz L, Castaneda-Hernandez G, Navarette A 1999. Ingestion of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum) reduces salicylate bioavailability after oral aspirin administration in the rat. Canadian Journal Physiology & Pharmacology 77(6):441-446. de Seze M, Gallien P, Denys P, Labat JJ, Serment G, Grise P, Salle JY, Blazejewski S, Hazane C, Moore N, Joseph PA. 2006. Intravesical glucidic capsaicin versus glucidic solvent in neurogenic detrusor overactivity: a double blind controlled randomized study. Neurourol Urodyn 25(7):752-7. Dhawan BN, Patnaik GK, Rastogi RP, Singh KK, Tandon JS. 1977. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Indian J Exp Biol 15:208-19. Ebihara T, Takahashi H, Ebihara S, Okazaki T, Sasaki T, Watando A, Nemoto M, Sasaki H. 2005. Capsaicin troche for swallowing dysfunction in older people. J Am Geriar Soc 53(5):824-8. Fuller RW. 1991. Pharmacology of inhaled capsaicin. Respir Med 85(suppl A):31-34. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2007. Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (e-book). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: TRAMIL, CD-ROM. Hakas JF. 1990. Topical capsaicin induces cough in patient receiving ACE inhibitor (letter). Ann Allergy 65(4):322323. Han YB, Shin KH, woo WS. 1984. Effect of spices on hepatic microsomal enzyme function in mice. Arch Pharm Res 7(1):53-6. Jang JJ, Devor DE, Logsdon DL, Ward JM. 1992. A 4-week feeding study of ground red chili (Capsicum annuum) in male B6C3F1 mice. Food & Chemical Toxicology 30(9):783-787. Lopez-Carrillo L. Hernandez Avila M, Dubrow R. 1994. Chili pepper consumption and gastric cancer in Mexico: a case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 139(3):263-71. Martinez MJ, Betancourt J, Lopez M, Morejon Z, Fuentes V, Moron F. 2005a. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2007). Irritabilidad drmica primaria de hoja fresca en aceite de Capsicum annuum. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacologa, Facultad de Ciencias Mdicas Dr. Salvador Allende, La Habana, Cuba. Martinez MJ, Betancourt J, Lopez M, Morejon Z, Fuentes V, Moron F. 2005b. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2007). Clases Txicas Agudas Tpica de hoja fresca machacada de Capsicum annuum. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacologa, Facultad de Ciencias Mdicas Dr. Salvador Allende, La Habana, Cuba. Mozsik G, Szolcsanyi J, Racz I. 2005. Gastroprotection induced by capsaicin in healthy human subjects. World J Gastroenterol 11(33):5180-4. OHollaren MT, Porter GA. 1990. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and the allergist. Ann Allergy 64(6):503-506. Ochi T, Takaishi Y, Kogure K, Yamauti I. 2003. Antioxidant activity of a new capsaicin derivative from Capsicum annuum. Journal of Natural Products 66(8):1094-1096. Palevitch D, Craker LE. 1993. Nutritional and medical importance of red peppers. Herb Spice Medicinal Plant Dig 11(3):1-4. Perez-Galvez A, Martin HD, Sies H, Stahl W. 2003. Incorporation of carotenoids from paprika oleoresin into human chylomicrons. Br J Nutr 89(6):787-93.

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Shimeda Y, Hirotani Y, Akimoto Y, Shindou K, Ijiri Y, Nishihori T, Tanaka K. 2005. Protective effects of capsaicin against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Biol Pharm Bull 28(9):1835-8. Suganuma H, Hirano T, Inakuma T. 1999. Amelioratory effect of dietary ingestion with red bell pepper on learning impairment in senescence-accelerated mice (SAMP8). Journal of Nutritional Science & Vitaminology 45(1):143-149. Surh YJ, Lee RC, Park KK, Mayne ST, Liem A. Miller JA. 1995. Chemopreventive effects of capsaicin and diallyl sulfide against mutagenesis or tumorgenesis by vinyl carbamate and N-nitrosodimethylamine. Carcinogenesis 16(10):2467-71. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Watson CP, Tyler KL, Bickers DR, Millikan LE, Smith S, Coleman E. 1993. A randomized vehicle-controlled trial of topical capsaicin in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Ther 15(3):510-26. Williams S, Clark R, Dunford J. 1995. Contact dermatitis associated with capsaicin. Hunan hand syndrome. Ann Emerg Med 25(5):713-715. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Ajo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Garlic (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Allium sativum L. [Liliaceae (Lily Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Common cold - Cough - Diabetes - Flu - High blood pressure - High cholesterol - Indigestion - Sinusitis - Skin fungal infections - Sore throat - Stomach ache and abdominal pain

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Upper or lower respiratory tract infections

Plant Part Used: Bulb (cabeza) or cloves (dientes)fresh, dried, powdered or extracted in oil. Traditional Preparation: To make a thick syrup or botella for treating upper or lower respiratory tract infections, the fresh bulb is chopped and combined with honey, lime/lemon (limn) and/or aloe vera (sbila) gel. This mixture is kept in the refrigerator and is administered by the spoonful as needed, approximately 2-3 tablespoons per day (Yukes et al. 2007). Traditional Uses: For high blood pressure, raw garlic can be eaten, prepared as a tea or combined with orange juice and taken as a drink. Fresh cloves of garlic are used to treat upper or lower respiratory tract infections such as cold, flu, sore throat and cough. A tea can be prepared to alleviate stomach ache, abdominal pain, upset stomach or indigestion using garlic cloves and/or skins (cscara), sometimes combined with star anise (ans de estrella) and anise (ans). This plant is also used for arthritis, diabetes and high cholesterol as a tea prepared by infusion or decoction. For sinusitis, ajo is extracted in gin (jinebra) and taken internally to clear up the nasal passages. For fungal skin infections (hongos), the fresh bulb is crushed and applied topically to the affected area.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Ajo (Allium sativum) or garlic is a strongly-scented, perennial herb that grows to 100 cm in height. The bulb of this plant, which is used as a culinary seasoning, is actually a cluster of smaller bulbs, each of which is commonly called a clove (in English) or a diente (in Spanish, literally tooth). Leaves are straight, narrow, long and lance-shaped. Flowers are numerous and small with reddish to greenish-white petals (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native to the Northern Hemisphere, most likely originating in Central or South Asia and is cultivated widely for culinary purposes (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The most commonly reported undesirable side effects of ajo include garlic breath and odor and gastrointestinal difficulties such as belching, gas and constipation (Stevinson et al. 2000; Gardner et al. 2001). Other adverse effects associated with garlic reported in the literature include headache, burns, nausea, anaphylaxis, anticoagulation, myalgia, fatigue and vertigo (Holzgartner 1992) as well as gastrointestinal upset, disturbance of intestinal flora and allergic reactions such as contact dermatitis and asthma (Courturier & Bousquet 1982). When used externally, there have been numerous reports (particularly in young children) of irritation, necrosis and burning of the skin; however, these cases mostly involve extremely prolonged exposure (several hours or even days; cases with children: Parish et al. 1987, Garty 1993; cases with adults: Roberge et al. 1997, Farrell and Staughton 1996). Contraindications: It is recommended that garlic not be taken medicinally for 10 days prior to surgery as its antiplatelet activity may increase risk of excessive bleeding (German et al. 1995); also, not to be taken therapeutically while breastfeeding (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: Concomitant use of garlic and the following drugs may result in herb-drug interactions: anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, low molecular weight heparins, thrombolytic agents (due to potential for excessive bleeding; Gruenwald et al. 2004); chlorzoxazone (reduced drug metabolism; Gurley et al. 2002); indomethacin and NSAIDs (potential for excessive bleeding; Gruenwald et al. 2004); protease inhibitors, including saquinavir (may reduce blood levels of drug; Piscitelli et al. 2002). Garlic may also inhibit the efficacy of drugs that are metabolized through cytochrome P450 2E1 (Gurley et al. 2002) and potentiate the effects of forskolin (Coleus forskoli; due to risk of excessive bleeding; Apitz-

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Castro et al. 1986; Gruenwald et al. 2004). Caution is advised during concomitant use and if both are administered together, patients should be monitored for signs of adverse effects due to drug interactions.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Numerous clinical trials have demonstrated ajos therapeutic activity as a hypocholesterolemic, hypolipidemic and antihypertensive agent, and studies have supported its use as an antianginal, antiatherosclerotic, antiplatelet and hypotensive agent and as a treatment for the common cold and coronary artery disease (see Clinical Data table below). Preclinical laboratory and animal studies have demonstrated the following effects of ajo: anticarcinogenic, antihypertensive, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antithrombotic, cytochrome P450 inhibition, hypoglycemic and immunomodulatory (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Evidence suggests that eating fresh garlic may be the most therapeutic way to use this herb because one of its most active constituents, allicin, loses its potency when heated (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Major chemical constituents include the active compounds allicin and garlicin. Fresh garlic is a significant source of calcium, isoleucine, manganese, selenium, valine and vitamins B6 and C (U.S. Department of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Allium sativum is approved by the German Commission E for use as a supportive therapy or preventive agent for arteriosclerosis, hypertension and high cholesterol, administered as minced fresh bulb, dried and powdered bulb, oil or other preparations made from the fresh bulb. Daily dosage is 4 g fresh garlic (Blumenthal et al. 1998). .

Clinical Data: Allium sativum

Activity/Effect Antianginal Preparation Intravenous garlicin (60 mg/day) Design & Model Randomized, controlled clinical trial (n=34): duration: 10 days; patients with peripheral artery occlusion disease; control: nitroglycerine (n=21) Randomized, doubleblinded, placebocontrolled clinical trial: 152 participants; duration: 48 mo Randomized, singleblinded, placebocontrolled clinical trial (n=100): during 3rd trimester of pregnancy Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled crossover study (n=34; duration: 44 wks) Results Significant improvement in electrocardiogram (62%) & symptoms; lowered blood sugar & plasma endothelin levels Significant reduction in plaque volume; results suggest possible curative role in plaque regression Reduced incidence of hypertension but not preeclampsia in nulliparous pregnant women Showed selective inhibition of platelet aggregation & adhesion Reference Li et al. 2000

Antiatherosclerotic

900 mg powder daily

Koscielny et al. 1999

Antihypertensive

Garlic tablet (Garlet); 800 mg/day

Ziaei et al. 2001

Antiplatelet

Aged garlic extract (AGE); 2.4 & 7.2 g/d vs. equal doses of placebo

Steiner & Li 2001

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Activity/Effect Common cold treatment & prevention

Preparation Allicin-containing garlic extract; 1 capsule daily Capsules containing ethyl acetate extract of 1 g peeled & crushed raw garlic; daily dose: 2 2 capsules

Coronary artery disease (CAD) treatment

Design & Model Randomized, doubleblinded, placebocontrolled study (n=146): duration: 12 wks Placebo controlled clinical trial: 30 patients with CAD; duration: 3 mo

Hypocholesterolemic

Enteric-coated supplement with high allicin content (9.6 mg); also, dietary advice Aged garlic extract (7.2 g/day) & modified diet Garlic preparation (Sapec, Kwai); 900 mg garlic powder (1.3% allicn) daily & low-fat diet

Hypocholesterolemic & antihypertensive

Hypolipidemic

Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled intervention study: 46 subjects with hypercholesterolemia; duration: 12 wks Double-blind, placebocontrolled, cross-over evaluation: 41 hypercholesterolemic men; duration: 6 & 4 mos Randomized doubleblind clinical trial vs. bezafibrate (600 mg); 98 patients with primary hyperlipoproteinaemia; prephase: 6 wks; duration: 12 wks

Results Shown to prevent incidence of common colds, reduced recovery time & alleviated symptoms Significantly reduced total cholesterol & triglyceride serum levels; increased HDL-cholesterol & fibrinolytic activity; no effect on blood sugar or fibrinogen levels Active; cholesterollowering effect shown; may be due to bioavailability of enteric-coated dose form Reduced total & LDL serum cholesterol & lowered systolic blood pressure Active; significantly reduced total & LDL cholesterol & triglyceride levels; increased HDL cholesterol

Reference Josling 2001

Bordia et al. 1998

Kannar et al. 2001

Steiner et al. 1996

Holzgartner et al. 1992

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Allium sativum

Activity/Effect Anticarcinogenic Preparation Ingested fresh or cooked (9-10 cloves/wk) Aqueous garlic extract (250 mg/kg body weight, 3 /wk, duration: 14 wks) Design & Model Meta-analysis of observational epidemiological studies in humans (1966-99) In vivo: hamsters with induced oral carcinogenesis Results Reduced risk of stomach or colorectal cancer Suppressed oral carcinogenesis and incidence of neoplasms Reference Fleischauer et al. 2000

Anticarcinogenic

Balasenthil et al. 1999

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Activity/Effect Antihypertensive

Preparation Garlic (gavage: 100 mg/kg body wt, duration: 5 days) Aged garlic extract

Design & Model In vivo: rats

Antioxidant

Antithrombotic

Aqueous extract (both boiled and raw; dose: 50 and 500 mg/kg), given orally or intraperitoneally daily for 4 wks

Cytochrome P450 inhibition

Fresh garlic and various garlic extracts

Ethanol extract (45 mg/kg body wt/day for 28 days) Immunomodulatory Aged garlic extract Hypoglycemic & antinociceptive

Results Completely inhibited acute hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction Extract inhibited low In vitro: bovine density lipoprotein pulmonary artery oxidation and endothelial cells and minimized cell injury murine macrophages resulting from oxidation. In vivo: rats; Raw garlic extract measured serum levels demonstrated of thromboxane B2 significant antithrombotic effect while boiled garlic extract had very little effect; no adverse effects reported due to taking garlic frequently in low doses In vitro study of P450 Showed inhibition of isoenzymes and Pcytochrome P450 2C, glycoprotein 2D & 3A mediatedmetabolism of isoforms In vivo: diabetic mice Extract lowered serum glucose levels, nociceptive response In vivo: psychological Extract inhibited stress-exposed mice stress-induced immune suppression as evidenced by its prevention of the anticipated decrease in spleen weight & cell quantity

Reference Fallon et al. 1998 Ide & Lau 1999

Bordia et al. 1996

Foster et al. 2001

Kumar & Reddy 1999 Kyo et al. 1999

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Hypocholesterolemic Preparation Dehydrated; 500 and 1000 mg Design & Model Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled clinical trial (n=53) Results No significant reduction in serum cholesterol levels Reference Gardner et al. 2001

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Activity/Effect Hypocholesterolemic

Preparation Garlic extract capsules (Kwai); 300 mg 3 daily

Hypocholesterolemic

Garlic supplements (diverse monopreparations) Standardized garlic tablet (300 mg 3 daily) Powder (900 mg/d for 12 wks)

Hypolipidemic

Hypolipidemic

Design & Model Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled clinical trial (n=30 pediatric patients; duration: 8 wks) Meta-analysis of 13 double-blind, placebocontrolled, randomized clinical trials (198198; n=796) Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled study (n=50 hypercholesterolemic patients; for 12 wks) Multicenter, randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled study of hypercholesterolemic patients; 28 treatment & 22 placebo patients

Results Not active; ineffective in lowering cholesterol in children with familial hyperlipidemia Overall garlic shown to be somewhat more effective than placebo in lowering total cholesterol levels No significant effect on lowering plasma lipids, lipoproteins or HDL & LDL subclasses Effect not shown; no significant changes in lipid or lipoprotein levels; ineffective in lowering cholesterol levels

Reference McCrindle et al. 1998

Stevinson et al. 2000

Superko & Krauss 2000

Isaacsohn et al. 1998

REFERENCES
Apitz-Castro R, Ledezme E, Escalante J et al. 1986. The molecular basis of the antiplatelet action of ajoene: direct interaction with the fibrinogen receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 141(1):145-150. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balasenthil S, Arivazhagan S, Ramachandran CR, Nagini S. 1999. Effects of garlic on 7,12Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis. Cancer Detect Prev 23(6):5348. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Bordia T, Mohammed N, Thomson M, Ali M. 1996. An evaluation of garlic and onion as antithrombotic agents. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 54(3):183-6. Bordia A, Verma KS, Srivastava KC. 1998. Effect of Garlic (Allium sativum) on blood lipids, blood sugar, fibrinogen and fibrinolytic activity in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 58(4):257-63. Couturier P, Bousquet J. 1982. Occupational allergy secondary to inhalation of Garlic dust (letter). J Allergy Clin Immunol 70(2):145. Fallon MB, Abrams GA, Abdel-Razek TT, Dai J, Chen SJ, Chen YF, Luo B, Oparil S, Ku DD. Garlic prevents hypoxic pulmonary hypertension in rats. Am J Physiol 275(2):L283-7.

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Farrell AM, Staughton RCD. 1996. Garlic burns mimicking herpes zoster (letter). Lancet 347(9009):1195. Fleischauer AT, Poole C, Arab L. 2000. Garlic consumption and cancer prevention: meta-analyses of colorectal and stomach cancers. Am J. Clin Nutr 72(4):1047-52. Foster BC, Foster MS, Vandenhoek S, Krantis A, Budzinski JW, Arnason JT, Gallicano KD, Choudri S. 2001. An in vitro evaluation of human cytochrome P450 3A4 and P-glycoprotein inhibition by Garlic. J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci 4(2):176-84. Gardner CD, Chatterjee LM, Carlson JJ. 2001. The effect of a Garlic preparation on plasma lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic adults. Atherosclerosis 154(1):213-20. Garty BZ. 1993. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Garlic Burns. Pediatrics 91(3):658-9. German K, Kumar U, Blackford HN. 1995. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Garlic and the risk of TURP bleeding. Br J Urol 76(4):518. Gurley BJ, Gardner SF, Hubbard MA, Williams DK, Gentry WB, Cui Y, Ang CY. 2002. Cytochrome P450 phenotypic ratios for predicting herb-drug interactions in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 72(3):276-87. Holzgartner H, Schmidt U, Kuhn U. 1992. Comparison of the efficacy and tolerance of a garlic preparation vs. bezafibrate. Arzneimittelforschung 42(12):1473-7. Ide N, Lau BH. 1999. Aged garlic extract attenuates intracellular oxidative stress. Phytomedicine 6(2):125-31. Isaacsohn JL, Moser M, Stein EA, et al. 1998. Garlic powder and plasma lipids and lipoproteins: A mutlicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 158(11):1189-94. Josling P. 2001. Preventing the common cold with a garlic supplement: a double-blind, placebo-controlled survey. Advances in Therapy 18(4):189-93. Kannar D, Wattanapenpaiboon N, Savige GS, Wahlqvist ML. 2001. Hypocholesterolemic effect of an enteric-coated garlic supplement. J Am Coll Nutr 20(3):225-31. Koscielny J, Klussendorf D, Latza R, Schmitt R, Radtke H, Siegel G, Kiesewetter H. 1999. The antiatherosclerotic effect of Allium sativum. Atherosclerosis 144(1):237-49. Kumar GR and Reddy KP. 1999. Reduced nociceptive responses in mice with alloxan induced hyperglycemia after garlic (Allium sativum Linn.) treatment. Indian J Exp Biol 37(7):662-6. Kyo E, Uda N, Ushijima M, Kasuga S, Itakura Y. 1999. Prevention of psychological stress-induced immune suppression by aged garlic extract. Phytomedicine 6(5):325-30. Li G, Shi Z, Jia H, Ju J, Wang X, Xia Z, Qin L, Ge C, Xu Y, Cheng L, Chen P, Yuan G. 2000. A clinical investigation on garlicin injection for treatment of unstable angina pectoris and its actions on plasma endothelin and blood sugar levels. J Trad Chin Med 20(4):243-6. McCrindle BW, Helden E, Conner WT. 1998. Garlic extract therapy in children with hypercholesterolemia. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 152(11):1089-94. Parish RA, McIntire S, Heimbach DM. 1987. Garlic burns: a naturopathic remedy gone awry. Pediatr Emerg Care 3(4):258-60. Piscitelli SC, Burstein AH, Welden N, Gallicano KD, Falloon J. 2002. The effect of garlic supplements on the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir. Clin Infect Dis 34(2):234-8.

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Roberge RJ, Leckey R, Spence R, Krenzelok EJ. 1997. Garlic burns of the breast (letter). Am J. Emerg Med 15(5):548. Steiner M, Li W. 2001. Aged garlic extract, a modulator of cardiovascular risk factors: a dose-finding study on the effects of AGE on platelet functions. J Nutr 131(3s)980S-984S. Steiner M, Khan AH, Holbert D, Lin RI. 1996. A double-blind crossover study in moderately hypercholesterolemic men that compared the effect of aged garlic extract and placebo administration on blood lipids. Am J Clin Nutr 64(6):866-70. Stevinson C, Pittler MH, Ernst E. 2000. Garlic for treating hypercholesterolemia. A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Annals of Int Med 133(6):420-9. Superko HR, Krauss RM. 2000. Garlic powder, effect on plasma lipids, postprandial lipemia, low-density lipoprotein particle size, high-density lipoprotein subclass distribution and lipoprotein(a). J Am Coll Cardiol 35(2):321-6. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Ziaei S, Hantoshzadeh S, Rezasoltani P, Lamyian M. 2001. The effect of garlic tablet on plasma lipids and platelet aggregation in nulliparous pregnants at high risk of preeclampsia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 99(2):201-6.

Ajonjol
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Sesame (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Sesamum indicum L. Synonym: Sesamum orientale L. [Pedaliaceae (Sesame Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Asthma - Bronchitis - Common cold - Cough - Expectorant - Flu

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Pneumonia

Plant Part Used: Seeds, oil. Traditional Preparation: To make a milk-like emulsion, the seeds are ground in a blender or with a mortar and pestle, mixed with water and sometimes sweetened with sugar. To make sesame oil, the seeds are toasted, pulverized and then left undisturbed so that the oil (aceite or zumo) separates from the seed paste and can be skimmed or poured off the top. Traditional Uses: To treat asthma, chest congestion (pecho apretado) and for nutritional purposes, a milk-like beverage is prepared using the ground seeds of ajonjol and water, taken orally. Ajonjol is said to expel phlegm from the lungs. For asthma, bronchitis, common cold, cough, flu and pneumonia, toasted sesame oil is combined with fresh coconut (coco) milk and administered orally. In children, the dosage is 1-2 teaspoons taken 2-3 times daily. In adults, this remedy is often also combined with castor bean plant (higuereta) oil and other ingredients, and a few ounces are taken daily as an expectorant. Availability: As a popular food item, the seeds and seed oil are available at most grocery stores and supermarkets and are occasionally sold at botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Ajonjol (Sesamum indicum) is an annual herb that can grow to approximately 100 cm in height. Each plant has a single erect stem with oval-shaped, pointed leaves and pronounced veins. Flowers are purple to white and fragrant, and seed capsules are long and burst open when ripe. Seeds are very small, light brown to black in color and shaped like flattened-teardrops (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is cultivated worldwide in tropical and subtropical temperate regions and is primarily produced in India, Sudan, Myanmar and China (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a common food, sesame seeds and sesame oil are generally regarded as safe. No adverse effects have been reported in conjunction with the appropriate therapeutic use of sesame, although some individuals may be allergic to it (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: None identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions: None identified in the available literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, ingestion of the seed oil has shown the following effects: blood glucose modulating, enterolactone precursor, hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive and vitamin E status improvement. Massage with sesame oil improved growth and sleep duration in infants. In postmenopausal women, beneficial hormonal, antioxidant and blood lipid effects were demonstrated. Administration of sesame oil as a nasal spray reduced dryness of nasal mucosa in another human clinical study (see Clinical Data table below). In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated the following activity: antihypercholesterolemic, antihypertensive, antineoplastic, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antitumor, chemoprotective, lignan level increase, tocopherol bioavailability, vasodilatory and vitamin E level increase (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Use of sesame oil to relieve cough symptoms in children was not supported in one clinical trial (see Effect Not Demonstrated table below). Sesame seed lignans are polyphenolic phytoestrogens which when metabolized are converted into enterolactones (mammalian lignans) by gut flora (Pealvo 2005). Enterolactones may exert a weak

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estrogenic effect in the human body and have been associated with lowered risk of breast cancer and cardiovascular disease (Pietinen et al. 2001, Vanharanta et al. 2003). According to the Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, research supports the topical use of the seed oil for treatment of dermatological problems related to dry skin. In addition, its use in the treatment of constipation may be warranted as this oil is reported to have stool-softening properties (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Major chemical constituents of the seeds include: oil (oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic fatty acids primarily); lignans and sterols (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Two novel lignans have been isolated from the seed coat: (+)-saminol and (+)-episesaminone-9-O-beta-D-sophoroside (Grougnet et al. 2006). Sesame oil improves vitamin E status in the body and may have important health effects due to the antioxidant properties of this nutrient and its association with lowered risk of cancer and heart disease (Frank 2005). Sesame seeds are a significant source of calcium, folate, iron, magnesium, manganese, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, niacin, omega 3 fatty acids, phosphorus, thiamin, tryptophan, vitamin B6 and zinc (U.S. Department of Agriculture 2006). Although flaxseed has been reputed to be one of the richest source of plant lignans, the total concentration of lignans in sesame seed (2180 mcmol/100 g) was shown to be greater than that of flaxseed (820 mcmol/100 g; Liu et al. 2006). Indications and Usage: According to the German Commission E, the recommended dosage of the seeds is 30 to 60 g daily for the treatment of constipation (Blumenthal et al. 1998).

Clinical Data: Sesamum indicum

Activity/Effect Dry nasal mucosa treatment Preparation Pure sesame oil (14 days) vs. isotonic sodium chloride solution (14 days) Sesame oil nasal spray (Nozoil); administered 3 daily in each nostril for 20 days Seeds ingested after following a low-lignan diet for 1 wks; sesamin (in vitro) Sesame lignan; 3.6 mg sesamin w/18 mg vitamin E in 180 mg wheat germ oil in capsules; dosage: 3 capsules 3 per day & 6 capsules 3 per day Design & Model Randomized crossover study: 79 patients w/nasal mucosa dryness (dry winter climate) Clinical trial: 20 patients with nasal dryness & 20 postnasal irradiation patients w/dryness Human clinical study; n=4; in vitro: incubated with human fecal inoculum to mimic digestion in gut Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial: 12 male patients with hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa & b); duration: 4 wks at each dosage Results Sesame oil significantly improved nasal mucosa dryness, nasal stuffiness & nasal crusts with few & temporary adverse effects Significant decrease in nasal problems & reduction of dryness of nasal mucosa Enterolactone shown to be the major metabolite of sesamin Reference Johnsen et al. 2001

Dry nasal mucosa treatment

Bjork-Eriksson et al. 2000

Enterolactone precursor

Pealvo et al. 2005

Hypocholesterolemic

Significantly reduced serum total cholesterol levels & especially lowdensity-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol; no side effects observed (except one case of temporary diarrhea most likely due to excess wheat germ oil); may decrease risk for atherosclerosis

Hirata et al. 1996

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Activity/Effect Hypotensive & antidiabetic

Preparation Open label sesame oil: used in place of regular cooking oil for 45 days & then switched to another cooking oil (such as palm or peanut oil) for 45 more days Sesame oil (compared to massage w/herbal oil, mustard oil, mineral oil vs. control without massage) Sesame seed powder; 50 g ingested daily for 5 wks followed by 3-wk washout period; placebo: 50 g rice powder for 5 wks

Design & Model Pilot study: hypertensive diabetics taking atenolol (betablocker) & glibenclamide (sulfonylurea); n=22 male & 18 female patients Full term healthy infants (n=125; 5-7 wks of age): randomly assigned to five groups Randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study: n=24 healthy postmenopausal women

Infant growth stimulus & sleep improvement

Sex hormone binding globulin increase, thiobarbituric acid reacting substance decrease, hypocholesterolemic & postmenopausal support

Vitamin E level increase

Sesame oil muffin (vs. corn oil muffin); ingested

Human clinical study: urine samples collected (72 hours)

Results Showed significantly decreased systolic & diastolic blood pressure which increased when sesame oil substitution ended; reduced body weight, body mass index, waist & hip girth, waist:hip ratio, plasma glucose, lowdensity lipoproteins & triglyceride levels Massage in infancy with sesame oil significantly improved growth and postmassage sleep; massage w/sesame oil showed greater beneficial effects than other oils Significantly decreased plasma total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), thiobarbituric acid reactive species in oxidized LDL & serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; significantly increased serum sex hormone-binding globulin & urinary 2hydroxyesterone; results suggest eating sesame offers multiple benefits to postmenopausal women Active; sesame oil muffin consumption significantly reduced d2-gamma-CEHC & total gamma-CEHC excretion in urine tests

Reference Sankar et al. 2006

Agarwal et al. 2000

Wu et al. 2006

Frank 2005

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Sesamum indicum

Activity/Effect Antihypertensive Preparation Sesamin (seed oil lignan); dietary Design & Model In vivo: rats w/spontaneous hypertension; saltloaded vs. unloaded stroke-prone groups Results Significantly suppressed hypertension development in saltloaded rats for an extended time; reduced renal damage; results suggest prophylactic as treatment for malignant hypertension or water & salt retention Active; suppressed development of hypertension & protected against aortic & mesenteric vascular hypertrophy Significantly reduced the effects of experimentally-induced hypertension; improved vasodilatory response; possibly due to nitric oxide-dependent mechanism Active; reduced kidney & liver lipid peroxidation Active: showed potent radical scavenging activity; inhibited lipid peroxidation, hydroxyl radical-induced deoxyribose degradation & DNA cleavage Increased bioavailability of tocopherols (possibly due to regeneration of oxidized tocopherols); lignans increased hepatic antioxidant enzymes Reference Matsumura et al. 1998

Antihypertensive

Sesamin (seed oil lignan)

In vivo: rats with deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt induced hypertension In vivo: rats with deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt-induced hypertension & acetylcholineinduced aortic vasodilation In vivo: rats; fed sesamolinsupplemented diet for 2 wks Hydroxyl, oneelectron oxidizing, organo-haloperoxyl, lipid peroxyl & tryptophanyl radicals In vivo: rats with iron-induced oxidative stress

Matsumura et al. 1995

Antihypertensive

Sesamin (seed lignan); dietary

Matsumura et al. 2000

Antioxidant

Sesamolin (seed oil lignan); 1% of diet Sesamol, an aqueous & lipid soluble isolated compound (5hydroxy-1,3benzodioxole) Seed oil & lignans: sesamin & sesamolin; ingested

Kang et al. 1998

Antioxidant

Joshi et al. 2005

Antioxidant & tocopherol bioavailability

Hemalatha et al. 2004

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Activity/Effect Antiproliferative

Preparation Sesamin

Design & Model In vitro: human breast cancer cell line MCF-7, lung cancer, renal, keratinocyte, melanoma & osteosarcoma cells

Chemoprotective

Sesame oil

In vivo: female mice w/cisplatin-induced hepatic & renal injuries

Sesame oil (24% Antihypercholesterolemic of diet)

Lignan level increase

Sesamin (plant lignan from seed); fed to rats: 15 mg/kg body weight for 10 days) & 10 % sesame diet

In vivo: rats; experimentallyinduced hypercholesterolemia; 24 hr lymph monitoring In vivo: rats; in vitro: sesamin fermentation with human fecal inoculum

Results Arrested cell cycle at G1 phase, dephosphorylated tumor-suppressor retinoblastoma protein & down-regulated cyclin D1 by promoting proteasome degradation of this protein; may explain mechanism of antiproliferative activity Active; strong attenuation of hepatic & renal injuries; decreased lipid peroxidation (LPO); did not affect antitumor effects of cisplatin; mechanism involves inhibition of nitric oxideassociated LPO Active; significantly reduced lymph cholesterol & fatty acid levels Showed an increase in urinary mammalian lignan excretion in rats; analyzed intermediate metabolites & proposed metabolic pathway; intestinal microflora converted sesamin to mammalian lignans in vitro Strong activity; increased gamma-tocopherol levels in liver & plasma; reduced TBARS concentrations in plasma Inhibited tocopherolomega-hydroxylase activity at concentrations of 2 mcm Active; increased liver & plasma concentrations of gamma-tocopherol

Reference Yokota et al. 2007

Hsu et al. 2007

Satchithanandam et al. 1994

Liu et al. 2006

Tocopherol bioavailability

Vitamin E hydroxylase inhibition Vitamin E level increase

Seeds, oil & sesamin (vs. flaxseed oil preparations); ingested Sesamin (seed lignan) Sesamin (seed lignan) added to diet

In vivo: rats; fed experimental diet for 4 wks In vitro: Hep G2 cells In vivo: rats; duration: 4 wks

Yamashita et al. 2003

Frank 2005

Frank 2005

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Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antitussive Preparation Sesame oil: 5 mL orally before going to bed for 3 consecutive nights Design & Model Randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled clinical trial: children (2-12 yrs of age) with cough due to common cold; n=107 Results Did not show significant improvement in cough symptoms compared to placebo as measured by cough frequency & strength Likert scale; no adverse effects were reported Reference Saab et al. 2006

REFERENCES
Agarwal KN, Gupta A, Pushkarna R, Bhargava SK, Faridi MM, Prabhu MK. 2000. Effects of massage & use of oil on growth, blood flow & sleep pattern in infants. Indian J Med Res 112:212-7. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Bjork-Eriksson T, Gunnarsson M, Holmstrom M, Nordqvist A, Petruson B. 2000. Fewer problems with dry nasal mucous membranes following local use of sesame oil. Rhinology 38(4):200-3. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Egbekun MK, Ehieze MU. 1997. Proximate composition and functional properties of fullfat and defatted beniseed (Sesamum indicum L.) flour. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 51:35-41. Frank J. 2005. Beyond vitamin E supplementation: an alternative strategy to improve vitamin E status. J Plant Physiol 162(7):834-843. Grougnet R, Magiatis P, Mitaku S, Terzis A, Tillequin F, Skaltsounis AL. 2006. New lignans from the perisperm of Sesamum indicum. J Agric Food Chem 54(20):7570-4. Hemalatha S, Raghunath M, Ghafoorunissa. 2004. Dietary sesame oil inhibits iron-induced oxidative stress in rats. Br J Nutr 92(6):1017. Hirata F, Fujita K, Ishikura Y, Hosoda K, Ishikawa T, Nakamura H. 1996. Hypocholesterolemic effect of sesame lignan in humans. Atherosclerosis 122(1):135-36. Hsu DZ, Chen KT, Lin TH, Li YH, Liu MY. 2007. Sesame oil attenuates Cisplatin-induced hepatic and renal injuries by inhibiting nitric oxide-associated lipid peroxidation in mice. Shock 27(2):199-204. Johnsen J, Bratt BM, Michel-Barron O, Glennow C, Petruson B. 2001. Pure sesame oil vs. isotonic sodium chloride solution as treatment for dry nasal mucosa. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 127(11):1353-6. Joshi R, Kumar MS, Satyamoorthy K, Unnikrisnan MK, Mukherjee T. 2005. Free radical reactions and antioxidant activities of sesamol: pulse radiolytic and biochemical studies. J Agric Food Chem 53(7):2696-703. Kang MH, Naito M, Tsujihara N, Osawa T. 1998. Sesamolin inhibits lipid peroxidation in rat liver and kidney. J Nutr 1288(6):1018-1022.

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Liu Z, Saarinen NM, Thompson LU. 2006. Sesamin is one of the major precursors of mammalian lignans in sesame seed (Sesamum indicum) as observed in vitro and in rats. J Nutr 136(4):906-12. Matsumura Y, Kita S, Morimoto S, Akimoto K, Furuya M, Oka M, Tanaka T. 1995. Antihypertensive effect of sesamin. I. Protection against deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt-induced hypertension and cardiovascular hypertrophy. Biol Pharm Bull 18(7):1016-1019. Matsumura Y, Kita S, Ohgushi R, Okui T. 2000. Effects of sesamin on altered vascular reactivity in aortic rings of deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt-induced hypertensive rat. Biol Pharm Bull 23(9):1041-1045. Matsumura Y, Kita S, Tanida Y, Taguchi Y, Morimoto S, Akimoto K, Tanaka T. 1998. Antihypertensive effect of sesamin. III. Protection against development and maintenance of hypertension in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Biol Pharm Bull 21(5):469-473. Pealvo JL, Heinonen SM, Aura AM, Adlercreutz H. 2005. Dietary sesamin is converted to enterolactone in humans. J Nutr 135(5):1056-62. Pietinen P, Stumpf K, Mannisto S, Kataja V, Uusitupa M, Adlercreutz H. 2001. Serum enterolactone and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study in eastern Finland. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10(4):339-344. Saab BR, Pashayan N, El-Chemaly S, Sabra R. 2006. Sesame oil use in ameliorating cough in children: a randomized controlled trial. Complement Ther Med 14(2):92-9. Saad R, Perez C. 1984. Functional and nutritional properties of modified proteins of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Arch Latinoam Nutr 34:749-62. Sankar D, Rao MR, Sambandam G, Pugalendi KV. 2006. A pilot study of open label sesame oil in hypertensive diabetics. J Med Food 9(3):408-12. Satchithanandam S, Reicks M, Calvert RJ, Cassidy MM, Kritchevsky D. 1994. Coconut oil and sesame oil affect lymphatic absorption of cholesterol and fatty acids in rats. J Nutr 124(4):604. Tasneem R, Prakash V. 1989. Resistance of alpha-globulin from Sesamum indicum L. to proteases in relationship to its structure. J Protein Chem 8:251-261. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yokota T, Matsuzaki Y, Koyama M, Hitomi T, Kawanaka M, Enoki-Konishi M, Okuyama Y, Takayasu J, Nishino H, Nishikawa A, Osawa T, Sakai T. 2007. Sesamin, a lignan of sesame, down-regulates cyclin D1 protein expression in human tumor cells. Cancer Sci [Epub ahead of print Medline]. Vanharanta M, Voutilainen S, Rissanen TH, Adlercreutz H, Salonen JT. 2003. Risk of cardiovascular diseaserelated and all-cause death according to serum concentrations of enterolactone: Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Arch Intern Med 163(9):1099-1104. Wu WH, Kang YP, Wang NH, Jou HJ, Wang TA. 2006. Sesame ingestion affects sex hormones, antioxidant status and blood lipids in postmenopausal women. J Nutr 136(5):1270-5. Yamashita K, Ikeda S, Obayashi M. 2003. Comparative effects of flaxseed and sesame seed on vitamin E and cholesterol levels in rats. Lipids 38(12):1249-1255.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Albahaca
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Basil (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Ocimum basilicum L. Synonym: Ocimum gratissimum L. (Germosn-Robineau 1997). [Lamiaceae (Mint Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Constipation - Empacho - Gastrointestinal pain - Indigestion - Laxative - Limpiar el sistema - Menopausal symptoms - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Fresh or dried aerial parts (leaf, stem, flower); oil extracted from the plant or the essential oil made from distillation of the dried herb. Traditional Preparation: A tea is prepared of the dried (or sometimes fresh) leaves by infusion or decoction. The leaves may also be added to therapeutic, aromatic baths. Traditional Uses: Albahaca is considered a sweet herb with cooling and refreshing properties. For spiritual healing, it is used in baths of sweet herbs for good luck, especially during the New Year. The aerial parts of this plant, particularly the leaves, are used for culinary purposes as a seasoning agent. Availability: In New York City, albahaca is often sold fresh in botnicas, either in a refrigerated case or on the counter, tied into small bundles with a rubber band and kept in a container with their roots or stems covered in a small amount of water to keep them fresh.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Albahaca (Ocimum basilicum) or basil is an herbaceous plant that grows 20-40 cm in height with an erect stem, covered with small, soft hairs. The leaves are egg-shaped in outline, pointed at the tip, with leaf edges that can be smooth or irregularly toothed. Flowers grow from the tips of branches and are white with 6 petals. One defining characteristic is its strong scent and flavor (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant most likely originated in India and the Middle-East, and it is now cultivated worldwide as a culinary herb (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

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SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No negative side effects or adverse reactions due to use of this plant have been encountered in the literature besides the contraindications specified for the use of the essential oil. As a culinary herb, it is generally considered safe for regular consumption in moderate amounts as a condiment. The fresh juice of the leaf has demonstrated mild narcotic activity (Duke 1985). Animal Toxicity Studies: Estragole and safrole, constituents of the essential oil, have shown mutagenic and carcinogenic effects in vitro and in animal experiments (see contraindications below; Gruenwald et al. 2004). The LD50 of the powdered plant in rats is greater than 6 g/kg (Akhtar & Munir 1989). The aqueous extract of the dry leaf produced bradycardia in rats and cats at a dosage of 10-20 mg/kg (Ojewole, Adekile & Odebii 1982). Contraindications: Use of this plant is contraindicated in children under 5 years of age and during pregnancy and lactation (Germosn-Robineau 2007). Drug Interactions: Besides potential synergistic effects with drugs that share the same or similar pharmacological activities of this herb (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below), little information is available on herb-drug interactions for this plant. Medications that are metabolized by UGT(UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase)2B7 or UGT1A9 (i.e. morphine) may hinder the metabolism of estragole which is one of the primary active constituents of basil (Iyer et al. 2003).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No clinical trials of the oral use of this herb have been identified in the available literature; however, numerous preclinical and laboratory studies have been conducted showing the following effects: analgesic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antitumor, antiulcer, antiviral, chemomodulatory, ear infection treatment (acute otitis media), glutathione S-transferase inhibition, hypolipidemic and smooth muscle relaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Major chemical constituents include the following: essential oil chief constituents: linalool (54.95%), methylchavicol (11.98%), methyl cinnamate (7.24%) and linolen (0.14%; Opalchenova & Obreshkova 2003). Other constituents present in a significant quantity (>1000 ppm) include: acetic acid, aspartic acid, beta sitosterol, caffeic acid, caryophyllene, chavicol, citral, citronellol, essential oil, estragole, eugenol, eugenol methyl ether, geranial, geraniol, methyl chavicol, methyl cinnamate, methyl eugenol, mucilage, oleanolic acid, p-methoxycinnamialdehyde, phytosterols, rosmarinic acid, thymol and ursolic acid (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The dried, ground leaves are a significant source of calcium, iron and vitamins A and K (US Department of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: According to TRAMIL, based on significant traditional use and the available scientific literature, the following therapeutic applications of this plant are classified as REC meaning RECommended: use for stomachache, vomiting and earache. These uses are recommended only if strict hygiene measures are observed and proper diagnosis and care is provided by a qualified health practitioner (Germosn-Robineau 2007). Administration and dosage, based on traditional use, is as follows: for stomachache and vomiting: an infusion (2 spoonfuls of the fresh leaf steeped in 2 cups of boiling water) taken as 1 cup 3 times daily; and for earache: crushed leaf applied locally (GermosnRobineau 2007).

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Ocimum basilicum

Activity/Effect Antifungal Preparation Essential oil Design & Model In vitro Results Antifungal against Aspergillus aegyptiacus, Penicillium cyclopium, Trichoderma viride & Trichophyton mentagrophytes Active; mechanism seems to involve linolenic acids ability to block cyclooxygenase & lipoxygenase pathways of arachidonate metabolism Antimicrobial against gram + & gram - bacteria Active; showed strong inhibition; minimum inhibitory concentrations: 0.0030% and 0.0007% (v/v) Active; showed potent radical scavenging & antioxidant activity Demonstrated antispasmodic & analgesic properties Strongly active; inhibited tumor growth & incidence Activity is comparable to Ranitidina (standard drug); prevented ulcerogenesis Active; inhibited secretion of peptic-acid induced by aspirin; potently neutralized secretion of acid in the stomach Active; showed antisecretory, lipoxygenase inhibiting & histamine antagonistic effects Active; showed strong antiviral activity against a variety of viruses Reference El Keltawi et al. 1980, Janssen et al. 1989

Antiinflammatory

Fixed oil & linolenic acid

In vivo: rats with experimentallyinduced paw edema

Singh 1998

Antimicrobial Antimicrobial

Essential oil Essential oil

Antioxidant

Water & ethanol extracts Leaf and flower

In vitro: agar overlay technique In vitro: against multidrug resistant Staphylococcus, Enterococcus & Pseudomonas spp. In vitro: a variety of assays In vitro: isolated ileum of guinea pig; carrageenan-induced inflammation Carcinogen-induced tumor model In vivo: rat In vivo: rat; administered intragastrically In vivo: animal models with experimentallyinduced gastric ulceration In vitro against DNA & RNA viruses

Janssen 1986 Opalchenova & Obreshkova 2003

Gulcin et al. 2007 Queiroz & Reiss 1989 Dasgupta et al. 2004 Akhtar, Akhtar & Khan 1992 Akhtar & Munir 1989

Antispasmodic & analgesic

Antitumor Antiulcer

Leaf Aqueous extract of aerial parts Aqueous extract of aerial parts; 4.0 g/kg (400 mg concentration) Fixed oil

Antiulcer

Antiulcer & antiinflammatory

Singh 1999

Antiviral

Crude aqueous & ethanolic plant extracts & Isolated active constituents

Chiang et al. 2005

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Activity/Effect Ear infection treatment

Glutathione Stransferase inhibition Hypolipidemic & antioxidant

Preparation Essential oil & active constituents (thymol, carvacrol & salicylaldehyde) applied to ear canal Essential oil; dosage: 30 mg/animal Aqueous plant extract (0.5 g/100 g body weight)

Design & Model In vivo: rats w/experimentallyinduced acute otitis media caused by pneumococci or Haemophilus influenzae In vivo: mouse

In vivo: rats with experimentallyinduced hyperlipidemia

Smooth muscle relaxant

Essential oil

In vitro: tracheal & ileal smooth muscle tissues isolated from guinea pig

Results Reference Active; healed 58%-81% of Kristinsson et al. 2005 animals infected with H. influenzae & 6%-75% of those with pneumococci (by comparison, only 5.6%6% of placebo group were cured); recommended as effective treatment Lam & Zheng 1991 Effective in inhibiting enzyme transfer in the small intestine and liver, but not in the stomach Amrani et al. 2006 Active; lowered plasma cholesterol (50%), triglycerides (83%) & LDL-cholesterol (79%); higher HDL-cholesterol (129%); stronger effect than fenofibrate; showed very high antioxidant activity Active Reiter & Brandt 1985

REFERENCES
Akhtar MS, Munir M. 1989. Evaluation of the gastric antiulcerogenic effects of Solanum nigrum, Brassica oleracea and Ocimum basilicum in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27(1/2):163-76. Akhtar M, Akhtar A, Khan A. 1992. Antiulcerogenic effects of Ocimum basilicum extracts, volatile oils and flavonoid glycosides in albino rats. Int J Immunopharacol 30(2):97-104. Amrani S, Harnafi H, Bouanani Nel H, Aziz M, Caid HS, Manfredini S, Besco E, Napolitano M, Bravo E. 2006. Hypolipidaemic activity of aqueous Ocimum basilicum extract in acute hyperlipidaemia induced by triton WR-1339 in rats and its antioxidant property. Phytother Res 20(12):1040-5. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Chiang LC, Ng LT, Cheng PW, Chiang W, Lin CC. 2005. Antiviral activities of extracts and selected pure constituents of Ocimum basilicum. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 32(10):811-6. Dasgupta T, Rao AR, Yadava PK. 2004. Chemomodulatory efficacy of basil leaf (Ocimum basilicum) on drug metabolizing and antioxidant enzymes and on carcinogen-induced skin and forestomach papillomagenesis. Phytomedicine 11(2-3):139-51. Duke JA. 1985. Handbook of medicinal herbs. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 677 pp.

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Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). El Keltawi N, Megalla S, Ross S. 1980. Antimicrobial activity of some Egyptian aromatic plants. Herbal Pol 26(4):245-50. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, Weniger B, Carballo A, Lagos-Witte S. 1997. Farmacopea Vegetal Caribea, Primera Edicin. Fort-de-France, Martinique: Ediciones Emile Dsormeaux, 360 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2007. Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (e-book). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: TRAMIL, CD-ROM. Gulcin I, Elmastas M, Aboul-Enein HY. 2007. Determination of antioxidant and radical scavenging activity of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L. Family Lamiaceae) assayed by different methodologies. Phytother Res [Epub ahead of print - Medline]. Iyer LV, Ho MN, Shinn WM, Bradford WW, Tanga MJ, Nath SS, Green CE. 2003. Glucuronidation of 1hydroxyestragole (1-HE) by human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases UGT2B7 and UGT1A9. Toxicol Sci 73(1):36-43. Janssen A, Chin N, Scheffer J, et al. 1986. Screening for antimicrobial activity of some essential oils by the agar overlay technique. Pharm Weekbl (Sci Ed) 8(6):289-92. Kristinsson KG, Magnusdottir AB, Petersen H, Hermansson A. 2005. Effective treatment of experimental acute otitis media by application of volatile fluids into the ear canal. J Infect Dis 191(11):1876-80. Lam L, Zheng B. 1991. Effects of essential oils on glutathione S-transferase activity in mice. J Agr Food Chem 39(4):660-2. Ojewole J, Adekile A, Odebiyi O. 1982. Pharmacological studies on a Nigerian herbal preparation 1. Cardiovascular actions of cows urine concoction (CUC) and its individual components. Int J Crude Drug Res 20:71-85. Opalchenova G, Obreshkova D. 2003. Comparative studies on the activity of basilan essential oil from Ocimum basilicum L.against multidrug resistant clinical isolates of the genera Staphylococcus, Enterococcus and Pseudomonas by using different test methods. J Microbiol Methods 54(1):105-10. Queiroz I, Reis S. 1989. Antispasmodic and analgesic effects of some medicinal plants. Simpsio Brasil-China de Qumica e Farmacologia de Productos Naturais, Abstr. No 180. Reiter M, Brandt W. 1985. Relaxant effects of terpenoid on tracheal and ileal smooth muscles of the guinea pig. Arzneim-Forsch 35(1)408-14. Singh S. 1998. Comparative evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of fixed oil of different species of Ocimum and its possible mechanism of action. Indian J Exp Biol 36(10):1028-31. Singh S. 1999. Evaluation of gastric anti-ulcer activity of fixed oil of Ocimum basilicum Linn. and its possible mechanism of action. Indian J Exp Biol 37(3):253-7. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp.

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. (accessed July 26, 2007). Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Alcanfor
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Canfor (Spanish); camphor (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl. [Lauraceae (Laurel Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Asthma - Backache - Bronchitis - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Gastrointestinal pain - Headache - Indigestion - Muscle ache - Phlegm in the lungs - Sinus congestion - Sinusitis - Upper or lower respiratory tract infections Plant Part Used: Camphor oil (the essential oil of alcanfor), which is the most commonly used part of this plant, is present in all parts of this tree. Industrially it is extracted by steam distillation of the roots, branches or wood chips. The solid, crystallized essential oil is sold in commerce as flattened cubes or tablets, called tabletas in Spanish. Traditional Preparation: This remedy is primarily used externally by applying tablets of the crystallized oil to the affected area. In some cases, a very small amount of the essential oil is dissolved in water and taken internally. Traditional Uses: This highly aromatic plant has several medicinal uses. In cases of indigestion, gastrointestinal pain and gas, a very small amount of the essential oil is dissolved in water and taken internally to dispel gas that has accumulated in the stomach or intestines. To treat upper or lower respiratory tract infections, asthma, bronchitis, difficulty breathing or conditions of phlegm in the lungs, the essential oil is applied topically as an ointment to the chest area and is said to open up the lungs, loosen phlegm and make it easier to breathe.

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For treating sinusitis and headache due to sinus congestion, white cubes (tabletas) of crystallized alcanfor essential oil are melted by leaving them in a covered pot in the sun for two days, and the liquid oil is applied externally to the forehead, scalp, neck and face. Some recommend doing this during the hottest time of the day, around 2 PM, so that the heat causes more of the vapor of the essential oil to be released. A salve or pomade of the essential oil is also used for treating backache, muscle pain and arthritic conditions, applied topically to the affected area. For spiritual and physical health, the essential oil is added to a glass of water and set in the corner of a room or living space to release its fragrant vapor which is said to keep away insects and infectious agents, to cleanse the air of contamination and to absorb negative energy. Availability: Alcanfor is sometimes sold at botnicas or pharmacies as semi-translucent white tablets or cubes of the crystallized oil and may be pre-packaged in clear plastic or unwrapped in bins.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Alcanfor (Cinnamonum camphora) is an evergreen tree that is closely related to cinnamon and grows to 50 m in height with a trunk diameter of 5 m. Leaves are alternate with long, reddish leaf-stems and ovallanceolate shape. Flowers are small and pale greenish-white to yellow. Fruits are dark-blue to black, small, round drupes (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to East Asia (Vietnam, southern China and Japan), it is cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas and is an invasive species in non-native areas in that region (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Although no adverse effects were observed in a clinical trial of the oil applied topically (El-Shazly et al. 2004), external application may cause skin irritation, such as contact eczema, when used topically as a camphor-containing salve or oil. The lethal dose of camphor taken internally for adults is approximately 20 g, although signs of toxicity have been observed after taking as little as 2 g. For children, the lethal dosage can be less than 1 g. Symptoms of overdose include the following: intoxicated states, delirium, spasms and irregular respiration or difficulties with breathing (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Camphor is listed as a medication that can be fatal to a toddler (10 kg body weight; < 2 yrs) if one standard dose unit (1 tablet or teaspoon) is ingested (Koren 1993). Contraindications: Alcanfor should not be used internally during pregnancy due to emmenagogue, uterine stimulant and feticidal effects of isolated camphor. Externally, this plant should not be used on broken skin or open wounds due to rubefacient effects of the essential oil constituents. Prolonged topical use should be avoided because of potential CNS toxicity from dermal absorption and storage of active constituents in fatty tissue. Caution is advised in individuals with gastrointestinal infection due to the potential irritating effects of camphor bark preparations on the digestive tract (Brinker 1998). Due to the highly toxic nature of the essential oil, internal use is not recommended. Pediatrics Warning: Oils or salve preparations containing camphor as a main ingredient should not be administered to infants because of their potential for skin irritation, especially when applied to the nasal area or near mucous membranes (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Small children and infants (under 2 years of age) should not be administered camphor near the nose or via inhalation because absorption of small amounts can potentially lead to seizures and nervous system over stimulation (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: None identified in the literature.

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical trials have demonstrated the following pharmacological effects of the essential oil: antiplatelet, central nervous system stimulant, increased nasal sensation of cold and treatment of Demodex rosacea and ophthalmic disorders (see Clinical Data table below). Laboratory and/or animal studies have shown anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, biosurfactant, carcinogenesis inhibition, positively inotropic, ribosome inactivating and superoxide dismutase activity (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Major chemical constituents include the essential oil: D(+)-camphor ((1R,4R)-1,7,7-trimethylbicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-on; Gruenwald et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: Camphor is approved by the German Commission E for the following health conditions: arrhythmia, cough/bronchitis, hypotension, nervous heart disorders and rheumatism (Blumenthal et al. 1998). This remedy can be taken as a liquid (camphor spirit), administered by inhalation or used as a topical application such as an oil, salve or liniment. It is typically sold as a commercial pharmaceutical preparation in the form of a cream, salve or gel. Typical administration and dosage: camphor spirit containing 9.5-10.5% camphor administered externally by rubbing on the affected area several times daily. Concentrations of camphor in preparations should not be more than 25% for adults and 5% for children, and it is recommended that ointments and liniments contain 10-20% camphor but no more than 25% (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Cinnamonum camphora

Activity/Effect Antiplatelet & central nervous system stimulant Preparation 2.0 mL racemic camphor, given subcutaneously; monobromated camphor orally 0.5 g 3 daily 1/3 diluted camphor oil with glycerol; also treated with 500 mg metronidazole, orally; duration: 15 days Vapor of essential oil, inhaled Ingredient in Ophthacare eye drops Design & Model Clinical study: 20 patients with acute cerebrovascular disease; aggregatogram automatic recording & electroencephalograph examination Randomized controlled clinical trial: 15 women suffering from erythematotelangiectatic rosacea & 12 women free from skin lesions; Demodex folliculorum confirmed by biopsy Human clinical trial Multicenter clinical trail; patients with various ophthalmic disorders Results Active; both preparations inhibited platelet aggregation & stimulated brain bioelectric activity Demonstrated significant therapeutic effect; recommended as a treatment; no clinical side effects observed Reference Natiazhkina et al. 1980

Demodex rosacea treatment

El-Shazly et al. 2004

Nasal sensation

Ophthalmic disorders treatment

Active; induced nasal sensation of cold but no resistance to airflow Improved the condition of infective, degenerative & inflammatory ophthalmic disorders; no side effects

Burrow et al. 1983 Biswas et al. 2001

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Cinnamonum camphora

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory & antioxidant Preparation Total crude extract, 80% ethanol extract & its fractions; concentrations of less than 100 g/mL Volatile oil Design & Model In vitro: macrophage RAW264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide & interferon-gamma; DPPH & xanthine oxide radical scavenging assays In vivo: rabbits; inhaled oils Results Significantly modulated cytokines associated with inflammation & protected against oxidative stress; inhibited production of interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6 & tumor necrosis factor-alpha, nitric oxide & prostaglandin E(2) Active; lung compliance values improved due to decrease in surface tension between water & air (surfactance) Increased the size of twitch response tested Both compounds showed RNA N-glycosidase & supercoil-dependent endonuclease activities; camphorin showed superoxide dismutase activity Reference Lee et al. 2006

Biosurfactant effects

Zanker et al. 1980

Positively inotropic Ribosomeinactivation & superoxide dismutase

Essential oil Cinnamomin & camphorin, two proteins isolated from the seeds

In vitro: isolated rat diaphragm & guinea-pig ileum In vitro

Lis-Balchin & Hart 1997 Li et al. 1997

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Biswas NR, Gupta SK, Das GK, Kumar N, Mongre PK, Haldar D, Beri S. 2001. Evaluation of Ophthacare eye drops a herbal formulation in the management of various ophthalmic disorders. Phytotherapy Research 15(7):618-620. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Burrow A, Eccles R, Jones AS. 1983. The effects of camphor, eucalyptus and menthol vapour on nasal resistance to airflow and nasal sensation. Acta Oto-laryngologica (Stockholm) 96(1-2):157-161. El-Shazly AM, Hassan AA, Soliman M, Morsy GH, Morsy TA. 2004. Treatment of human Demodex folliculorum by camphor oil and metronidazole. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 34(1):107-116. Koren G. 1993. Medications which can kill a toddler with one tablet or teaspoonful. Journal of Toxicology Clinical Toxicology 31(3):407-413.

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Lee HJ, Hyun EA, Yoon WJ, Kim BH, Rhee MH, Kang HK, Cho JY, Yoo ES. 2006. In vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects of Cinnamomum camphora extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103(2):206-16. Li XD, Chen WF, Liu WY, Wang GH. 1997. Large-scale preparation of two new ribosome-inactivating proteins cinnamomin and camphorinfrom the seeds of Cinnamomum camphora. Protein Expr Purif 10(1)27-31. Lis-Balchin M, Hart S. 1997. A preliminary study of the effect of essential oils on skeletal and smooth muscle in vitro. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 58(3):183-187. Natiazhkina GM, Gorbacheva FE, Kats EI, Kvasov VT. 1980. [Camphor preparations in the overall therapy of cerebral infarct]. [Article in Russian] Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 80(1):38-40. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zanker KS, Tolle W, Blumel G, Probst J. 1980. Evaluation of surfactant-like effects of commonly used remedies for colds. Respiration 39(3):150-157.

Algodn
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Algodn blanco, algodn morado, algodn morao (Spanish); cotton, Creole cotton (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Gossypium barbadense L. [Malvaceae (Mallow Family)]. Note: Algodn morado typically refers to the species Gossypium hirsutum var. punctatum (Schum). J.B. Hurchison in the Dominican Republic (Liogier 2000).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Excess or abnormal vaginal discharge - Genitourinary tract inflammation - Infections - Inflammation - Limpiar el sistema - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaf, flower and root. When algodn morado or algodn morao is specified, this name may refer to the plant (mata) itself, especially its purple-tinted leaves, whereas the use of the common name algodn blanco may indicate that the flowers of this plant are used.

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Traditional Preparation: The leaves are boiled in water to make a tea for internal use or a wash for external use. Traditional Uses: The leaf is used for treating vaginal infections, genitourinary inflammation and excess vaginal discharge, prepared as a decoction with cornsilk (barba de maz) and taken orally. This plant functions by removing the heat (quita el calor) caused by inflammation and cleansing the body internally. The flower is also used to treat vaginal infections and excess vaginal discharge (flujo vaginal), prepared as a decoction and administered as a vaginal wash or douche. A remedy for infections in general (especially those that are considered pre-cancerous) is prepared by boiling the leaves of algodn morado with cinchona (quina) and black nightshade (hierba mora), taken orally. Availability: The dried herb is sometimes sold at botnicas specializing in Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Algodn (Gossypium barbadense) is a shrub that typically grows 1-3 m tall, and much of its surface is dotted with dark glands that look like small, dark spots. Leaves have 3-7 pointed lobes arranged so that they resemble a maple leaf or star in general shape with smooth leaf edges (5-20 cm 9-20 cm). Flowers grow singly or in small branching clusters with large yellow petals (to 8 cm long) that have a dark red spot at the base. Fruits are capsules (3.5-6 cm long), usually narrowly oval with three compartments each containing several seeds attached to white, fluffy hairs, thickly bunched together (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to South America, this plant is widely cultivated for the production of cotton fiber, grows in the Caribbean and can be found in open, dry areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

In human clinical studies of the isolated constituent gossypol as a male antifertility agent, the following adverse effects were reported: hypokalemia, irreversible anti-fertility effects (in males), fatigue, decreased libido and gastrointestinal disorders. More research needs to be done to determine the mechanism and potential toxicity of this constituent (Aitken 1983, Qian & Wang 1984, Ye et al. 1983). In mammalian cell cultures (including human lymph and hamster ovary cells), gossypol was shown to be cytotoxic. Animal Toxicity Studies: In adult male rats, an aqueous extract of cotton seed administered intraperitoneally (0.1 mL) resulted in damage to tissues of the kidney, liver, muscles and testicles (Thomas et al. 1991). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
This plant has demonstrated hypotensive and blood-pressure-lowering effects in laboratory studies. Gossypol isolated from the plant has shown strong antifertility effects as a male contraceptive agent due to its antispermatogenic effects (reducing sperm count and motility). It has reportedly been used in clinical trials with thousands of human volunteers in China during the 1970s. The active constituent gossypol has been isolated from the seeds of both G. barbadense and G. hirsutum and is found in other parts of the plant (Zhou & Lin 1988), including the root bark (Cui et al. 2002). The chief constituents (>1000 ppm) of the essential oil of the plant include: 1-trans-alphabergamotene, alpha-humulene, cadinene, caryophyllene, copaene and guaiene. Primary compounds in the

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seed include: gossypol, inositol, linoleic acid, myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid and stearic cid. The root contains salicylic acid, and the stem is high in tannins (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 2007). Indications and Usage: Insufficient information is available to determine standard indications and usage.

Clinical Data: Gossypium barbadense

Activity/Effect Antifertility Preparation Gossypol (20 mg daily for 60 day loading period; 1/3 original dose for maintenance period) Design & Model Clinical trial: 172 healthy male volunteers (under age 50, married with at least 1 child) Results Reduced sperm count & caused immotility; adverse effects reported: decreased libido, decreased appetite & fatigue; induced hypokalemia (probably renal); discontinuing treatment for 3 mo reversed these adverse effects Reference Liu 1981

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Gossypium barbadense

Activity/Effect Hypotensive Preparation Decoction of leaves Gossypol (small doses) Design & Model In vivo: rats In vitro: sperm cells in human cervical mucus Results Confirmed dose-dependent hypotensive & bloodpressure-lowering effects Active; reduced sperm motility; suggest use as a topical preparation for women Reference Hasrat, Pieters & Vlietinck 2004 Poso et al. 1980

Antifertility

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Aitken RJ. 1983. New techniques in contraception: gossypol, vaccines and GnRH analogues. Proc Annu Symp Eugen Soc 19:1-18. Cui GH, Chun JC, Cai DY. 2002. [Determination of gossypol in cotton root bark by HPLC]. [Chinese] Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 27(3):173-5. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Hasrat JA, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ. 2004. Medicinal plants in Suriname: hypotensive effect of Gossypium barbadense. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology. 56(3):381-7. Liogier HA. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de La Espaola. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: Jardn Botnico Nacional, 598 pp. Liu GZ. 1981. Clinical study of gossypol as a male contraceptive. Reproduction 5(3):189-93.

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Poso H, Wichmann K, Janne J, Luukkainen T. 1980. Gossypol, a powerful inhibitor of human spermatozoal metabolism. Lancet 1(8173):885-6. Qian SZ, Wang ZG. 1984. Gossypol: a potential antifertility agent for males. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 24:32960. Thomas KD, Caxton-Martins AE, Elujoba AA, Ovelola OO. 1991. Effects of an aqueous extract of cotton seed (Gossypium barbadense Linn.) on adult male rats. Adv Contracept 7(4):353-62. Ye WS, Liang JC, Hsu TC. 1983. Toxicity of a male contraceptive, gossypol, in mammalian cell cultures. In vitro 19(1):53-7. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zhou RH, Lin XD. 1988. Isolation of (-)-gossypol from natural plant. Contraception 37(3):239-45.

Alquitira
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Nopal, tuna, tuna de espaa (Spanish); prickly pear (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller. [Cactaceae (Cactus Family)]. Note: In the Dominican Republic, the common name tuna de espaa typically refers to Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm.-Dick. (synonym: Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Mill.) which is the species most frequently used medicinally. Additionally, the common name tuna can be used for any species of the genus Opuntia (Liogier 2000). However, O. ficus-indica appears to be the species most widely available in New York City.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Burns - Diabetes - Gastrointestinal disorders - Heart disease - High blood pressure - Kidney disorders - Liver disorders - Skin abrasions - Stomach disorders - Wounds

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Plant Part Used: Fleshy cactus pads (technically called cladophylls, meaning leaf-like stems). Although not reported as a medicinal use, the fruits are also consumed as food in Latin American culinary traditions. Traditional Preparation: This remedy can be prepared by eating or liquefying the cladophyll (cactus pad), taken orally. The gel inside the leaf-like stem can be applied externally for skin conditions. Traditional Uses: This plant is used to treat diabetes, high blood pressure, liver disorders and heart problems, taken as a drink prepared by liquefying the fresh cactus pads in a blender. For kidney disorders, the cactus pads of alquitira are combined with fresh coconut milk and liquefied in a blender to prepare a drink. For stomach or digestive disorders, the cactus pads are peeled and grated or crushed and used to make an intestinal wash (lavado intestinal). For skin conditions, the cactus pads are used in a manner similar to that of Aloe vera; the mucilaginous gel inside the leaf is applied externally for cuts, burns and abrasions to facilitate wound-healing. Availability: Fresh cactus pads can be purchased from select botnicas, grocery stores and food markets, particularly in Latino/Caribbean neighborhoods; fresh fruits can be purchased in season from some fruit stands and grocery stores in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Alquitira (Opuntia ficus-indica) is a bushy cactus that can reach a height of 5.5 m. Cactus pads (called cladodes or cladophylls because they are stems with a leaf-like appearance) are fleshy, spatula-shaped and succulent with a waxy coating and are covered with sharp, yellow, spine-like hairs called glochids. True leaves on the cladodes are oval-shaped and very small. Flowers are yellow to orangish-yellow. Fruits are dark red to purple, juicy (sometimes white or yellow) containing numerous seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Although this plants origin is difficult to determine, its ancestral species are native to tropical America, most likely Mexico. It is cultivated extensively in tropical, subtropical and arid climates throughout the Americas, the Mediterranean, Africa and Australia and is often naturalized in these areas (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Since the pads and fruits of this plant are commonly used for food, they are generally considered safe for human consumption (provided that the sharp spine-like hairs called glochids which cover this cactus are properly removed before ingestion). Caution is advised during handling due to sharp spines and glochids which cover the surface; these spiny projections should be removed before use. There have been reports of rectal perforation due to the accumulation of indigestible fibers (bezoar) due to consuming the fruit (Steinberg and Eitan 2003). Cases of contact dermatitis have been reported. Contraindications: Contraindicated in cases of allergy or hypersensitivity to Opuntia and other cactus species. Due to lack of available data, avoid use during pregnancy or breastfeeding and in small children. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: anti-hangover, anti-inflammatory, anti-lipid peroxidation and antioxidant (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiulcer, chondroprotective, gastroprotective, hypoglycemic, immuno-modulatory, neuroprotective, radical

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scavenging and wound healing (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). This plant has also demonstrated antimicrobial activity (Ho et al. 2004). The fruit contains the following compounds and nutrients: ascorbic acid, calcium, citric acid, malic acid and potassium. Indications and Usage: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

Clinical Data: Opuntia ficus-indica

Activity/Effect Anti-hangover & anti-inflammatory Preparation Plant extract (1600 IU) vs. identical placebo, given orally 5 hrs before consuming alcohol Cactus fruit, 250 g fresh pulp, administered orally vs. 75 mg vitamin C; 2 daily for 2 wks; 6 wks washout Design & Model Clinical trial, double-blind placebo-controlled, crossover; n=64 healthy volunteers Clinical study, randomized, crossover, doubleblind; n=18 healthy volunteers Results Significantly reduced symptoms of hangover: dry mouth, nausea & anorexia; mechanism due to inhibition of production of inflammatory mediators Showed positive effects on redox balance: decreased lipid oxidative damage & improved antioxidant status, as compared with vitamin C Reference Wiese et al. 2004

Antioxidant & anti-lipid peroxidation

Tesoriere et al. 2004

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Opunta ficus-indica

Activity/Effect Preparation Anti-inflammatory Beta-sitosterol Design & Model In vivo: mice with adjuvant-induced chronic inflammation In vivo: rats with acetic-acid induced writhing response & carrageenaninduced paw edema tests Results Active Reference Park et al. 2001

Anti-inflammatory Fruit & stem ethanolic extracts; & analgesic oral administration

Antioxidant & radical scavenging

Prickly pear betalain pigments

In vitro: endothelial cells

Antiulcer

Juice, administered orally

In vivo: rats with ethanol-induced ulcers

Active; showed potent inhibition in the leukocyte migration of rat CMCpouch model; suppressed the release of betaglucuronidase, a lysosomal enzyme in rat neutrophils; protective effects against gastric lesions Showed protective effects on endothelium from cytokine-induced redox state alteration, through ICAM-1 inhibition Active; protected against experimentally-induced ulcers

Park et al. 1998

Gentile et al. 2004

Galati et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Preparation Chondroprotective Freeze-dried extracts from cladodes (photosynthetic stem w/reduced leaves), especially polyphenol & polysacchariderich extracts Mucilage & pectin Gastroprotective from cladodes Mucilage from cladodes (5 mg/kg per day)

Design & Model In vitro: human chondrocytes stimulated with proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta & radical scavenging assay In vivo: rats with ethanol-induced ulcers In vivo: rats with ethanol-induced gastritis

Results Active; showed protective effects against experimentally-induced inflammation; effects were greater than those of hyaluronic acid (positive control) in preventing cartilage alteration Active; mucilage showed greater cytoprotective effect on gastric mucosa than pectin Active; reversed experimentally-induced histological disturbances by stabilizing damaged plasma membranes of gastric mucosa; mechanism may involve membrane phospholipids phosphatidylcholine & phosphatidylethanolamine Active Showed modulation of intracellular calcium concentrations & T-cell activation Showed dose-dependent effect; inhibited nitric oxide production, peroxynitrite scavenging & degradation of IkappaB-alpha; IC50 15.9 & 4.2 g/mL, respectively Active; most potent compound: quercetin 3methyl ether

Reference Panico et al. 2007

Galati et al. 2007

Gastroprotective & antiinflammatory

Vzquez-Ramrez et al. 2006

Hypoglycemic Immunomodulatory

Isolated polysaccharides Polyphenols

Unspecified In vitro: human Jurkat T-cell lines In vitro: microglia (LPS-activated)

Alarcon-Aguilar et al. 2003 Aires et al. 2004

Neuroprotective

Stem: butanol fraction from 50% ethanol extract & its hydrolysis product Active antioxidant constituents from fruit & stem (flavonoids: quercetin, (+)dihydroquercetin, & quercetin 3methyl ether) Methanolic extracts from stem & organic fractions

Lee et al. 2006

Neuroprotective & antioxidant

In vitro: corticol cell cultures with induced oxidative injuries

Dok-Go et al. 2003

Wound healing

In vivo: rats with experimentallyinduced wounds

Active; the extract and fractions with low polarity showed significant effects

Park & Chun 2001

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REFERENCES
Aires V, Adote S, Hichami A, Moutairou K, Boustani ES, Khan NA. 2004. Modulation of intracellular calcium concentrations and T cell activation by prickly pear polyphenols. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 260(1-2):103-10. Alarcon-Aguilar FJ, Valdes-Arzate A, Xolalpa-Molina S, Banderas-Dorantes T, Jimenez-Estrada M, HernandezGalicia E, Roman-Ramos R. 2003. Hypoglycemic activity of two polysaccharides isolated from Opuntia ficus-indica and O. streptacantha. Proceedings of the Western Pharmacology Society 46: 139-42. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Dok-Go H, Lee KH, Kim HJ, Lee EH, Lee J, Song YS, Lee YH, Jin C, Lee YS, Cho J. 2003. Neuroprotective effects of antioxidative flavonoids, quercetin, (+)-dihydroquercetin and quercetin 3-methyl ether, isolated from Opuntia ficus-indica var. saboten. Brain Research 965(1-2): 130-6. Gallati EM, Monforte MT, Miceli N, Mondello MR, Taviano MF, Galluzzo M, Tripodo MM. 2007. Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill. mucilages show cytoprotective effect on gastric mucosa in rat. Phytother Res 21(4):344-6. Galati EM, Mondello MR, Giuffrida D, Dugo G, Miceli N, Pergolizzi S, Taviano MF. 2003. Chemical characterization and biological effects of Sicilian Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. fruit juice: antioxidant and antiulcerogenic activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51(17):4903-8. Gentile C, Tesoriere L, Allegra M, Livrea MA, D'Alessio P. 2004. Antioxidant betalains from cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) inhibit endothelial ICAM-1 expression. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1028:481-6. Ho JY, Chung HW, Sang EM. 2004. Allergic contact dermatitis due to Opuntia ficus indica var. saboten. Contact Dermatitis 51(5-6): 311-2. Lee MH, Kim JY, Yoon JH, Lim HJ, Kim TH, Jin C, Kwak WJ, Han CK, Ryu JH. 2006. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase expression in activated microglia and peroxynitrite scavenging activity in Opuntia ficus indica var. saboten. Phytother Res 20(9):742-7. Liogier HA. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: Jardn Botnico Nacional (598 pp.). Panico AM, Cardile V, Garufi F, Puglia C, Bonina F, Ronsisvalle S. 2007. Effect of hyaluronic acid and polysaccharides from Opuntia ficus indica (L.) cladodes on the metabolism of human chondrocyte cultures. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111(2):315-21. Park EH, Chun MJ. 2001. Wound healing activity of Opuntia ficus-indica. Fitoterapia 72(2):165-7. Park EH, Kahng JH, Paek EA. 1998. Studies on the pharmacological action of cactus: identification of its antiinflammatory effect. Archives of Pharmacol Research 21(1):30-4 Park EH, Kahng JH, Lee SH, Shin KH. 2001. An anti-inflammatory principle from cactus. Fitoterapia 72(3):28890.

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Steinberg JM, Eitan A. 2003. Prickly pear fruit bezoar presenting as rectal perforation in an elderly patient. International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 18(4):365-7. Tesoriere L, Butera D, Pintaudi AM, Allegra M, Livrea MA. 2004. Supplementation with cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruit decreases oxidative stress in healthy humans: a comparative study with vitamin C. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80(2):391-5. Vzquez-Ramrez R, Olgun-Martnez M, Kubli-Garfias C, Hernndez-Muoz R. 2006. Reversing gastric mucosal alterations during ethanol-induced chronic gastritis in rats by oral administration of Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage. World J Gastroenterol 12(27):4318-24. Wiese J, McPherson S, Odden MC, Shlipak MG. 2004. Effect of Opuntia ficus-indica on symptoms of the alcohol hangover. Archives of Internal Medicine 164(12):1334-40. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Altamisa
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Artemisia (Spanish); ragweed, common ragweed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. and A. peruviana Willd. [Asteraceae (Daisy or Aster Family)] Note: The European wormwood species Artemisia absinthium, called ajenjo or artemisia in Spanish, is sometimes substitued for Ambrosia spp. due to its simlar appearance and bitter taste.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Delayed menses - Diarrhea - Infections - Kidney disorders - Kidney stones - Limpiar el sistema - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Menstrual disorders - Postpartum recovery - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaves and aerial parts. Traditional Preparation: The dried leaves are prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion; the fresh leaves are crushed or liquefied to yield a juice for internal use; the fresh or dried leaves are crushed and heated to make a poultice, applied topically to the affected area; the dried leaves are added to complex plant

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mixtures and decocted or tinctured in alcohol; the dried plant may be boiled in water as a bath or external wash. Traditional Uses: For stomach ache, abdominal pain and kidney disorders, including kidney stones, the leaves are prepared as a tea. If the fresh leaves are available, they are crushed to extract their juice (zumo). To treat infections anywhere in the body, altamisa leaves are prepared as a tea and sometimes combined with false buttonweed (juana la blanca). For diarrhea in adults and children, the leaf is prepared as an infusion with lemongrass (limoncillo) and taken internally to cleanse the intestines and stop diarrhea. To alleviate menstrual cramps, a poultice is made using slightly heated and crushed leaves, applied externally to the painful area. A tea of the leaves is also administered orally to relieve menstrual cramps and other menstrual disorders. This herb is attributed hot and bitter properties and is said to go straight to the belly/womb (se va directamente al vientre) to treat menstrual disorders and gynecological problems. For other womens health conditions, including as an emmenagogue (para bajar la menstruacin) for delayed menses, to cleanse the reproductive system (limpiar el sistema) after childbirth or to treat vaginal infections, altamisa leaves are added to multi-herb preparations (botellas or bebedizos). A botella is also prepared using altamisa and several other herbs for treating arthritis, taken orally. In spiritual healing practices, the leaves are used to dispel negative energy as part of a limpieza ritual for spiritual cleansing. For attracting good luck, a bath is prepared using a decoction of altamisa, rue (ruda) and soursop (guanbana) leaves. Altamisa is also associated with imparting psychological and spiritual protection. Availability: This dried herb is sometimes sold at botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Altamisa (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) is a common annual herbaceous plant with erect, hairy stems that typically grows to 0.2 to 2.5 m tall. Leaves are once or twice compound with deep, irregular lobes and narrow segments; leaves are hairy along the upper surface and edges. Flowers heads are very small and green to yellowish- or whitish-green, arranged in slender, terminal racemes or spikes. Fruits are small, dry and indehiscent, somewhat resembling a crown; each fruit contains a single seed. All parts of the plant are aromatic and have a strong, bitter taste (Gleason & Cronquist 1991). Ambrosia peruviana is very similar in appearance to the above botanical description. Distribution: Ambrosia artemisiifolia is a cosmopolitan weed found throughout the United States and Europe whereas A. peruviana is widespread throughout tropical America, including the Caribbean.

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Ambrosia artemisiifolia pollen is a known allergen. The major allergenic protein from the pollen has been identified as Amb a 1, an acidic 38-kDa nonglycosylated protein. Pollen from this species also contains profilin and calcium-binding proteins which are pan-allergens that can cause cross-reactivity in pollenhypersensitive individuals (Wopfner et al. 2005). Symptoms of hypersensitivity, also known as ragweed hayfever, can include: allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, allergic conjunctivitis, coughing, sneezing, fatigue, headache, itching, sore throat and serious allergy-induced asthma symptoms, such as wheezing and difficulty breathing. Results from in vitro and animal studies show that reactive oxygen species produced by pollen hydration may exacerbate allergic reaction and inflammation independent of adaptive immunity (Bacsi et al. 2005). Cases of contact allergy, dermatitis, chronic hand eczema and pompholyx have been reported in sesquiterpene lactone-sensitive patients who tested positive to patch tests of A. artemisiifolia (Mller et al. 2002). Animal Toxicity Studies: No signs of toxicity were detected in mice after administration of a single oral dose (up to 5 g/kg) of the crude hydroalcoholic extract (70%) of the dried and comminuted leaf (100 g) of

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Ambrosia peruviana during an observation period of 14 days. Parameters measured included incidence of diarrhea, weight loss and changes in skin, mucosa or nervous system function (i.e. convulsions; Souza Brito 1995). Contraindications: Contraindicated for use in children under 5 years of age, during pregnancy and during lactation due to lack of available information on the safety of this herb in these populations and conditions (Germosn-Robineau 2007). Drug Interactions: Interactions may occur with medications that share similar biological activities to those demonstrated by this herb (see Clinical Data and Laboratory & Preclinical Data below). No information has been identified in the available literature on herb-drug interactions for specific therapeutic agents.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, allergenic and irritant effects of Ambrosia artemisiifolia have been reported, and use of the pollen extract as an immunotherapy for ragweed hayfever has demonstrated clinical efficacy (see Clinical Data section below). The following biological activities have been shown in laboratory and/or animal studies: analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimycobacterial and cytotoxic (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Several studies in the biomedical literature have documented the allergenic effects of Ambrosia artemisiifolia pollen and potential immunotherapies using extracts of this plant to reduce symptoms of hypersensitivity. Indications and Usage: According to TRAMIL, the following uses of the species Ambrosia peruviana are designated REC meaning RECommended due to their significant traditional use as documented in ethnopharmacological surveys conducted in the Caribbean (Honduras, Panama and the Dominican Republic): the leaf and stem prepared as an infusion for colic, administered orally; the leaf prepared as an infusion for stomach pain, administered orally; the fresh leaf or the alcohol maceration of the leaf for headache, applied topically. Before using, wash the plant material thoroughly to remove allergenic pollen from the leaves and stem (Germosn-Robineau 2007).

Clinical Data: Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Activity/Effect Allergenic Preparation A. artemisiifolia; acetone extract Design & Model Human adult Results Active; applied topically; showed positive results of contact dermatitis in patch test Results showed significant clinical efficacy & safety; no severe adverse effects were reported; parameters of clinical efficacy included skin reactivity & symptom & medication scores, such as asthmatic & rhinitis symptoms Showed irritant activity Reference Mitchell et al. 1970 Mirone et al. 2004

Immunotherapeutic

A. artemisiifolia; biologically standardized extract of the pollen; administered as an injection (7.2 g of Amb a 1)

Irritant

A. artemisiifolia; pollen via inhalation

Double blind placebo-controlled clinical trial; duration: 1 year; injective therapy administered at 4wk intervals (n=23 patients with sensitivity to Ambrosia spp.) Human adult

Inayama et al. 1975

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Ambrosia artemisiifolia and A. peruviana

Activity/Effect Analgesic Preparation A. peruviana: dried leaf decoction (1, 5 & 30 g in 100 mL water) administered orally (0.01 mL/g b.w.) A. peruviana: hydroalcoholic extract (70%) & fractions of 100 g of the dried & comminuted leaf; administered orally (1 g/kg) A. artemisiifolia; ethanolic extract (80%) of the fresh leaf Design & Model In vivo: rats & mice Results Active; showed peripheral analgesic activity Reference Buznego et al. 1998

Analgesic & Antiinflammatory

In vivo: mice; in acetic-acid induced abdominal contortion model

Active; the crude extract & nonpolar fraction showed significant analgesic effect (49 & 42%) while the polar fraction did not significantly reduce the pain response (15%) Active; showed antiinflammatory activity in all cases

Souza Brito 1995

Antiinflammatory

Antiinflammatory

A. artemisiifolia; ethanolic extract (80%)

Antimycobacterial

A. artemisiifolia; dichloromethane, hexane & aqueous extracts of dried aerial parts; concentration: 1.0 mg/mL

In vivo: in rats, administered: intraperitoneally (25.0 mg/kg) vs. formaldehydeinduced arthritis; topically (150 mg/kg) vs. croton oil-induced edema; intragastrically (100.0 mg/kg) vs. cotton pellet induced granuloma In vivo: in mice, applied topically (25.0 mg/kg) in carrageenaninduced paw edema model In vitro: agar plate; Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain H37RV

Perez 1996

Active

Perez 1996

Active; the hexane & dichloromethane extracts showed significant activity; the aqueous extract showed weak activity

Cantrell et al. 1998

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Activity/Effect Antimycobacterial

Cytotoxic

Preparation A. artemisiifolia; hot water & cold water extract of fresh leaf (1 part fresh weight of plant: 3 parts solvent) A. artemisiifolia; ethanolic extract (95%) of the entire plant

Design & Model In vitro: agar plate; Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Results Both extracts showed weak activity

Reference Frisbey et al. 1953

In vitro: cell culture (CA-9KB)

Active; ED50 = 11.0 g/mL

Bianchi et al. 1968

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antiviral Preparation A. peruviana; aqueous extract of the leaf & stem Design & Model In vitro: cell culture of MT-2 Tlymphoblastoid cells infected with HIV Results Inactive; did not show antiviral activity against HIVvirus in cultured cells Reference Abdel-Malek et al. 1996

REFERENCES
Abdel-Malek S, Bastien JW, Mahler WF, Jia Q, Reinecke MG, Robinson Jr. WE, Shu YH, Zalles-Asin J. 1996. Drug leads from the Kallawaya herbalists of Bolivia. 1. Background, rationale, protocol and anti-HIV activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50(3):157-66. Bacsi A, Dharajiya N, Choudhury BK, Sur S, Boldogh I. 2005. Effect of pollen-mediated oxidative stress on immediate hypersensitivity reactions and late-phase inflammation in allergic conjunctivitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 116(4):836-43. Bianchi E, Culvenor CCJ, Loder JW. 1968. Psilostachyin, a cytotoxic constituent of Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Aust J Chem 21:1109. Buznego MT, Llanio M, Fernandez M, Leon M, Acevedo M, Perez H. 1998. Perfil neurofarmacolgico de la Ambrosia paniculata (Willd) O.E. Schulz (Artemisa). Rev Cubana Plantas Med 3(1):42-5. Cantrell CL, Fischer NH, Urbatsch L, McGuire MS, Franzblau SG. 1998. Antimycobacterial crude plant extracts from South, Central and North America. Phytomedicine 5(2):137-45. Frisbey A, Roberts JM, Jennings JC, Gottshall RY, Lucas EH. 1953. The occurrence of antibacterial substances in seed plants with special reference to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (third report). Mich State Univ Agr Appl Sci Quart Bull 35:392-404. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2007. Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Second Edition (e-book). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: TRAMIL, CD-ROM. Inayama S, Ohkura T, Kawamata T, Yanagita M, Itai A, Iitaka Y. Ambrosic acid, a new irritant principle isolated from Ambrosia arthemisiifolia. Toxicon 13:99. Liogier HA. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: Jardn Botnico Nacional (598 pp.).

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Mirone C, Albert F, Tosi A, Mocchetti F, Mosca S, Giorgino M, Pecora S, Parmiani S, Ortolani C. 2004. Efficacy and safety of subcutaneous immunotherapy with a biologically standardized extract of Ambrosia artemisiifolia pollen: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin Exp Allergy 34(9):1408-14. Mitchell JC, Fritig B, Singh B, Towers GHN. 1970. Allergic contact dermatitis from Frullania and Compositae. The role of sesquiterpene lactone. J Invest Dermatol 54:233-9. Mller H, Spirn A, Svensson A, Gruvberger B, Hindsn M, Bruze M. 2002. Contact allergy to the Asteraceae plant Ambrosia artemisiifolia L (ragweed) in sesquiterpene lactone-sensitive patients in southern Sweden. Contact Dermatitis 47(3):157-60. Perez RM. 1996. Anti-inflammatory activity of Ambrosia artemisiaefolia and Rhoeo spathacea. Phytomedicine 3(2):163-7. Souza Brito A. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2007). Toxicidad aguda dosis repetidas. Informe TRAMIL. Dep. De Fisiologa y Biofsica, Universidad de Campinas, Campinas, Brasil. Wopfner N, Gadermaier G, Egger M, Asero R, Ebner C, Jahn-Schmid B, Ferreira F. 2005. The spectrum of allergens in ragweed and mugwort pollen. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 138(4):337-46. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Alucema
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Albucema, algucema, alhucema (Spanish); lavender (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. [Lamiaceae (Mint Family)]. Note: Although L. angustifolia (also known as true lavender or English lavender) is one of the most commonly used species for lavender essential oil, other species are widely used as well, including: L. latifolia, L. stoechas and Lavandula intermedia (a sterile cross between L. latifolia and L. angustifolia). While the major chemical constituents of these species are similar, the relative amounts of these compounds may vary depending on the species or cultivar (Cavanagh and Wilkinson 2002).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Common cold - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Flu - Indigestion - Menopausal symptoms - Nervios - Stomach ache and abdominal pain

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Plant Part Used: Dried flowers and flower buds or the essential oil (extracted from the fresh flowers and/or inflorescences); fresh flowers are also used when available. Traditional Preparation: The flowers and flower buds are typically prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction. Traditional Uses: Alucema flower buds are added to a variety of herbal preparations because of their sweet, floral flavor. When prepared as a tea for the common cold and flu symptoms, the flowers are sometimes combined with other medicinal plants such as cinnamon (canela), star anise (ans de estrella) and lime (limn) or lemon (limn agrio). Often alucema flowers are added to botellas or bebedizos (multi-herb decoctions) for womens health conditions to cover up the strong, bitter taste of many of the roots and other herbs. These flowers are added during the last stage of preparation. Unlike roots or woody stems which are boiled for a long time (sometimes several hours) to extract their medicinal properties, these flowers are only infused for a short while in boiling water to retain their volatile oils, so they are added only at the very end of the preparation of a botella or bebedizo. For spiritual healing, these flowers are often added to aromatic baths for attracting good luck due to their pleasant fragrance. Availability: Dried flower buds can be purchased from botnicas and from some health food and natural body care stores in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Alucema (Lavandula angustifolia) is a heavily branched subshrub that grows up to 60 cm in height. Leaves are narrow and grey-green and grow in opposite pairs. Flowers occur in terminal spikes and are small, tubular and pale plum to amethyst or periwinkle blue in color. Fruits are tiny, glossy nutlets. Flowers and leaves have a distinct aromatic fragrance, especially when crushed (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native to the Mediterranean but is common in Europe and cultivated extensively for its fragrant flowers and essential oil (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The flowers are generally considered safe; however, caution is advised when ingesting the essential oil. Possible adverse effects include drowsiness, gastrointestinal disturbance and skin irritation. Symptoms of overdose include CNS depression, constipation, respiratory depression, headache, meiosis, vomiting and convulsions (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Body care products containing lavender essential oil (among other ingredients) have been associated with gynecomastia; however, this association appears to be based on clinical case reports in three individuals and minimal in vitro studies (Henley et al. 2007). This research has been critiqued as lacking rigor: since no causality has been established between the use of lavender essential oil and gynecomastia, no definitive scientific conclusions can be drawn. Some constituents of the essential oil (namely terpenes and related compounds) have been shown to weakly interact with estrogen receptors under certain conditions (Howes et al 2002), but there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate the connection between these weak effects and the incidence of gynecomastia. Contraindications: Excessive internal use of the plant or essential oil is contraindicated during early pregnancy due to its emmenagogue effect (Brinker 1998). Due to lack of sufficient data on safety, avoid use during lactation and in small children.

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Drug Interactions: The effects of sedative or tranquilizing drugs, such as pentobarbital, may be potentiated by concomitant use of lavender (Brinker 1998), as shown in animal studies in which sleeping time and sedative effects in mice increased significantly due to synergistic interaction (Guillemain et al. 1989). Additional herb-drug interactions may occur in medications with effects similar to those demonstrated by this plant (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data below).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical studies of lavender have primarily evaluated the use of the essential oil as an aromatherapeutic agent (typically via inhalation of the volatile oil or through massage using a carrier oil) and the following effects have been demonstrated: antianxiety, antidepressant, hypnotic, sedative, sensory and pain discrimination and treatment of dysmenorrheal and mild insomnia. Preclinical and laboratory studies have shown the following activity: antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, sedative and spasmolytic (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Due to inconsistencies in reporting of the species or variety of lavender used in essential oil preparations investigated and because of the potential variability in chemical composition depending on distillation techniques and species used, it is difficult to interpret the available data and make comparisons between studies (Cavanagh & Wilkinson 2002). Major chemical constituents of the essential oil include: linalool, linalyl acetate; 1,8-cineole, -ocimene, terpinen-4-ol and camphor (Cavanagh and Wilkinson 2002). Primary biologically active compounds in the plant include: bornyl acetate, coumarins, linalyl acetate, rosmarinic acid, tannin and ursolic acid (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: Lavender flowers are approved by the German Commission E for treating mood disturbances, insomnia, nervous stomach irritation or intestinal discomfort and for treating functional circulatory disorders (Blumenthal et al. 1998). This plant can be administered internally as a tea or externally as a bath additive, using the dried or fresh flowers and flower buds. A standard infusion is prepared by adding 5-10 mL of the medicinal parts to 1 cup of hot water (150 mL), infused for 10 minutes and then strained. For a lavender bath, 100 g of the herb are combined with 2 liters of water (either boiled or infused) and then added to the bath. The dosage is 1 cup taken three times daily (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Lavandula angustifolia

Activity/Effect Antidepressant Preparation Group A: Tincture (1:5 in 50% alcohol) 60 drops/day & placebo tablet; B: imipramine (100 mg/day) & placebo drops; or imipramine & Lavandula tincture; 4 wks duration Study design Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial; 45 adults with mild to moderate depression Results Although Lavandula tincture was less effective than imipramine, a combination of imipramine plus Lavandula tincture was more effective than imipramine alone Reference Akhondzadeh et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Anti-stress

Preparation Essential oil odor

Anxiolytic

Dysmenorrhea treatment

Insomnia treatment

1% essential oil aromatherapy (either inhalation or skin application) Essential oil (2 drops) combined with along 1 drop clary sage & 1 drop rose essential oil in almond oil applied topically by abdominal massage (placebo: almond oil) Essential oil aroma (sweet almond oil as placebo/control)

Study design Randomized controlled clinical trial; experimental group (n=15) placed in a sound-proof room for 20 minutes with lavender odor; analogous group without odor (n=14); nonstressful conditions (n=13) Clinical trial; 36 patients in intensive care unit Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial; 67 healthy women with painful menstrual cramps; groups: experimental: n=25; placebo: n=20; control: n=22 Single-blinded, randomized crossover study; 10 volunteers with mild insomnia (4 wks study) Randomized, controlled crossover study; 13 men & 13 women

Results Results showed lavender odorants reduced mental stress & increased arousal state; evaluated using Cox & Mackays stress/arousal adjective checklist

Reference Motomura et al. 2001

Significant but brief difference in anxiety reduction; no change in mood or coping variables Significantly reduced severity of pain from cramps & symptoms of dysmenorrhea based on evaluation using a visual analogue scale & verbal multidimensional scoring system Showed improvement on Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; no carry-over effect observed Affected retrospective evaluation of treatmentrelated pain; reduced degree of pain intensity & unpleasantness based on the subjects recollection of the experience, although no immediate analgesic effects were observed Showed EEG changes equivalent to drowsiness

Dunn et al. 1995

Han et al. 2006

Lewith et al. 2005

Retrospective pain perception

Essential oil inhalation as aromatherapy

Gedney et al. 2004

Sedative & hypnotic

Essential oil as aromatherapy

Human & animal subjects

Diego et al. 1998

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Lavandula angustifolia and related species

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Essential oil of both spike & true lavender species Study design In vitro: disk diffusion assay method Results Active against respiratory pathogens Reference Inouye et al. 2001

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Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Essential oil Essential oil of Lavandula stoechas subspecies stoechas

Study design In vitro In vitro: Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus In vivo: mice & rats In vitro: Candida albicans strains In vivo & in vitro: experimentallyinduced allergic reactions in mice & rats In vitro: ileum smooth muscle of guinea-pig

Antibacterial

Results Active against oral bacteria; showed bacteriostatic effects Showed very strong activity against tested foodborne pathogens

Reference Takarada et al. 2004 Dadalioglu & Evrendilek 2004

Anticonvulsant Antifungal

Essential oil Essential oil & main constituents Essential oil (1:500, 1:100, 1:10, 1:1, 1:0); topical & intradermal application Essential oil

Antiinflammatory

Antispasmodic

Sedative

Essential oil & main constituents; inhaled

In vivo: mouse, male & female

Effective against induced seizures Active; showed fungistatic & fungicidal activity Showed significant & dose-dependent inhibition of immediatetype allergic reactions; mechanism involved inhibition of mast cell degranulation Active; mechanism of action was postsynaptic & appears linked to cAMP (not cGMP & not atropine-like), similar to geranium & peppermint oils; may explain carminative, antiflatulent & anticolic properties Active; reduced motility in an exposure timedependent manner

Schulz et al. 1998 DAuria et al. 2005 Kim & Cho 1999

Lis-Balchin & Hart 1999

Buchbauer et al. 1993

REFERENCES
Akhondzadeh S, Kashani L, Fotouhi A, Jarvandi S, Mobaseri M, Moin M, Khani M, Jamshidi AH, Baghalian K, Taghizadeh M. 2003. Comparison of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. tincture and imipramine in the treatment of mild to moderate depression: a double-blind, randomized trial. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 27(1):123-7. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57.

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Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Buchbauer G, Jirovet L, Jgger W, Dietrich H, Plank C. 1991. Aromatherapy: Evidence for sedative effects of the essential oil of lavender after inhalation. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung 46C(11-12):1067-1072. Cavanagh HMA, Wilkinson JM. 2002. Biological activities of lavender essential oil. Phytotherapy Research 16:3018. DAuria FD, Tecca M, Strippoli V, Salvatore G, Battinelli L, Mazzanti G. 2005. Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form. Med Mycol 43(5):391-6. Dadalioglu I, Evrendilek GA. 2004. Chemical compositions and antibacterial effects of essential oils of Turkish oregano (Origanum minutiflorum), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), Spanish lavender (Lavandula stoechas L.) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) on common foodborne pathogens. J Agric Food Chem 52(29):8255-60. Diego MA, Jones NA, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C, McAdam V, Galamaga R, Galamaga M. 1998. Aromatherapy positively affects mood, EEG patterns of alertness and math computations. Int J Neurosci 96(3-4):217-24. Dimpfel W, Pischel I, Lehnfeld R. 2004. Effects of lozenge containing lavender oil, extracts from hops, lemon balm and oat on electrical brain activity of volunteers. Eur J Med Res 9(9):423-31. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Dunn C, Sleep J, Collett D. 1995. Sensing an improvement: an experimental study to evaluate the use of aromatherapy, massage and periods of rest in an intensive care unit. J Advanced Nurs 21:34-40. Gedney JJ, Glover TL, Fillingim RB. 2004. Sensory and affective pain discrimination after inhalation of essential oils. Psychosom Med 66(4):599-606. Guillemain J, Rousseau A, Delaveau P. 1989. [Neurodepressive effects of the essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill]. Ann Pharm Fr 47(6):337-43. Han SH, Hur MH, Buckle J, Choi J, Lee MS. Effect of aromatherapy on symptoms of dysmenorrhea in college students: A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Altern Complement Med 12(6):535-41. Henley D, Lipson N, Korach K, Bloch C. 2007. Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. N Engl J Med 356 (5): 479-85. Howes MJ, Houghton PJ, Barlow DJ, Pocock VJ, Milligan SR. 2002. Assessment of estrogenic activity in some common essential oil constituents. J Pharm Pharmacol 54:1521-8. Inouye S, Yamaguchi H, Takizawa T. 2001. Screening of the antibacterial effects of a variety of essential oils on respiratory tract pathogens, using a modified dilution assay method. J Infect Chemother 7(4):251-4. Kim HM, Cho SH. 1999. Lavender oil inhibits immediate-type allergic reaction in mice and rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 51(2):221-6.

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Lewith GT, Godfrey AD, Prescott P. 2005. A single-blinded, randomized pilot study evaluating the aroma of Lavandula angustifolia as a treatment for mild insomnia. J Altern Complement Med 11(4):631-7. Lis-Balchin M, Hart S. 1999. Studies on the mode of action of the essential oil of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia P. Miller). Phytother Res 13(6):540-2. Motomura N, Sakurai A, Yotsuya Y. 2001. Reduction of mental stress with lavender odorant. Percept Mot Skills 93(3):713-8. Takarada K, Kimizuka R, Takahashi N, Honma K, Okuda K, Kato T. 2004. A comparison of the antibacterial efficacies of essential oils against oral pathogens. Oral Microbiol Immunol 19(1):61-4. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Anam
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Ipacina (Spanish); guinea hen-weed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Petiveria alliacea L. [Phytolaccaceae (Pokeweed Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Backache - Childbirth labor pain - Headache - Menopausal symptoms - Menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding) - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Muscle ache - Nausea - Ovarian cysts - Postpartum recovery - Purificar la sangre - Skin infections - Stomach disorders - Uterine fibroids - Wounds Plant Part Used: Roots and leaves (fresh or dried).

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Traditional Preparation: The root, leaves or aerial parts have been prepared in a variety of ways, depending on the health condition: as a tea by decoction or infusion; as a tincture or liniment extracted in alcohol; as a poultice, crushed, heated and applied topically to the affected area; as a wash or bath boiled in water and used externally; or as an aromatic essence released by crushing the leaves or roots and inhaling the volatile oils. Traditional Uses: Anam is considered a potent medicinal plant, renowned for its powerful therapeutic and strongly bitter properties. The root is said to be very hot (caliente) and to heal ailments caused by excess cold in the body by bringing heat to the affected area, especially for arthritis, resfriado and frialdad. For treating arthritis, backache and muscle pain, the root of anam is extracted in gin (ginebra) or red wine (vino tinto). A small amount of this alcohol tincture is taken 2-3 times daily and can also be applied topically as a liniment. Other ingredients are sometimes added to this preparation, including minnieroot (guauc) roots, cinnamon (canela) bark and coffee (caf) roasted seeds. For skin conditions including fungal infections, wounds and boils (nacos), the leaf is heated or crushed and applied externally to the affected area or steeped in boiling water and administered as a bath or wash. For nausea and stomach ailments, the leaf and root are prepared as a tea. For headache, the leaves are taken as a tea and/or applied to the forehead. The leaves and root of this plant are also a remedy for conditions associated with contaminated blood (mala sangre, sangre sucia) because of its purported depurative (blood purifying) properties. Anam is one of the most frequently cited plants for womens health conditions and is often added as a key ingredient in herbal preparations (bebedizos or botellas) for this purpose. It is used as a treatment for dysmenorrhea, excessive menstrual bleeding, menopausal symptoms (including hot flashes), ovarian cysts, labor pain during childbirth, postpartum recovery and uterine fibroids. When taken internally, this plant is said to change the smell of ones urine such that it resembles the characteristic garlic-like odor of the leaves and root of this plant. For spiritual healing, anam is used to dispel negative energy. Availability: Dried roots and leaves are sold at some botnicas in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Anam (Petiveria alliacea) is an herbaceous plant that grows to 1 m tall, with dark green, leathery, narrowly oval leaves (6-19 cm long) that are sharply pointed at both ends. Flowers are small, white to greenish in color, star-shaped and grow along elongated slender spikes. Fruits are small, dry and tipped with twisted bristles, each fruit containing a single seed. One remarkable identifying characteristic of this plant is the strong garlic-like odor of the leaves and especially the roots (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant grows in tropical regions, both wild and cultivated and is native to tropical America (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No data on the safety of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature. According to TRAMIL, the leaves of this plant have shown relatively low toxicity based on animal studies (GermosnRobineau 1995). Animal Toxicity Studies: No signs of toxicity or death were observed in mice when administered the aqueous, lyophilized leaf extract at dosages of 1 and 2 g/kg daily, given orally 5 days a week for 70 days with 2 additional weeks of observation (Garcia et al. 1996). A decoction of the leaves given orally to mice as a single dose of 10 g/kg did not show evident signs of toxicity during 7 days of post-treatment observation (Del Carmen Rivas et al. 1988).

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Contraindications: Internal use is contraindicated during pregnancy (due to potential abortifacient effects), during lactation and in children less than 12 years of age (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Caution advised when administering the decoction of the leaves to diabetic patients undergoing treatment including insulin or hypoglycemic medications because this herb may potentiate the effects of these drugs when administered concomitantly (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature; however, laboratory and preclinical data have shown analgesic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, chemopreventive and hypoglycemic effects (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Petiveria alliacea has demonstrated the following biological activity in laboratory studies: analgesic, antigiardial, antimicrobial (Epidermophyton floccosum), hypoglycemic and stimulant of smooth muscle contractions (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Major chemical constituents include coumarins, allantoin and triterpenes (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Other biologically active constituents include polysulphides (Benevides et al. 2001). Indications and Usage: According to TRAMIL, anam is classified as recommended for the following conditions (based on both documented traditional uses and supporting evidence from the scientific literature): leaf decoction taken orally for digestive disorders (stomach ache, abdominal pain, indigestion, weak digestion, flatulence); leaf maceration as a mouthwash for toothache; leaf decoction as a bath for muscle ache; leaf decoction as an external wash for skin diseases; leaf and root decoction taken orally for arthritis; leaf and root decoction take orally for common cold; crushed root inhaled for flu; crushed or pulverized root inhaled or as a bath for headache; root decoction taken orally for flatulence; crushed or pulverized root and stem inhaled for sinusitis (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Petiveria alliacea

Activity/Effect Antifungal Preparation Isolated constituents from root Crude freezedried root extract; 43.9 mg/kg body wt. Organic root extracts; 100 & 200 mg/kg intraperitoneally Ethyl acetate & dichloromethane extracts (leaves & stems) Study design In vitro: yeast & fungal strains In vivo: rats with pleurisy; oral administration Results Active Active; significantly reduced the number of migrating neutrophils, mononuclear cells & eosinophils & showed analgesic effect Active; different fractions showed different anti-nociceptive effects Active; showed promising inhibition values; possible implications for hepatitis C as bovine viral diarrhea is a model for this virus Reference Benevides et al. 2001 Lopes-Martins et al. 2002

Antiinflammatory & analgesic

Antinociceptive

Antiviral

In vivo: mice; acetic acid, hotplate, rota rod & formalin tests In vitro: plaque assay; against bovine viral diarrhea virus

Gomes et al. 2005

Ruffa, Perusina et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Preparation Chemomodulatory Methanolic plant extract Isolated constituents Leaf, dry branch & root aqueous ethanolic extract; 1 g/animal, orally

Chemopreventive

Study design In vitro: human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines (Hep G2) In vitro: HL-60 promyelocytic cells In vivo: mice

Results Active against cancer cells Showed potent activity (ED50<8 mg/mL); induced cellular differentiation Active; leaf & branch extracts lowered blood glucose levels by 60%; dry root extract was inactive

Reference Ruffa, Ferraro et al. 2002

Mata-Greenwood et al. 2001 Lores & Pujol 1990

Hypoglycemic

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Benevides PJ, Young MC, Giesbrcht AM, Roque NF, Bolzani VS. 2001. Antifungal polysulphides from Petiveria alliacea L. Phytochemistry 57(5):743-747. Del Cermen Rivas C, Jimenez M, Ayala L, Carillo C, Cabrera Y. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Actividad anti-inflamatoria y analgsica de Petiveria alliaceae. Informe TRAMIL. Centro de Investigacin y Desarrollo de Medicamentos (CIDEM), La Habana, Cuba. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Frischkorn CG, Frischkorn HE, Carrazzoni E. 1978. Cercaricidal activity of some essential oils of plants from Brazil. Naturwissenschaften 65(9):480-3. Garcia GM, Coto MT, Gonzalez CS, Pazos L. 1996. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Toxicidad sub-crnica en ratones, del extract acuoso de hojas frescas de Petiveria alliacea. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biolgicos LEBI, Unviersidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica. Germano DH, Caldeira TT, Mazella AA, Sertie JA, Bacchi EM. 1993. Topical anti-inflammatory activity and toxicity of Petiveria alliacea. Fitoterapia 64(5):459-467. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Gomes PB, Oliveira MM, Nogueira CR, Noronha EC, Carneiro LM, Bezerra JN, Neto MA, Vasconcelos SM, Fonteles MM, Viana GS, de Sousa FC. 2005. Study of antinociceptive effect of isolated fractions from Petiveria alliacea L. (tipi) in mice. Biological & Pharmaceutial Bulletin 28(1):42-46. Lopes-Martins RA, Pegoraro DH, Woisky R, Penna SC, Sertie JA. 2002. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of a crude extract of Petiveria alliacea L. (Phytolaccaceae). Phytomedicine 9(3):245-248.

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Lores RI, Pujol MC. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Petiveria alliacea L. (anam). Study of the hypoglycemic effect. Med Interne 28(4):347-352. Mata-Greenwood E, Ito A, Westenburg H, Cui B, Mehta RG, Kinghorn AD, Pezzuto JM. 2001. Discovery of novel inducers of cellular differentiation using HL-60 promyelocytic cells. Anticancer Research 21(3B):17631770. Ruffa MJ, Perusina M, Alfonso V, Wagner ML, Suriano M, Vicente C, Campos R, Cavallaro L. 2002. Antiviral activity of Petiveria alliacea against the bovine viral diarrhea virus. Chemotherapy 48(3):144-147. Ruffa MJ, Ferraro G, Wagner ML, Calcagno ML, Campos RH, Cavallaro L. 2002. Cytotoxic effect of Argentine medicinal plant extract on human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 79(3):335-339. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Ans chiquito
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Ans, ans de comer, ans de cocinar, ans pequeo, aniscito (Spanish); anise, aniseed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Pimpinella anisum L. Synonym: Anisum vulgare Gaertn. [Apiaceae (Carrot Family)]. Note: Several different types of ans are recognized in Dominican herbal medicine. Please consult the appropriate entry for the type of ans specified. For a list of these species and their distinguishing features, see the entry for Ans in the Quick Guide section.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Colic - Common cold - Empacho - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Flu - Gastrointestinal disorders - Headache - Indigestion - Pasmo Plant Part Used: Seeds, essential oil. Traditional Preparation: Approximately 1 teaspoon of seeds are added to 1 cup of boiling water to make an infusion. There are at least five different types of anise-like medicinal plants that are recognized in Dominican healing traditions, but this is the classic ans. The common names of the seed anise include the

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following: ans chiquito (Pimpinella anisum), ans comino or comino (Cuminum cyminum) and ans hinojo (Foeniculum vulgare). These seeds are easily confused and sometimes used interchangeably because their appearance, taste and medicinal properties are relatively similar. All three of these plants can be prepared together to make anise tea (t de ans) which is a common remedy for treating flatulence and intestinal gas (gases), colic (clicos), indigestion, pasmo and gastrointestinal disorders. Sometimes ans de estrella (Chinese star anise) is also used to make this tea, although the star-shaped fruits of this plant may be adulterated with those of a poisonous look-alike, Japanese star anise and therefore should not be given to young children (for more details, refer to the plant entry for Ans de estrella). To make the classic t de ans, take a small spoonful (teaspoon-sized) of each of the above aniselike seeds that will be used, lightly grind or powder them with a mortar and pestle and boil this mixture in a liter of water for 5-10 minutes to make a decoction. Once the water has begun to boil for a few minutes, it is covered to trap the aromatic vapors of the seeds and allow the tea to sweat (sudar). As the water cools down, the seeds are strained out and the tea is ready to be served. One small cup (6-8 oz) is taken in the morning and in the evening before going to bed, when the stomach is not full, to improve digestion, reduce inflammation and treat los gases (meaning both flatulence and displaced air that can occur anywhere in the body resulting in muscle spasms). For children, a few teaspoonfuls (depending on the childs age and size) of the tea are administered as needed to relieve colic symptoms. Sometimes other carminative (anti-flatulent) herbs or pleasant-tasting spices are added to this remedy, such as chamomile (manzanilla) and lavender (alucema) flowers. Traditional Uses: For the common cold or flu (gripe), the seeds are prepared as a tea and combined with cinnamon (canela) bark, lemongrass (limoncillo) leaves and mint (hierbabuena) leaves. Also, for headaches, a tea can be prepared using both ans seeds and orange (naranja) leaves. For insomnia, the seeds of this plant are prepared as a tea and often combined with chamomile (manzanilla) flowers. For digestive disorders and to cleanse the intestines (limpiar los intestinos), seeds of ans are boiled as a tea with wild privet senna (sen) leaves and star anise (ans de estrella) fruits/seeds. Availability: Dried seeds can typically be purchased from grocery stores as a culinary spice as well as from botnicas, bodegas or farmacias and are often sold in plastic bags from major distributors.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Ans (Pimpinella anisum) is an herbaceous annual plant that typically grows to 50 cm to 1 m in height. Leaves are alternate; older leaves are finely divided, narrow and arranged in a fan-like shape. Flowers are small, white and fragrant. Fruits are round (5 mm) and covered with tiny soft hairs. The leaves and seeds have a characteristic sweet taste and odor and are popular as a culinary spice (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Although the exact origin of this plant is unknown, it is most likely from the Near East and is widely cultivated throughout Mediterranean Europe, Central Asia, India, China, Japan and Central and South America (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The seeds/fruits of this plant and its essential oils are categorized as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) for use as a food additive or flavoring agent by the United States Food and Drug Administration and are widely consumed as a culinary spice (Newberne et al. 1999). According to the PDR for Herbal Medicines, no health hazards or negative side effects have been reported when ans is used properly. However, excessive amounts of the herb and essential oil can be toxic. Caution is recommended because of the potential mutagenic activity of the fruit (Germosn-Robineau 1995). No systematic studies of the potential toxicity of anise have been conducted in humans.

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Adverse effects in infants have been reported associated with mothers ingestion of a tea for lactation containing ans along with the other herbs and was linked to symptoms such as drowsiness, hypotonia, lethargy, emesis and poor suckling in two breast-fed newborns (Rosti et al. 1994). However, according to Fugh-Berman (2003), these adverse effects were most likely due to other ingredients in the herbal combination used, such as licorice or goats rue rather than ans. Contraindications: Ans is contraindicated for those with a history of hypersensitivity to the plant due to possible allergic reaction. The seeds may also be contraindicated during pregnancy due to their estrogenic effects (Brinker 1998). However, according to Fugh-Berman (2003): This herb is safe for use in pregnancy and lactation and is reputed to increase milk production (p. 13). Caution is advised in patients with estrogen-dependent cancers or endometriosis due to potential complications arising from the estrogenic effects of the seed constituents (Kassi et al. 2004, Albert-Puleo 1980) . Drug Interactions: Avoid use if taking anticoagulant medications, NSAIDS and antiplatelet drugs due to potential for excessive bleeding as a result of interaction with coumarin derivatives. Warfarin: anise may potentiate the effects of this drug and could potentially lead to increased risk of bleeding (Heck et al. 2000).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Ans (Pimpinella anisum) or aniseed is considered a very safe herb used as a flavoring agent and medicinally in children and adults for coughs and gastrointestinal disorders although few clinical trials of its use have been identified in the literature (Fugh-Berman 2003). One open clinical trial has confirmed its use as a topical pediculicidal treatment for head lice (Mumcuoglu 2002). Laboratory and preclinical studies have shown the following effects: anticonvulsant, antidiuretic, antifungal, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, estrogenic, expectorant, iron absorption increased, morphine effect reduction, mutagenic, pediculicidal, pharmacokinetic, phase II enzyme induction and smooth muscle relaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Secondary references indicate that the following additional effects have been demonstrated in preclinical laboratory and/or animal studies: antiflatulent, hypotensive, liver regenerative, muscle stimulant and insecticidal (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Active constituents responsible for the estrogenic effects of the seed have been identified as polymers of anethole (i.e. dianethole and photoanethole; Albert-Puleo 1980). The seeds are rich in iron and calcium (Brinker 1998). In an elimination study of the pharmacokinetics of the primary active constituent of the essential oil, E-anethole, 70-85% of this compound was absorbed after oral administration, and it was shown to be excreted via the kidneys and lungs and metabolized by an oxidative pathway to 4-methoxyhippuric acid (ESCOP 1997). Indications and Usage: Approved by the German Commission E for the following health conditions: common cold, cough/bronchitis, fevers, inflammation of the mouth and pharynx, dyspeptic disorders and loss of appetite (Blumenthal et al. 1998). For gastrointestinal disorders, the plant is taken internally, whereas for upper or lower respiratory tract infections it is used both internally and externally. The TRAMIL classification for internal use of the seed decoction is INV meaning that more studies are needed before recommending it for clinical use (Germosn-Robineau 1995). Typical dosage for internal administration as a tea is 1 teaspoon seeds per 1 cup boiling water, up to three times daily. For infants, 1 teaspoon seeds added to bottle. This herb is also used externally via inhalation of the essential oil (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Common dosage forms as reported in FughBerman (2003) are as follows: dried fruit - 0.5 to 1 g three times daily; infusion - made from 0.5 to 5 g crushed or coarsely powdered fruit 1-3 times daily. For children, 1 to 2 g daily may be administered as an infusion or 1 tsp of the infusion may be added to the childs bottle.

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Clinical Data: Pimpinella anisum

Activity Pediculicidal Preparation Mixture: anise, coconut, ylang ylang oils; applied to the hair 3 daily, 15 mins each time, at 5 day intervals Study design Open clinical study: children infested with head lice (n=119) Results Successful treatment (92.3%) equal to that of positive control (92.2%); no serious side effects were observed Reference Mumcuoglu et al. 2002

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Pimpinella anisum

Activity Anticonvulsant Preparation Essential oil of the fruit Essential oil extracted from seeds Fluid extract of the fruit & essential oil Study design In vivo: mice Results Active; suppressed tonic convulsions & elevated the threshold of clonic convulsions In vivo: rats Active; increased glucose absorption and reduced the volume of urine produced and increased the activity of the renal Na+-K+ ATPase Active; fluid extract: MIC In vitro: clinical isolates of 7 yeast between 17-20% (v/v) for 6 Candida spp.; essential oil: &4 MIC between 0.10 & 1.56% dermatophyte (v/v) for yeasts & species dermatophytes, respectively In vitro Demonstrated pharmacological activity In vitro: isolated Showed a bronchodilatory guinea pig effect due to inhibition of tracheal chains muscarinic receptors Unspecified Pharmacologically active (historical estrogenic agents identified: review) dianethole & photoanethole (polymers of anethole) Reference Pourgholami et al. 1999 Kreydiyyeh et al. 2003

Antidiuretic

Antifungal

Kosalec et al. 2005

Antimicrobial & antifungal Antispasmodic & smooth muscle relaxant Estrogenic

Essential oil of fruit Aqueous and ethanol extracts and essential oil Essential oil & isolated compounds

Cited in FughBerman 2003 Boskabady & Ramazani-Assari 2001 Albert-Puleo 1980

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Activity Estrogenic

Preparation Aqueous extract

Study design In vitro: cell lines; 10-100 g/mL concentration In vivo: cats; administered by gavage In vivo: guinea pigs & rats; administered orally & by vapor inhalation Tied-off intestinal segments of rats In vivo: mice; measured morphineinduced conditioned place preference In vitro: against Salmonella typhimurium In vitro: Pediculus humanus capitis; essential oil applied as an alcohol-based solution In vivo: Wistar rats

Expectorant

Expectorant

Two drops of essential oil in an emulsion Essential oil

Results Showed selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM)like properties; had antiestrogenic effect on breast cancer cells Reversed the inhibitory effects of opium on expectoration Increased respiratory secretions by 19% to 82% in a dose-dependent manner; high doses of inhaled vapor caused tissue damage and were lethal in 20% of rabbits Increased iron absorption due to tannins, phytic or ascorbic acids; recommended for prevention of iron-deficiency anemia Active; works via a GABAergic mechanism; may have implications for treating drug dependence

Reference Kassi et al. 2004

ESCOP 1997 ESCOP 1997

Iron absorption increased

Beverage extract of seed

el-Shobaki et al. 1990

Morphine effect reduction

Mutagenic

Fruit essential oil (0.125-.5 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally) & morphine (2-5 mg/kg injected subcutaneously) 5-20 mg/disc Essential oil (effect attributed to phenols, phenolic esters, ketones & oxides) Eugenol & transanethole; 125 or 250 mg/kg b.w. administered by gavage daily for 10 days

Sahraei et al. 2002

Demonstrated mutagenic activity Active; found to be effective after applied and followed by an essential oil, vinegar & water rinse the next day

Shashikanth & Hosono 1986 Veal 1996

Pediculicidal

Phase II enzyme induction

Treated liver microsomes did not show any effect on total cytochrome P-450 content; induced phase II biotransformation enzymes

Rompelberg et al. 1993

References
Albert-Puleo M. 1980. Fennel and anise as estrogenic agents. J Ethnopharmacology 2(4):337-44. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp.

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Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions. Sandy, Oregon: Eclectic Medical Publications, 263 pp. Boskabady MH, Ramazani-Assari M. 2001. Relaxant effect of Pimpinella anisum on isolated guinea pig tracheal chains and its possible mechanism(s). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 74(1):83-8. el-Shobaki FA, Saleh ZA, Saleh N. 1990. The effect of some beverage extracts on intestinal iron absorption. Zeitschrift fur Ernahrungswissenschaft 29(4):264-9. European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP) 1997. as cited in Fugh-Berman (2003). Monographs on the Medicinal Use of Plant Drugs. Anisi fructus (aniseed). Exeter, UK. Fugh-Berman A. 2003. The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 475 pp. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Heck AM, DeWitt BA, Lukes AL. 2000. Potential interactions between alternative therapies and warfarin. Am J Health Syst Pharm 57(13):1221-7. Kassi E, Papoutsi Z, Fokialakis N, Messari I, Mitakou S, Moutsatsou P. 2004. Greek plant extracts exhibit selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM)-like properties. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 52(23):6956-61. Kosalec I, Pepeljnjak S, Kustrak D. 2005. Antifungal activity of fluid extract and essential oil from anise fruits (Pimpinella anisum L., Apiaceae). Acta Pharm 55(4):377-85. Kreydiyyeh SI, Usta J, Knio K, Markossian S, Dagher S. 2003. Aniseed oil increases glucose absorption and reduces urine output in the rat. Life Sciences 74(5):663-73. Liogier A. 1990. Plantas medicinales de Puerto Rico y del Caribe. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Iberoamericana de Ediciones, Inc., 566 pp. Mumcuoglu KY, Miller J, Zamir C, Zentner G, Helbin V, Ingber A. 2002. The in vivo pediculicidal efficacy of a natural remedy. Isr Med Assoc J 4(10):790-3. Newberne P, Smith RL, Doull J, Goodman JI, Munro IC, Portoghese PS, Wagner BM, Weil CS, Woods LA, Adams TB, Lucas CD, Ford RA. 1999. The FEMA GRAS assessment of trans-anethole used as a flavouring substance. Flavour and Extract Manufacturer's Association. Food & Chemical Toxicology 37(7):789-811. Pourgholami MH, Majzoob S, Javadi M, Kamalinejad M, Fanaee GH, Sayyah M. 1999. The fruit essential oil of Pimpinella anisum exerts anticonvulsant effects in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 66(2):211-5. Rompelberg CJ, Verhagen H, van Bladeren PJ. 1993. Effects of the naturally occurring alkenylbenzenes eugenol and trans-anethole on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the rat liver. Food Chem Toxicol 31(9):637-45.

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Sahraei H, Ghoshooni H, Hossein Salimi S, Mohseni Astani A, Shafaghi B, Falahi M, Kamalnegad M. 2002. The effects of fruit essential oil of the Pimpinella anisum on acquisition and expression of morphine induced conditioned place preference in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 80(1):43-7. Shashikanth K, Hosono A. 1986. In vitro mutagenicity of tropical spices to streptomycin-dependent strains of Salmonella typhimurium TA 98. Agr Biol Chem 50(11):2947-2948. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Veal L. 1996. The potential effectiveness of essential oils as a treatment for headlice, Pediculus humanus capitis. Complementary Therapies in Nursing & Midwifery 2(4):97-101. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Ans de Estrella
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Ans estrellada, ans grande (Spanish); Chinese star anise, true star anise (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Illicium verum Hook. [Illiaceae (Star Anise Family)]. Note: Caution is advised as supplies of the fruit of this plant can be adulterated by a poisonous look-alike, Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum L.), which is a known neurotoxin. Due to potential contamination, this herb should not be administered to small children. See cautionary statement below under the Safety and Adverse Reactions section.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this edible food plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Gastrointestinal disorders - Headache - Indigestion - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Upper or lower respiratory tract infections Plant Part Used: The seeds, the whole dried fruit and the essential oil extracted from the fruit. Traditional Preparation: A tea (decoction) is prepared from the freshly ground seeds and/or fruits. Traditional Uses: Ans de estrella is prepared as a tea along with other anise-flavored medicinal plants and taken for relief from flatulence, gastrointestinal disorders, headache, indigestion, stomach ache, abdominal pain, upset stomach and upper or lower respiratory tract infections. One remedy for cleansing the intestines (limpiar los intestinos) is made with ans seeds/fruits, star anise (ans de estrella) seeds/fruits and wild privet senna (sen) leaves prepared as a tea.

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Availability: Dried seeds or whole dried fruit can be purchased from some botnicas and major grocery stores, supermarkets or ethnic markets in Latino and Caribbean neighborhoods where they are sold as a culinary spice.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Ans de estrella (Illicium verum) or Chinese star anise is an evergreen tree that typically reaches a height of 10-15 m. Leaves grow in an alternate pattern and are narrow to elliptic, shiny, leathery and dark green. Flowers grow singly and are greenish-yellow or reddish-white. Fruits are glossy brown seeds inside boatshaped seed pods or follicles, each arranged around a central axis in the shape of a star; each star-shaped fruit typically has 8 points but can be 6-13 points. All parts of this tree are highly aromatic with a pleasant, sweet fragrance (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to southern China and northern Vietnam, this plant grows in cooler tropical and subtropical areas and is cultivated extensively as a culinary spice and for its essential oil (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Extreme caution is advised when using this plant, especially in young children, due to potential contamination of ans de estrella (Chinese star anise, Illicium verum) with highly toxic Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum) which can have fatal consequences (see below). The unadulterated fruits of Chinese star anise (I. verum) are generally regarded as safe for human consumption as a food additive and flavoring agent. No health hazards have been identified in the published literature associated with the appropriate use of Chinese star anise (I. verum) as long as it is not adulterated with Japanese star anise (I. anisatum). Allergic reactions occur rarely, resulting from long-term, repeated exposure (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Caution! Poisonous Look-Alike: Ans de estrella (Illicium verum) is easily confused with Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum L.; botanical synonyms: I. religiosum Siebold and I. lanceolatum A.C.Sm.) which has poisonous seeds that can cause neurologic and gastrointestinal toxicities. Highly toxic, Japanese star anise seeds contain spasmogenic sesquiterpene lactones including anisatin, neoanisatin and pseudoanisatin which can cause severe adverse effects. Recent case reports of adverse reactions in infants due to administration of star anise tea have alerted the medical community to the potential adulteration of Chinese star anise with the poisonous Japanese star anise; therefore, it is recommended that star anise tea not be administered to infants or young children due to their particular vulnerability. Symptoms of toxicity from Japanese star anise in infants include vomiting, seizures and unusual irritability (Ize-Ludlow et al. 2004). Cases of confirmed adulteration of Chinese star anise with Japanese star anise have been reported in the literature. In one case, the tea was administered to an infant (< 6 months of age) and resulted in symptoms of excessive crying and excitability, hypertonia, nystagmus, spasms or tremors and vomiting (Minodier et al. 2003). Several infants presented with acute neurologic and gastrointestinal symptoms that were associated (in a case-controlled study) with consumption of star anise infusion; laboratory tests confirmed that the source of the star anise used was adulterated with other star anise species besides Illicium verum (Garzo Fernandez et al. 2002). An epidemic of epileptic, tonic-clonic seizures (16 persons) associated with ingestion of a star anise tea was reported with 63 individuals exhibiting symptoms of nausea and vomiting within 2-4 hours of drinking the infusion. The presence of anisatin in the tea was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis and identified as the compound responsible for these adverse effects (Johanns et al. 2002). Another incident of a newborn who was administered large amounts of star anise tea resulted in convulsions which required three doses of diazepam to control (Gil Campos et al. 2002).

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Distinguishing Characteristics of Chinese and Japanese Star Anise Fruits

Characteristics Toxicity Size Texture Beak shape Smell Taste Plant fragrance Chinese star anise (Illicium verum) - Generally considered safe - Slightly larger - Softer and more plump - Somewhat straight beak - Faint anise-like scent - Sweet, spicy, pleasant taste - All parts are highly aromatic Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum) - Toxic - Slightly smaller - Harder, more woody and shriveled - Thin, mostly curved beak - Faint clove- or cardamom-like scent - Unpleasant, slightly bitter, acrid taste - Leaves and flowers have no fragrance

Because both Chinese and Japanese star anise fruits can vary considerably in size and shape, it is difficult to distinguish between these two species based only on their appearance to the naked eye. Laboratory protocols for analyzing these species have been proposed to detect adulteration and improve quality control. These species can be differentiated by their unique flavonoid patterns using thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and low concentrations of adulteration with toxic Illicium spp. can be detected by their marker anisatin (a sesquiterpene lactone) using selective high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/ESI-MS/MS methods (Lederer et al. 2006). A simpler and quicker method to determine possible adulteration is performed by using gas chromatography and/or fluorescent or scanning electron microscopy to examine distinguishing anatomical features in the epicarp cells of the fruits (Joshi et al. 2005). Animal Toxicity Studies: Oral administration of isolated sesquiterpenoids from Chinese star anise (Illicium verum; compounds: veranisatins A, B and C; Okuyama et al. 1993) caused convulsions and lethal toxicity in mice at a dose of 3 mg/kg, resulting in hypothermia at lower doses and decreased locomotion at oral doses of 0.1 mg/kg (Nakamura et al. 1996). Contraindications: Avoid use in children due to potentially toxic effects from possible contamination with Japanese star anise seeds (Ize-Ludlow et al. 2004). Do not use in patients with a history of epilepsy or other convulsive disorders due to case reports of seizures associated with internal use of the tea (Nakamura et al. 1996, Johanns et al. 2002). Due to potential risk of increased bleeding, caution is advised in patients prior to surgery. Drug Interactions: Based on evidence from animal studies in mice, Illicium verum increases cytochrome P450 dependent 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase activity which may affect the metabolism of anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications and NSAIDS (Hendrich et al. 1986; Hendrich et al. 1983).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Although no human clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature, laboratory and preclinical studies have shown the following effects: antiangiogenic, antibacterial, antimicrobial, insecticidal, neurotropic and sepsis prevention (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data Table). Ans de

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estrellas therapeutic properties (concentrated in the essential oil and flavonoids) include bronchial expectorant (affecting the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract) and antispasmodic (affecting the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract; Gruenwald et al. 2004). Star anise fruit was originally the main source of shikimic acid for the pharmaceutical industry as a key ingredient in the synthesis of the antiviral drug Tamiflu (oseltamivir, neuramidase inhibitor GS4104), and when demand for this drug increased due to stockpiling in anticipation of a potential avian influenza epidemic, commercial supplies of the plant were limited. However, the recent development of microbial production of shikimic acid has reduced the need for star anise fruit in the manufacture of this drug (Johansson & Liden 2006, Kramer et al. 2003). The fruit contains a high concentration of essential oil, and its most notable constituent is shikimic acid. Other major chemical constituents include: 1,8-cineole, allo-aromadendrene, alphacopaene, alpha-pinene, caryophyllene, essential oil, estragole, feniculin, limonene, linalool, methylchavicol and trans-anethole (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: Chinese star anise seed is approved by the Commission E for the following health conditions: upper or lower respiratory tract infections or colds and gastrointestinal disorders (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Recommended daily dosage of the freshly-ground seeds is 3 g ingested, prepared as a tea (0.5-1 g ground seeds per cup of water) or taken as an essential oil (0.3 g; Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Illicium verum

Activity/Effect Antiangiogenic Preparation Fruits & stem Design & Model In vitro: human umbilical venous endothelial cell assay Methanol extract of In vitro: against fruits anaerobic and facultative aerobic periodontal bacteria Active constituent In vitro of the dried fruit: anethole In vivo: adult male Ethanol extract, & female mice fed added to diet semi-purified basal diet for 14 and 10 days, respectively Essential oil; applied topically In vivo: adult laboratory & field strains of Aedus aegypti Results Reference Exhibited moderate to strong Nam et al. 2003 activity; inhibited tube-like formation indicative of angiogenesis Effective against Eikenella Iauk et al. 2003 corrodens

Antibacterial

Antimicrobial

Active against bacteria, yeast and fungal strains Active; increased 7ethoxycoumarin Odeethylase activity; in males: induced microsomal epoxide hydratase & increased cytosolic epoxide hydratase Effective; lethal concentration of 50% of mosquitoes was 6.21 g/mg (lab) & 8.83 g/mg (field); suggested for use in eradicating disease vector

De et al. 2002 Hendrich & Bjeldanes 1986

Carcinogen metabolism

Insecticidal

Chaiyasit et al. 2006

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Activity/Effect Neurotropic: analgesic & locomotor activity decrease

Preparation Isolated sesquiterpenoids: veranisatins A, B & C; administered orally Fruits & isolated compounds (phenylpropanoid glucosides); 10 mg/kg

Design & Model In vivo: mice

Sepsis prevention

In vivo: tumor necrosis factoralpha-induced shock assay

Results Caused convulsions at a dose of 3 mg/kg, resulting in hypothermia at lower doses; veranisatin A decreased locomotion at oral doses of 0.1 mg/kg & demonstrated analgesia Active; reduced plasma alanine aminotransferase values & reduced lethality by 100%; dose-dependent effect

Reference Nakamura et al. 1996

Lee et al. 2003

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Chaiyasit D, Choochote W, Rattanachanpichai E, Chaithong U, Chaiwong P, Jitpakdi A, Tippawangkosol P, Riyong D, Pitasawat B. 2006. Essential oils as potential adulticides against two populations of Aedes aegypti, the laboratory and natural field strains, in Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand. Parasitol Res 99(6):715-21. De M, De AK, Sen P, Banerjee AB. 2002. Antimicrobial properties of star anise (Illicium verum Hook f). Phytotherapy Research 16(1):94-5. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Garzo Fernandez C, Gomez Pinado P, Barrasa Blanco A, Martinez Arrieta R, Ramirez Fernandez R, Ramon Rosa F, Grupo de Trabajo del Anis Estrellado. [Cases of neurological symptoms associated with star anise consumption used as a carminative.] [Spanish] An Esp Pediatr 57(4):290-4. Gil Campos M, Perez Navero JL, Ibarra De La Rosa I. 2002. [Convulsive status secondary to star anise poisoning in a neonate.] [Spanish] An Esp Pediatr 57(4):366-8. Hendrich S, Bjeldanes LF. 1983. Effects of dietary cabbage, Brussels sprouts, Illicium verum, Schizandra chinensis and alfalfa on the benzo[alpha]pyrene metabolic system in mouse liver. Food Chem Toxicol 21(4):479-86. Hendrich S, Bjeldanes LF. 1986. Effects of dietary Schizandra chinensis, Brussels sprouts and Illicium verum extracts on carcinogen metabolism systems in mouse liver. Food Chem Toxicol 24(9):903-12. Ize-Ludlow D, Ragone S, Bruck IS, Bernstein JN, Duchowny M, Pena BM. 2004. Neurotoxicities in infants seen with the consumption of star anise tea. Pediatrics 114(5):e653-6.

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Johanns ES, van der Kolk LE, van Gemert HM, Sijben AE, Peters PW, de Vries I. 2002. [An epidemic of epileptic seizures after consumption of herbal tea.] [Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 146(17):813-6. Johansson L, Liden G. 2006. Transcriptome analysis of a shikimic acid producing strain of Escherichia coli W3110 grown under carbon- and phosphate-limited conditions. J Biotechnol 126(4):528-45. Joshi VC, Srinivas PV, Khan IA. 2005. Rapid and easy identification of Illicium verum Hook. F. and its adulterant Illicium anisatum Linn. by fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography. J AOAC Int 88(3):703-6. Kramer M, Bongaerts J, Bovenberg R, Kremer S, Muller U, Orf S, Wubbolts M, Raeven L. 2003. Metabolic engineering for microbial production of shikimic acid. Metab Eng 5(4):277-83. Lederer I, Schulzki G, Gross J, Steffan JP. 2006. Combination of TLC and HPLC-MS/MS methods. Approach to a rational quality control of Chinese star anise. J Agric Food Chem 54(6):1970-4. Lee SW, Li G, Lee KS, Jung JS, Xu ML, Seo CS, Chang HW, Kim SK, Song DK, Son JK. 2003. Preventive agents against sepsis and new phenylpropanoid glucosides from the fruits of Illicium verum. Planta Med 69(9):861-4. Minodier P, Pommier P, Moulene E, Retornaz K, Prost N, Deharo L. 2003. [Star anise poisoning in infants.] [French] Arch Pediatr 10(7):619-21. Nakamura T, Okuyama E, Yamazaki M. 1996. Neurotropic components from star anise (Illicium verum Hook. fil.). Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 44(10):1908-14. Nam NH, Kim HM, Bae KH, Ahn BZ. 2003. Inhibitory effects of Vietnamese medicinal plants on tube-like formation of human umbilical venous cells. Phytotherapy Research 17(2):107-11. Okuyama E, Nakamura T, Yamazaki M. 1993. Convulsants from Star Anise (Illicum verum Hook. f.). Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 41:1670-1. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Aniseto
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Ans, aniseto, anisillo, cirio, guayuyo anisillo, higuillo oloroso (Spanish); cake bush (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Piper marginatum Jacq. [Piperaceae (Pepper Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Gastrointestinal pain

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Stomach disorders

Plant Part Used: Leaves, roots or entire plant. Traditional Preparation: A tea is prepared by boiling the leaves or infusing the leaves in hot water. Traditional Uses: Perhaps because the leaves of this plant have a sweet, spicy, anise-like scent, they are sometimes used in a manner similar to ans and may be combined with Chinese star anise and anise to make an herbal mixture prepared as a tea. Availability: Dried plant material is sometime sold at botnicas specializing in medicinal plants from the Caribbean.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Aniseto (Piper marginatum) is a bushy shrub that grows 1-3 m tall in moist, shady, tropical regions. The trunk is rough and ridged with prominent nodes, branching from the base in a perpendicular pattern. Leaves grow in an alternate pattern on winged leafstalks and are large and heart-shaped with prominent veins. Leaves are thin and papery to the touch which distinguishes it from other Piper species with a similar appearance. Flower spikes are composed of slightly curved inflorescences of miniscule flowers. The entire plant exudes a distinct anise- or licorice-like odor (Liogier 1990). Distribution: This plant can be found in tropical America and the Caribbean and is widespread, growing along forest edges (Liogier 1990).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Unknown; insufficient information is available in the literature on the potential toxicity, contraindications, herb-drug interactions and indications and usage of this plant.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Although no clinical trials have been conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of this herb, in vitro studies have demonstrated antimicrobial and cercaricidal effects of this plant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Active compounds include essential oils, tannins, alkaloids, phenyl alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, phenyloctanoids and flavonoids (Diaz and Gottlieb 1979, Tillequin et al. 1978). The following compounds have been isolated from the hexane extract of the dried fruits: 1-(1Z-propenyl)-2,4,6trimethoxybenzene, 3-farnesyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid and caryophyllene oxide (de Oliveira Chaves & de Oliveira Santos 2002). The isoquinoline alkaloid (E,E)-N-isobutyl-2,4-octadienamide has also been identified in this plant (de Oliveira Santos & de Oliveira Chaves 1999). As a side note, scientists have observed capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica using this plant as a form of self-medication by breaking up the leaves and rubbing them on their fur, apparently to deter insects and improve the health of their skin (DeJoseph et al. 2002).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Piper marginatum

Activity/Effect Antimicrobial Preparation Hexane plant extract Design & Model In vitro Results Antibacterial against Staphylococcus aureus & anti-fungal effects against Candida albicans Reference Bispo et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Cercaricidal

Preparation Essential oil

Design & Model In vitro: larvae of the parasitic human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni

Results Active; showed potential as a preventive agent against schistosomiasis

Reference Frischkorn et al. 1978

REFERENCES
Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Bispo W, Pires LLS, de Arajo CWG, Santos BVO, Porfrio Z. 2003. Avaliao da Atividade Antimicrobiana de Frutos de Piper marginatum Jacq. (Piperaceae). Jornada Cientfica de Farmcia. Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Brasil. January 24. de Oliveira Chaves MC, de Oliveira Santos BV. 2002. Constituents from Piper marginatum fruits. Fitoterapia 73(6):547-9. de Oliveira Santos BV, de Oliveira Chaves MC. 1999. (E,E)-N-isobutyl-2,4-octadienamide from Piper marginatum. Biochem Syst Ecol 27(1):113-4. DeJoseph M, Taylor RSL, Baker M, Aregullin M. 2002. Fur-rubbing behavior of capuchin monkeys. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 46(6):924-925 Diaz AM, Gottlieb OR. 1979. Propiophenones from Piper marginatum. Planta Medica 35(2):190-1. Frischkorn CG, Frischkorn HE, Carrazzoni E. 1978. Cercaricidal activity of some essential oils of plants from Brazil. Naturwissenschaften 65(9):480-3. Liogier A. 1990. Plantas medicinales de Puerto Rico y del Caribe. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Iberoamericana de Ediciones, Inc., 566 pp. Tillequin F, Paris M, Jacquemin H, Paris RR. 1978. [Flavonoids from Piper marginatum isolation of a new flavonoid, the marginatoside]. [French] Planta Medica 33(1):46-52. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Apasote
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Epazote (Spanish); American wormseed, wormseed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. [Chenopodiaceae (Beet or Goosefoot Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

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In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Colic - Common cold - Diarrhea - Flu - Intestinal parasites - Intestinal worms - Menstrual disorders - Pao - Skin infections - Stomach ache and abdominal pain Plant Part Used: Leaves, fruits, entire plant and essential oil. Traditional Preparation: The leaves or aerial parts are prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction and administered orally. For skin conditions, the crushed and heated leaves are applied externally to the affected area. Traditional Uses: This plant is attributed strong, bitter properties. For intestinal parasites and other gastrointestinal disorders, the fresh juice of the leaves (zumo) can be combined with coconut (coco) milk and taken internally. This plant also has culinary uses as a condiment and is considered a medicinal food because of its anti-flatulent effects, especially when used as a flavoring agent in the preparation of beans (habichuelas). Spiritual applications of this herb can have health-related implications, especially for illnesses associated with spiritual origins, as the leaves are used for dispelling negative energy and evil spirits. In the Dominican Republic the leaves are used as an antiseptic for treating wounds or skin ulcers (llagas), and a tea of the leaves is used for treating asthma, colic, conjunctivitis and stomach ache (Liogier 2000). Availability: Commonly sold at corner shops, markets, grocery stores and botnicas in Latino neighborhoods, apasote can also be found growing as a weed in parks and along streets in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Apasote (Chenopodium ambrosioides) is an annual or short-lived perennial herbaceous plant that grows to 120 cm tall. Stems are branched and reddish. Leaves are arranged in an alternate pattern and are spearshaped, deeply toothed and strongly pungent. Flowers are inconspicuous, yellowish-green and grow in small, slightly rounded spikes. Fruits are small and dry, each containing a single smooth, black seed (Liogier 2000). Distribution: This plant is native to Central and South America and is now cosmopolitan in range, grows in the Dominican Republic and can often be found in open, disturbed areas (Liogier 2000).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Although the leaves and aerial parts of this plant are commonly used in moderate amounts as a culinary seasoning, the essential oil can be highly toxic and should be avoided or only used with extreme caution. Adverse reactions from using the oil include damage to the Nervus cochlearis which results in a persistent buzzing sound in the ears and/or hearing impairment. Even small amounts can cause problems with the central nervous system, such as spasms, paralysis and Pachymeningitis haemorrhagica. Also, the oil is

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dangerously explosive (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Skin contact with the fresh plant can result in contact dermatitis (Brinker 1998). Overdosage: Fatalities have been reported due to ingestion of 10 mg of the oil by adults and much smaller amounts in children (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Possible genotoxic effects of the leaf decoction have been shown in vitro using human lymphocyte cell cultures (Gadano et al. 2002). Animal Toxicity Studies: The LD50 of the essential oil administered orally was 0.38 mL/kg in mouse and 0.255 g/kg in rat (Opdyke 1976). Studies carried out by TRAMIL researchers have shown that the essential oil applied externally to rabbits did not show signs of toxicity after clinical evaluation (Gonzalez 1990). Aqueous extracts, such as traditional preparations of this herb as a tea or infusion, are much safer than alcohol-based extracts. The LD50 of the aqueous leaf extract in mice was shown to be 4.0 g/kg (Amole & Yusuf 2002). A general acute toxicity study of the hydroalcoholic whole plant extract administered intraperitoneally was shown to have an LD50 of 1 g/kg (Bhakuni et al. 1969). The water extract and ascaridole-free hexane-extracted aqueous extract, applied to rat gastrointestinal smooth muscle; concentrations required to kill Caenorhabditis elegans showed no observable effect on smooth muscle contraction (unlike ascaridole), and this research supports the safety of traditional use of this herb as an infusion (MacDonald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Due to its potential toxicity, the seed oil should not be used in large amounts or frequently during a short period of time; nor should it be administered to undernourished or weak individuals or to very young children (less than 4 years old). Wormseed oil should not be used by patients with the following conditions: pregnancy (due to the oils demonstrated emmenagogue and abortifacient effects); stomach or intestinal disease (due to its irritation of the digestive tract); heart disease (due to its cardiac depressive activity); liver disease (due to its hepatotoxic effects); and kidney disease (due its renotoxic effects; Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: None identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical trials have confirmed the use of this plant as an antiparasitic and ascariasis treatment (see Clinical Data table). Laboratory and preclinical studies have demonstrated the following effects: analgesic, anthelmintic, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-leishmaniasis, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antiulcerogenic, fungitoxic, immunomodulatory, insecticidal, nematocidal and trypanocidal (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table). Apasote oil is a potent anthelmintic; however, the active constituent of the essential oil, ascaridole (a monoterpene found throughout the plant and especially in the fruits) is highly toxic (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: According to TRAMIL, the therapeutic use of apasote (Chenopodium ambrosioides) is classified as recommended specifically for treating diarrhea, stomach ache, abdominal pain and intestinal parasites when caused by roundworm, pinworm or hookworm infections. TRAMIL also classifies the topical use of the plant as recommended for the treatment of cutaneous ulcers (Germosn-Robineau 2005). For internal use in the treatment of diarrhea, stomach ache or intestinal parasites as described above, the recommended usage is an infusion or decoction of the leaf and/or aerial parts (7 g in 300 mL water) taken orally with a dosage of 1 cup for adults and cup to 1/3 cup for children older than 5 years of age. Take 1 time per day for only 3 consecutive days and do not repeat treatment for 6 months. After taking the treatment on the third day, use of a saline laxative such as magnesium sulfate (not an oil-based purgative) is recommended. For external use in the treatment of cutaneous ulcers, the recommended preparation is the fresh juice squeezed from the aerial parts of the plant, applied topically after washing the affected area thoroughly with boiled water and soap. The poultice can be covered with a clean cloth and changed twice daily (Gersmosn-Robineau 2005).

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Clinical Data: Chenopodium ambrosioides

Activity/Effect Antiparasitic Preparation Leaf extract Design & Model Clinical trial; 72 patients (adults & children) with parasitic infections of the intestines Randomized controlled clinical trial; 60 children, 30 per group (age 3-14 yrs w/Ascaris lumbricoides in feces); compared with positive control Albendazole (1 dose of 400 mg for children > 5 yrs or 200 mg for < 5 yrs of age) Results Showed 100% efficacy against Ancilostoma & Trichuris; 50% against Ascaris spp.; based on stool analyses 8 days before & after treatment Both plant juice & positive control were 86.7% effective based on qualitative examination of ascaris egg disappearance in feces; plant juice was 59.5% effective (vs. 58.3% for Albedazole) in quantitative measure of decrease in parasitic burden; extract was also 100% effective in treating Hymenolepsis nana (although Albedazole was not effective); both drugs showed adverse effects in 23.3% of cases Reference Giove Nakazawa 1996

Antiascariasis

Plant juice: 1 mL/kg for less than 10 kg; 2 mL/kg for > 10 kg b.w.; one dose before breakfast, 3 days in a row

Lopez de Guimaraes et al. 2001

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Chenopodium ambrosioides

Activity/Effect Analgesic Preparation Aqueous leaf extract Isolated plant compounds Essential oil and dried plant tissue, administered orally Acetone extract at 0.5 mg/mL Design & Model In vivo: mice; thermal hot plate pain threshold test In vitro & in vivo: male mice In vivo: lambs infected with gastrointestinal nematodes In vitro; methods: agar plate and rapid radiometric Results Effective at doses of 0.4 g/kg and 0.8 g/kg; protected against sensation of pain Ascaridole identified as pharmacologically active principle Significant reduction in Trichostrongyle eggs per gram feces in treated lambs as compared with control; the oil produced no significant toxic effects Active against resistant strain of Mycobaterium tuberculosis at 0.1 mg/mL Reference Amole & Yusuf 2002 Okuyama et al. 1993 Kato et al. 2000

Analgesic & sedative Anthelmintic

Antibacterial

Lall & Meyer 1999

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Activity/Effect Antifungal

Preparation Essential oil of leaves and an oil-containing ointment

Design & Model In vitro & in vivo: guinea-pigs, applied topically

Antifungal, antiaflatoxic & antioxidant

Leaf essential oil (concentration 100 g/mL) Essential oil, administered intraperitoneally, orally or intralesionally Aerial parts Ascaridole (terpene isolated from plant)

In vitro: tested against a broad range of fungal species In vivo: BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania amazonensis; positive control: amphotericin B (1 mg/kg) In vitro In vitro against Plasmodium falciparum

Antileishmaniasis

Antimalarial Antimalarial

Antimalarial & insecticidal

Hydroalcoholic extract of dry aerial parts Aqueous leaf extract (200 L/disc) Aqueous extract (25 and 100 mg/kg) given orally

In vivo (mice) & in vitro

Antimicrobial

In vitro

Antiulcer

In vivo: rat with experimentally induced-ulcers

Results Antimycotic against dermatophytes: Trychophyton mentagropytes and Microsporum audouinii at a concentration of 50 ppm; controlled established ringworm infection in animal model Showed significant fungitoxic, aflatoxininhibiting & antioxidant activity; suggest use as a natural food fungitoxicant Active; oral & intraperitoneal dosage of 30 mg/kg showed significant improvement (better than positive control); no resistance detected Active against Plasmodium falciparum Active; strongly inhibited growth of plasmodial growth; 0.05 mcmol concentration arrested growth after 3 days; eradicated visible parasites at 0.1 mcmol Showed activity against Plasmodium berghei (100 g/mL) in vivo & against Lutzomyia longipalpis (1 g/L) in vitro Active against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris & Staphylococcus albus Significantly decreased the quantity & incidence of gastric ulcers without changing the volume of gastric liquid or free acid

Reference Kishore et al. 1996

Kumar et al. 2006

Monzote et al. 2007

Sauvain et al. 1990 Pollack et al. 1990

Misra et al. 1991

Desta 1993

Cambar 1988

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Activity/Effect Cytotoxic & genotoxic

Design & Model In vitro: human lymphocyte cell cultures; negative control: Chenopodium album extract (because does not contain essential oil) Essential oil & In vitro: against 12 Antifungal ointment made dermatophyte with essential oil species; in vivo: guinea pigs w/experimental ring worm In vivo: mice Immunomodulatory Hydroalcoholic crude leaf extract (C3H/HePas) (5 mg/kg intraperitoneally)

Preparation Aqueous decoction & infusion (concentrations: 1, 10, 100, 1000 L extract/mL culture)

Results Reference Active; showed significant Gadano et al. 2006 increase in chromosomal aberrations & frequency of sister chromatid exchanges; decreased mitotic index Strongly active in vitro against dermatophyte species & cured ringworm in animal model within 712 days Active; increased phagocytosis, nitric oxide production & cellular recruitment to lymphoid organs (results similar to concanavalin A, positive control) Active; 50% inhibition against promastigote & amastigote forms at 3.7 & 4.6 g/mL; showed moderate toxicity on macrophages in mice; indicated dose was effective Showed no observable effect on smooth muscle contraction (unlike ascaridole); research supports safety of traditional use of this herb as an infusion Active; minimum inhibition concentrations were 23, 1.2, 1.6, 3.1 & 0.8 mcmol depending on the constituent Kishore et al. 1993

Cruz et al. 2006

Antileishmanial

Essential oil; 30 mg/kg/day administered intraperitoneally for 15 days

In vitro & in vivo: Leishmania amazonensis; BALB/c mice infected experimentally In vitro: rat gastrointestinal smooth muscle; concentrations required to kill Caenorhabditis elegans In vitro: epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi

Monzote et al. 2006

Nematocidal

Water extract & ascaridole-free hexane-extracted aqueous extract

MacDonald et al. 2004

Trypanocidal

Ascaridole & monoterpene hydroperoxides isolated from aerial parts

Kiuchi et al. 2002

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Preparation Design & Model Results Reference

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Activity/Effect Anthelmintic

Preparation 6000 mg powdered, dried plant material per kg body weight

Design & Model In vitro & clinical field studies

Results Had no effect on mature intestinal worms (Necator, Trichuris or Ascaris spp.) despite presence of the active compound ascaridol in the samples

Reference Kliks 1985

REFERENCES
Amole OO, Yusuf OG. 2002. The analgesic effects of Chenopodium ambrosioides. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products & Medicine 6:36-38. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Bhakuni OS, Dhar ML, Dhar MM, Dhawan BN, Mehrotra BN. 1969. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part II. Indian J Exp Biol 7:250-262. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Cambar P. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Prevencin de la produccin de lceras gstricas experimentales por algunos extractos de plantas. Informe TRAMIL. Unidad de Farmacologa, Facultad de Ciencias Mdicas, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Cruz GV, Pereira PV, Patricio FJ, Costa GC, Sousa SM, Frazao JB, Aragao-Filho WC, Maciel MC, Silva LA, Amaral FM, Barroqueiro ES, Guerra RN, Nascimento FR. 2007. Increase of cellular recruitment, phagocytosis ability and nitric oxide production induced by hydroalcoholic extract from Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111(1):148-54. Desta B. 1993. Ethiopian traditional herbal drugs. Part II: Antimicrobial activity of 63 medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 39(2):129-139. Gadano AB, Gurni AA, Carballo MA. 2006. Argentine folk medicine: genotoxic effects of Chenopodiaceae family. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103(2):246-51. Gadano A, Gurni A, Lopez P, Ferraro G, Carballo M. 2002. In vitro genotoxic evaluation of the medicinal plant Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81(1):11-16. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Giove Nakazawa R. 1996. [Traditional medicine in the treatment of enteroparasitosis.] [Spanish] Rev Gastroenterol Peru 16(3):197-202. Gonzalez A. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Evaluacin de la toxicidad drmica de plantas TRAMIL en Conejos. Centro Nacional de Salud Animal, La Habana, Cuba. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Kato S, Bowmann DD, Brown DL. 2000. Efficacy of Chenopodium ambrosioides as an antihelmintic for treatment of gastrointestinal nematodes in lambs. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 7(2):11-25.

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Kishore NJ, Chansouria JP, Dubey NK. 1996. Antidermatophytic action of the essential oil of Chenopodium ambrosioides and an ointment prepared from it. Phytotherapy Research 10(5):453-5. Kishore N, Mishra AK, Chansouria JP. 1993. Fungitoxicity of essential oils against dermatophytes. Mycoses 36(56):211-5. Kiuchi F, Itano Y, Uchiyama N, Honda G, Tsubouchi A, Nakajima-Shimada J, Aoki T. 2002. Monoterpene hydroperoxides with trypanocidal activity from Chenopodium ambrosioides. J Nat Prod 65(4):509-12. Kliks MM. 1985. Studies on the traditional herbal anthelmintic Chenopodium ambrosioides L.: ethnopharmacological evaluation and clinical field trials. Social Science & Medicine 21(8):879-86. Kumar R, Mishra AK, Dubey NK, Tripathi YB. 2007. Evaluation of Chenopodium ambrosioides oil as a potential source of antifungal, antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity. Int J Food Microbiol 115(2):159-64. Lall N, Meyer JJ. 1999. In vitro inhibition of drug-resistant and drug-sensitive strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by ethnobotanically selected South African plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 66(3):34754. Liogier AH. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola, 2nd Ed. Santo Domingo: Jardn Botnico Nacional. 598 pp. Lopez De Guimaraes D, Neyra Llanos RS, Romero Acevedo JH. 2001. [Ascariasis: comparison of the therapeutic efficacy between paico and albendazole in children from Huaraz.] [Spanish] Rev Gastroenterol Peru 21(3):212-9. MacDonald D, VanCrey K, Harrison P, Rangachari PK, Rosenfeld J, Warren C, Sorger G. 2004. Ascaridole-less infusions of Chenopodium ambrosioides contain a nematocide(s) that is(are) not toxic to mammalian smooth muscle. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92(2-3):215-21. Misra P, Pal N, Guru P, Katiyar JC, Tandon JS. 1991. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Antimalarial activity of traditional plants against erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium berghei. Int J Pharmacog 29(1):19-23. Monzote L, Montalvo AM, Almanonni S, Scull R, Miranda M, Abreu J. 2006. Activity of the essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides grown in Cuba against Leishmania amazonensis. Chemotherapy 52(3):130-8. Monzote L, Montalvo AM, Scull R, Miranda M, Abreu J. 2007. Activity, toxicity and analysis of resistance of essential oil from Chenopodium ambrosioides after intraperitoneal, oral and intralesional administration in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania amazonensis: A preliminary study. Biomed Pharmacother 61(23):148-53. Okuyama E, Umeyama K, Saito Y, Yamazaki M, Satake M. 1993. Ascaridole as a pharmacologically active principle of Paico, a medicinal Peruvian plant. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 41(7):1309-1311. Opdyke DLJ. 1976. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Monographs on fragrance raw materials. Chenopodium oil. Food Chem Toxicol 14:713-715. Pollack Y, Segal R, Golenser J. 1990. The effect of ascaridole on the in vitro development of Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Res 76(7):570-2. Sauvain M, Moretti C, Muoz V. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Pruebas in vivo para paludismo realizadas en Bolivia sobre varias plantas TRAMIL. ORSTOM, Universidad Mayor de San Simn, La Paz, Bolivia. TRAMIL V, Livingston, Guatemala. CONAPLAMED/enda-caribe. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Apio
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Celery, smallage (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Apium graveolens var. dulce L. [Apiaceae (Carrot Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003; Vandebroek & Balick 2009): - Arthritis - Asthma - Common cold - Cough - Diabetes - Flu - High blood pressure - High cholesterol - Kidney disorders - Menopausal hot flashes - Obesity Plant Part Used: Stalks, leaves, roots and seeds (all edible). Traditional Preparation: The stalks may be eaten raw, cooked or liquefied to make a juice of the fresh plant, taken orally. Traditional Uses: Apio is used as a remedy for obesity, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and diabetes, and it is said to have sweet and cooling properties. Typically the stalk and/or leaves are eaten, either raw or cooked or liquefied to make a fresh juice and taken to help treat or prevent illness and as a source of dietary fiber. For diabetes, apio is sometimes combined with aloe vera (sbila) gel and liquefied in a blender, and this mixture is taken internally. For treating conditions caused by excessive heat in the body, such as menopausal hot flashes, the stalk is liquefied in a blender or grated and squeezed to extract its juice (zumo) and combined with other refreshing plants such as perejil (parsley) leaves and stalks or chinola (passion fruit) fruits (Yukes et al. 2002-2003). This plant can also be prepared as a tea for asthma, cold and flu, cough and kidney disorders or applied externally for arthritis (Vandebroek & Balick 2009). Availability: As a common food plant, apio is available at most grocery stores and supermarkets in the fresh produce section. Seeds can be purchased from some health food or herb stores.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

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Apio (Apium graveolens) is a biennial herbaceous plant that typically reaches a height of 30-100 cm. The stem is erect, grooved, often hollow, bulbous and branched, and the root is fleshy and tuberous. Leaves are light green, coarsely-toothed, palmate and composed of 3-5 segments with variation between upper and lower leaves. Flowers are 5-petaled, creamy-white to green. Fruits are spherical, aromatic, lightbrown and seed-like (Liogier 2000). Distribution: The entire plant has a characteristic strong, sweet odor. Native to Europe, this species grows wild in marshy areas and along coastlines, and the sweet variety is cultivated widely as a vegetable in diverse regions, including in the Dominican Republic (Liogier 2000).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a widely consumed vegetable, this plant is generally considered safe. No cases of toxicity have been identified in the published scientific literature. However, cases of allergic reaction to ingestion of celery root have been reported in pollen-sensitive individuals resulting in gastrointestinal disorders and other symptoms although in most cases celery sensitivity is not considered clinically significant (Jankiewicz et al. 1996). Caution is advised due to potential photosensitizing effects (Brinker 1998). External application of the seed ethanolic extract to the skin (25% concentration) in human volunteers did not show signs of dermal irritation or adverse effects during the 3 month study or follow-up periods (Choochote et al. 2004). Fungal infection of the plant with Sclerotinia sclerotiorum can cause phototoxic dermatitis (due to high furanocoumarin content and caused by the chemical constituents xanthotoxin and bergapten) if the exudate of the infected plant comes into skin contact with sensitive individuals (Austad & Kavli 1983). Plants infected with this fungal pathogen generally have a pink appearance and a wilted, watery texture. Also, due to fungicidal application, the furanocoumarin content of the fresh plant or dried root can increase dramatically resulting in increased biological effects on human skin (Nigg et al. 1997), and ingestion of celeriac bulbs with high furanocoumarin content could lead to phototoxicoses (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Seeds and essential oil are contraindicated for pregnant women due to demonstrated emmenogogue, abortifacient and uterine stimulating effects. Not to be taken by individuals with kidney infections or inflammation due to the potential kidney-irritating effect of the volatile oil (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Anticoagulants and Warfarin: potential interaction with anticoagulants such as warfarin due to increased risk of bleeding and potentiation of drug effects (Heck et al. 2000). Celery seed extract can potentially interact with thyroxine resulting in lowered T4 levels; if co-administered, T4 levels and thyroid function should be monitored (Moses 2001).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory studies, the following effects of this plant have been demonstrated: antihyperlipidemic, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antinociceptive, antioxidant, carcinogenesis inhibition, cercaricidal, hepatoprotective, insecticidal (anti-mosquito) and vasodilator (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). According to the Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, the seeds have demonstrated sedative and anticonvulsive effects in animal studies, although a diuretic effect could not be substantiated. The essential oil is slightly antifungal and antibacterial (Gruenwald et al. 2004). The essential oil of this plant contains (+)-limonene, myrcene, carveol. The plant also contains flavonoids, including apiin, luteolin-7-O-apiosyl glucoside and chrysoeriol glucoside; and furocoumarins including bergaptene and xanthotoxin (Gruenwald et al. 2004). The leaves of this plant are highly nutritious being rich in mineral salts and vitamins, and the whole plant is an excellent source of dietary fiber. The seeds are rich in calcium, magnesium and iron (Brinker 1998). The raw stalks are a significant source of calcium, folate, iron, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium and vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, C and K (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006).

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Indications and Usage: Recommended daily dosage is 1.2-4 g of the seeds, either ingested or taken as a tea (1 g seeds, infused in boiling water for 5-10 minutes; ratio: 1 part herb to 5 parts water). The juice of the fresh plant can be taken three times daily in the amount of 23 g (Blumenthal et al. 1998).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Apium graveolens

Activity/Effect Antihyperlipidemic Preparation Aqueous extract; ingested as part of diet Design & Model In vivo: rats fed high fat diet for 8 wks to induce hyperlipidemia; separate treatment & control groups Results Significantly reduced serum total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein & triglyceride levels; hepatic triacylglycerol lipase activity was lowered and hepatic microsomal P450 levels were higher than control group Demonstrated antiinflammatory activity Reference Tsi et al. 1995

Antiinflammatory

80% ethanol extract, which is 1/10 of the intraperitoneal LD50 dose Methanol & aqueous plant extracts Ethanolic extract

Antimicrobial

Anti-nociceptive

In vivo: rats with carrageenan-induced paw edema as compared with standard drug: acetylsalicylic acid In vitro: multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi In vivo: mice; aceticacid induced writhing and hot-plate test In vitro: automated oxygen radical absorbance assay In vitro & in vivo: mice In vivo: Wistar rats with experimentally induced hepatocarcinogenesis Cercariae bioassay (the larval & infective stage of the life cycle of the parasitic human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni)

Al-Hindawi et al. 1989

Antioxidant

Plant extract Leaf & root; organic & aqueous extracts Seed methanolic extract Essential oil of fresh aerial parts in flowering stage (var. secalinum)

Showed moderate antimicrobial activity & anti-enteric potential Exhibited dose-dependent anti-nociceptive effects in both tests; suggest use for painful and inflammatory conditions Showed moderate antioxidant activity Active; showed good radical scavenging ability & reduced liposomal peroxidation intensity Active; showed strong activity as a prophylactic against oxidative stress & cancer development Demonstrated cercaricidal & chemotactic effects

Rani & Khullar 2004 Atta & Alkofahi 1998

Cao et al. 1996 Popovic et al. 2006

Antioxidant

Carcinogenesis inhibition & antioxidant Cercaricidal

Sultana et al. 2005

Saleh et al. 1985

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Activity/Effect Hepatoprotective

Preparation Seeds

Insecticidal (antimosquito)

Essential oil

Insecticidal (antimosquito)

Crude seed extract

Design & Model In vivo: rats with paracetamol- and thioacetamideinduced intoxication In vivo: laboratory & field strains of Aedes aegypti (mosquito vector that can be the host of several diseases) In vivo: Aedes aegypti (dengue fever vector)

Results Demonstrated significant hepatoprotective activity Active; showed strong adulticidal activity against mosquitoes; LC50=5.96 g/mg for the lab strain & 6.14 for the field strain Active; showed larvicidal, adulticidal & repellant effects; when applied to skin, protected against biting for 3 hrs (25% concentration); no adverse effects observed Exhibited relaxation of rat thoracic aorta by inhibiting the contraction of aortic rings in a dose-dependent manner; mechanism determined to be suppression of Ca2+ influx through voltage- & receptor-operated channels

Reference Singh & Handa 1995 Chaiyasit et al. 2006

Choochote et al. 2004

Vasodilator

Apigenin (isolated compound from plant)

Rat thoracic aorta; contraction caused by cumulative concentrations of calcium in high potassium medium & induced by norepinephrine

Ko et al. 1991

REFERENCES
Al-Hindawi MK, Al-Deen IH, Nabi MH, Ismail MA. 1989. Anti-inflammatory activity of some Iraqi plants using intact rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 26(2):163-168. Atta AH, Alkofahi A. 1998. Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of some Jordanian medicinal plant extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 60(2):117-124. Austad J, Kavli G. 1983. Phototoxic dermatitis caused by celery infected by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Contact Dermatitis 9(6):448-451. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Cao G, Sofic E, Prior RL. 1996. Antioxidant capacity of tea and common vegetables. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 44(11):3426-3431. Chaiyasit D, Choochote W, Rattanachanpichai E, Chaithong U, Chaiwong P, Jitpakdi A, Tippawangkosol P, Riyong D, Pitasawat B. 2006. Essential oils as potential adulticides against two populations of Aedes aegypti, the laboratory and natural field strains, in Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand. Parasitol Res 99(6):715-21. Choochote W, Tuetun B, Kanjanapothi D, Rattanachanpichai E, Chaithong U, Chaiwong P, Jitpakdi A, Tippawangkosol P, Rivong D, Pitasawat B. 2004. Potential of crude seed extract of celery, Apium graveolens L., against mosquito Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). J Vector Ecol 29(2):340-6.

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Heck AM, DeWitt BA, Lukes AL. 2000. Potential interactions between alternative therapies and warfarin. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 57(13):1221-1227. Jankiewicz A, Aulepp H, Baltes W, Bogl KW, Dehne LI, Zuberbier T, Vieths S. 1996. Allergic sensitization to native and heated celery root in pollen-sensitive patients investigated by skin test and IgE binding. International Archives of Allergy & Immunology 111(3):268-278. Ko FN, Huang TF, Teng CM. 1991. Vasodilatory action mechanisms of apigenin isolated from Apium graveolens in rat thoracic aorta. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1115(1):69-74. Moses G. 2001. Thyroxine interacts with celery seed tablets? Australian Prescriber 24(1):6-7. Nigg HN, Strandberg JO, Beier RC, Petersen HD, Harrison JM. 1997. Furanocoumarins in Florida celery varieties increased by fungicide treatment. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 45(4):1430-1436. Popovic M, Kaurinovic B, Trivic S, Mimica-Dukic N, Bursac M. 2006. Effect of celery (Apium graveolens) extracts on some biochemical parameters of oxidative stress in mice treated with carbon tetrachloride. Phytotherapy Res 20(7):531-7. Rani P, Khullar N. 2004. Antimicrobial evaluation of some medicinal plants for their anti-enteric potential against multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi. Phytotherapy Research 18(8):670-673. Saleh MM, Zwaving JH, Malingre TM, Bos R. 1985. The essential oil of Apium graveolens var. secalinum and its cercaricidal activity. Pharmaceutisch Weekblad Scientific Edition 7(6):277-279. Singh A, Handa SS. 1995. Hepatoprotective activity of Apium graveolens and Hygrophila auriculata against paracetamol and thioacetamide intoxication in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 49(3):119-126. Sultana S, Ahmed S, Jahangir T, Sharma S. 2005. Inhibitory effect of celery seeds extract on chemically induced hepatocarcinogenesis: modulation of cell proliferation, metabolism and altered hepatic foci development. Cancer Lett 221(1):11-20. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Tsi D, Das NP, Tan BK. 1995. Effects of aqueous celery (Apium graveolens) extract on lipid parameters of rats fed a high fat diet. Planta Medica 61(1):18-21. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Vandebroek I, Balick MJ. Unpublished data sets. Dominican ethnomedicine in New York City (NIH/NCCAMfunded study), Microsoft Access database. Accessed February 2009. On file, Institute of Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. Unpublished field notes. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III - Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Fieldwork conducted 2002-2003. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Auyama
OTHER COMMON NAMES
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For the species Cucurbita pepo: Calabaza (Spanish); pumpkin; acorn or zucchini squash (English). For the species C. moschata: auyama (Spanish); squash, West Indian pumpkin, winter squash, butternut squash (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cucurbita pepo L. and C. moschata Duchesne. Synonym: C. pepo var. moschata (Duch.) Poir. [Cucurbitaceae (Cucumber Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Common cold - Diarrhea - Flu - Intestinal parasites - Intestinal worms Plant Part Used: Seeds and fruit pulp. Traditional Preparation: When used as a remedy, the fresh or dried seeds are ground and boiled in milk or water and sometimes sweetened with sugar. Take 1 cup in the morning with breakfast. For culinary purposes, seeds can be eaten raw, roasted, ground to make a seed butter. Traditional Uses: Auyama or calabaza seeds are used as a simple tea or in combination with other medicinal plants to treat intestinal parasites and diarrhea and to expel intestinal worms. Sometimes milk is substituted for water when preparing a decoction of the crushed seeds. For the common cold and flu, the fruit pulp is combined with the pulp of passion fruit (chinola) and boiled to make a tea or beverage. Availability: Various squash varieties and pumpkin seeds can typically be purchased at grocery stores, supermarkets or neighborhood convenience stores that carry fresh produce (bodegas).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Calabaza (Cucurbita pepo) is a creeping or climbing annual plant that can grow to varying heights (2 m long or longer) and has sprawling, prickly stems. Leaves typically 5-lobed with spiky margins. Flowers are bright orange-yellow and grow singly. Fruits are large and roundish with a tough rind; orange, yellow or white flesh; green, light-green orange, yellow or cream-colored skin. There are numerous different cultivars of this species with significant variations in fruit size, shape, texture and color (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native to the Americas and is cultivated widely as a food plant (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a widely consumed food, pumpkin and pumpkin seeds are generally regarded as safe. Very few allergic reactions to the consumption of this food plant have been reported (Reindl et al. 2000) and no undesirable side effects were reported in 98% of patients in a clinical trial involving 1,305 participants (Grups & Schiebal-Schlosser 1995). One case has been reported of intestinal impaction in a woman (aged 61 yrs) after eating 1 cup of roasted pumpkin seeds (Chandrasekhara 1983). Commonly consumed as a food, this plant is generally considered safe for internal use.

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Animal Toxicity Studies: (for Cucurbita moschata) The LD50 in rats of the leaf juice, fruit juice and aqueous maceration of the seeds taken internally is 25 g/kg. The LD50 values of the intraperitoneal administration of the following preparations are summarized as follows: aqueous extract of the leaf: >25 g/kg; fresh juice of the leaf: 8.912 0.563 g/kg; seed maceration: 8.769 1.781 g/kg; and fresh juice of the fruit: 13.483 0.762 g/kg. Additionally, the administration of 18.75 mL/kg of the plant extract to rats for 30 days did not cause any mortality as a result of the experiment (Herrera 1990). The ground seeds mixed with water to make an emulsion (50 g crushed seeds in enough water to yield a paste) administered to rats for two consecutive days initially and again at the end of the week of the experiment resulted in no detectable signs of toxicity or intolerance, although some patients considered the consistency of the preparation to be disagreeable (Caballo 1994). In other research studies, isolated cucurbitin, one of the pharmacological constituents of Cucurbita moschata, has demonstrated a low toxicity level in both humans and dogs (Chen et al. 1980, Gonzalez et al. 1974, Paris & Moyse 1981, Germosn-Robineau 2005). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: For patients who were taking Curbicin, an herbal supplement containing pumpkin seed, saw palmetto and vitamin E, there have been two incidents reported of increased INR (clotting time of blood). One of the patients was also concurrently taking warfarin and the other was not taking any additional anticoagulant drugs. However, it is not clear whether pumpkin seed or another ingredient (possibly Vitamin E) in the supplement was responsible for this effect. In light of these cases, caution is advised (Yue & Jansson 2001).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
The use of pumpkin seed lipophilic extracts or oil has been substantially confirmed by clinical and experimental studies for the treatment of irritable bladder and micturation disorders associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Pumpkin also contains the amaroid cucurbitacin which has demonstrated antihelmintic properties. Other therapeutic effects of pumpkin include antiphlogistic and antioxidant properties (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Cucurbita moschata is recognized in the 1966 edition of the official Pharmacopeia of Holland (Penso 1980) and is included in the Soviet Pharmacopoea for treating chronic skin infections and burns, administered as an oil preparation in compresses and emulsions (Hurtado & Carballo 1990). Cucurbitin, a component of the seeds of auyama, has demonstrated anthelmintic properties and therapeutic activity in the treatment of acute schistosomiasis (Rybaltovskii 1966, Chou and Ming 1960). Concentrations of cucurbitin may vary considerably between species or even among seeds of the same species (Foster & Tyler 1999). Other active constituents include fumaric acid which has demonstrated antipsoriatic and antioxidant activity and citric acid which is an anticoagulant. The high level of carotenes in the fruit and also the flowers makes this plant a valuable source of pro-vitamin A which is an important nutrient for health and wound-healing (Duke and Astchleay 1986, Gonzalez et al. 2001, Vilenchik 1989). The seeds, due to their reported content of L-Tryptophan, may have therapeutic applications for the treatment of depression (Eagles 1990). Indications and Usage: According to the German Commission E, pumpkin is approved for irritable bladder and prostate disorders (Blumenthal et al. 1998). However, it does not reduce enlargement of the prostate; it only alleviates some of the symptoms associated with it (Gruenwald et al. 2004). TRAMIL has designated Cucurbita moschata as REC meaning that it is RECommended for the following conditions due to its high content of carotenes and other nutrients: use of the flower prepared as a decoction to treat jaundice and use of the cooked leaf for treating asthenia, weakness and jaundice. TRAMIL has classified the following therapeutic application of this plant as INV meaning

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that more investigation is needed to confirm its traditional use: topical use of the fresh juice of the leaf to treat burns (Germosn-Robineau 1995). Typical dosage is 10 g ground seeds daily, on average; or 1 to 2 rounded teaspoons of the ground seeds in the mornings and evenings, taken with liquid. Like other nuts and grains, pumpkin seeds can go rancid because of their delicate oils; therefore, they should be used fresh and stored in such a way that they are protected from light and moisture to reduce oxidation (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Auyama (Cucurbita moschata) and Calabaza (Cucurbita pepo)

Activity/Effect Antiurolithiasis Preparation Pumpkin seed (60 mg/kg body wt per day) Prepared snack containing pumpkin seeds, milk powder, sesame seeds and sugar (= 1200 mg phosphorous/day) Curbicin (from pumpkin seeds) combined with seeds of dwarf palm plants: Sabal serrulata Combination preparation of pumpkin seed and sabal fruit (80 mg each); dosage determined by physician on an individual basis Design & Model Controlled clinical trial; 20 boys age 2-7 y Clinical study; 10 adolescents from a hyperendemic area of Thailand, aged 13-16 yrs; ingested snack for 2 days Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (53 patients, 3 mo) Open, multicenter clinical trial; 1,305 male patients aged 50-82 yrs with BPH stage I and II; 3 mo duration Results Lowered calcium-oxalate crystal occurrence; potential agent in lowering bladderstone risk Urinary pH was significantly lowered; increased urinary oxalate; decreased levels of magnesium & pyrophosphate (inhibitors of crystal formation) as compared to pre-treatment & control group Showed significant improvement of symptoms in assessment of urinary flow, micturition time, residual urine, frequency of micturition, & clinical exam; no negative side effects Significant symptomatic improvement: 68% patients reported reduction in daytime urination frequency, 82% reported reduction in nighttime urination, 86% had reduced dribbling and 86% reported alleviation of painful urination symptoms Reference Suphakarn et al. 1987 Suphiphat et al. 1993

Antiurolithiasis & urolithiatic

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) treatment

Carbin 1990

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) treatment (urinary symptoms)

Grups & SchiebelSchlosser 1995

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Auyama (Cucurbita moschata) and Calabaza (Cucurbita pepo)
Activity/Effect Antiallergenic Preparation Extract (var. moschata) Design & Model In vivo: mouse Results Active; inhibited IgE antibody expression Reference Imaoka et al. 1994

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Activity/Effect Antifungal

Preparation Chemical constituents of seeds (var. moschata) Antiproliferative Moschatin isolated from mature seeds (var. moschata) Hepatoprotective Pumpkin seed protein isolate

Design & Model In vitro

In vitro: melanoma cells In vivo: male rats with CC14induced acute liver injury & fed lowprotein diet

Results Active against Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum & Mycosphaerella oxysporum Active; efficiently inhibited growth of cancer cells Active; significant reduction in plasma enzyme levels; thus, shown to be effective in alleviating the detrimental effects of protein malnutrition

Reference Wang & Ng 2003

Xia et al. 2003 Nkosi et al. 2005

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory Preparation Aqueous leaf extract & fresh leaf juice; topically (var. moschata) Design & Model Results In vivo: rabbit with Not active; same results as first & second control group degree burns Reference Herrera 1992

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Caballo A. 1994. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Plantas medicinales del Escambray cubano. Apuntes cientficos. TRAMIL VII, Isla San Andrs, Colombia, enda-caribe. Carbin BE, Larsson B, Lindahl O. 1990. Treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia with phytosterols. British Journal of Urology 66(6):639-41. Chandrasekhara KL. 1983. Pumpkin-seed impaction. Ann Intern Med 98(5 pt 1):675. Chen Z et al. 1980. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Plantas medicinales del Escambray cubano. Apuntes cientficos. TRAMIL VII, Isla San Andrs, Colombia, enda-caribe. Chou HC, Ming H. 1960. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Pumpkin seed (Cucurbita moschata) in the treatment of acute schistosomiasis. Chin Med J 80:11520. Duke J, Astchley A. 1986. Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. Boca Raton: CRS Press. 389 pp. Eagles JM. 1990. Treatment of depression with pumpkin seeds. Br J Psychiatry 157:937938. Foster S, Tyler VE. 1999. Tylers Honest Herbal. A Sensible Guide to the Use of Herbs and Related Remedies. New York, NY: The Haworth Herbal Press. 442 pp.

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Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Gonzalez A et al. 1974. Pharmacological study of Cucurbita maxima seeds and their active principle cucurbitin. Anais Real Acad Farm. Gonzalez E, Montenegro MA, Nazareno MA, Lopez de Mishima BA. 2001. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricin 51(4):395-9. Grups JW, Schiebel-Schlosser G. 1995. Therapy of benign prostatic hyperplasia with phytosterols. Therapiewoche 8:495-498. Herrera J. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Determinacin de actividades biolgicas de vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional. TRAMIL V, Livingston, Guatemala, enda-caribe/ CONAPLAMED. Herrera J. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Determinacin de parmetros farmacolgicos usados en Medicina Trad. Popular en la Cuenca del Caribe. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Fitofarmacologa, Dep. de Farmacologa, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. TRAMIL VI, Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, U.A.G./enda-caribe. Hurtado M, Carballo A. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Las plantas medicinales TRAMIL en la farmacopea sovitica. TRAMIL V, Livingston, Guatemala, p. 7. Imaoka K, Ushijima H, Inouye S, Takahashi T, Kojima Y. 1994. Effects of Celosia argentea and Cucurbita moschata extracts on anti-DNP IgE antibody production in mice: Arerugi - Japanese Journal of Allergology 43(5):652-9. Nkosi CZ, Opoku AR, Terblanche SE. 2005. Effect of pumpkin seed (Cucurbita pepo) protein isolate on the activity levels of certain plasma enzymes in CCl4-induced liver injury in low-protein fed rats. Phytotherapy Research 19(4):341-5. Paris R, Moyse H. 1971, 1976, 1981. Prcis de Matiere Mdicale. Paris: Ed. Maloine. Penso G. 1980. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Inventory of medicinal plants used in different countries. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Reindl J, Anliker MD, Karamloo F, Vieths S, Wuthrich B. 2000. Allergy caused by ingestion of zucchini (Cucurbita pepo): characterization of allergens and cross-reactivity to pollen and other foods. Journal of Allergy & Clinical Immunology 106(2):379-385. Rybaltovskii OV. 1966. On the discovery of cucurbitina component of pumpkin seed with anthelmintic action. Med Parazitol (Mosk) 35:4878 [Russian]. Suphakarn VS, Yarnnon C, Ngunboonsri P. 1987. The effect of pumpkin seeds on oxalcrystalluria and urinary compositions of children in hyperendemic area. Am J Clin Nutr 45(1):115-121. Supiphat V et al. 1993. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). The effect of pumpkin seeds snack on inhibitors and promoters of urolithiasis in Thai adolescents. J Med Assoc Thai 76(9):487-493. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Vilenchik M. 1989. Fundamentos biolgicas del envejecimiento y la longevidad. Mosc: Ed. MIR, 392 p.

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Wang HX, Ng TB. 2003. Isolation of cucurmoschin, a novel antifungal peptide abundant in arginine, glutamate and glycine residues from black pumpkin seeds. Peptides 24(7):969-72. Xia HC, Li F, Li Z, Zhang ZC. 2003. Purification and characterization of Moschatin, a novel type I ribosomeinactivating protein from the mature seeds of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) and preparation of its immunotoxin against human melanoma cells. Cell Research 13(5): 369-74. Yue QY, Jansson K. 2001. Herbal drug Curbicin and anticoagulation effect with and without warfarin: possibly related to the vitamin E component. J Am Geriatr Soc 49(6):838.

Avena
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Oats, oat straw, common oat (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Avena sativa L. [Poaceae (Grass Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - High cholesterol - Lactation stimulant - Menopausal hot flashes - Osteoporosis prevention - Skin irritation Plant Part Used: Grain (oats), typically rolled oats (oatmeal). Traditional Preparation: Rolled oats are usually boiled in water and eaten or blended with water to prepare an emulsion. For external applications, rolled oats may be added to a bath or prepared as a wash. Traditional Uses: For treating high cholesterol, avena is boiled in water and eaten or taken as a refreshing drink (prepared as an emulsion, similar to horchata or porridge). To encourage lactation (para bajar la leche maternal), avena is boiled in milk, liquefied in a blender and taken internally as a drink or porridge. Added to a bath or used externally as a wash, avena is useful for treating skin irritation. Avena is considered a highly nutritious and nourishing food and is recommended for menopausal women to prevent osteoporosis and to alleviate symptoms associated with the change of life (el cambio de vida), including hot flashes. Availability: As a popular food, avena is sold as whole oats, oatmeal or cut oats at most grocery stores and supermarkets. Various commercial preparations and extracts are available at health food stores and pharmacies. The dried herb (oat straw) can be purchased from herb shops and health food stores carrying natural supplements.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Avena (Avena sativa) is a stout, annual grass that grows to 100+ cm. Leaves are grass-like and rough to the touch (45 cm long, 3-10+ mm wide). Flowers are unbranched, open spikelets, each with 2-3 flowers.

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Fruits are 7-12 mm long, narrowly oval and slightly hairy on the outer covering which surrounds the oat grain (Gleason & Cronquist 1991). Distribution: Native to Europe and Asia, this species is derived from a wild ancestor, Avena fatua L.; it is cultivated widely and often grows adventitiously in disturbed areas (Gleason & Cronquist 1991).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No health hazards are known when this plant is administered properly, although there is potential for allergic reaction in individuals who are allergic to gluten. When eating oat bran products, large amounts of water should also be taken to ensure that the fiber is well-dispersed in the bowel (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Although some studies indicate that oats can cause gastrointestinal irritation or other adverse effects in individuals with celiac disease (Lindin et al. 2003, Peraaho et al. 2004), recent clinical trials show that oats are generally well-tolerated and preferred by celiac children (Hogberg et al. 2004) and adults when incorporated into a gluten-free diet (Storsrud, Olsson et al. 2003) and for safe long-term consumption (Janatuinen et al. 2002). Drug Interactions: There have been 2 case reports of patients who were concomitantly taking lovastatin (80 mg) and oat bran (50-100 mg daily) and who experienced impaired absorption and effectiveness of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors due to consumption of oat bran; therefore, caution is advised in patients taking both oat bran and statin drugs (Richter et al. 1991).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical data have shown the following activity for this plant: antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, antihypercholesterolemic, antihypoglycemic, antihyperinsulinemic, antihypertensive, antipruritic, bile acid excretion stimulation, bile acid synthesis stimulation, burn healing, celiac disease tolerance, hypocholesterolemic, nutritional value, skin irritation inhibition and ulcerative colitis treatment (see Clinical Data table below). The soluble polysaccharide beta glucan is one of the primary active compounds. Other biologically active constituents of the seed include: avenanthramides, benzaldehyde, beta-ionone, biotin, campesterol, caryophyllene, delta-5- and delta-7-avenasterol, ferulic acid, furfural, lignin, limonene, myrcene, p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxy-benzoic acid, sinapic acid, vanillic acid and vanillin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Cooked whole grain oats are a significant source of dietary fiber, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, thiamin and tryptophan (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Oat straw is approved by the German Commission E for the following conditions: inflammatory skin conditions, particularly those that involve itching or over activity of the sebaceous glands (Blumenthal et al. 1998). The leaves, stalks and/or fruit can be taken as a tea (3 g boiled in 250 mL water, strained after cooling) taken 3-5 daily (Gruenwald et al. 2004). A bath (100 g oat straw consisting of leaves and stems for one full bath) can be used to relieve itching and inflammation from seborrheic skin disorders (Blumenthal 1998).

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Clinical Data: Avena sativa

Activity/Effect Antiatherosclerotic Preparation Oatmeal containing 3 g beta-glucan; concomitantly ingested with a high fat meal Oat bran enriched diet; other interventions: reduced fat & caloric intake Design & Model Randomized controlled clinical trial; healthy individuals (n=50); 25 postmenopausal women & 25 men; tested brachial artery reactivity Controlled randomized lifestyle intervention study; 235 male hypercholesterolemic & overweight patients; 4 wks health program Results Active; prevented endothelial dysfunction caused by acute fat ingestion; results show important implications for cardiovascular health In combination with a reduced fat diet, moderate oat bran intake reduced atherogenic lipid profiles & cholesterol levels; independent of other interventions (i.e. exercise, reduced fat or calorie diet) Insulin scores were 15% lower after taking 1% beta-glucan diet and 24% lower with the 10% beta-glucan diet; insulin responses decreased, glucose responses to food intake were reduced Active; showed improvement in glycemic, insulinemic & lipidemic responses; oat bran bread products were well-accepted by subjects Active; increase (11.2%) in plasma HDL-C levels & decrease (7.0%) in cholesterol/HDL-C ratio; showed beneficial effect on metabolism; may reduce risk of cardiovascular disease Reference Katz et al. 2001

Antiatherosclerotic & antihypercholesterolemic

Berg et al. 2003

Antidiabetic

Oat extracts containing 1% or 10% soluble beta-glucans

Crossover clinical trial: n=16 women & 7 men aged 38-61 yrs; oat diet vs. standard diet for 5 wks

Hallfrisch et al. 1995

Antidiabetic

Oat bran (22.8% soluble fiber [betaglucan] content) added to bread and ingested

Antihypercholesterolemic Oat branenriched muffins (28 g/day of oat bran)

Randomized controlled clinical trial; n=8 men with non-insulin-dependent diabetes; 24-wk crossover study with two 12-wk periods Randomized controlled clinical trial; 34 premenopausal women (aged 22-53 yrs); treatment group: n=18; control group: n=16; duration: 2 wks

Pick et al. 1996

Robitaille et al. 2005

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Activity/Effect Preparation Antihypercholesterolemic Oat fiber extract (with high betaglucan content: 1% or 10% soluble betaglucans by weight) Antihypercholesterolemic Isolated purified fiber (oat gum, 80% betaglucan) combined with maltodextrin to make a drink Whole-grain oat cereals

Antihypertensive

Design & Model Clinical trial; 23 volunteer subjects with baseline cholesterol levels between the 50th & 75th percentile for age & gender; duration: 7 days Randomized crossover clinical trial; hypercholesterolemic male & female subjects (n=19); consumed oat gum drink (2.9 g betaglucan) or placebo 2 daily for 4 wks Randomized, controlled parallelgroup clinical trial; duration: 12 wks; n=88 men & women with high blood pressure

Results Active; total & LDL cholesterol levels were significantly lowered; HDL, HDL2 & VLDL cholesterol & triglyceride levels did not change significantly Showed significant reduction in total and LDL cholesterol levels & no change in HDL cholesterol

Reference Behall et a. 1997

Braaten et al. 1994

Antihypoglycemic & antihyperinsulinemic

Bile acid excretion stimulation

Oat extract (with 1% or 10% soluble beta-glucans) added to normal diet Oat bran bread, with & without beta-glucanase supplementation

Clinical, n=7 men & 16 women (aged 3861 yrs) with moderate hypercholesterolemia; 5-wk crossover design Randomized controlled clinical trial; ileostomy subjects; n=9; duration: 2 days

Active; blood pressure substantially lowered & need for antihypertensive medication reduced; also, reduction in total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein & plasma glucose levels; dietary intake of whole oats may significantly reduce risk of cardiovascular disease Improved glucose tolerance & insulin responses to food intake Substantial increase in bile acid excretion (53% higher); oat bran shown to excrete cholesterol via bile acid excretion explaining lowered serum lipid levels

Pins et al. 2002

Hallfrisch et al. 1995

Lia et al. 1995

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Activity/Effect Bile acid synthesis stimulation

Preparation Beta-glucan from oat bran

Design & Model Randomized, singleblind, controlled crossover clinical study; 8 subjects; given oat diet for 2 periods of 3 days with 11 days washout time

Burn healing & antipruritic

Shower & bath oil containing liquid paraffin with 5% colloidal oatmeal vs. liquid paraffin oil without oats Oats; dietary intake; 93 g/day

Celiac disease tolerance

Clinical trial, assessorblind; 35 acute burns patients; rated discomfort from pain & itch twice daily; monitoring of requests for antihistamines; study conducted over a 10-mo time period Clinical nutrition study; 15 celiac adult patients

Results Active; bile acid synthesis was dramatically increased as evidenced by a twofold increase in blood levels of alphaHC (7-alpha-hydroxy4-cholesten-3-one) concentration 8 hours after ingestion Active; results showed significant reduction in itch & fewer requests for antihistamines for patients using colloidal oatmeal bath oil vs. those using the oatsfree oil No evidence of adverse effects in clinical examination or nutritional status; dietary oats determined to be safe for celiac patients for prolonged periods of time Ingestion of moderate amounts of oats was shown to be safely tolerated for celiac children; no negative effects on clinical healing of celiac disease were observed Oats added to glutenfree diet were shown to be safe in long-term consumption for celiac patients and are preferred by patients; no adverse gastrointestinal effects or antibodies detected

Reference Andersson et al. 2002

Matheson et al. 2001

Storsrud, Olsson et al. 2003

Celiac disease tolerance

Oats; wheatfree oat products

Celiac disease tolerance

Oats as part of diet

Randomized double blind clinical trial; 116 children with celiac disease; 2 groups: standard gluten-free diet only & standard gluten-free diet plus oats; duration: 1 y Randomized controlled clinical trial; adult celiac patients; groups: treatment n=23, control: n=28; duration: 5 y

Hogberg et al. 2004

Janatuinen et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Celiac disease tolerance

Preparation Oats added to diet (50 g daily)

Design & Model Case report; 19 celiac patients; given oat diet for 12 wks; blood tests & gastroduodenoscopy Randomized clinical trial; 39 celiac patients; duration: 1 y

Celiac disease tolerance

Oats-containing gluten-free products (50 g daily)

Hypocholesterolemic

Oat bran (40 g daily for 14 days); control group fed a low-fiber diet

Clinical study; 6 men with initially normal blood lipid levels

Hypocholesterolemic

Oat bran incorporated into diet

Clinical study; 9 normolipidemic men; duration: 2 mo of constant diet with oats added in 2nd mo Nutritional clinical study; 15 adult celiac patients for 2 yrs (+ 3 patients for 6 mo) Randomized controlled clinical trial; sodium lauryl sulfate (1% solution) skin irritancy model; 12 healthy individuals

Nutritional value

Oats added to diet in large amounts (93 g/day) Oatmeal extracts in petrolatum ointment applied topically

Skin irritation inhibition

Results Safely tolerated by most patients with no negative effects, although in one patient it caused partial villous atrophy and rash No difference in quality of life between groups; oats patients suffered significantly more diarrhea & more severe average constipation symptom score; oatsdiet caused more intestinal symptoms than standard glutenfree diet although mucosal integrity was not affected Increased plasma levels of free cholesterol, LDL cholesterol & HDL free cholesterol & decreased concentrations of plasma esterified cholesterol & HDL esterified cholesterol Active; serum cholesterol levels reduced; decreased cholesterol synthesis; significant increase in fecal excretion of total bile acids & fat Increased intake of iron, thiamin, zinc & dietary fiber; temporary increased flatulence; no negative nutritional effects reported. Showed significant counteraction on skin irritation as measured by chromametry & laser-Doppler

Reference Lindin et al. 2003

Peraaho et al. 2004

Dubois et al. 1995

Marlett et al. 1994

Storsrud et al. 2003

Vie et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Ulcerative colitis treatment

Preparation Oat bran dietary intake; 60 g daily, primarily as bread

Design & Model Controlled clinical trial; 22 ulcerative colitis patients; 3 mo

Results Increased fecal butyrate concentration by 36%; improved abdominal pain & reflux disorders; no negative effects on gastrointestinal symptoms

Reference Hallert et al. 2003

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Smoking cessation Preparation Alcoholic plant extract Design & Model Double blind placebo controlled clinical trial; smokers (n=100; average: 20 cigarettes daily) Results No significant effect compared with placebo (35% placebo effect); showed higher rate of disaccustoming for light smokers than for heavy smokers Reference Schmidt & Geckeler 1976

REFERENCES
Andersson M, Ellegard L, Andersson H. 2002. Oat bran stimulates bile acid synthesis within eight hours as measured by 7 alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76(5):1111-6. Behall KM, Scholfield DJ, Hallfrisch J. 1997. Effect of beta-glucan level in oat fiber extracts on blood lipids in men and women. Journal of American College of Nutrition 16(1):46-51. Berg A, Konig D, Deibert P, Grathwohl D, Berg A, Baumstark MW, Franz IW. 2003. Effects of an oat bran enriched diet on the atherogenic lipid profile in patients with an increased coronary heart disease risk. A controlled randomized lifestyle intervention study. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 47(6):306-11. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Braaten JT, Wood PJ, Scott FW, Wolynetz MS, Lowe MK, Bradley-White P, Collins MW. 1994. Oat beta-glucan reduces blood cholesterol concentration in hypercholesterolemic subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48(7):465-74. Dubois C, Armand M, Senft M, Portugal H, Pauli AM, Bernard PM, Lafont H, Lairon D. 1995. Chronic oat bran intake alters postprandial lipemia and lipoproteins in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 61:325-33. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Gleason H and Cronquist A. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden Press, 910 pp. Hallert C, Bjorck I, Nyman M, Pousette A, Granno C, Svensson H. 2003. Increasing fecal butyrate in ulcerative colitis patients by diet: controlled pilot study. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 9(2):116-21.

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Hallfrisch J, Scholfield DJ, Behall KM. 1995. Diets containing soluble oat extract improve glucose and insulin responses of moderately hypercholesterolemic men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 61(2):379-84. Hogberg L. Laurin P, Falth-Magnusson K, Grant C, Grodzinsky E, Jansson G, Ascher H, Browaldh L, Hammersjo JA, Lindberg E, Myrdal U. 2004. Oats to children with newly diagnosed coeliac disease: a randomized double blind study. Gut 53(5):649-54. Janatuinen EK, Kemppainen TA, Julkunen RJ, Kosma VM, Maki M, Heikinen M, Uusitupa MI. 2002. No harm from five year ingestion of oats in coeliac disease. Comment in: Gut 51(5):757. Katz DL, Nawaz H, Boukhalil J, Giannamore V, Chan W, Ahmadi R, Sarrel PM. 201. Acute effects of oats and vitamin E on endothelial responses to ingested fat. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 20(2):124-9. Lia A, Hallmans G, Sandberg AS, Sundberg B, Aman P, Andersson H. 1995. Oat beta-glucan increases bile acid excretion and a fiber-rich barley fraction increases cholesterol excretion in ileostomy subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62(6):1245-51. Lundin KE, Nilsen EM, Scott HG, Loberg EM, Gjoen A, Bratlie J, Skar V, Mendez E, Lovik A, Kett K. 2004. Oats induced villous atrophy in coeliac disease. Gut 52(11):1649-52. Marlett JA, Hosig KB, Vollendorf NW, Shinnick FL, Haack VS, Story JA. 1994. Mechanism of serum cholesterol reduction by oat bran. Hepatology 20(6):1450-70. Matheson JD, Clayton J, Muller MJ. 2001. The reduction of itch during burn wound healing. Journal of Burn Care & Rehabilitation 22(1):76-81. Peraaho M, Kaukinen K, Mustalahti K, Vuolteenaho N, Maki M, Laippala P, Collin P. 2004. Effect of an oatscontaining gluten-free diet on symptoms and quality of life in coeliac disease. A randomized study. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 39(1):27-31. Pick ME, Hawrysh ZJ, Gee MI, Toth E, Garg ML, Hardin RT. 1996. Oat bran concentrate bread products improve long-term control of diabetes: a pilot study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96(12):1254-61. Pins JJ, Geleva D, Keenan JM, Frazel C, OConnor PJ, Cherney LM. 2002. Do whole-grain oat cereals reduce the need for antihypertensive medications and improve blood pressure control? Journal of Family Practice 51(4):353-9. Richter WO, Jacob BG, Schwandt P. 1991. Interaction between fiber and lovastatin. Lancet 338(8768):706. Robitaille J, Fontaine-Bisson B, Couture P, Tchernof A, Vohl MC. 2005. Effect of an oat bran-rich supplement on the metabolic profile of overweight premenopausal women. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 49(3):141-8. Schmidt K, Geckeler K. 1976. Pharmacotherapy with Avena sativa a double blind study. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology & Biopharmacy 14(3):214-6. Storsrud S, Hulthen LR, Lenner RA. 2003. Beneficial effects of oats in the gluten-free diet of adults with special reference to nutrient status, symptoms and subjective experiences. British Journal of Nutrition 90(1):101-7. Storsrud S, Olsson M, Arvidsson Lenner R, Nilsson LA, Nilsson O, Kilander A. 2003. Adult coeliac patients do tolerate large amounts of oats. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57(1):163-9. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata.

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Vie K, Cours-Darne S, Vienne MP, Boyer F, Fabre B, Dupuy P. 2002. Modulating effects of oatmeal extracts in the sodium lauryl sulfate skin irritancy model. Skin Pharmacology & Applied Skin Physiology 15(2):120-4. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Batata
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Sweet potato (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Synonym: Ipomea batatas L. [Convulvulaceae (Morning Glory Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Burns - Edema - Womens health conditions Plant Part Used: Roots (tubers), leaves and stems. Traditional Preparation: This tuber is used primarily for its high nutrient content as a starchy, cooked food. The tuber or aerial parts may also be applied externally as a raw poultice. Traditional Uses: To treat burns or swelling, the root is crushed or a preparation of the leaves and stems is macerated in water and applied locally. This medicinal plant is also used for womens health conditions and as a nutritious food source.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Batata (Ipomoea batatas) is a perennial vine that has trailing, rooting stems which spread by means of runners and can grow to variable lengths. Roots are tuberous and edible. Leaves vary from rounded and roughly oval to deeply lobed and hand-shaped, with purplish veins, of medium size (15 cm long). Flowers are rose-violet or pale pink (5 cm long). Fruits are round seed pods with 1-4 seeds per pod. There are two different varieties: one with dry, yellowish flesh and the other with moist, sweet, orange flesh (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is most likely native to tropical America and cultivated extensively in tropical regions as a food crop (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

This tuber is widely consumed and generally considered safe. However, when batata tubers are mishandled or stored improperly, resulting in bruising and exposure to moisture, they become vulnerable to fungal contamination which may cause adverse effects. It is important to store batata tubers properly to

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avoid bruising and exposure to moisture so that they do not become contaminated by fungi that produce toxins in the plant matter (Coxon et al. 1975). Insufficient information has been identified in the literature on the safety of the leaves and stems. Animal Toxicity Studies: Ipomoea batatas infected by the fungus Fusarium solani has caused lung damage to albino rats after intraperitoneal administration of the crude extract of furanoterpenoids isolated from the fungus-infected plants in the amount of 1 mg/kg for 21 days (Parasakthy et al. 1993). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical trials to evaluate the following biological activities of this plant have been conducted: antidiabetic, immunomodulatory and vitamin A concentration increase (see Clinical Data table below). Preparations of the tuber of Ipomoea batatas and/or its constituents have shown the following effects in laboratory and preclinical studies: aldose reductase inhibition, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, chemopreventive hypoglycemic and immunostimulant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Biologically active compounds in the tuber include anthocyanins, beta-carotene, vitamin C, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, quercetin and rutin (Guan et al. 2006). Chemical constituents present in the leaves include: ascorbic acid, beta-carotene, calcium, iron, magnesium, methionine, oxalate, phosphorus and potassium (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The cooked tuber is rich in vitamin A and a significant source of copper, iron, manganese, pantothenic acid, phosphorus, riboflavin and vitamins B6 and C (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: This plant has been provisionally categorized by TRAMIL as REC meaning RECommended specifically for treating burns by using the fruit and root or a maceration of the leaves and stems and applying this preparation topically to the affected area (Germosn-Robineau 1995).

Clinical Data: Ipomoea batatas

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic Preparation White sweet potato extract (Caiapo); 4 g extract daily & dietary treatment White sweet potato extract (Caiapo); 2 & 4 g daily Design & Model Randomized controlled clinical trial; patients with type 2 diabetes (n=61); duration: 12 wks Randomized controlled clinical trial; n=18 male type 2 diabetes patients; duration: 6 wks Results Active; showed blood sugar & cholesterol lowering effects; no adverse effects observed Active; high dose (4 g daily) decreased insulin resistance; no influence on body weight, glucose effectiveness or insulin dynamics observed Reference Ludvik et al. 2004

Antidiabetic

Ludvik et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Immunomodulatory

Vitamin A concentration increase

Preparation Purple sweet potato leaves (daily consumption of 200 g vs. control diet of low polyphenols but same amount of carotenoids) Boiled and crushed tuber; 125 g daily (1031 retinol activity equivalents/day as beta-carotene)

Design & Model Randomized controlled clinical trial; crossover study (2 periods of 2 wks duration); 16 healthy adults Randomized controlled clinical trial; n=180; children 5-10 yrs; 53 school days; control = whitefleshed sweet potato (without beta-carotene) Clinical study; n=14 men/group

Results Reference Chen et al. 2005 Increased peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferative responsiveness, secretion of immunoreactive cytokines IL2 & IL-4 & natural killer (NK) cell lytic activity Active; increase in proportions of children with normal vitamin A status; potential use in controlling vitamin A deficiency in children suggested van Jaarsveld et al. 2005

Vitamin A concentration increase

Cooked, pureed sweet potatoes (750 g retinol equivalents) daily vs. Indian spinach or synthetic vit A

Active; showed positive effect on vitamin A status in groups at risk of deficiency

Haskell et al. 2005

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Ipomoea batatas

Activity/Effect Aldose reductase inhibition Antidiabetic Preparation Hot water extract (tuber) White skinned variety; oral administration Alcohol (95%) and water extract of tuber (purple variety) Ethanol extract (entire plant, tuber, & leaf, separately) Design & Model In vitro In vivo: rats w/induced diabetes; duration: 8 wks In vitro Results Active; showed potent inhibition of lens aldose reductase Activity; reduced hyperinsulinemia; improved glucose & lipid metabolism Effective against numerous gram positive & negative agents Demonstrated activity against Mycobacterium leprae, M. phlei, M. smegmatis, M. fortuitum, Neisseria. ovis, N. caviae, N. catharralis, Moraxella osloensis, Bacillus subtilis, B. megaterium, B. brevis & Candida albicans Reference Terashima et al. 1991 Kusano & Abe 2000 Bruckner et al. 1949 Le Grand 1985

Antimicrobial

Antimicrobial

In vitro

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant

Antioxidant

Antioxidant

Preparation Isolated compound: recombinant thioredoxin h Anthocyanins from mottled purple flesh variety Anthocyanins; tuber extract; purple variety

Design & Model In vitro

Results Active; results suggest antioxidant activity against hydroxyl & peroxyl radicals Active; additive effect observed with hydroxycinnamic acids Active; protected low density lipoprotein from oxidation

Reference Huang et al. 2004

In vitro In vitro & in vivo: rats (given anthocyanins); human volunteers (given tuber beverage) In vivo: rats with experimentallyinduced colorectal adenomas & carcinomas In vivo: rats In vitro: human leukocyte cells In vivo: mice

Philpott et al. 2004 Kano et al. 2005

Chemopreventive

Anthocyanins of purple sweet potato; 5% of diet Diacylated anthocyanin

Hypoglycemic

Immunostimulant Tuber extract; white skinned variety Immunostimulant Isolated & purified sweet potato polysaccharide from roots (50, 150 & 250 mg/kg body weight for 7 days)

Active; inhibited lesion development & significantly reduced incidence of experimentally-induced aberrant crypt foci Active; reduced serum insulin secretion & showed strong maltase inhibition Active; showed dosedependent increase in phagocytic activity & phagosome-lysosome fusion Active; dose-dependent effects on hemolytic & phagocytic activity & serum IgG concentration; significant increase in lymphocyte proliferation & natural killer cell activity

Hagiwara et al. 2002

Matsui et al. 2002 Miyazaki et al. 2005 Zhao et al. 2005

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Bruckner B, et al. 1949. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). The partial purification and properties of antibiotic substances from the sweet potato plant (Ipomea batatas). J Clin Invest 28:894-898. Chen CM, Li SC, Lin YL, Hsu CY, Shieh MJ, Liu JF. 2005. Consumption of purple sweet potato leaves modulates human immune response: T-lymphocyte functions, lytic activity of natural killer cell and antibody production. World J Gastroenterol 11(37):5777-81. Coxon DT, Curtis RF, Howard B. 1975. Ipomeamarone, a toxic furanoterpenoid in sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas) in the United Kingdom. Food & Cosmetics Toxicology. 13(1):87-90. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007).

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Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Guan Y, Wu T, Lin M, Ye J. 2006. Determination of pharmacologically active ingredients in sweet potato (Ipomea batatas L.) by capillary electrophoresis with electrochemical detection. J Agric Food Chem 54(1):24-8. Hagiwara A, Yoshino H, Ichihara T, Kawabe M, Tamano S, Aoki H, Koda T, Nakamura M, Imaida K, Ito N, Shira T. 2002. Prevention by natural food anthocyanins, purple sweet potato color and red cabbage color, of 2amino-1-methol-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)-associated colorectal carcinogenesis in rats initiated with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. J Toxicol Sci 27(1):57-68. Haskell MJ, Jamil KM, Hassan F, Peerson JM, Hossain MI, Fuchs GJ, Brown KH. 2005. Daily consumption of Indian spinach (Basella alba) or sweet potatoes has a positive effect on total-body vitamin A stores in Bangladeshi men. Comment in: Am J Clin Nutr 81(4):943-945. Huang DJ, Chen HJ, Hou WC, Lin CD, Lin YH. 2004. Active recombinant thioredoxin h protein with antioxidant activities from sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam Tainog 57) storage roots. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 52(15):4720-4724. Kano M, Takayanagi T, Harada K, Makino K, Ishikawa F. 2005. Antioxidative activity of anthocyanins from purple sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas cultivar Ayamurasaki. Bioscience, Biotechnology & Biochemistry 69(5):979-988. Kusano S, Abe H. 2000. Antidiabetic activity of white skinned sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) in obese Zucker fatty rats. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 23(1):23-26. Le Grand A. 1985. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Les phytotherapies anti-infectieuses (parties 3: Une Evaluation). Amsterdam. Ludvik B, Neuffer B, Pacini G. 2004. Efficacy of Ipomoea batatas (Caiapo) on diabetes control in type 2 diabetic subjects treated with diet. Diabetes Care 27(2):436-440. Ludvik B, Waldhausl W, Prager R, Kautzky-Willer A, Pacini G. 2003. Mode of action of Ipomoea batatas (Caiapo) in type 2 diabetic patients. Metabolism: Clinical & Experimental 52(7):875-880. Matsui T, Ebuchi S, Kobayashi M, Fukui K, Sugita K, Terahara N, Matsumoto K. 2002. Anti-hyperglycemic effect of diacylated anthocyanin derived from Ipomoea batatas cultivar Ayamurasaki can be achieved through the alpha-glucosidase inhibitory action. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 50(25):7244-7248. Miyazaki Y, Kusano S, Doi H, Aki O. 2005. Effects on immune response of antidiabetic ingredients from whiteskinned sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.). Nutrition 21(3):358-362. Parasakthy K, Shanthi S, Devaraj SN. 1993. Lung injury by furanoterpenoids isolated from Fusarium solani infected sweet potato, Ipomea batatas. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 31(4):397-398. Terashima S, Shimizu M, Horie S, Morita N. 1991. Studies on aldose reductase inhibitors from natural products. IV. Constituents and aldose reductase inhibitory effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium, Bixa orellana and Ipomoea batatas. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 39(12):3346-3347. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. van Jaarsveld PJ, Faber M, Tanumihardjo SA, Nestel P, Lombard CJ, Benade AJ. 2005. Beta-carotene-rich orangefleshed sweet potato improves the vitamin A status of primary school children assessed with the modifiedrelative-dose-response test. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81(5):1080-1087.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zhao G, Kan J, Li Z, Chen Z. 2005. Characterization and immunostimulatory activity of an (1-->6)-a-D-glucan from the root of Ipomoea batatas. Int Immunopharmacol 5(9):1436-45.

Batata de Burro
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Batata zandumbia, batata zambomba (Spanish); Caribbean coralfruit (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Doyerea emetocathartica Grosourdy. Synonyms: Corallocarpus emetocatharticus Cogniaux; Anguriopsis margaritensis J. R. Johnson. [Cucurbitaceae (Cucumber Family)]. Note: In the Dominican Republic, an unrelated plant species, Pachyrrhizus erosus (L.) Urb., is referred to by the same common name, batata de burro, and the common names batata zambomba and batata zandumbia are also used for two other plant species (Ipomoea desrousseauxii Steud. and Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq.); however, these plant species do not appear to be known for their medicinal properties (Liogier 2000).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Diabetes - Gastrointestinal disorders - Menstrual disorders - Ovarian cysts - Sexually transmitted infections - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaves and roots. Traditional Preparation: The root and/or leaves are used as a tea by infusion or decoction. Traditional Uses: This plant, particularly the root, is used for treating sexually transmitted infections (in men and women), gastrointestinal disorders and womens health conditions including vaginal infections, ovarian cysts, uterine fibroids and dysmenorrhea. The leaves are also prepared as a tea for diabetes. Availability: Dried leaves and roots can be purchased from select botnicas. As this plant can be difficult to find in New York City, healers and individuals sometimes ask friends or relatives in the Dominican Republic to collect plants for them and send them as a prepared remedy or botella.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Batata de burro (Doyerea emetocathartica) is an herbaceous, perennial vine with curling tendrils, reaching a length of 10 m. The stem contains a copious amount of watery sap. Leaves are shiny, bright-

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green, 3-lobed and roughly oval or arrow-shaped. Flowers are bell-shaped and white to yellowish-green in color. Fruits are shiny and light-green with dark green spots, turning orange when ripe, lightly covered with small prickly hairs and contain several small brown seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant grows in Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean, often in coastal woodland areas. This plant has been listed as a threatened species due to habitat loss and destruction (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No information on the safety, efficacy, contraindications, herb-drug interactions, chemical constituents or indications and usage of this plant has been identified in the literature through Medline and internet searches of the common and botanical names for species, genus and synonyms of this plant. In ethnobotanical literature, documented traditional uses of this plant include its application in the Caribbean as an emetic and in the Yucatn peninsula by Mayan communities for various illnesses such as arthritis, ulcers and as an analgesic.

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Liogier HA. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de La Espaola. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: Jardn Botnico Nacional, 598 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Bejuco Indio
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cacheco, cacheo, jaboncillo, bejuco de indio, bejuco de mavi, bohuco de indio, bojuco de indio, mabi, mavi (Spanish); whiteroot, chewstick, Jamaican chawstick (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Gouania lupuloides (L.) Urb. Synonyms: Gouania polygama Urb., Gouania domingensis L. [Rhamnaceae (Buckthorn Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anxiety - Infections - Kidney disorders

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Limpiar la sangre Menopausal hot flashes Menstrual disorders Reproductive disorders Sexually transmitted infections Uterine fibroids

Plant Part Used: Stem, leaf, root and water from inside the stem. Traditional Preparation: The stem is the part most often used, and it is prepared as a complex herbal mixture with several other medicinal plants, either boiled in water as a decoction or extracted in alcohol as a tincture. Traditional Uses: Bejuco indio is associated with cooling properties and is popularly used to make a refreshing fermented beverage (called mavi, mabi, cacheco or cacheo) which is attributed medicinal qualities. (A similar use for this plant is reported in Cuba in the preparation of the beverage pru; Volpato & Godnez 2004.) A piece of the stem (palo) of this woody vine is used in multi-herb preparations (botellas or tizanas) for treating infections, kidney disorders, reproductive disorders, sexually transmitted infections and cleansing the blood. It is also used for treating womens health conditions, prepared as a tea (infusion/decoction), bebedizo or botella. Gynecological conditions for which this plant is used include menstrual disorders, uterine fibroids and conditions associated with menopause (including hot flashes and anxiety or mood swings). Herbal medicine specialists are typically consulted for making complex preparations like the botellas for which this plant is used. Availability: Dried pieces of the woody vine stem can be purchased from select botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Bejuco indio (Gouania lupuloides) is a woody vine that has many branches and grows to 5-12 m long. Twigs are smooth and round in shape. Leaves are bright green, papery in texture and smooth to lightly hairy on the surface (4.5-7.5 cm long). The general outline of the leaf is egg-shaped to narrowly oval and slightly toothed on the edges. Flowers have yellowish petals. Fruits (5-7 mm long) are dry, 3-winged and split into 3 triangular segments that contain small seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This liana commonly grows in disturbed areas with a range that extends from northern South America to southern Mexico and Florida, including the Caribbean (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Some saponins from this plant have demonstrated spermicidal activity in rats and humans (Hiller 1987). Animal Toxicity Studies: The LD50 of the aqueous extract of the leaf and branches administered intraperitoneally in mice is 1 mL/animal (Feng et al. 1962). However, intraperitoneal administration does not reflect traditional use, and it is difficult to extrapolate the results from animal studies to potential toxicity in humans. Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown antimicrobial, muscle-relaxant and vasodilatory activities (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Triterpenoid saponins from this plant become foaming detergents when in contact with water and have demonstrated the following pharmacological actions: antibacterial, antifungal, molluscicidal, anti-inflammatory, stimulation of interferon synthesis and liberation and central nervous system (CNS) sedative (Hiller 1987). Additionally, these compounds have exhibited therapeutic activity in the treatment of kidney stones by increasing their solubility (Pashanbhedi 1970). Phytochemical research on the composition of this plant has yielded two novel triterpenoid saponins (16,17-seco-dammaranoid) designated gouanoside A and gouanoside B, with corresponding aglycones, gouanogenin A and gouanogenin B (Kennelly et al. 1993). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified this plant as needing more investigation before a clinical recommendation can be made, particularly for its use as a decoction in the treatment of gonorrhea (Germosn-Robineau 1995).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Gouania lupuloides

Activity/Effect Antimicrobial Preparation Isolated saponins Design & Model In vitro: human gum, tooth & mouth pathogens Results Exhibited antimicrobial activity against 10 pathogen specimens, including: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes & Candida albicans Demonstrated relaxant effects on smooth muscle tissue at 3.3 mL/L Demonstrated vasodilatory effects at 3.3 mL/L Reference Elvin Lewis & Kennelly 1992

Muscle relaxant

Vasodilator

Ethanol extract 95% of leaf & branches, given intraperitoneally Ethanol extract 95% of leaf and branches

In vivo & in vitro: guinea pig & isolated ileum muscle tissue In vitro: ventricle isolated from rats

Feng et al. 1962

Feng et al. 1962

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City Economic Botany 54: 344-357. Elvin Lewis M, Kennelly E. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). The ethnodental and ethnomedical value of dammarane triterpenoid saponin antibiotics. Journal of Dental Research 71(spec. issue):579-. Feng PC, Haynes LJ, Magnus KE, Plimmer JR, Sherratt HS. 1962. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Pharmacological screening of some West Indian medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 14:556-561. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp.

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Hiller K. 1987. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). New results and biological activity of triterpenoid saponins. In Biologically Active Natural Products. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, pp. 167-184. Kennelly EJ, Lewis WH, Winter RE, Johnson S, Elvin-Lewis M, Gossling J. 1993. Triterpenoid saponins from Gouania lupuloides. Journal of Natural Products 56(3):402-410. Pashanbhedi 1970. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Drugs for urinary calculus. In Advances in research in Indian medicine. Banaras Hindu University, pp. 77-78. Volpato G, Godnez D. 2004. Ethnobotany of Pru, a traditional Cuban refreshment. Economic Botany 58(3):381395. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Berenjena
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Agua de berenjena (Spanish); eggplant (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Solanum melongena L. [Solanaceae (Nightshade Family)]. Note: In the Dominican Republic, the common name berenjena may also be used to refer to other plant species of the genus Solanum with different medicinal properties and uses. When consulting the information in this plant monograph, be sure that the berenjena used by the patient is the common edible eggplant rather than a different species from the Caribbean. Other species typically have much smaller fruits and typically have spines along the stems.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Diabetes - High blood pressure - High cholesterol - Obesity - To lose weight Plant Part Used: Fruit (eggplant). Traditional Preparation: The raw fruit is cut into pieces and soaked in water to extract its medicinal properties, and this water is taken internally as a drink. When prepared as a remedy this way, the raw flesh of the eggplant itself is not eaten, although eggplant is commonly consumed as a cooked vegetable. Traditional Uses: The raw fruit extracted in watercalled eggplant water (agua de berenjena)is said to speed up the bodys metabolism so that it can burn fat more efficiently. Sometimes chayote (tayote) fruit is added to this remedy. Availability: As a commonly consumed food, berenjena can be found at most grocery stores and supermarkets which sell fresh vegetables and produce.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Berenjena (Solanum melongena) is a tender perennial herb which is often cultivated as an annual and grows to 1 m tall with spiny, hairy stems. Leaves are alternate. Flowers usually grow singly with violetpurple petals that have 5-pointed lobes that together form the shape of a star. Fruits are oblong, elongate and/or round and have blackish-purple, shiny skin (to 15 cm long) enclosing beige to off-white, dry, spongy flesh and numerous kidney-shaped seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Africa and Asia, this plant is cultivated widely with numerous varieties that differ in fruit size, shape and color (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

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SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a widely consumed vegetable, eggplant is generally considered safe. Due to the oxalic acid content of the fruit (291 ppm, Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998), persons with kidney or gallbladder problems may want to avoid or minimize ingestion of this fruit to prevent the formation of calcium-oxalate crystals. Contraindications: None identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions: None identified in the available literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical trials, ingestion of Solanum melongena fruit showed potential as an anti-glaucoma treatment due to its intraocular pressure-lowering and increased visual perception effects; the fruit infusion showed slight, temporary hypocholesterolemic effects; the fruit as a supplement to a cholesterol-lowering diet showed a significant decrease in plasma lipid and cholesterol levels, comparable to that of first generation statin drugs; and the dried, powdered fruit capsules did not show significant hypocholesterolemic effects compared to placebo (see Clinical Data table below). The fruit and its constituents have demonstrated angiogenesis inhibition, antioxidant and hypocholesterolemic activities in animal studies, and the leaves have shown spasmogenic activity in vitro (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Biologically active constituents of the fruit include: 5-hydroxytryptamine, amino acids, ascorbic acid, aspartic acid, aubergenone, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, choline, delphinidin, GABA, glutamic acid, histidine, linoleic acid, methionine, monounsaturated fatty acids, nasunin, neo-chlorogenic acid, oleic acid, oxalic acid, palmitic acid, phytosterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids, solamargine, solanidine, solanine, solasodine, solasonine and tannintrigonelline (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). In particular, the anthocyanin nasunin has shown potent antioxidant activity: delphinidin-3-(pcoumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside (Noda et al. 2000). The fruit is a significant source of copper, dietary fiber, folate, magnesium, niacin, potassium, manganese, thiamin and vitamin B6 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). It also contains phytonutrients, including antioxidant flavonoids which are concentrated in the peel. Indications and Usage: The only available dosage information is that based on nutritional or traditional use.

Clinical Data: Solanum melongena

Activity/Effect Preparation Antihypercholesterolemic Fruit infusion ingested for 5 wks (compared with dietary orientation) Design & Model Randomized controlled clinical trial; 38 human volunteers with hypercholesterolemia Results Significantly lowered LDL cholesterol & apolipoprotein blood levels based on intraindividual analysis; however, compared with the control group, no significant differences were observed Reference Guimaraes et al. 2000

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Activity/Effect Antihyperlipidemic & antihypercholesterolemic

Preparation Eggplant as part of dietary portfolio high in plant sterols, dietary fiber & soy plus okra & eggplant (10 g/1000 kcal)

Design & Model Randomized controlled clinical trial: hyperlipidemic patients (n=34); each participant rotated between control lowsaturated-fat diet, lovastatin treatment plus diet (20 mg) & portfolio diet; one mo duration for each protocol Human trial with visually active male volunteers

Vision improvement & interocular pressurelowering

Consumption of food; 10 g

Results Eggplant-supplemented diet was comparable to first-generation statin drugs in decreasing lipid levels & primary prevention; after 4 wks of the control, statin & portfolio diets, lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol levels were lowered by 8.5 1.9%, 33.3 1.9% & 29.6 1.3%, respectively Lowered interocular pressure (25%) & positively affected other visual activities; potential therapy for glaucoma & convergence insufficiency

Reference Jenkins et al. 2005

Igwe et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Solanum melongena

Activity/Effect Angiogenesis inhibitor Preparation Nasunin Design & Model In vitro & ex vivo: rat aortic ring & human umbilical vein endothelial cells In vivo: male rabbits (n=13) with experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia Results Active; showed inhibition of angiogenesis at concentrations > 10 mcmol; suppressed microvessel outgrowth Active; showed significant weight loss & decreased plasma cholesterol, lowdensity lipoprotein, triglyceride, aortic cholesterol levels & malondialdehyde content of arterial wall; reduced lipid peroxidation in arterial wall & increased endothelium-dependent relaxation Active; showed potent activity; mechanism involves iron chelation & inhibition of hydroxyl radical generating system; protected against lipid peroxidation Reference Matsubara et al. 2005

Fruit juice; Antihypercholesterolemic dosage: 10 mL/day, orally; treatment duration: 2 wks

Jorge et al. 1998

Antioxidant

Nasunin (anthocyanin from fruit peels)

In vitro: electron spin resonance spectrometry & radical scavenging models

Noda et al. 2000

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant

Preparation Flavonoids isolated from the fruit

Design & Model In vitro & in vivo: normal & cholesterol-fed rats were administered 1 mg flavonoids /100 g body weight per day orally

Antioxidant

Nasunin (isolated from eggplant peel)

Spasmogenic

Methanol extract of fresh leaves; using serial dilutions of 0.0025 to 2.5 mg/mL

In vivo: rats with dietary paraquatinduced food reduction, body weight gain & increased lung weight In vitro: isolated, precontracted guinea pig tracheal chains

Results Demonstrated potent antioxidant activity as evidenced by significant lowering of malondialdehyde, hydroperoxide & conjugated diene concentrations, enhanced catalase activity & raised glutathione levels Active; prevented oxidative stress caused by dietary paraquat

Reference Sudheesh et al. 1999

Kimura et al. 1999

Exhibited a dosedependent increase in the force of muscle contraction; this bronchospasmogenic effect is probably due to muscarinic receptor stimulation

Mans et al. 2004

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Preparation Antihyperlipidemic Capsules of dried powdered fruits; 450 mg twice daily, orally Design & Model Double-blind placebo-controlled study; 41 hyperlipidemic volunteers Results No significant difference in serum cholesterol & lipid levels compared with placebo after 3 mo Reference Silva et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Guimares PR, Galvo AM, Batista CM, Azevedo GS, Oliveira RD, Lamounier RP, Freire N, Barros AM, Sakurai E, Olveira JP, Vieira EC, Alvarez-Leite JL. 2000. Eggplant (Solanum melongena) infusion has a modest and transitory effect on hypercholesterolemic subjects. Braz J Med Biol Res 33(9):1027-36. Igwe SA, Akunyili DN, Ogbogu C. 2003. Effects of Solanum melongena (garden egg) on some visual functions of visually active Igbos of Nigeria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86(2-3):135-8.

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Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, Emam A, Parker TL, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Lapsley KG, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Singer W, Connelly PW. 2005. Direct comparison of a dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods with a statin in hypercholesterolemic participants. Am J Clin Nutr 81(2):339-40. Jorge PA, Nevra LC, Osaki RM, de Almeida E, Bragagnolo N. 1998. [Effect of eggplant on plasma lipid levels, lipidic peroxidation and reversion of endothelial dysfunction in experimental hypercholesterolemia]. [Portuguese] Arq Bras Cardiol 70(2):87-91. Kimura Y, Araki Y, Takenaka A, Igarashi K. 1999. Protective effects of dietary nasunin on paraquat-induced oxidative stress in rats. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 63(5):799-804. Mans DR, Toelsie J, Mohan S, Jurgens S, Muhringen M, Illes S, Macnack R, Bipat R. 2004. Spasmogenic effect of a Solanum melongena leaf extract on guinea pig tracheal chains and its possible mechanism(s). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2-3):329-33. Matsubara K, Kaneyuki T, Miyake T, Mori M. 2005. Antiangiogenic activity of nasunin, an antioxidant anthocyanin, in eggplant peels. J Agric Food Chem 53(16):6272-5. Noda Y, Kneyuki T, Igarashi K, Mori A, Packer L. 2000. Antioxidant activity of nasunin, an anthocyanin in eggplant peels. Toxicology 148(2-3):119-23. Silva GE, Takahashi MH, Eik Filho W, Albino CC, Tasim GE, Serri L de A, Assef AH, Cortez DA, Bazotte RB. 2004. [Absence of hypolipidemic effect of Solanum melongena L. (eggplant) on hyperlipidemic patients]. Araq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 48(3):368-73. Sudheesh S, Sandhya C, Sarah Koshy A, Vijayalaksmi NR. 1999. Antioxidant activity of flavonoids from Solanum melongena. Phytotherapy Research 13(5):393-6. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Berro
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Watercress (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Synonym: Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek. [Brassicaceae (Mustard Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this edible food plant as a remedy or preventive agent for the following health conditions (Vandebroek & Balick 2009, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anemia - Asthma

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Bronchitis Common cold Cough Diabetes Flu Heart disease High blood pressure High cholesterol Sinusitis Tuberculosis Upper or lower respiratory tract infections

Plant Part Used: Aerial parts (leaves, stems and flowers). Traditional Preparation: The fresh leaves may be eaten raw, liquefied as a juice or prepared as a syrup with honey. Traditional Uses: Berro is considered a nutritious food plant with hot therapeutic properties and is used to prevent or treat several health conditions. To clear congestion and clean out the lungs in illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, common cold or flu, cough, sinusitis, tuberculosis and upper or lower respiratory tract infections, fresh berro can be prepared as a syrup or juice. To make a medicinal syrup, the fresh plant is chopped and combined with honey or boiled in water and then thickened with honey and taken orally by the spoonful as needed. Sometimes fresh radish (rbano) or lemon/lime (limn agrio) pieces are added to this mixture. The raw plant can also be liquefied in a blender or crushed with a mortar and pestle to extract the juice (zumo) which is taken as a drink in small amounts. For nourishment and to strengthen the blood, it can be eaten raw as a salad or juiced and taken with other medicinal food plants as a remedy for chronic anemia. Other ingredients in this remedy can include carrot (zanahoria), beets (remolacha) and malt beverage (malta alemana). Availability: Berro is typically sold as a fresh vegetable at grocery stores, supermarkets, farmers market and local convenience stores (bodegas) in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Berro (Nasturtium officinale) is a perennial herb that has floating or ascending stems reaching 25-80 cm in height. Young leaves are oval- or heart-shaped and mature leaves are compound with 3-11 round to oblong leaflets. Flowers are small with white petals. Fruits are dry, elongated seed-pods that split in half lengthwise. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent flavor. This plant often hybridizes with a related species, Nasturtium microphyllum Boenn. ex Rchb (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Berro grows near running water or in wet soil in temperate regions and is native to Europe and Southwest Asia (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a widely consumed food plant, berro is generally regarded as safe. No information on adverse reactions has been identified in the literature. However, large amounts of the fresh plant may lead to gastrointestinal disorders due to the mucous membrane-irritating effects of the mustard oil it contains. Also, this plant may carry liver flukes, such as Fasciola hepatica or other parasites if grown in contaminated water.

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Contraindications: Watercress is contraindicated for individuals with stomach or intestinal ulcers and kidney diseases involving inflammation. This plant is not to be given to children under four years old and should be avoided during pregnancy (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: None identified in the available literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
This plant has been studied in clinical trials for the following effects: antigenotoxic, antioxidant, chemopreventive, induction of phase II liver detoxification enzymes, modulation of acetaminophen metabolism and potential use as a treatment for bronchitis, sinusitis and urinary tract infections (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown the following activities: antigenotoxic, antiproliferative, antitumor, chemopreventive and histamine release inhibition (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). This medicinal plant contains ascorbic acid, aspartic acid, biotin, essential oil, folacin, gluconasturtin, glutamic acid and histidine (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Isothiocyanates, including phenethyl isothiocyanate, have shown promising chemopreventive activity (Chiao et al. 2004, Hecht et al. 1985, Rose et al. 2000). The raw leaves are rich in vitamin K and are a significant source of calcium, copper, folate, iodine, iron, magnesium, manganese, pantothenic acid, phosphorus, potassium, riboflavin, thiamin and vitamins A, C and E (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Approved by the German Commission E for upper respiratory catarrhal conditions (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Typical forms of administration include: capsules (500 mg) or as a tea (150 mL boiling water over 1-2 teaspoonfuls herb, covered for 10-15 minutes and strained or applied externally as compress or poultice). Common dosages are 2-3 cups of the tea before meals, 4-6 g of the dried herb, 20-30 g of the fresh herb or 60-150 g of freshly pressed juice.

Clinical Data: Nasturtium officinale

Activity/Effect Antioxidant & antigenotoxic Preparation Raw watercress (85 g) daily for 8 wks as supplementation to typical diet Design & Model Single-blind, randomized, crossover study; n=60 (30 men, 30 women; 30 smokers, 30 nonsmokers) Results Showed reduction in DNA damage & oxidation; showed greater positive effects in smokers than in nonsmokers; increased plasma carotenoid levels (lutein & beta-carotene); results suggest that cancer preventive activity may be due to decreased DNA damage & antioxidant effects Reference Gill et al. 2007

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Activity/Effect Bronchitis, sinusitis & urinary tract infection (UTI) treatment

Preparation Herbal drug containing nasturtium herb, horseradish root & Angocin AntiInfeckt N vs. standard antibiotic therapy (duration: 7-14 days or end of disease)

Design & Model Prospective cohort study: test group (n=1223), control group (n=426); 536 w/acute sinusitis; 634 w/acute bronchitis; 479 w/UTI

Chemopreventive Fresh plant, 56.8 g consumed at each of 3 meals for 3 days Metabolism of acetaminophen 50 g plant homogenates ingested & followed by acetaminophen (1 g) taken orally 10 hours later Watercress consumption

Clinical trial; 11 smokers; urine samples measured for metabolites Clinical study; crossover trial with human volunteers

Phase II enzyme induction

Clinical trial: smokers

Results Reference Based on quantified clinical Goos et al. 2006 assessment of symptom severity; relative reduction in symptoms (test vs. control): acute sinusitis: 81.3% vs. 84.6%; acute bronchitis: 78.3% vs. 80.3%; UTI: 81.2% vs. 87.9%; efficacy of herbal drug determined to be comparable to & safer than antibiotics Phenethyl isothiocyanate Hecht et al. 1995 from plant inhibited oxidative metabolism of tobacco-specific lung carcinogen Chen et al. 1996 Little impact on the plasma pharmacokinetic processes & urinary excretions of the drug; however, resulted in decreased levels of oxidative metabolites of acetaminophen, probably due to inhibition of oxidative metabolism of this drug Hecht et al. 1999 Results suggest that active components of this plant affect nicotine metabolism by inducing phase II liver detoxification enzyme UDPglucuronosyltransferase

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Nasturtium officinale

Activity/Effect Antigenotoxic & antiproliferative Preparation Crude watercress extract Design & Model In vitro: human colon cancer cells (HT29 & HT115) Results Active: inhibited experimentally-induced DNA damage; delayed cell proliferation (caused accumulation of cells in the S phase); significantly inhibited invasion Active Reference Boyd et al. 2006

Antitumor

Plant extract

In vitro: experimental tumors

Cruz 1970

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Activity/Effect Antitumor

Preparation N-acetylcystein conjugate of phenethyl isothiocyanate (abundant in watercress); supplemented in diets (8 mcmol/g) for 9 wks

Design & Model In vivo: immunodeficient mice with xenografted tumors of human prostate cancer PC-3 cells

Chemopreventive Watercress extract & isolated compounds (isothiocyanates) Isolated constituents (flavonols & megastigmanes)

In vitro: murine hepatoma cell lines

Histamine release inhibition

In vitro: antigenstimulated RBL2H3 cells

Results Active; inhibited tumorigenesis; showed significant reduction of tumor size; upregulated inhibitors of cyclindependent kinases, induced tumor cell apoptosis & modulated post-initiation by affecting cell cycle regulators Active; induced phase II enzymes (which are associated with increased excretion of carcinogens) as evidenced by induction of quinine reductase Identified active constituents; showed 60% inhibition of histamine release; mechanism did not affect calcium influx

Reference Chiao et al. 2004

Rose et al. 2000

Goda et al. 1999

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Boyd LA, McCann MJ, Hashim Y, Bennett RN, Gill CI, Rowland IR. 2006. Assessment of the anti-genotoxic, antiproliferative and anti-metastatic potential of crude watercress extract in human colon cancer cells. Nutr Cancer 55(2):232-41. Chen L, Mohr SN, Yang CS. 1996. Decrease of plasma and urinary oxidative metabolites of acetaminophen after consumption of watercress by human volunteers. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 60(6):651-60. Chiao JW, Wu H, Ramaswamy G, Conaway CC, Chung FL, Wang L, Liu D. 2004. Ingestion of an isothiocyanate metabolite from cruciferous vegetables growth of human prostate cancer cell xenografts by apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Carcinogenesis 25(8):1403-8. Cruz A. 1970. Remarkable antimitotic action of watercress (Nasturtium officinale) in various experimental tumors. Hospital (Rio de Janeiro) 77(3):943-52. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Gill CI, Haldar S, Boyd LA, Bennett R, Whiteford J, Butler M, Pearson JR, Bradbury I, Rowland IR. 2007. Watercress supplementation in diet reduces lymphocyte DNA damage and alters blood antioxidant status in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 85(2):504-10.

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Goda Y, Hoshino K, Akiyama H, Ishikawa T, Abe Y, Nakamura T, Otsuka H, Takeda Y, Tanimura A, Toyoda M. 1999. Constituents in watercress: inhibitors of histamine release from RBL-2H3 cells induced by antigen stimulation. Biol Pharm Bull 22(12):1319-26. Goos KH, Albrecht U, Schneider B. [Efficacy and safety profile of an herbal drug containing nasturtium herb and horseradish root in acute sinusitis, acute bronchitis and acute urinary tract infection in comparison with other treatments in the daily practice/results of a prospective cohort study.] [German] Arzneimittelforschung 56(3):249-57. Hecht SS, Carmella SG, Murphy SE. 1999. Effects of watercress consumption on urinary metabolites of nicotine in smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 8(10):907-13. Hecht SS, Chung FL, Richie JP, Akerkar SA, Borukhova A, Skowronski L, Carmella SG. 1995. Effects of watercress consumption on metabolism of a tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 4(8):877-84. Rose P, Faulkner K, Williamson G, Mithen R. 2000. 7-Methylsulfinylheptyl and 8-methylsulfinyloctyl isothiocyanates from watercress are potent inducers of phase II enzymes. Carcinogenesis 21(11):1983-8. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Vandebroek I, Balick MJ. 2009. Microsoft Access Database sets of the NIH/NCCAM-funded study on Dominican Ethnomedicine. Unpublished data. Bronx, New York: Institute of Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, Bronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden.

Bija
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Achiote (Spanish); annatto, lipstick tree (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Bixa orellana L. [Bixaceae (Annatto Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Vandebroek & Balick 2009, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anemia - Bruises - Burns - Childbirth labor pain

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Contusions and musculoskeletal trauma Cysts Excess or abnormal vaginal discharge Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) Postpartum Skin inflammation Uterine fibroids Vaginal infections

Plant Part Used: Seeds and powdered seed-covering. Traditional Preparation: The seed coat of this plant is ground to a powder and may be heated in oil, extracted in alcohol and/or added to herbal mixtures prepared as a tea by decoction or as a tincture. Traditional Uses: The red seed coat (aril) of this plant is often thought of as a good source of iron and used as a remedy for anemia. Seeds are ground to a coarse powder and combined with beets and molasses to treat uterine fibroids, ovarian cysts, breast cysts, dysmenorrhea and anemia. Sometimes other ingredients are added to this mixture, such as powdered iron supplements (hierro de polvo), magnesium, beets (remolacha) or malt beverage (malta alemana, a non-alcoholic drink that is popular in the Dominican Republic). For skin conditions, such as burns, the seeds are boiled with milk or heated in cooking oil to extract their therapeutic properties and then applied locally to the affected area. For recovering from injury, musculoskeletal trauma or contusions, the seeds are crushed, combined with red wine (vino tinto) and taken orally. For labor pain during childbirth and postpartum recovery, bija seed-coat is combined with the following plants to make a medicinal drink (bebedizo): guinea hen-weed (anam), minnieroot (guauc) root, passionflower (caguazo) herb and castor bean plant (higuereta) seed oil (Yukes et al. 20022003). For vaginal infections characterized by excessive vaginal discharge (flujo vaginal), the seeds are taken orally (Vandebroek & Balick 2009). Availability: Dried bija seeds are commonly sold at grocery stores, supermarkets, neighborhood convenience stores, bodegas and botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Bija (Bixa orellana) is a small tree that grows to 8 m in height. Leaves are arranged in an alternate pattern and are oval or heart-shaped with a pointed tip, long leaf-stalk and clearly defined veins. Flowers have pink, rose or white petals and yellow stamens. Fruit capsules are green to brown and densely covered with soft, pliable, reddish spines. Each capsule contains numerous small seeds that are covered with a scarlet aril and attached to the inside wall (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to tropical America, this plant is widely cultivated as a dye and food plant and has become naturalized in tropical areas of the Old World (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Bija is considered safe for human consumption as a food and flavoring agent. In a nutritional and toxicity study, annatto seeds were dried, powdered and analyzed for their chemical constituents and nutritional value. The toxicity level was found to be insignificant and the vitamin and mineral content as well as the fiber fractions were very similar to those of cereals but with a higher level of carotenoids. Results support the safe use of this resource as a food for human nutrition when combined with other foodstuffs (Wurts & Torreblanca 1983). Allergic reactions have been reported: in a human clinical trial, 56 patients suffering from chronic urticaria and/or angioneurotic edema were given annatto extract (dose equivalent to that in

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25 g of butter) administered orally and within 4 hours of intake 26% of patients reacted with hypersensitivity symptoms (Mikkelsen et al. 1978). Animal Toxicity Studies: Numerous animal studies have been conducted on the potential toxicity of this plant. Oral ingestion of bija was determined to be neither maternally toxic nor embryotoxic in rats with a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for maternal and developmental toxicity of 500 mg/kg body weight/day or greater (or > or = 140 mg bixin/kg body weight/day; Paumgartten et al. 2002). A subchronic oral toxicity study of annatto extract (norbixin), a natural food color made from bija, was conducted. The No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level (NOAEL) in Sprague-Dawley rats was judged to be a dietary level of 0.1% (69 mg/kg body weight/day for males, 76 mg/kg body weight/day for females) of annatto extract (norbixin) under the present experimental conditions (Hagiwara et al. 2003). In mice, the LD50 of the seeds administered orally was determined to be 1092 202 mg/kg body weight (Garcia & Saenz 1995) and of the root administered intraperitoneally was 700 mg/kg (Dunham & Allard 1959). For external use, the aqueous freeze-dried extract and an infusion of the freeze-dried petioles applied topically (0.5%) in rabbits (0.5 mL 5 cm2) for 72 hours did not result in any observable changes in the skin. After ocular application (0.5%) of 0.1 mL, no observable changes in conjunctiva were induced except for initial tears (Solis et al. 2000). Contraindications: Internal use should be avoided by those who might be hypersensitive or have an allergic reaction to the plant parts used. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Laboratory and preclinical studies have demonstrated the following biological actions of bija (Bixa orellana): analgesic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antidiarrheal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antigonorrheal, chemopreventive, hyperglycemic, immunomodulatory and platelet antiaggregant activity (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Bija is a common condiment and coloring agent (known commercially as annatto) and is used to color red pill capsules. It is also widely utilized as a food-colorant and is considered a spice because of its numerous culinary uses even though it is nearly tasteless. Major chemical constituents of the seed include carotenoids (including beta carotene) and terpenes, among other compounds (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Biologically active constituents of the fruit or seed include bixein, bixin, bixol, crocetin, cyanidin, ellagic acid, histidine, isobixin and norbixin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The seeds are a significant source of calcium, iron, phosphorus and protein. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified the external use of the crushed seeds (or seeds fried in oil), applied locally for the treatment of burns as REC meaning that it is RECommended for these particular applications. The following precautions are advised: limit use to superficial burns that cover less than 10% of the bodys surface and keep away from high risk areas like the face, hands, feet and genitals. This plant is recommended exclusively for external use, applied locally to the affected area and following strict standards of hygiene to avoid infection and contamination (Germosn-Robineau 2005). For external use in the treatment of burns, TRAMIL has determined the following therapeutic dosage: take 10 crushed seeds and fry in 40 mL of vegetable oil, allow to cool; wash the lesion with boiled water and soap and apply a sufficient quantity to cover the affected area; cover with a bandage or clean cloth; and change the dressing every 12 hours (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Bixa orellana

Activity/Effect Analgesic, anticonvulsant & antidiarrheal Preparation Methanol leaf extract (doses of 125, 250 & 500 mg/kg body weight) Methanol leaf extract Design & Model In vivo: mice; with strychnine-induced convulsions, acetic acid-induced writhing, castor oil-induced diarrhea In vitro: DPPH assay; diarrhea & dysentery-causing bacteria In vitro In vitro: agar disk diffusion assay In vitro: against Cryptococcus neoformans In vitro: prostaglandin synthesis model & thrombocyte aggregation induced by collagen model In vitro: isolated guinea pig ileum stimulated by histamine (0.102 g/mL) and electricity In vivo: rat carrageenaninduced paw edema model In vitro: agar well diffusion method; tested against 5 bacteria & 1 yeast Results Active; showed strong antinociceptive activity; increased survival time in strychnine-induced anticonvulsant test; decreased total number of stools & motility time Active; showed radical scavenging activity at IC50=22.36 g/mL; antibacterial activity against Shigella dysenteriea & other species Exhibited activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli Effective against several fungi Active; MIC=0.078 mg/mL Inhibited 38% prostaglandin synthesis at 0.1 mg/mL; inhibited thrombocyte aggregation at 0.88 mg/mL in 24% Inhibited 17% of the motility at 0.2 mg/mL and 46% of electrical stimulation at 2 mg/mL Reduced inflammatory response by 22% at 1 g/kg Active against Escherichia coli (MIC=0.8 g/mL) & Bacillus cereus (MIC=0.2 g/mL) & other spp. Reference Shilpi et al. 2006

Antibacterial & antioxidant

Shilpi et al. 2006

Antibacterial

Ethanol extracts of fruit and leaf Dichloromethane & methanol extracts Methanol extract Crude aqueous extract of the seeds

George & Petalai 1949 Freixa et al. 1998 Bruga et al. 2006 Serrano & Sandberg 1988

Antifungal

Antifungal

Antiinflammatory

Antiinflammatory

Crude aqueous extract of the seeds

Serrano & Sandberg 1988

Antiinflammatory

Aqueous crude extract of the seeds Ethanol, hexane & water extracts

Serrano & Sandberg 1988 Rojas et al. 2006

Antimicrobial

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial

Preparation Ethanolic extracts of leaves and seeds

Design & Model In vitro

Antimicrobial

Ethanol extracts of different plant parts Bark (50% alcohol tincture) Aqueous and alcoholic (80%) extracts of seeds

In vitro

Antimicrobial & antigonorrheal Immunomodulatory & antitumor

In vitro In vitro: tumor growth (Molt-4) in human lymphoma cells, rat splenocytes & murine macrophage In vivo: rat colon

Results Demonstrated broad spectrum antimicrobial activity with the leaves being more effective than the seeds Leaf extracts showed maximum activity against Bacillus pumilus, followed by root and stem Inhibited 5 strains of Neisseria gonorrhoea Ethanol extract exhibited significant dose-dependent immunostimulant effects & aqueous extract showed slight inhibition of splenocyte proliferation Chemoprotective effects through modulation of cryptal cell proliferation but not at the initial stage of colon carcinogenesis; no antigenotoxic effect observed in colon cells Exhibited hyperglycemic effects Exhibited hyperglycemic effects & damage to mitochondria & endoplasmic reticulum of liver & pancreas; however, fortifying subjects diet with riboflavin counteracted these effects Active; extract inhibited thrombin-induced aggregation of human platelets (0.075 U/mL)

Reference Fleischer et al. 2003

Castello et al. 2002 Caceres et al. 1995 Weniger 1992

Chemopreventive

Annatto (natural food colorant from Bixa orellana)

Agner et al. 2005

Hyperglycemic

Hyperglycemic

Alcohol extract administered orally (2 g/mL) Methyl ester, transbixin (C24H30O4) isolated from suspension of powdery seed arils in oil Aqueous extract

In vivo: dogs In vivo: anaesthetized mongrel dogs

Morrison & West 1982 Morrison et al. 1991

Antiplatelet

In vitro

Villar et al. 1997

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Preparation Design & Model Results Reference

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Mutagenic & antimutagenic

Annatto (natural food colorant from Bixa orellana)

Mouse bone marrow cells

Neither mutagenic nor an inhibitor of induced mutations, although high doses may increase the effect of a mutagen so caution is advised

Alves de Lima et al. 2003

REFERENCES
Agner AR, Bazo AP, Ribeiro LR, Salvadori DM. 2005. DNA damage and aberrant crypt foci as putative biomarkers to evaluate the chemopreventive effect of annatto (Bixa orellana L.) in rat colon carcinogenesis. Mutation Research 582(1-2):146-54. Alves de Lima RO, Azevedo L, Ribeiro LR, Salvadori DM. 2003. Study on the Mutagenicity and Antimutagenicity of a Natural Food Color (Annatto) in Mouse Bone Marrow Cells. Food and Chemical Toxicology 41(2):189-92. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Braga FG, Bouzada ML, Fabri RL, de O Matos M, Moreira FO, Scio E, Coimbra ES. 2006. Antileishmanial and antifungal activity of plants used in traditional medicine in Brazil. Journal of Ethnopharmacology [Epub ahead of print]. Caceres A, Menendez H, Mendez E, Cohobon E, Samayoa BE, Jauregui E, Peralta E, Carrillo G. 1995. Antigonorrhoeal activity of plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48(2):85-8. Castello MC, Phatak A, Chandra N, Sharon M. 2002. Antimicrobial Activity of Crude Extracts from Plant Parts and Corresponding Calli of Bixa orellana L. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 40(12):1378-81. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Dunham N, Allard K. 1959. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). A preliminary pharmacological investigation of the roots of Bixa orellana. J Amer Pharm Ass Sci Ed 49(4):218-219. Fleischer TC, Ameade EP, Mensah ML, Sawer IK. 2003. Antimicrobial activity of the leaves and seeds of Bixa orellana. Fitoterapia 74(1-2):136-8. Freixa B, Vila R, Vargas L, Lozano N, Adzet T, Canigueral S. 1998. Screening for Antifungal Activity of Nineteen Latin American Plants. Phytotherapy Research 12(6): 427-30. Garcia D, Saenz T. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Toxicidad aguda de algunas plantas TRAMIL. Informe TRAMIL. Farmacognosia, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Espaa. George M, Petalai KM. 1949. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Investigations on plant antibiotics. Part IV. Further search for antibiotic substances in Indian medicinal plants. Indian J Med Res 37:169-181.

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Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Hagiwara A, Imai N, Ichihara T, Sano M, Tamano S, Aoki H, Yasuhara K, Koda T, Nakamura M, Shirai T. 2003. A thirteen-week oral toxicity study of annatto extract (norbixin), a natural food color extracted from the seed coat of annatto (Bixa orellana L.), in Sprague-Dawley rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology 41(8):1157-64. Mikkelsen H, Larsen JC, Tarding E. 1978. Hypersensitivity reactions to food colours with special reference to the natural colour annatto extract (butter colour). Arch Toxicol Suppl 1:141-143. Morrison EY, Thompson H, Pascoe K, West M, Fletcher C. 1991. Extraction of an hyperglycaemic principle from the annatto (Bixa orellana), a medicinal plant in the West Indies. Tropical and Geographical Medicine 43(1-2):184-8. Morrison EY, West M. 1982. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). A preliminary study of the effects of some West Indian medicinal plants on blood sugar levels in the dog. West Indian Med J 21(2):194-197. Paumgartten FJ, De-Carvalho RR, Araujo IB, Pinto FM, Borges OO, Souza CA, Kuriyama SN. 2002. Evaluation of the Developmental Toxicity of Annatto in the Rat. Food and Chemical Toxicology 40(11):1595-601. Rojas JJ, Ochoa VJ, Ocampo SA, Munoz JF. 2006. Screening for antimicrobial activity of ten medicinal plants used in Colombia folkloric medicine: a possible alternative in the treatment of non-nosocomial infections. BMC Complement Altern Med 6:2. Serrano G, Sandberg. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Actividad antiinflamatoria de Bixa orellana: Informe preliminar TRAMIL. Universidad de Uppsala, Uppsala, Suecia. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Shilpi JA, Taufiq-Ur-Rahman M, Uddin SJ, Alam MS, Sadhu SK, Seidel V. 2006. Preliminary pharmacological screening of Bixa orellana L. leaves. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108(2):264-71. Solis PN, Olmedo D, Buitrago de Tello RE, Gupta MP. 2000. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Estudio fitoqumico y toxicolgico de algunas plants TRAMIL. Informe TRAMIL. Centro de Investigaciones Farmacognsticas de la Flora Panamea CIFLORPAN, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Panam, Panam, Panam. Vandebroek I, Balick MJ. 2009. Microsoft Access Database sets of the NIH/NCCAM-funded study on Dominican Ethnomedicine. Unpublished data. Bronx, New York: Institute of Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden. Villar R, Calleja JM, Morales C, Caceres A. 1997. Screening of 17 Guatemalan medicinal plants for platelet antiaggregant activity. Phytotherapy Research 11(6):441-5. Weniger B. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Etude sur Bixa orellana. Rapport TRAMIL. Facult de Pharmacie, Universit de Strasbourg, Illkirch, France. TRAMIL VI, Basse Terre Guadeloupe, UAG/endacaribe. Wurts ML, Torreblanca RA. 1983. Analysis of the seed Bixa orellana, L. (annatto) and the waste generated in the extraction of its pigments. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion 33(3):606-19. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Brasil
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Palo de Brasil (Spanish); Brazilwood caesalpinia (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Caesalpinia brasiliensis Sw. Synonyms: Baryxylum brasiliense (L.) Pierre, Brasilettia brasiliensis (L.) Kuntze, Peltophorum brasiliense (L.) Urb. [Caesalpiniaceae (Senna Family)]. Note: Although the first species indicated above is most commonly used by Dominicans, the Spanish name palo de brasil can refer to more than one botanical tree species, most of which have similar orangish-reddish heartwood. These species, along with their distinguishing characteristics, are as follows: Caesalpinia violacea (Miller) Standley [Synonyms: Brasilettia violacea (Miller) Britton & Rose, Caesalpinia cubensis Greenman, Peltophorum brasiliense (L.) Urban, Robinia violacea Miller.] has no prickles and has compound, bipinnate leaves with 4-10 pinnae and 12-16 leaflets; Haematoxylon brasiletto is also sold at botnicas under the name palo de brasil (its common name in Mexico and Central America) and has prickly spines and compound, bipinnate leaves with 6-7 leaflets (this tree is called palo de campeche or Mexican logwood); Caesalpinia echinata has spiny prickles and compound, bipinnate leaves with 3-7(10) pinnae and 8-21 leaflets; Haematoxylon campechianum (also known as palo campeche) is grown in the Dominican Republic on plantations for export as lumber and for its red heartwood which is used as a dye, this tree is and has prickly spines and compound, bipinnate leaves with 4-8 leaflets.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Diabetes - High blood pressure - Kidney infections - Menopausal symptoms - Menstrual disorders - Ovarian cysts - Poor circulation - Purifica la sangre - Uterine fibroids Part Used: Wood (small sticks or pieces of the tree trunk or branches). Traditional Preparation: Pieces of the wood are typically infused in water. To prepare a cold infusion, a small piece of wood (palo) is immersed in lukewarm or room temperature water until the water turns red which indicates that the infusion is ready. This remedy is kept in a closed container in the refrigerator to prevent spoilage. Traditional Uses: This tree is renowned for its depurative (blood purifying) properties. The wood is nearly without odor, has a slightly sweet taste and imparts red color to water if used to make a cold infusion or tea; it also turns saliva red if chewed.

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Availability: In New York City, the dried wood of this plant is sold at some botnicas (Latino/AfroCaribbean herb and spiritual shops).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Palo de brasil (Caesalpinia brasiliensis) is a shrub or small tree that grows to 7 m with branches that are covered with spines (2 mm long). Wood is orangish to dark red in the center and valued for its hard, durable lumber. Leaves occur in an alternate pattern along branches and are twice-divided with 4-10 pinnae and 12-16 leaflets; leaflets are elliptical or oval in shape (2-3 cm). Flowers are arranged in small, branching clusters; petals are greenish-white and covered with glandular dots. Fruits are long, narrow, leguminous seed pods (7-8 cm long) that are pointed at the end and contain dark seeds (Liogier 1985). Distribution: Endemic to the island of Hispaniola, this tree can be found in dry forest areas (Liogier 1985).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Although no clinical or preclinical studies of Caesalpinia brasiliensis have been identified in the available literature, other closely-related species have demonstrated pharmacological properties: Caesalpinia crista has shown anti-malarial effects (Linn et al. 2005); Caesalpinia bonducella has exhibited antidiabetic (Chakrabarti et al. 2005), antioxidant, antibacterial and other properties (see table below). A US Patent has been issued for antihypertensive compounds from Caesalpinia brasiliensis (BYU 2003). Indications and Usage: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Caesalpinia and related species

Activity/Effect Serine proteinase inhibition Xanthine oxidase inhibition Anticancer & antiinflammatory Antibacterial Preparation Design & Model Seeds of In vitro Caesalpinia echinata MeOh extracts of In vitro; 25 g/mL Caesalpinia sappan Methanol extract: In vitro; cultured Caesalpinia sappan mouse macrophage cells Crude extract: In vitro; against Escherichia coli & Haematoxylum brasiletum Staphylococcus aureus Results Inhibited blood coagulating & fibrinolytic enzymes; isolated CeKI compound Showed strong xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity Active; inhibited nitric oxide formation; potential chemopreventive agent Highly active, especially against Staphylococcus aureus Reference Cruz-Silva et al. 2004 Nguyen et al. 2004 Hong et al. 2002 Yasunaka et al. 2005

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Activity/Effect Antidiabetic & hypoglycemic

Inhibition of nitric oxide formation Increased contractile force of skeletal muscle Antitumor & antioxidant

Preparation Seed kernel; water & alcohol extracts, extract fractions: Caesalpinia bonducella Methanol extract: Caesalpinia sappan

Design & Model In vivo (rats with type 2 chronic diabetes) & in vitro (isolated islets) In vitro; lipopolysaccharideinduced mouse macrophage cell lines In vivo; rats; twitch response test

Results Active in both models; two fractions increased insulin secretion in isolated islets (in vitro) Active; showed inhibition of iNOS activity (>70% at a concentration of 10 micro g/mL); potential anti-cancer or anti-inflammatory agent Active; dose-dependent increase in twitch contractions; mechanism possibly due to cholinergic activation Showed significant activity; no evident of short-term toxicity shown at all doses except at 300 mg/kg

Reference Chakrabarti et al. 2005

Hong et al. 2002

Leaf extract, administered intravenously; Caesalpinia bonducella Methanol extract: Caesalpinia bonducella; dosage: 50, 100 & 200 mg/kg daily

Datte et al. 2004

In vitro; mice with Ehrlick ascites carcinoma; treated intraperitoneally for 14 days

Gupta et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Chakrabarti S, Biswas TK, Seal T, Rokeya B, Ali L, Azad Khan AK, Nahar N, Mosihuzzaman M, Mukherjee B. 2005. Antidiabetic activity of Caesalpinia bonducella F. in chronic type 2 diabetic model in Long-Evans rats and evaluation of insulin secretagogue property of its fractions on isolated islets. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 97(1):117-122. Cruz-Silva I, Gozzo AJ, Nunes VA, Carmona AK, Faljoni-Alario A, Oliva ML, Sampaio MU, Sampaio CA, Araujo MS. 2004. A proteinase inhibitor from Caesalpinia echinata (pau-brasil) seeds for plasma kallikrein, plasmin and factor XIIa. Biological Chemistry 385(11):1083-1086. Datte JY, Yapo PA, Kouame-Koffi GG, Kati-Coulibaly S, Amoikon KE, Offoumou AM. 2004. Leaf extract of Caesalpinia bonduc Roxb. (Caesalpiniaceae) induces an increase of contractile force in rat skeletal muscle in situ. Phytomedicine 11(2-3):235-241. Gupta M, Mazumder UK, Kumar RS, Sivakumar T, Vamsi ML. 2004. Antitumor activity and antioxidant status of Caesalpinia bonducella against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences 94(2):177-184. Hong CH, Hur SK, Oh OJ, Kim SS, Nam KA, Lee SK. 2002. Evaluation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COS-2) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 83(1-2):153-159. Linn TZ, Awale S, Texuka Y, Banskota AH, Kalauni SK, Attamimi F, Ueda JY, Asih PB, Syafruddin D, Tanaka K, Kadota S. 2005. Cassane- and norcassane-type diterpenes from Caesalpinia crista of Indonesia and their antimalarial activity against the growth of Plasmodium falciparum. Journal of Natural Products 68(5):706710.

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Liogier AH. 1985. La Flora de la Espaola. III. San Pedro de Macors, Repblica Dominicana: Universidad Central del Este, Volumen LVI, Serie Cientfica 22, 431 pp. Nguyen MT, Awale S, Tezuka Y, Tran QL, Watanabe H, Kadota S. 2004. Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity of Vietnamese medicinal plants. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 27(9):1414-1421. Yasunaka K, Abe F, Nagayama A, Okabe H, Lozada-Perez L, Lopez-Villafranco E, Muniz EE, Aguilar A, ReyesChilpa R. 2005. Antibacterial activity of crude extracts from Mexican medicinal plants and purified coumarins and xanthones. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 97(2):293-299. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Bruja
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Tope-tope, hierba de bruja, hierba bruja, siempreviva de Amrica, inmortal, prodigiosa (Spanish); leaf of life, life plant (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. Synonyms: Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken and Cotyledon pinnata Lam. [Crassulaceae (Sedum Family)]. Note: The common name Bruja may also be used for another species, Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri; see entry for Mala madre. One distinguishing feature for differentiating between these two species is that the leaves of Bruja are slightly shorter than those of Mala madre.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Earache - Gastroduodenal ulcers - Headache - Inflammation - Sinusitis - Stomach ache and abdominal pain Plant Part Used: Leaves. Traditional Preparation: For external application, the leaves are heated, crushed and applied topically to the affected area. For internal use, the leaves are eaten raw or crushed and taken as a juice. Traditional Uses: The leaves of this plant are best known as a remedy for treating earache (mal de oido or dolor de los oidos), but they are also used for treating several other illnesses. For earache, a fresh leaf is used with all appendages removed (the kidney-like flowers and fruits are said to be harmful to the body), plunged into boiling water or heated over a flame briefly to steam or wilt (marear) the leaf, (care is taken

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to avoid boiling/heating it for too long so that it will not lose its therapeutic qualities) and then the liquid inside the leaf is squeezed onto a cloth or small cotton-tipped swab that is placed inside the ear and kept there for a short period of time. Eventually the ear will release some water indicating that the ear has been sufficiently treated. For stomach ache, abdominal pain and gastroduodenal ulcers (including bleeding ulcers), the fresh leaves (with flowers and fruits removed) are eaten like a salad in the morning and at night. For headache or sinusitis, the fresh leaves are bruised and applied topically to the forehead. Some say that this plant is called bruja because it grows so prodigiously, even if only a single leaf is planted, as long as it finds enough soil. Its other name, tope-tope is attributed to the sound that its balloon-like fruits and flowers make when they squeezed until they explode, resulting in a small popping sound. Availability: Fresh leaves are available at select botnicas in New York City. As this is a succulent plant, its leaves do not air-dry like those of other plants, making storage difficult. Because they decompose easily once cut, the leaves are challenging to maintain which affects their availability at stores. However, some individuals who use this plant as a remedy grow it at home because it is a hardy houseplant.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Bruja (Kalanchoe pinnata) is a succulent herb that grows upright to a height of 1 m with a single primary, smooth stem. Leaves are thick and fleshy, grow in opposite pairs and can be either simple or deeply lobed (6-13 cm long), oblong to lance-shaped with scalloped, reddish edges. Flowers are slightly balloonshaped, hanging down in large branching clusters with petals ranging in color from reddish green to red to salmon. Fruits are brown, dry, oblong follicles (1-1.5 cm long) with a beak-shaped tip each containing tiny dark brown seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is native to Madagascar, grows in the Caribbean and is cultivated and naturalized throughout the neotropics, often growing in disturbed areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Based on a clinical report of one patient, Kalanchoe pinnata leaf extract (30 g fresh leaves/day for 14 days) administered orally did not show any evident signs of adverse effects or toxicity (Torres-Santos et al. 2003). Animal Toxicity Studies: Kalanchoe pinnata orally administered to mice for 30 days did not show signs of toxicity to the liver, heart or kidney. Contraindications: TRAMIL recommends that this herb not be administered to children or to pregnant or lactating women due to the lack of information on its safety in these populations (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical case report, the leaf showed antileishmanial activity, and in laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: antileishmanial, antitumor, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunosuppressive and uterine contractility (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Biologically active compounds in this plant include: acetic acid, alpha-amyrin, beta-amyrin, betasitosterol, bryophyllin, caffeic acid, citric acid, ferulic acid, friedelin, fumaric acid, isocitric acid, kaempferol, lactic acid, malic acid, mucilage, n-hentriacontane, oxalic acid, p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxy-

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benzoic acid, p-hydroxycinnamic acid, patuletin, quercetin, succinic acid, syringic acid and taraxerol (Duke & Breckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified this herb as REC meaning RECommended specifically for its use in treating headache and the common cold, administered according to traditional methods: for cough, the leaf is prepared as a decoction and taken orally; for the common cold, the fresh leaf juice is taken orally; and for headache, the crushed leaf is applied topically to the forehead (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Clinical Data: Kalanchoe pinnata

Activity/Effect Antileishmanial Preparation Leaf extract, given orally; 30 g fresh leaves/day for 14 days Design & Model Clinical case report: one human patient (36 yrs) with active skin leishmaniasis lesions Results Treatment halted growth & showed a slight decrease in lesion; no observed adverse reactions or toxicity Reference Torres-Santos et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Kalanchoe pinnata

Activity/Effect Antileishmanial Preparation Quercitrin, a flavonoid glycoside from the aqueous leaf extract Aqueous leaf extract; kaempferol diglycoside, flavonol & flavone glycosides Leaf extract Design & Model In vitro: Leishmania spp. In vitro: Leishmania amazonensis amastigotes (leishmanial stage) In vitro & in vivo: Leishmania amazonensis & infected BALB/c mice In vitro & in vivo Results Active; IC50 is 1 g/mL with low toxicity Active; an isolated quercetin aglycone & rhamnosyl unit showed promising activity Dose-dependent decrease in amastigote intracellular growth; mechanism involves macrophage induction of nitric oxide production Inhibited lymphocyte proliferation in vitro & showed in vivo immunosuppressive activity; suggests that fatty acids may be responsible for its immunosuppressive effect All bufadienolides showed inhibition of tumor growth; results suggest potential use as chemopreventive agents Reference Muzitano, Cruz et al. 2006 Muzitano, Tinoco et al. 2006

Antileishmanial

Antileishmanial

Da Silva et al. 1999

Antitumor & immunosuppressive

Leaf extract

Almeida et al. 2000

Antitumor

Bufadienolides isolated from leaves (Kalanchoe pinnata; K. daigremontiana tubiflora)

In vitro: EpsteinBarr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation in Raji cells

Supratman et al. 2001

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Activity/Effect Antiviral

Preparation Plant juice

Design & Model In vitro

Hepatoprotective

Uterine contractility

Juice of the leaves and the ethanolic extract of the marc (residue) left after expressing the juice Leaf extract (Bryophyllum pinnatum = Kalanchoe pinnata)

In vivo: rats with carbon tetrachlorideinduced hepatotoxicity In vitro: human myometrium

Results Active; showed strong inhibition of virus activity at dilutions of 12 to 1-8000 & higher; viricidal factor was not destroyed by alcohol Showed significant hepatoprotective activity; the juice was more effective than the ethanolic extract Showed tocolytic activity; inhibited spontaneous contraction in a concentrationdependent manner, increased contraction frequency at constant amplitude & inhibited oxytocin-stimulated contractions

Reference Shirobokov et al. 1981

Yadav & Dixit 2003

Gwehenberger et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Almeida AP, Da Silva SA, Souza ML, Lima LM, Rossi-Bergmann B, de Moraes VL, Costa SS. 2000. Isolation and chemical analysis of a fatty acid fraction of Kalanchoe pinnata with a potent lymphocyte suppressive activity. Planta Medica 66(2):134-7. Da Silva SA, Costa SS, Rossi-Bergmann B. 1999. The anti-leishmanial effect of Kalanchoe is mediated by nitric oxide intermediates. Parasitology 118(Pt 6):575-82. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Gwehenberger B, Rist L, Huch R, Von Mandach U. 2004. Effect of Bryophyllum pinnatum versus fenoterol on uterine contractility. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, & Reproductive Biology 113(2):164-71. Muzitano MF, Cruz FA, de Almeida AP, Da Silva SA, Kaiser CR, Guette C, Rossi-Bergmann B, Costa SS. 2006. Quercitrin: an antileishmanial flavonoid glycoside from Kalanchoe pinnata. Planta Med 72(1):81-3. Muzitano MF, Tinoco LW, Guette C, Kaiser CR, Rossi-Bergmann B, Costa SS. 2006. The antileishmanial activity assessment of unusual flavonoids from Kalanchoe pinnata. Phytochemistry 67(18):2071-7. Shirobokov VP, Evtushenko AI, Lapchik VF, Shirobokova DN, Suptel EA. 1981. [Antiviral activity of representatives of the family Crassulaceae.] [Russian] Antibiotiki 26(12):897-900.

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Supratman U, Fujita T, Akiyama K, Hayashi H, Murakami A, Sakai H, Koshimizu K, Ohigashi H. 2001. Anti-tumor promoting activity of bulfadienolides from Kalanchoe pinnata and K. diagremontiana tubiflora. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 65(4):947-9. Torres-Santos EC, Da Silva SA, Costa SS, Santos AP, Almeida AP, Rossi-Bergmann B. 2003. Toxicological analysis and effectiveness of oral Kalanchoe pinnata on a human case of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Phytotherapy Research 17(7):801-3. Yadav NP, Dixit VK. 2003. Hepatoprotective activity of leaves of Kalanchoe pinnata Pers. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86(2-3):197-202. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Cacao
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Chocolate, cocoa tree (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Theobroma cacao L. [Sterculiaceae (Cacao Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Fatigue - Lack of energy - Skin disorders - Weakness Plant Part Used: Roasted seeds, cocoa butter and leaves. Traditional Preparation: The seeds are pulverized and prepared as a decoction to make hot chocolate and taken orally. Cocoa butter is used in creams and salves as a moisturizer. Traditional Uses: In the Dominican Republic, the leaves are used for kidney and urinary tract disorders due to their diuretic effects (Liogier 2000).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is a medium-sized evergreen tree that grows to 4-10 m in height. Leaves are long and narrow. Flowers are borne in clusters on short stalks with white, greenish or pale violet petals and no fragrance. Fruits are fleshy, variable in size and shape (10-20 cm long) and generally resemble a small, narrow football with longitudinal grooves or creases; skin turns bright yellow-orange to reddish when ripe. Seeds are numerous, small (1-2.5 mm long), brown and surrounded by a sweet, white, buttery pulp (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

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Distribution: This plant is native to Central and South America and is widely cultivated in the tropics (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a widely consumed food plant, the seeds of Theobroma cacao are classified as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (Anon 1976). No negative side effects or health risks are known in association with the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant, except for the possibility of allergic reaction or the provocation of migraine headaches due to amine content. Large doses of the seeds can result in constipation due to their high tannin content. The acute lethal dosage of caffeine for humans is 5-10 g, and powdered seeds of cacao contain 5 mg caffeine and 250 mg theobromine per cup (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Due to the caffeine content of chocolate products (0.2%-0.4%), large quantities can lead to sleep disorders, overexcitablility and racing pulse when administered to children (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Animal Toxicity Studies: Several studies on the potential toxicity of this plant have been conducted. In immature rats whose diets were supplemented by cacao seeds (1.22%) for 3 months, no signs of hepatic or hematological toxicity were observed (Morrissey et al. 1984). Isolated xanthines, some of the key constituents of cacao (such as caffeine, theobromine and theophylline), have in rare cases led to fatal intoxication when ingested (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Contraindications: In individuals with a history of allergy or hypersensitivity to cacao seeds, caution is advised due to demonstrated potential for skin reactions, headache and migraine. May also be contraindicated in patients with heart disorders due to the cardiac stimulant effects of the seed constituents theobromine and caffeine (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Phenelzine (monoamine oxidase inhibitor): concomitant use may lead to high blood pressure, although this association is speculative (Brinker 1998). Some drugs can inhibit the metabolism of caffeine or hinder its clearance from the body, thus exacerbating the stimulant effects of cacaos considerable caffeine content. These drugs include: oral contraceptives, cimetidine, furafylline, verapamil, disulfiram, fluconoazole, mexiletine, phenylpropanolamine, numerous quinolone antibiotics (i.e. enoxacin, pipemidic acid, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin) and in particular idrocilamide and methoxsalen (Brinker 1998).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical trials of the following effects of the seeds have been reported in the literature: antioxidant, antiulcer, platelet and primary hemostatic (see Clinical Data table below). The seeds, seed extracts and/or isolated compounds of this plant have demonstrated the following biological activities in preclinical studies: antibacterial, antioxidant, antiulcer, endocrine and nervous system effects, erythropoiesis stimulation and immunomodulatory (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The mechanism of the antiulcer effects of this plant is linked to its ability to modulate leukocyte function in addition to radical scavenging activity (Osakabe et al. 1998). According to secondary references, cacao seeds and seed coats have demonstrated the following effects: diuretic, broncholytic and vasodilatory (due to methylxanthines, mainly theobromine); cardiac muscle stimulant and bronchial muscle relaxant. Cocoa butter is high in triglycerides but does not cause an increase of serum cholesterol and LDL when taken in high doses. Due to their caffeine and theobromine content, the seeds are also a central nervous stimulant (Gruenwald et al. 2004). The seeds are a significant source of calcium, copper, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated this plant as REC meaning that it is RECommended specifically for treating weakness and prepared as a decoction of the seeds, taken

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orally; this recommendation is based on extensive traditional use documented in TRAMIL ethnobotanical studies and published scientific information (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Typical preparation is a decoction of 7 seeds in 1 cup of water, boiled for at least 10 minutes in a covered container, cooled and administered orally, 1 cup 3 times daily for 7 days (Floripe & Altamirano 1998, Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Clinical Data: Theobroma cacao

Activity/Effect Antiulcer & antioxidant Antihemostatic & antioxidant bioavailability Preparation Aqueous extract of dried seed; taken orally Cocoa flavanols & related procyanidin oligomers (234 mg per day ingested for 28 days) Design & Model Human clinical trial Placebo-controlled, blinded paralleldesigned clinical trial (32 healthy subjects) Results Active; demonstrated antioxidant and gastric antiulcer activity Significantly increased plasma epicatechin & catechin concentrations; significantly decreased platelet function; raised levels of plasma ascorbic acid Reference Osakabe et al. 1995 Murphy et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Theobroma cacao

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Dried seed husks, aqueous & methanol (95%) extracts Flavonoids isolated from seeds (dimer & trimer procyanidins) Cacao liquor water-soluble crude polyphenols (500 mg/kg) Salsolinol (tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid which constitutes up to 25 g/g of chocolate) Design & Model In vitro: against Staphylococcus aureus (50 L/agar disk) In vitro: phosphatidyl choline liposomes In vivo: male SD rats; ethanolinduced lesions in mucosa of the glandular stomach; also in vitro In vitro Results Active Reference Perez & Anesini 1994 Verstraeten et al. 2005 Osakabe et al. 1998

Antioxidant

Antiulcer

Protected against oxidative reduction & other challenges to membrane integrity Caused a reduction in hemorrhagic lesions comparable to that of sucralfate & cimetidine (typical antiulcer drugs) Showed dopaminergic effect; inhibited the formation of cyclic AMP, release of betaendorphin & ACTH in a pituitary cell system; may be linked to chocolate addiction Active; significantly stimulated red blood cell production (p<0.05)

Dopaminergic

Melzig et al. 2000

Erythropoiesis stimulation

Seed added to diet (1.22%)

In vivo: immature rats; duration: 3 mo

Morrissey et al. 1984

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Activity/Effect Preparation Immunomodulatory Flavonoids (-)epicatechin and cocoa extract

Design & Model In vitro: lymphoid cell line

Results Demonstrated significant activation of expression of IL-2 receptor alpha & IL-4 in a dose-dependent manner; down-modulated T lymphocyte activation thus requiring the acquired immune response; possible applications for immune system hyperactivity (i.e. autoimmune or chronic inflammatory diseases)

Reference Ramiro et al. 2005

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Anonymous (Select Committee on GRAS Substances). 1976. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). GRAS status of foods and food additives. Washington DC, USA: Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Federal Register National Archives and Records Administration 41, 38644. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Floripe A, Altamirano V. 1998. Plantas que curan. Managua, Nicaragua: Imprimatur. p. 35. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Liogier AH. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola, 2nd Ed. Santo Domingo: Jardn Botnico Nacional. 598 pp. Melzig MF. Putscher I. Henklein P. Haber H. 2000. In vitro pharmacological activity of the tetrahydroisoquinoline salsolinol present in products from Theobroma cacao L. like cocoa and chocolate. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 73(1-2):153-9. Morrissey RB, Burkholder BD, Tarka SM. 1984. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Effects of cocoa upon the growth of weanling male Sprague-dawley rats fed fluid whole milk diets. Nutr Rep Int 29(2):263-271, Murphy KJ, Chronopoulos AK, Singh I, Francis MA, Moriarty H, Pike MJ, Turner AH, Mann NJ, Sinclair AJ. 2003. Dietary flavanols and procyanidin oligomers from cocoa (Theobroma cacao) inhibit platelet function. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77(6):1466-73. Osakabe N, Yamagishi M, Sanppongi C, Takizawa T, Adachi T. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Antioxidant-containing beverages for preventing gastric ulcer. Patent-Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho-07 274,894. Osakabe N, Sanbongi C, Yamagishi M, Takizawa T, Osawa T. 1998. Effects of polyphenol substances derived from Theobroma cacao on gastric mucosal lesion induced by ethanol. Bioscience, Biotechnology & Biochemistry 62(8):1535-8.

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Perez C, Anesini C. 1994. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Antibacterial activity of alimentary plants against Staphylococcus aureus growth. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 22(2):169-174. Ramiro E, Franch A, Castellote C, Andres-Lacueva C, Izquierdo-Pulido M, Castell M. 2005. Effect of Theobroma cacao flavonoids on immune activation of a lymphoid cell line. British Journal of Nutrition 93(6):859-66. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Verstraeten SV, Hammerstone JF, Keen CL, Fraga CG, Oteiza PI. 2005. Antioxidant and membrane effects of procyanidin dimers and trimers isolated from peanut and cocoa. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 53(12):5041-8. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Cadillo de Gato
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cadillo, gatico (Spanish); cockleburr, noogoora burr, burweed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Xanthium strumarium L. and X. strumarium var. canadense (Mill.) Torr. & Gray. Synonym: Xanthium occidentale Bertol. [Asteraceae (Aster and Daisy Family)]. Note: In the Dominican Republic, the name cadillo de gato sometimes refers to another species: Achyranthes aspera L. (more commonly known as rabo de gato) which belongs to the plant family Amaranthaceae (Liogier 2000). At least two different species of plants are referred to as cadillo by Dominicans in New York City, and they both have similar medicinal uses. However, this species is typically known as cadillo de gato whereas the other species is called cadillo tres pies. Due to its relatively low number of use reports in ethnobotanical studies, cadillo tres pies is not included in this guidebook.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Gallbladder problems - Hepatitis C - Kidney disorders - Liver disorders Plant Part Used: Roots or leaves. Traditional Preparation: This herb is typically prepared as a tea by decoction (boiling in water) and administered orally.

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Traditional Uses: In the Caribbean, cadillo de gato is considered a diuretic plant, and the roots are used for treating kidney and liver disorders. The leaves are used externally for skin discoloration, blotching or dark marks on the face. This plant is attributed bitter and astringent properties and has been used traditionally for goiter and scrofula (Liogier 1990). Availability: This plant can be difficult to find in commerce and is typically purchased from botnicas that specialize in selling Caribbean medicinal plants. The fruits of this plant and a related species (Xanthium sibiricum) are used in Chinese medicine and are sometimes adulterated with the fruits of Glycyrriza pallidifora (Wang et al. 1998).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cadillo de gato (Xanthium strumarium var. canadense) is an herbaceous plant that grows upright (2.5-4 m tall). Stems are green with purple streaks and a rough, hairy surface. Leaves grow in an alternate pattern and are 3-4 lobed, triangular to broadly egg-shaped in outline, somewhat resembling maple leaves in form, coarsely toothed along the edges, dark green on the upper surface and lighter green below, with three prominent purplish veins and long, reddish leaf-stalks. Flowers are numerous and grow in dense clusters. Fruits are yellow to brown burrs (7-25 mm long), each containing two brown, grey or black seeds and covered with hooked spines (Gleason and Cronquist 1991). Distribution: This plant is native to the Americas, particularly tropical America and is a cosmopolitan weed that grows in fields and disturbed areas (Gleason and Cronquist 1991).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

TRAMIL has designated the specific use of the root as a decoction, taken orally, as REC meaning RECommended for kidney disorders when administered appropriately (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Animal Toxicity Studies: No signs of clinical toxicity or mortality were detected in histopathological studies when rats and mice were orally administered the ethanolic (65%) plant extract at doses of 25, 200 and 2000 mg/kg for 14 days (Jimenez et al. 1999). In other animal studies, 1000 mg/kg of a 50% ethanolic leaf extract (Xanthium strumarium) administered intraperitoneally in mice was found to be toxic (Talakal et al. 1995), and a hydroalcoholic extract of the root (50%) administered intraperitoneally to mice showed a maximum tolerated dose of 100 mg/kg (Dhar et al. 1968). When this plant was fed to pigs, it was associated with subacute hepatotoxicosis (seedlings: 0.75% to 3% of body weight; ground burr: 20% to 30% body weight), and carboxyatractyloside was determined to be the primary constituent responsible for this effect (Stuart et al. 1981). Carboxyatractyloside, a biologically active compound isolated from the plant, was administered intraperitoneally to rats at an LD50 calculated dosage (13.5 mg/kg) and signs of toxicity were observed. Results showed that this compound had both cytotoxic and lethal which were affected by its metabolism in the liver (Hatch et al. 1982). In vitro, pharmacologically active concentrations of an ethanolic extract of the aerial parts of this species were not found to be toxic in human and monkey liver cell lines (Badam et al. 1988). Case Reports of Toxicity: The seed contains the glycoside carboxyatractyloside which is poisonous to humans and animals, and nine cases of poisoning in humans have been reported. Symptoms of poisoning include gastrointestinal disorders, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, palpitations and in three cases, loss of consciousness and death; no antidote is available (Turgut et al. 2005). Allergic Reactions: Individuals with allergies to plants of the family Asteraceae, including those who are allergic to ragweed, may be sensitive to this plant, and cases of contact dermatitis have been reported (Menz & Winkelmann 1987).

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Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature. Laboratory studies have shown the following pharmacological effects of cadillo de gato: analgesic, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antimitotic, antinociceptive, antitrypanosomal, antitumor, CNS depressant, cytotoxic, hypoglycemic and modulation of mesangial cell proliferation (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The seed contains the glycoside carboxyatractyloside which is highly toxic to humans (Turgut et al. 2005). Isolated caffeoylquinic acids are associated with the plants antinociceptive activity (Han et al. 2007). Other major chemical constituents include: xanthanolide sesquiterpenes, xanthanolin, xantholide diol and dimeric xanthanolide (Ahmed et al. 1999); xanthan epoxide derivatives (Mahmoud 1998); thiazinedione (Qin et al. 2006); sesquiterpene lactones (Kim et al. 2003). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated this herb as REC meaning RECommended specifically for its traditional use in treating kidney pain, prepared as a decoction of the root and taken orally. For treating infections or kidney stones, this herb should be considered a complementary therapy due to its diuretic effects (Germosn-Robineau 2005). For kidney pain, typical administration and dosage is a decoction of 15-20 g of the root in 1 liter of water, boiled for at least 10 minutes in a covered container, allowed to cool and taken orally, 1 cup 3-4 times daily (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Xanthium strumarium

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic Preparation Fruit extract Design & Model In vivo: diabetic rats; insulin- & streptozotocininduced models In vivo: mice, croton-oil-induced edema & aceticacid-induced writing In vitro & in vivo: rats with experimentallyinduced paw edema; hot plate & acetic-acid induced abdominal constriction tests In vitro: strains of cholorquinine sensitive & resistant Plasmodium falciparum Results Active; dose dependent antihyperglycemic effect attributed to caffeic acid Active; n-butanol fraction showed strongest dose-dependent anti-inflammatory, analgesic & antinociceptive effects Active; down-regulated inflammatory pathway; inhibited iNOS, COX-2 expression & TNF-alpha release; mechanism involves blocking NFkappaB activation Active; minimum effective dose not toxic to human and monkey liver cell lines Reference Hsu et al. 2000

Antiinflammatory & analgesic

Plant ethanolic extract & fractions

Han et al. 2007

Antiinflammatory & antinociceptive

Methanolic seed extract

Kim et al. 2005

Antimalarial

Ethanol extract of aerial parts

Badam et al. 1988

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial Antimitotic

Preparation Extract of flowering twigs Active constituents & partially purified extracts

Antitrypanosomal

Design & Model In vitro: selected bacterial species In vitro: isolated mammalian tissue microtubule-tubulin system Leaves; 50% crude In vitro & in vivo: ethanolic extract (i.p.) mice infected with Trypanosoma evansi Xanthanolide sesquiterpene lactones Plant extract In vitro: human tumor cell lines In vivo: rodent

Results Strongly active against Vibrio cholerae Active; inhibited tubulin polymerization Showed antitrypanosomal activity at 5-1000 g/mL (in vitro) & 100-300 mg/kg in vivo Active; inhibited farnesylation process in a dose-dependent manner Active; altered behavior, reduced motility, prolonged sleep, suppressed exploratory behavior & avoidance response Active Active; inhibited proliferation of cancer cells & dose-dependent inhibition of farnesyltransferase farnesylation of human lamin-B (IC50=64 & 58 mcmol, respectively) Active Active; MIC=42.8 1.3; decreased interleukin1beta & tumor necrosis factor-alpha production

Reference Mehta et al. 1983 Menon et al. 2001

Talakal et al. 1995

Antitumor

Kim et al. 2003 Mandal et al. 2001

Central nervous system depressant

Cytotoxic Cytotoxic

Crude leaf extracts & isolated xanthatin Sesquiterpene lactones isolated from leaves: 8-epixanthatin & 8-epixanthatin epoxide

In vitro In vitro: human tumor cell lines (non-small cell lung, ovary, melanoma, central nervous system & colon) Not specified In vitro: human mesangial cell

Roussakis et al. 1994 Kim et al. 2003

Hypoglycemic Modulation of mesangial cell proliferation

Isolated compound Crude methanol extracts

Kupiecki et al. 1974 Kuo et al. 1998

References
Ahmed AA, Mahmoud AA, El-Gamal AA. 1999. A xanthanolide diol and a dimeric xanthanolide from Xanthium species. Planta Med 65(5):470-2. Badam L, Deolankar RP, Rojatkar SR, Nagsampgi BA, Wagh UV. 1988. In-vitro antimalarial activity of medicinal plants of India. Indian Journal of Medical Research. Section B, Biomedical Research Other than Infectious Diseases 87(APR):379-83. Dhar ML, Dhar MM, Dhawan BN, Mehrotra BN, Ray C. 1968. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: part I. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 6:232-47.

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Gleason H and Cronquist A. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden Press, 910 pp. Han T, Li HL, Zhang QY, Han P, Zheng HC, Rahman K, Qin LP. 2007. Bioactivity-guided fractionation for antiinflammatory and analgesic properties and constituents of Xanthium strumarium L. Phytomedicine [Epub ahead of print, Medline abstract accessed July 23, 2007]. Hatch RC, Jain AV, Weiss R, Clark JD. 1982. Toxicologic study of carboxyatractyloside (active principle in cockleburXanthium strumarium) in rats treated with enzyme inducers and inhibitors and glutathione precursor and depletor. Am J Vet Res 43(1):111-6. Hsu FL, Chen YC, Cheng JT. 2000. Caffeic acid as active principle from the fruit of Xanthium strumarium to lower plasma glucose in diabetic rats. 66(3):228-30. Jimenez L, Leon MC, Herrera R, Garcia G, Cadenas JL, Lopez C. 1999. Toxicidad aguda oral del Xanthium strumarium L. (guisazo de caballo). Rev Cubana Plantas Med 4(1):40-3. Kim YS, Kim JS, Park SH, Choi SU, Lee CO, Kim SK, Kim YK, Kim SH, Ryu SY. 2003. Two cytotoxic sesquiterpene lactones from the leaves of Xanthium strumarium and their in vitro inhibitory activity on farnesyltransferase. Planta Medica 69(4):375-377. Khafagy SM, Metwally AM. 1971. Phytochemical investigation of Xanthium occidentale. Planta Medica.

19(3):234-40.
Kim IT, Park YM, Won JH, Jung HJ, Park HJ, Choi JW, Lee KT. 2005. Methanol extract of Xanthium strumarium L. possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities. Biol Pharm Bull 28(1):94-100. Kim YS, Kim JS, Park SH, Choi SU, Lee CO, Kim SK, Kim YK, Kim SH, Ryu SY. 2003. Two cytotoxic sesquiterpene lactones from the leaves of Xanthium strumarium and their in vitro inhibitory activity on farnesyltransferase. Planta Med 69(4):375-7. Kuo YC, Sun CM, Tsai WJ, Ou JC, Chen WP, Lin CY. 1998. Chinese herbs as modulators of human mesangial cell proliferation: preliminary studies. J Lab Clin Med 132(1):76-85. Kupiecki FP, Ogzewalla CD, Schell FM. 1974. Isolation and characterization of a hypoglycemic agent from Xanthium strumarium. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 63(7):1166-1167. Liogier A. 1990. Plantas medicinales de Puerto Rico y del Caribe. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Iberoamericana de Ediciones, Inc., 566 pp. Liogier HA. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de La Espaola. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: Jardn Botnico Nacional, 598 pp. Mahmoud AA. 1998. Xanthanolides and xanthene epoxide derivatives from Xanthium strumarium. Planta Med 64(8):724-7. Mandal SC, Dhara AK, Ashok Kumar CK, Maiti BC. 2001. Neuropharmacological activity of Xanthium strumarium Linn. extract. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 8(1):69-77. Mehta P, Chopra S, Mehta A. 1983. Antimicrobial properties of some plant extracts against bacteria. Folia Microbiologica 28(6):467-9. Menon GS, Kuchroo K, Dasgupta D. 2001. Interaction of microtubules with active principles of Xanthium strumarium. Physiol Chem Phys Med NMR 33(2):153-62.

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Menz J, Winkelmann RK. 1987. Sensitivity to wild vegetation. Contact Dermatitis 16(3):169-73. Qin L, Han T, Li H, Zhang Q, Zheng H. 2006. A new thiazinedione from Xanthium strumarium. Fitoterapia 77(3):245-6. Roussakis C, Chinou I, Vayas C, Harvala C, Verbist JF. 1994. Cytotoxic activity of xanthatin and the crude extracts of Xanthium strumarium. Planta Medica 60(5):473-4. Stuart BP, Cole RJ, Gosser HS. 1981. Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium, L. var. strumarium) intoxication in swine: review and redefinition of the toxic principle. Vet Pathol 18(3):368-83. Talakal TS, Dwivedi SK, Sharma SR. 1995. In vitro and in vivo antitrypanosomal activity of Xanthium strumarium leaves. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 49(3):141-5. Turgut M, Alhan CC, Gurgoze M, Kurt A, Dogan Y, Tekatli M, Akpolat N, Aygun AD. 2005. Carboxyatractyloside poisoning in humans. Ann Trop Paediatr 25(2):125-32. Wang S, Zhang J, Xu J. 1998. [Pharmacological identification of fructus glychrrhizaean adulterant of fructus Xanthii]. [Chinese] Zhong Yao Cai 21(3):119-22.

Caf
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Coffee (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Coffea arabica L. [Rubiaceae (Bedstraw or Madder Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Backache - Diarrhea - Inflamed gums - Intestinal parasites - Limpiar la sangre - Sexually transmitted infections - Skin disorders - Toothache Plant Part Used: Seeds, leaves and bark. Traditional Preparation: Raw seeds are prepared by fermenting, drying, roasting, grinding and finally brewing them in hot water to make coffee. When the leaves or bark are used, they are prepared as a decoction or alcohol tincture and applied topically.

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Traditional Uses: Caf seeds are typically prepared as a coffee beverage and often used therapeutically as a stimulant, laxative or diuretic, sometimes combined with lemon or lime. For intestinal parasites and diarrhea, leaves of caf are boiled with senna (guajabo) leaves or sometimes with wormseed (apasote) leaves and taken as a tea. For skin disorders such as pao (skin fungal infection), the leaves are prepared as a bath. For arthritis and back pain or muscle aches, the seeds of caf are combined with ginger (jengibre) root and guinea hen-weed (anam) root and prepared as a mixed-herb drink (botella) by tincturing them in gin (jinebra) for several days to weeks and applying externally to the affected area. For toothache or inflammation of the mouth or gums, a mouthrinse (buche or enjuague) is made of unsweetened coffee with a little bit of salt. Black coffee (caf negro or caf puro) is also said to cleanse the blood and is taken for treating sexually transmitted infections (i.e. gonorrhea and HIV), which are said to contaminate the blood with pathogens. Herbalists advise that drinking coffee too early in the morning or on an empty stomach is said to cause anxiety or nervousness. Availability: Roasted seeds are typically bought from grocery stores, supermarkets, of local bodegas and sold as either whole or ground beans.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Caf (Coffea arabica) is an evergreen shrub or small tree that grows 1.5-3 m tall (sometimes up to 7 m) with many paired branches. Leaves are narrowly oval to oblong in shape and shiny dark green in color. Flowers grow from the leaf axils in tight clusters with short stalks and petals that are white, funnel-shaped and jasmine-scented. Fruits are fleshy berries (1.5-1.8 cm long) with skins that turn bright red, yellow or purple when mature. Each fruit contains two seeds which are fermented, dried and roasted to make coffee (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is native to Africa and the Middle East and is widely cultivated throughout the tropics, often persisting in the wild after cultivation (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

In general, no health hazards or negative side effects are associated with the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant. Even in large quantities (5 cups daily), no toxicity was observed in healthy adults accustomed to drinking coffee. Prolonged daily intake of large amounts (5.6 cups per day) can result in significant increases in LDL and overall cholesterol levels. Potential side effects are attributed to coffees chlorogenic acid content and can include diarrhea, appetite suppression, hyperacidity and stomach irritation. Long-term intake of 1.5 g caffeine daily can result in nonspecific symptoms including dizziness, irritability, diarrhea, upset stomach, headache, restlessness, insomnia and heart palpitations and can also result in physical and psychological dependency with withdrawal symptoms of headache and sleeping disorders. Intake of extremely large quantities of coffee can result in caffeine overdose and potentially fatal poisoning (LD50 for an adult = 75 cups of coffee for 50 kg body weight). There has been one report of fatality in a child following intake of 5.3 g caffeine (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Caffeine (including coffee) should be avoided during pregnancy (no more than 3 cups coffee daily = 300 mg caffeine). Lactating mothers who drink caffeinated beverages may lead to sleeping disorders for their nursing infants. For people with renal dysfunction, hyperthyroidism, sensitive cardiovascular systems or disposition to psychological disorders or convulsions, caution is advised (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: Coffee can interfere with the resorption of other drugs (Gruenwald et al. 2004). The following medications may inhibit caffeine metabolism or clearance: oral contraceptives, cimetidine, furafylline, verapamil, disulfiram, fluconoazole, mexiletine, phenylpropanolamine, numerous quinolone

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antibiotics (i.e. enoxacin, pipemidic acid, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin), idrocilamide and methoxsalen (Brinker 1998).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Coffee has been studied in clinical trials for the following effects: cognitive enhancement, common cold relief and laxative. Laboratory and preclinical studies have shown the following effects: antioxidant and hypercholesterolemic. The following additional pharmacological effects have been attributed to coffee (primarily due to its high caffeine content): inotropic, chronotropic (in high doses) on heart and CNS, relaxation of smooth muscles of blood vessels (except cerebral) and bronchial tubes, diuretic, catalysis of the release of catecholamines and stimulation of an increase in gastric secretions. The mechanism of caffeine involves the competitive blocking of adenosinal receptors. Other therapeutic applications include its use in treating hypotonia, flu, migraines and as an analeptic or additive analgesic agent (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Caffeine is present in the leaves and bark of this plant, not just the seeds. Indications and Usage: Approved by the Commission E for treatment of diarrhea and inflammation of the mouth and throat (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Typical daily dosage is 15 g roasted coffee beans, single dose of 3 g ground beans, prepared according to various infusion methods (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Coffea arabica

Activity/Effect Cognitive enhancement Preparation Caffeine; 250 mg (vs. 2 mg nicotine) Design & Model Clinical trial, double-blind placebo-controlled, cross-over design; Clinical trial, randomized controlled; n=46 healthy volunteers with common cold Clinical trial, randomized controlled; n=12 healthy subjects; duration: 10 hour period; measured by ambulatory colonic manometry Results Reference Attenuated scopolamineRiedel et al. 1995 induced impairment of recall, long-term memory retrieval & cognitive measures; showed cholinergic cognition enhancing effects Improved symptoms of colds; Smith et al. 1997 increased alertness & speed at performing psychomotor tasks to healthy levels Active; stimulated colonic motor activity with a magnitude similar to that of a meal, 60% stronger than water & 23% stronger effect than decaffeinated coffee Rao et al. 1998

Common cold relief

Laxative

Caffeinated coffee (1.5 mg/kg caffeine/b.w.); vs. decaffeinated coffee & fruit juice Caffeinated coffee (240 mL; 150 mg caffeine) vs. same amounts of decaffeinated coffee, water or 1000 kcal meal

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Coffea arabica

Activity/Effect Antioxidant Preparation Green & roasted coffee (Coffea arabica & Coffea robusta) Design & Model In vitro (betacarotene-linoleic acid model) & ex vivo: rat liver cell microsome lipid peroxidation In vivo; adult male Syrian hamsters fed low & high saturated fat diets; 250 L administered daily by gavage Results Demonstrated very strong protective activity with acidified dark roasted coffee containing the most protective compounds whereas antioxidant activity was slightly higher in green coffee samples Demonstrated hypercholesterolemic activity; effect may be due to diterpenes in coffee lipids Reference Daglia 2000

Coffee lipids, nonHypercholesterolemic saponifiable matter, & diterpene alcohols; dissolved in olive oil or coconut oil

Ratnayake et al. 1995

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Daglia M, Papetti A, Gregotti C, Berte F, Gazzani G. 2000. In vitro antioxidant and ex vivo protective activities of green and roasted coffee. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 48(5):1449-54. Rao SS, Welcher K, Zimmerman B, Stumbo P. 1998. Is coffee a colonic stimulant? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 10(2):113-8. Ratnayake WM, Pelletier G, Hollywood R, Malcolm S, Stavric B. 1995. Investigation of the effect of coffee lipids on serum cholesterol in hamsters. Food & Chemical Toxicology 33(3):195-201. Riedel W, Hogervorst E, Leboux R, Verhey, van Praag H, Jolles J. 1995. Caffeine attenuates scopolamine-induced memory impairment in humans. Psychopharmacology 122(2):158-68. Smith A, Thomas M, Perry K, Whitney H. 1997. Caffeine and the common cold. J Psychopharmacol 11(4):319-324. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Cajuil
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cscara de cajuil, cacajuil (Spanish); cashew (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Anacardium occidentale L. [Anacardiaceae (Cashew Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health condition (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Diarrhea (in both adults and children) Plant Part Used: Dried bark. Traditional Preparation: For diarrhea, a tea is prepared of the dried bark (corteza) and taken with salt. Availability: As a popular food item, cashew nuts are commonly available at grocery stores and supermarkets. Cajuil dried bark can be purchased at botnicas that specialize in selling Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cajuil (Anacardium occidentale) is a small evergreen shade tree that grows 6-12 m tall and has grey bark which exudes a gummy resin. Leaves are alternate and oblong to oval. Flowers grow in long clusters, each flower bearing yellow to rosy-pink petals. Fruits are kidney-shaped nuts (2-3 cm long), each containing a single seed which protrudes like a rounded hook from an apple-shaped, swollen edible flower-stem that is fleshy and yellow to reddish in color (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is native to northern South America, grows in the semiarid tropics and is cultivated for its edible fruits (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The fresh seed case of the nut contains alkyl phenols which are strong skin irritants and can cause erythemas with nodule and blister formation or rimose exanthemas after prolonged contact. Roasting neutralizes these alkyl phenols in the plant stalk and seeds so that they do not irritate the skin and can be consumed (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Animal Toxicity Studies: Despite previous indications based on an in vivo (mouse) study that cashew (cajuil) shell kernel oil may exhibit a weak tumor-promoting effect (Banerjee & Rao 1992), recent studies have shown that the oil does not exhibit carcinogenic activity (Singh et al. 2004). Contraindications: Unknown, insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory studies, this plant has demonstrated the following effects: antiarthritic, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-leishmanial, antimutagenic, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, tyrosinase inhibition and vasorelaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). In other references, the dried ethanolic extract has reportedly demonstrated antibacterial properties against grampositive bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro. Due to its anacardic acid content, which is a phenolic skin stimulant, the dried seed case also acts as an astringent and cauterizing agent. Other laboratory studies have demonstrated the following pharmacological activities of the fruits: antimicrobial, molluscicidal, vermicidal and antitumor effects (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Constituents identified in the bark include: cardol, gingkol and a high quantity of tannins. Biologically active compounds in the seed include: alpha-linolenic acid, anacardic acid, aspartic acid, beta-sitosterol, cadmium, capric acid, caprylic acid, cardanol, folacin, gallic acid, glutamic acid, histidine, lauric acid, linoleic acid, myristic acid, naringenin, oxalic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, pantothenic acid, phytosterols and squalene. Active compounds in the fruit include: ascorbic acid, benzaldehyde, hexanal, leucocyanidin, limonene, salicylic acid and tocopherol (Duke & BeckstromSternberg 1998). Cashew nuts are a significant source of copper, magnesium, monounsaturated fatty acids and phosphorus (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has approved the use of the fresh juice of the mature fruit (swollen fruit-stem) as REC meaning that it is recommended for the treatment of diarrhea (Germosn-Robineau 2005). The only available information on dosage is the traditional form of preparation using the fresh juice of the fruit-stem. Available commercial preparations of cajuil include acajou oil, cashew oil, oleum anacardiae, fatty oil extracted from the seeds and homeopathic preparations (Blumenthal et al. 1998).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Anacardium occidentale

Activity/Effect Antiarthritic & antioxidant Preparation Milk extract of nuts (Semecarpus anacardium) at 150 mg/kg for 14 days 60% methanolic extract of bark Plant extract Design & Model In vivo: rat with adjuvant arthritis Results Showed significant antioxidant effects against lipid peroxidation which may explain antiarthritic effects Exhibited activity against 13 out of 15 bacterial isolates at a concentration of 20 mg/mL Showed activity against Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria including Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Exhibited significant protective effects against diabetes-promoting action of STZ; compared with control, pretreated animals showed a dramatically lower rise in blood glucose levels Reference Vijayalakshmi et al. 1997

Antibacterial

In vitro In vitro

Akinpelu 2001 Kudi et al. 1999

Antibacterial

Antidiabetic

In vivo: rats with Pretreated with 175 STZ-induced mg/kg aqueous extract, twice daily, diabetes beginning 2 days before streptozotocin (STZ) injection

Kamtchouing et al. 1998

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Activity/Effect Antifungal

Preparation Supernatant of plant (R(f) 0.31)

Design & Model In vitro: agar diffusion and broth dilution methods; 3 fungi tested

Antiinflammatory

Stem bark methanol extract; pretreatment with 25200 mg/kg extract

Antiinflammatory

Stem-bark aqueous extract (800 mg/kg orally); taken with & without grapefruit juice (5 mL/kg orally) Tannins isolated from bark (both hydrolysable and non-hydrolysable tannins); injected & orally administered Hydroalcoholic extract of bark

In vivo: mice; evaluated against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced septic shock and microvascular permeability In vivo: male rats with fresh egg albumin-induced rat paw edema

Results Exhibited significant antifungal activity, especially in the inhibition of Cryptococcus neoformans; separating macromolecules from metabolites enhanced antifungal activity Resulted in a significant dose-dependent reduction in inflammation measures; highest dose produced 100% protection against death from sepsis Demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity; coadministration of grapefruit juice significantly potentiated antiinflammatory effects; supports use in treatment of arthritis & other conditions Active in both models; mechanism possibly attributed to astringent properties of tannins on cell membranes and resulting effects on cell functions Showed high activity in vitro against leismaniasis-causing promastigotes; however, no therapeutic activity observed in vivo Active; protected against oxidative mutagenesis; may

Reference Schmourlo et al. 2005

Olajide et al. 2004

Ojewole 2004

Antiinflammatory

Antileishmanial

In vivo: rat: dextran- & carrageenaninduced paw edema; mouse: cotton pellet granuloma test & adjuvant-induced polyarthritis In vitro & in vivo against Leishmania (Viannia) brasiliensis In vitro: Salmonella microsome & total radical-trapping assays In vivo: Swiss albino mice

Mota et al. 1985

Franca et al. 1993

Antimutagenic & antioxidant

Fresh juice of fruitstem & processed juice (cajuina) Nut shell oil; two doses (50 and 100 L/animal/day) administered orally for 10 days

Melo et al. 2003

stimulate repair of damage to DNA

Demonstrated antioxidant activity by enhancing activities of SOD, catalase, methylglyoxalase I, GST & levels of GSH; decreased lipid peroxidation Singh et al. 2004

Antioxidant

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Activity/Effect Hypoglycemic

Preparation Stem bark extracts: aqueous & methanolic (100-800 mg/kg p.o.) Hexane extract of bark & isolated active constituents; administered intravenously Compounds isolated from fruit: anacardic acids, 2methylcardols & cardols Leaf extract

Design & Model In vivo: normal rats and those with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes In vivo: normal, healthy dogs

Hypoglycemic

Tyrosinase inhibition

In vitro

Vasorelaxant

In vitro: aortic ring preparations

Results Both extracts demonstrated significant hypoglycemic activity & dose-dependent reduction in blood glucose concentrations of fasted normal & diabetic rats Significant lowering of blood glucose levels; isolated active compounds: stigmast-4-en-3-ol and stigmast-4-en-3-one were effective at 1.3 mg/kg b.w. Phenolic compounds identified exhibit competitive inhibition of exudation of L-3,4dihydroxyphenylalanine (LDOPA) by mushroom tyrosinase Exhibited more than 50% relaxing effect; shown to be an endothelium-dependent effect, mediated by nitric oxide

Reference Ojewole 2003

Alexander-Lindo et al. 2004

Kubo et al. 1994

Runnie et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Akinpelu DA. 2001. Antimicrobial activity of Anacardium occidentale bark. Fitoterapia 72(3):286-287. Alexander-Lindo RL, Morrison EY, Nair MG. 2004. Hypoglycaemic effect of stigmast-4-en-3-one and its corresponding alcohol from the bark of Anacardium occidentale (cashew). Phytotherapy Research 18(5):403-7. Banerjee S, Rao AR. 1992. Promoting action of cashew nut shell oil in DMBA-initiated mouse skin tumour model system. Cancer Letters 62(2):149-152. Bedello PG, Goitre M, Cane D, Roncarolo G, Alovisi V. 1985. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Allergic contact dermatitis to cashew nut. Contact Dermatitis 12:235. Caceres A, Cano O, Samayoa B, Aguilar L. 1990. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. 1. Screening of 84 plants against Enterobacteria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 30:55-73. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007).

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Franca F, Cuba CA, Moreira EA, Miguel O, Almeida M, das Virgens Mde L, Marsden PD. 1993. [An evaluation of the effect of a bark extract from the cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) on infection by Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis]. [Portuguese] Revista Da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 26(3):151-5. George J, Kuttan R. 1997. Mutagenic, carcinogenic and cocarcinogenic activity of cashewnut shell liquid. Cancer Letters 112(1):11-16. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Kamtchouing P, Sokeng SD, Moundipa PF, Watcho P, Jatsa HB, Lontsi D. 1998. Protective role of Anacardium occidentale extract against streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 62(2):95-99. Kudi AC, Umoh JU, Eduvie LO, Gefu J. 1999. Screening of some Nigerian medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 67(2):225-228. Kubo I, Kinst-Hori I, Yokokawa Y. 1994. Tyrosinase inhibitors from Anacardium occidentale fruits. Journal of Natural Products 57(4):545-551. Melo Cavalcante AA, Rubensam G, Picada JN, Gomes de Silva E, Fonseca Moreira JC, Henriques JA. 2003. Mutagenicity, antioxidant potential and antimutagenic activity against hydrogen peroxide of cashew (Anacardium occidentale) apple juice and cajuina. Environ Mol Mutagen 41(5):360-369. Mota ML, Thomas G, Barbosa Filho JM. 1985. Anti-inflammatory actions of tannins isolated from the bark of Anacardium occidentale L. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 13(3):289-300. Ojewole JA. 2004. Potentiation of the antiinflammatory effect of Anacardium occidentale (Linn.) stem-bark aqueous extract by grapefruit juice. Methods & Findings in Experimental & Clinical Pharmacology 26(3):183-188. Olajide OA, Aderogba MA, Adedapo AD, Makinde JM. 2004. Effects of Anacardium occidentale stem bark extract on in vivo inflammatory models. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2-3):139-42. Schmourlo G, Mendonca-Filho RR, Alviano CS, Costa SS. 2005. Screening of antifungal agents using ethanol precipitation and bioautography of medicinal and food plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 96(3):563-8. Singh B, Kale RK, Rao AR. 2004. Modulation of antioxidant potential in liver of mice by kernel oil of cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) and its lack of tumour promoting ability in DMBA induced skin papillomagenesis. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 42(4):373-7. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Vijayalakshmi T, Muthulaksmi V, Sachdanandam P. 1997. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Salubrious effect of Semecarpus anacardium against lipid peroxidative changes in adjuvant arthritis studied in rats. Molecular & Cellular Biochemistry 175(1-2):65-69. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Caafstula
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Golden shower tree, Indian laburnum, pudding pipe tree, purging cassia (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cassia fistula L. [Caesalpiniaceae (Senna Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Constipation - Intestinal parasites - Intestinal worms - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Dried seed pods. Traditional Preparation: Break off a segment of the pod (about handwidth-size) and boil in 2 cups of water for 5-10 minutes, let cool and infuse until lukewarm, then drink as tea. A brew of either the leaves or the pods can be used as a laxative. Also, the pulp can be ingested or sucked on for expelling worms. Availability: Dried seed pods can be purchased from select botnicas in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Caafstula (Cassia fistula) is a tree that grows to 10 m. Leaves are pinnately divided into 4-8 pairs of leaflets arranged along a central stem (up to 15 cm long). Flowers grow in long, pendulous clusters (30-45 cm long), are pale yellow in color with 5 petals each and bloom before leaves emerge in the spring. Fruits are long, cylindrical pods (40-60 cm), dark brown to black in color, enclosing numerous glossy, flattishround seeds surrounded by a dark brown sweet pulp, smelling of prunes (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native to India and is cultivated as an ornamental tree and for its medicinal properties (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Although no health risks or negative side effects have been identified in the scientific literature for the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant, long-term use of anthracene drugs (such as caafstula) has been suspected as linked to increased possibility of colon carcinoma. However, recent studies have not supported this connection. When taken in excessive amounts, symptoms of overdose include gastrointestinal disorders and cramping due to the laxative effect of the herb which may result in loss of electrolytes with prolonged use. More severe symptoms occur rarely and may include edema, cardiac arrhythmia, nephropathy and accelerated osteoclasis (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Persons with acute-inflammatory diseases of the intestine and appendicitis (ileum) should not take this herb. Also, it is contraindicated during pregnancy, lactation and for children younger than 12 years of age (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Laboratory and preclinical studies have been conducted to investigate the following effects: antiAlzheimer's, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, antifertility, anti-inflammatory, antineoplastic, antioxidant, antisecretory, antitumor, central nervous system depressant, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolemic, lipid peroxide formation inhibition, radical scavenging and sedative (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The primary active constituents, anthracene derivatives, have shown laxative effects and fruit extracts have demonstrated antimicrobial and antiviral activity in laboratory studies (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Sennoside content varies in leaves and pods depending on seasonality based on ecological surveys; peak content was observed in June when new leaves appeared and highest percentages in pods were found at the midstage of fruit maturation (Cano Asseleih et al. 1990). Indications and Usage: Due to evidence of the laxative effects of the fruit constituents (anthracene derivatives) in laboratory studies, use of the fruit pods for treating constipation is plausible. A standard daily dosage is 4 to 6 g of the fruit pulp, typically administered as an aqueous extract (1:1) which is macerated and percolated exhaustively before filtering (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Cassia fistula

Activity/Effect Anti-Alzheimer's Preparation Methanolic extract of roots Design & Model In vitro, using Ellman's colorimetric method in 96-welled microplates In vitro: gramnegative bacteria Results Showed inhibitory activity on acetylcholinesterase at concentration of 0.1 mg/mL (50-65%) Showed significant antibacterial activity against: Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris & Pseudomonas aeruginosa Showed significant decrease in glycemia at doses of 300 and 500 mg/kg Showed safe mild to moderate anti-diabetic activity 100% pregnancy inhibition at 500 mg/kg & lower but still significant rates at lower doses Found potent antiinflammatory activity against all phlogistic agents Reference Ingkaninan et al. 2003

Antibacterial

Not specified

Perumal Samy et al. 1998

Antidiabetic

Antidiabetic Antifertility

Aqueous fraction of leaves Aqueous bark extract Aqueous extract of seeds Leaf extract

In vivo: normoglycemic mice Diabetic rats In vivo: mated female rats In vivo: rats with phenylbutazone, carrageenan-, histamine- & dextran-induced paw edema In vivo: tumorbearing mice

Esposito Avella et al. 1991 Ratnasooriya et al. 2004 Yadav and Jain 1999 Bhakta et al. 1999

Anti-inflammatory

Antineoplastic

Methanolic extract of fruit

Showed antineoplastic activity (60% protection)

Gupta et al. 1997

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant, radical scavenging & lipid peroxide formation inhibition Antisecretory & antidiarrheal

Preparation Aqueous freeze-dried extracts Extract

Design & Model In vitro & in vivo

Results Showed some DPPH radical scavenging activity & activity against deoxyribose damage Showed highly significant antisecretory activity against Escherichia coli enterotoxininduced secretion Showed a decrease in the tumor volume & tumor cell count; increased of life span Significantly potentiated sedative actions of sodium pentobarbitone, diazepam, meprobamate & chlorpromazine; potentiated analgesia induced by morphine & pethidine; depressant actions evident Showed significant protective effect against induced hepotoxicity Significant correction of lipid metabolism exhibited

Reference J Munasinghe et al. 2001 Gupta et al. 1993 Gupta et al. 2000 Mazunder UK et al. 1998

In vivo: rabbits & guinea pig ileal loop models In vivo: mice In vivo: mice; both pharmacological & behavioral models

Antitumor

Methanolic extract of seed

Methanol Central nervous system depressant & extract of seed sedative

Hepatoprotective

Hypocholesterolemic

n-heptane extract of leaves; administered orally Not specified

In vivo: rats with hepatotoxicity induced by paracetamol In vivo: rats with experimentallyinduced hypercholesterolemia

Bhakta et al. 2001

el-Saadany et al. 1991

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic; insulin secretagogue activity Preparation Dried ethanol extracts dissolved in ethanol and DMSO Design & Model In vitro: INS-1 cells in the presence of 5.5 mM glucose; Glibenclamide used as a control Results No activity detected at concentrations of 1, 10, 20 or 40 g/mL Reference Hussain Z et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Bhakta T, Banerjee S, Mandal SC, Maity TK, Saha BP, Pal M. 2001. Hepatoprotective activity of Cassia fistula leaf extract. Phytomedicine 8(3):220-4.

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Bhakta T, Mukherjee PK, Saha K, Pal M, Saha BP, Mandal SC. 1999. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of Cassia fistula (Leguminosae) leaf extract on rats. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 6(4):6772. Cano Asseleih LM, Hernandez Hernandez O, Bangel Sanchez J. 1990. Seasonal variations in the content of sennosides in leaves and pods of two Cassia-fistula populations. Phytochemistry 29(10):3095-3100. el-Saadany SS, el-Massry RA, Labib SM, Sitohy MZ. 1991. The biochemical role and hypocholesterolaemic potential of the legume Cassia fistula in hypercholesterolaemic rats. Nahrung 35(8):807-15. Esposito Avella M, Diaz A. de Gracia I, de Tello R, Gupta MP. 1991. Evaluation of traditional medicine: effects of Cajanus cajan L. and of Cassia fistula L. on carbohydrate metabolism in mice. Revista Medica de Panama 16(1):39-45. Gupta M, Mazumder UK, Rath N, Mukhopadhyay DK. 2000. Antitumor activity of methanolic extract of Cassia fistula L. seed against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72(1-2):151-6. Gupta M, Mazumder U, Chakrabarti S, Bhattacharya S, Rath N, Bhowal, Seema R. 1997. Anti-epileptic and anticancer activity of some indigenous plants. Indian Journal of Physiology & Allied Sciences 51(2):53-56. Gupta S, Yadava JNS, Tandon JS. 1993. Antisecretory (antidiarrhoeal) activity of Indian medicinal plants against Escherichia coli enterotoxin-induced secretion in rabbit and guinea pig ileal loop models. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 31(3):198-204. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Hussain Z, Waheed A, Qureshi RA, Burdi DK, Verspohl EJ, Khan N, Hasan M. 2004. The effect of medicinal plants of Islamabad and Murree region of Pakistan on insulin secretion from INS-1 cells. Phytotherapy Research 18(1):73-7. J Munasinghe TC, Seneviratne CK, Thabrew MI, Abeysekera AM. 2001. Antiradical and antilipoperoxidative effects of some plant extracts used by Sri Lankan traditional medical practitioners for cardioprotection. Phytotherapy Research 15(6):519-23. Mazunder UK, Gupta M, Rath N. 1998. CNS activities of Cassia fistula in mice. Phytotherapy Research 12(7):5202. Perumal Samy R, Ignacimuthu S, Sen A.1998. Screening of 34 Indian medicinal plants for antibacterial properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 62(2):173-82. Ratnasooriya WD, Hettiarachchi HD, Jayakody JR. 2004. Cassia fistula and hypoglycaemia. Australian Journal of Medical Herbalism 16(1):8-13. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Thongnoi W. 2003. Screening for acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity in plants used in Thai traditional rejuvenating and neurotonic remedies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 89(2-3):261-4. Yadav R, Jain GC. 1999. Antifertility effect of aqueous extract of seeds of Cassia fistula in female rats. Advances in Contraception 15(4):293-301.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Canela
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cinnamon (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cinnamomum verum Presl. Synonym: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. [Lauraceae (Laurel Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Allergies - Anxiety - Arthritis - Common cold - Flu - Kidney disorders - Low blood pressure - Menopausal hot flashes - Nasal congestion - Sinusitis - Stress - Uterine fibroids - Womens health conditions Plant Part Used: Dried inner bark, which typically curls or rolls up while drying to form sticks. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction and often added to other teas or herbal mixtures for flavor and therapeutic value. Traditional Uses: Canela is used both medicinally and as a flavoring agent in herbal teas because of its sweet, spicy taste. An infusion of canela is reported to help regulate blood pressure. For low blood pressure, a tea is prepared by boiling the dried inner bark in milk. For kidney disorders, canela is added to an infusion made of horsetail (cola de caballo). Canela is considered a hot (caliente) herb that warms the body and is used for treating conditions caused by excess cold in the body such as arthritis and the common cold or flu. As a remedy, a tea is prepared of cinnamon (canela) bark, lemon/lime (limn) fruit, lavender (alucema) flowers and Chinese star anise (ans de estrella) seeds. To treat sinusitis and nasal congestion due to allergies, the following herbs are boiled in water to make a steam bath for the face: cinnamon (canela) sticks, cumin (ans comino or comino) seeds, rose (rosa) petals and allspice (malagueta) seeds. The patient inhales the vapor of these plants by leaning over the pot of water while covering his or her head with a sheet or towel. For anxiety, stress and tension, canela is considered a relaxing herb (relajante), and a tea for calming the nervous system is prepared using cinnamon sticks and chamomile (manzanilla) flowers. For womens health conditions, including uterine fibroids and menopausal hot flashes, cinnamon (canela)

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sticks are added to multi-herb decoctions or tinctures (bebedizos and botellas) to sweeten the bitter flavor of these preparations. Because this plant is considered a sweet herb, la esencia de canela or el espiritu de canela (essential oil or alcohol extract) is used as an ingredient in baths to attract good fortune and positive energy as part of spiritual healing traditions. Availability: As a popular culinary seasoning, canela dried bark (powdered or in stick form) is sold at most grocery stores, supermarkets and botnicas. Canela spirit or essence is sold at botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Canela (Cinnamomum verum) is an evergreen tree that reaches a height of 8-18 m and has reddish brown, soft bark. Leaves occur in opposite pairs. Flowers grow in clusters that are covered with short, silky hairs. Each small flower has 6-petal-like structures that are cream-to-yellowish in color with an unpleasant odor. Fruits are purple-skinned berries containing numerous seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native to Asia, particularly southern India and Sri Lanka and is widely cultivated in tropical regions for its inner bark which yields cinnamon. Currently this plant is primarily produced in Sri Lanka although it is also cultivated extensively in India, Malaysia, Madagascar and the Seychelles (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a popular spice, cinnamon is generally considered safe. Most cases of irritation or adverse reactions associated with its use are due to hypersensitivity or excessive exposure to the essential oil or active constituents which are common flavoring or perfume agents. Cases of dermal and mucosal irritation have been reported due to cinnamaldehyde (Fugh-Berman 2003). One case has been reported of squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue due to frequent and prolonged use of cinnamon-flavored gum (Westra et al. 1998). Contraindications: Prolonged use of the essential oil is contraindicated during pregnancy as it has demonstrated teratogenic effects in chick embryos (Keller 1992). Drug Interactions: Insufficient information is available in the literature, although cinnamon has been shown to interfere with tetracycline and methacycline dissolution in vitro.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Cinnamomum verum has been studied in clinical trials to investigate the following effects: antidiabetic and hypocholesterolemic (see Clinical Data table below). Preclinical and laboratory studies of the bark or essential oil have demonstrated the following biological activities: antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, cytostatic and pediculicidal (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). In other laboratory studies reported in secondary references, canela has demonstrated antifungal, antibacterial, motility-promoting (due to cinnamaldehyde content) and antioxidant pharmacological effects. Mildly estrogenic effects have been observed in laboratory tests on animal reproductive systems, and this herb has also been shown to promote gastric secretions (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: Approved by the German Commission E for the treatment of loss of appetite and dyspeptic conditions (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Strips of dried or powdered bark can be prepared as an infusion or used as an essential oil. For tea, add hot water to 0.5 to 1 g bark and strain after 10 minutes. Daily dosage of the bark is 2 to 4 g or one cup of tea/infusion 2-3 times daily with meals (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Clinical Data: Cinnamomum verum

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic & hypocholesterolemic Preparation 1, 3 or 6 g of cinnamon consumed daily Design & Model Randomized placebo controlled clinical trial; n=60 w/type II diabetes; duration: 40 days w/20-day washout period Results Active; lowered serum levels of glucose, triglyceride, total cholesterol & LDL levels; potential use in reducing risk factors for diabetes & heart disease Reference Khan et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Cinnamomum verum

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Essential oil of commercial origin Design & Model In vitro: locally prevalent pathogenic, drug resistant bacteria: 189 Gram (-) & 135 Gram (+) strains isolated from severely infected pediatric patients In vitro: respiratory tract pathogens In vitro: against Candida albicans using a semisolid agar antifungal susceptibility method In vivo: rats fed a high fat diet; studied glutathione content & lipid conjugated dienes to determine effect on hepatic & cardiac antioxidant enzymes In vitro: HEp-2 cells In vitro: against Pediculus humanus capitis Results Exhibited highest & broadest antibacterial activity Reference Hersch-Martinez 2005

Antibacterial Antifungal

Essential oil & main constituents Essential oil & active components

Antioxidant

Bark

Cytostatic Pediculicidal

Essential oil Essential oil alcoholic solution & vinegar rinse

Active; showed high antibacterial activity Demonstrated maximum inhibitory activity (MIC=500 ppm) after 7 days; most active constituents: cinnamaldehyde & betaphellandrene (MIC=50 ppm) Partially counteracted increase in lipid conjugated dienes and hydroperoxides (the primary products of lipid peroxidation); exhibited antioxidant protection by activating antioxidant enzymes Active; showed strong effects Active; showed potential for treatment of head lice

Inouye et al. 2001 Tampieri et al. 2005

Dhuley 1999

Saenz et al. 1996 Veal 1996

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp.

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Dhuley JN. 1999. Anti-oxidant effects of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) bark and greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum) seeds in rats fed high fat diet. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 37(3):238-42. Fugh-Berman A. 2003. The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 475 pp. Hersch-Martinez P, Leanos-Miranda BE, Solorzano-Santos F. 2005. Antibacterial effects of commercial essential oils over locally prevalent pathogenic strains in Mexico. Fitoterapia 76(5):453-457. Inouye S, Yamaguchi H, Takizawa T. 2001. Screening of the antibacterial effects of a variety of essential oils on respiratory tract pathogens, using a modified dilution assay method. J Infect Chemother 7(4):251-254. Keller K. 1992. as cited in Fugh-Berman (2003). Cinnamomum species. In: DeSmet PAGM, ed. Adverse effects of herbal drugs, vol I. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 105-114. Khan A, Safdar M, Ali Khan MM, Khattak KN, Anderson RA. 2003. Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 26(12)3215-3218. Saenz MT, Garcia MD, de la Puerta R. 1996. Cytostatic activity of some essential oils against HEp-2 cells. Farmaco 51(7):539-540. Tampiere MP, Galuppi R, Macchioni F, Carelle MS, Falcioni L, Cioni PL, Morelli I. 2005. The inhibition of Candida albicans by selected essential oils and their major components. Mycopathologia 159(3):339-45. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Veal L. 1996. The potential effectiveness of essential oils as a treatment for headlice, Pediculus humanus capitis. Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery 2(4):97-101. Westra WH, McMurray JS, Califano J. 1998. as cited in Fugh-Berman (2003). Squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue associated with cinnamon gum use: a case report. Head Neck 30:430-433. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Canelilla
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Bay run, malagueta, ozua, pimento (Spanish); allspice, bay, bay rum tree, clove pepper, Jamaica pepper (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) J.W.Moore and Pimenta racemosa var. ozua (Urb. and Ekm.) Landrum. Synonym: Pimenta acris Kostel. [Myrtaceae (Myrtle Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

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In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Common cold - Flu - Impotence (in men) - Infertility - Joint pain - Sexually transmitted infections Plant Part Used: Leaves, berries and the oil extracted from the berries. Traditional Preparation: The leaves and/or berries are prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction or combined with other herbs in an alcohol-based cordial or tincture for internal use. For external use, the leaves are crushed and applied topically or extracted in oil or alcohol to make a liniment. Traditional Uses: The leaves are considered to be bitter (amargo) in taste and to have very hot properties (muy caliente). Canelilla leaves are used to treat cold and flu prepared as a tea. Also, the leaves or an oil extract of the leaves can be applied topically as a liniment for arthritis and joint pain. The leaves of this plant are a common ingredient in a complex, alcohol-based herbal mixture of roots and multiple herbs called la botella mamajuana which is used for treating sexually transmitted infections, impotence in men and infertility in women. According to study participants, this herb grows particularly in the southern, drier regions of the Hispaniola. Availability: The dried leaves can be found at select botnicas (Latino and Afro-Caribbean stores selling herbs and religious items) specializing in medicinal plants in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Canelilla (Pimenta racemosa) is an evergreen tree that grows to 7-12 m tall with smooth, tan, thin bark that peels off in irregular flakes. Leaves grow in opposite pairs and are narrowly oval to oblong in shape (3-15 cm long) with visible glands on the underside and are strongly aromatic when crushed. Flowers have white or lilac fragrant petals and grow in clusters. Fruits are nearly spherical berries (6-10 mm diameter), turning brown or black when ripe and each containing 1-4 seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Although the exact origin of this plant is not certain, it is most likely native to the Virgin Islands and the Caribbean and is widely cultivated in South America, Central America and Jamaica (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Allergic reactions to eugenol, the primary component of the essential oil (50-60%), have been reported, although they occur rarely. In an in vitro study, the aqueous extract did not show mutagenic effects using the rapid streak method for a rec-assay of Bacillus subtilis strains (Ungsurungsie et al. 1982). Animal Toxicity Studies: According to animal studies using mice, this plant is moderately toxic (LD50: 287 12.9 mg residue/kg; 1.854 0.083 g plant/kg). However, it has demonstrated a lack of toxicity at standard doses (Garcia et al. 2004). In another toxicity study, the LD50 in mice of the aqueous leaf extract administered intraperitoneally was 2.08 0.27 g/kg. When administered orally to mice at 6.25, 12.5 and 18.75 g/kg each day for 30 days, no signs of toxicity were observed (Herrera 1988).

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Contraindications: Not to be used during pregnancy, lactation or in children younger than 5 years of age due to lack of information on the effects of this plant in these populations (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Unknown; none identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
According to secondary references, the berries have shown topical antiseptic and analgesic effects in preclinical studies (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Laboratory and preclinical studies have demonstrated the following activities: antibacterial and antifungal activity (in vitro) of the essential oil and the antiinflammatory and anti-nociceptive (in vivo) effects of leaf extracts and isolated compounds of Pimenta racemosa (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The essential oil is used to make Bay rum and is an ingredient in the cosmetics and perfume industry. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified the following uses as REC meaning that they are RECommended for the following traditional uses: treating toothache and arthritis by applying the crushed leaves to the affected area (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Most information on the dosage and administration of this herb is based on external use of the berries in lotions or liniments. No information has been identified on the use of the leaves internally.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Pimenta racemosa

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Essential oil (plant varieties: terebinthina & grisea) Essential oil Design & Model Activity determined against Gram (+) & Gram (-) bacteria In vitro Results The grisea variety demonstrated stronger activity; data indicate potential use as a microbiostatic, antiseptic or disinfectant agent Demonstrated antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, although not as effective as other essential oils Active against Microsporum canis (100 ppm); Trichophyton interdigitale, T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, Candida albicans (200 ppm); Aspergillus fumigatus (400 pm) Showed anti-inflammatory activity after oral or topical administration & showed moderate ability to prevent production of some inflammatory mediators Found to be effective against acute inflammation processes when administered orally or topically applied Reference Saenz et al. 2004

Antibacterial

Burt & Reinders 2003 Chaumont & Bardey 19889

Antifungal

Essential oil (at concentrations of 100, 200 & 400 ppm)

In vitro

Antiinflammatory

An isolated diterpene: abietic acid (var. grissea)

In vivo (rat and mouse) & in vitro (macrophages)

Fernandez et al. 2001

Antiinflammatory

Methanol extract of leaves (var. ozua)

In vivo: rat paw edema & mouse edema models

Fernandez et al. 2001

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Antinociceptive & antiinflammatory

Aqueous extract of leaves (var. ozua)

In vivo: rat and mouse

Showed antinociceptive activity with an associated anti-inflammatory effect

Garcia et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Burst SA, Reinders RD. 2003. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Antibacterial activity of selected plant essential oils against Escherichia coli O157:H7. Letters in Applied Microbiology 36(3):162-167. Chamont J, Bardey I. 1989. In vitro antifungal activity of essential oils. Fitoterapia 60(3):263-266. Fernandez MA, Tornos MP, Garcia MD, de las Heras B, Villar AM, Saenz MT. 2001. Anti-inflammatory activity of abietic acid, a diterpene isolated from Pimenta racemosa var. grissea. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 53(6):867-872. Fernandez A, Alvarez A, Garcia MD, Saenz MT. 2001. Anti-inflammatory effect of Pimenta racemosa var. ozua and isolation of the triterpene lupeol. Farmaco 56(4):335-338. Garcia MD, Fernandez MA, Alvarez A, Saenz MT. 2004. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous extract from leaves of Pimenta racemosa var. ozua (Myrtaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 91(1):69-73. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Herrera J. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Determinacin de actividades biologicas de vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional. Informe TRAMIL. Dep. de Farmacologa, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Saenz MT, Tornos MP, Alvarez A, Fernandez MA, Garcia MD. 2004. Antibacterial activity of essential oils of Pimenta racemosa var. terebinthina and Pimenta racemosa var. grisea. Fitoterapia 75(6):599-602. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Ungsurungsie M, Suthienkul O, Paovalo C. 1982. Mutagenicity screening of popular Thai spices. Food Chem Toxicol 20:527-530.

Cardo Santo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Caldo santo, cardosanto (Spanish); Mexican prickly poppy (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Argemone mexicana L. [Papaveraceae (Poppy Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

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In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Cancer - Limpiar la sangre - Menopausal symptoms - Menstrual disorders - Ovarian cysts - Tumors - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaf, stem, flower and root. Traditional Preparation: Commonly prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction; also used as a wash. Traditional Uses: Cardo santo is reputed to have strongly bitter properties and as such it is said to cleanse the blood. Recognized as a potent herb, it is used as a remedy for serious health conditions including cancer. Since it is also considered a cooling (fresco) herb, it is used for health conditions associated with excess heat in the body. For stomach ulcers, the leaves of cardo santo are prepared as a tea and taken internally. For womens health conditions, particularly for abnormal growths of the womb (matriz) such as uterine or ovarian cysts, fibroids and tumors, this plant (leaf and/or root) is combined with other herbs to make a botella (a multi-herb strong infusion or alcohol-based mixture). For delayed menstruation, vaginal infections, to cleanse the vagina internally or to alleviate symptoms associated with menopause, a tea is prepared of the leaves of cardo santo with those of palm beach-bells (mala madre), or a botella is prepared using these and other herbs. A douche or vaginal wash is also prepared from the leaves of this herb in combination with other medicinal plants for treating vaginal infections or inflammation. Availability: This herb can be purchased from select botnicas and is usually sold dried.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cardo santo (Argemone mexicana) is an erect herb that grows to 30-60 cm tall with a woody taproot and stems that are sparsely covered with spines and exude yellowish latex. Leaves have spines protruding from both upper and lower surfaces, prominent whitish veination and deeply angular, wavy, spine-tipped edges (7-25 cm long). Flowers grow singly and are subtended by spiny leaf-like bracts; petals are yellow surrounding a reddish stigma in the center. Fruits are nearly cylindrical capsules containing numerous brown seeds. Distribution: This plant is native to the Americas, most likely originating in Mexico and is a common weed of open, disturbed areas in the tropics (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

According to TRAMIL, all parts of this plant are hepatotoxic due to their sanguinarine (Dalvi 1985) and alkaloid content and should not be taken internally. The seeds or oil made from the seeds of Argemone mexicana have been classified as TOX meaning too toxic for human use (Germosn-Robineau 2005). However, most studies on the toxicity of this plant appear to use preparations of the seeds or seed oil in large quantities whereas documented Dominican ethnomedical uses in New York City are based on preparations of the leaves, root or entire plant. In other traditions of herbal medicine, if the seeds are used medicinally, only a very small amount is taken internally. No studies have been identified investigating the potential toxicity of this plant when prepared according to traditional methods.

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Signs of intoxication from ingesting the seed oil include the following: diarrhea, perianal itching, edema, erythema, fever and darkening of the skin (Singh et al. 1999). In rare cases intoxication can lead to heart problems and even death (Sharma et al. 1986). Epidemic outbreaks of dropsy have been reported in India due to contamination of mustard seed and seed oil with Argemone mexicana seeds. Clinical features of dropsy due to ingestion of these seeds include: gastro-enteric inflammation, swollen feet, scanty urination, skin pigmentation, cutaneous reddening and tenderness, severe anemia, right-sided heart failure and liver toxicity. Toxic alkaloids from the seed oil work by induc[ing] widespread capillary dilation and permeability causing leakage of protein rich plasma into the interstitial tissues of various organs (Sharma et al. 2002). This leakage results in edema, hypovolemia, respiratory symptoms and potentially cardiac failure. Treatment includes removal of the toxin, symptomatic treatment of symptoms and antioxidant and multivitamin therapies (Sharma et la. 1999). Distribution: In animal toxicity studies, rats were fed a diet of Argemone mexicana seeds exclusively and observed for 10 days or until death; by the end of the study, 14 of the 16 rats died. Signs of poisoning included sedation, weakness, lack of physical activity, among others (Pahwa & Chatterjee 1989). Another study with a rat model determined that toxicity from the seed oil involved peroxidation of the microsomal and mitochondrial membrane of the liver (Upreti et al. 1988). Contraindications: Not to be taken by children or during pregnancy or lactation due to presence of constituents known to be toxic. Drug Interactions: Unknown; no information identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Argemone mexicana has demonstrated the following biological activity in preclinical studies: antifungal, anti-HIV, antitumor, morphine withdrawal effects inhibition and uterine stimulant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated this herb as TOX meaning that it is considered too toxic for internal use (Germosn-Robineau 2005). See above section on Safety and Precautions for details on toxicity studies.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Argemone mexicana

Activity/Effect Antifungal Preparation Extract Methanol extract Design & Model In vitro: isolated fungi from diseased skin samples In vitro: H9 lymphocytes In vitro: human breast cancer cell lines Results Active Isolated compound, acetonyldihydrochelerythrine, showed significant anti-HIV activity in H9 lymphocytes Active on MCF7 cells, but exhibited low antiproliferative effects on MDA-MB-231 cells and found to induce the increase of ERalpha mRNA accumulation Reference Nanir & Kadu 1987 Chang et al. 2003 Lambertini et al. 2004

Anti-HIV

Antitumor

Extract

217

Activity/Effect Narcotic withdrawal effects inhibition

Preparation Methanol extract; partially purified fraction; isolated compounds Leaf & stem (water-alcohol extract)

Design & Model In vitro: guinea pig isolated ileum

Uterine stimulant

In vitro: hamster uterine smooth muscle cells

Results All preparations significantly & in a concentrationdependent manner reduced the effects of morphine withdrawal Showed strong activity

Reference Capasso et al. 1997

Goto et al. 1957

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Bose B, Vijayvargiya R, Saifi A, Sharma S. 1963. Chemical and pharmacological studies on Argemone mexicana. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 52:1172-1175. Capasso A, Piacente S, Pizza C, De Tommasi N, Jativa C, Sorrentino L. 1997. Isoquinoline alkaloids from Argemone mexicana reduce morphine withdrawal in guinea pig isolated ileum. Planta Medica 63(4):326-8. Chang YC, Hsieh PW, Chang FR, Wu RR, Liaw CC, Lee KH, Wu YC. 2003. Two new protopines argemexicaines A and B and the anti-HIV alkaloid 6-acetonyldihydrochelerythrine from formosan Argemone mexicana. Planta Medica 69(2):148-52. Dalvi RR. 1985. Sanguinarine: its potential as a liver toxic alkaloid present in the seeds of Argemone mexicana. Experientia 41(1):77-78. Goto M, Noguchi T, Watanabe T, Ishikawa I, Komatsu M, Aramaki Y. 1957. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Uterus-contracting ingredients in plants. Takeda Kenkyusho Nempo 16:21. Lambertini E, Piva R, Khan MT, Lampronti I, Bianchi N, Borgatti M, Gambari R. 2004. Effects of extracts from Bangladeshi medicinal plants on in vitro proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines and expression of estrogen receptor alpha gene. International Journal of Oncology 24(2):419-23. Nanir S, Kadu B. 1987. Effect of some medicinal plant extracts on some fungi. Acta Botanica Indica 15(2):170-175. Pahwa R, Chaterjee VC. 1989. The toxicity of Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana L) seeds to rats. Vet Hum Toxicol 31(6):555-558. Sharma BD, Bhatia V, Rahtee M, Kumar R, Mukharjee A. 2002. Epidemic dropsy: observations on pathophysiology and clinical features during the Delhi epidemic of 1998. Trop Doct 32(3):189. Sharma BD, Malhotra S, Bhatia V, Rathee M. 1999. Epidemic dropsy in India. Postgrad Med J 75(889):657-661. Sharma K, Panwogra J, Banerjee S, Jain AK, Misra SN. 1986. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Epidemic dropsy in Rajasthan, clinical study. Indian J Nutr Diet 23(2):41-44. Singh R, Faridi MM, Singh K, Siddiqui R, Bhatt N, Karna S. 1999. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Epidemic dropsy in the eastern region of Nepal. J Trop Pediar 45(1):8-13. Upreti KK, Das M, Khanna SK. 1988. Biochemical toxicology of argemone alkaloids. III. Effect on lipid peroxidation in different subcellular fractions of the liver. Toxicol Lett 42(3):301-308.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Cebolla
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cebolln, cebolla roja (Spanish); onion, red onion, yellow onion (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Allium cepa L. (common name: cebolla) or Allium cepa var. aggregatum G. Don (common name: cebolln). [Liliaceae (Lily Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Asthma - Bronchitis - Common cold - Flu - Upper or lower respiratory tract infections Plant Part Used: Fresh bulbs. Traditional Preparation: Eaten raw or prepared as a syrup with honey. Traditional Uses: Cebolln and cebolla roja are used to treat respiratory ailments, such as symptoms of the common cold, bronchitis and flu as well as asthma. To make a syrup, the raw bulb is coarsely chopped, combined with honey or brown sugar, allowed to sit overnight at room temperature until a watery layer forms on top and taken by the spoonful a few times daily. This raw syrup is refrigerated and stored in a covered container. Its medicinal properties are attributed to the heat or spicy taste of the pungent raw onion. Availability: Onions are sold at most grocery stores and super markets.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cebolla (Allium cepa) is a perennial herbaceous plant that is strongly odorous, especially when bruised, reaches a height of 1.2 m and grows from bulbs. In the cebolln variety (Allium cepa var. aggregatum), bulbs form tight clusters and are small, reddish-purple in color and membranous, covered by goldenbrown, papery-thin skins, closely resembling shallots. Leaves are long, skinny, blue-green and hollow. Flowers are numerous, small and star-shaped with greenish-white petals arranged in dense, ball-like clusters. Fruits are thin-skinned capsules with black, angular seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native primarily to Central Asia and is cultivated worldwide (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

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SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No health hazards or negative side effects are known associated with the proper use of cebolla. When taken in large quantities, it can lead to stomach irritation and frequent skin contact can on rare occasions result in allergic reactions (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Because allyl and related sulfoxides found in this plant inhibit thiol group enzymes, it has been advised that cebolla should only be used in limited quantities (August 1996). Contraindications: None identified in the literature. Drug Interactions: This herb is potentiated by platelet aggregation inhibitors (Brinker 1998).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory studies, this plant has demonstrated the following biological activities: antiasthmatic, antiatherosclerotic, antibacterial, antifungal, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, antiplatelet and antitumor (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Studies reported in secondary references and review articles on this plant have shown the following effects: antimicrobial, antithrombotic, antitumor, hypolipidemic, antiarthritic and hypoglycemic with specific applications in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer (Ali et al. 2000, Kendler 1987). The active constituents responsible for antiplatelet activity in onion are primarily attributable to adenosine, but allicin and paraffinic polysulfide compounds are also active (Makheja & Bailey 1990). Biologically active compounds identified in this plant include: abscissic acid, acetic acid, allicin, alliin, allyl-propyl disulfide, alpha-amyrin, asparagines, benzyl isothiocyanate, caffeic acid, calcium oxalate, campesterol, catechol, cycloalliin, cycloartenol, cycloeucalenol, dimethyl disulfide, diphenylamine, ferulic acid, fumaric acid, glycolic acid, kaempferol, malic acid, methanol, oleanolic acid, oxalic acid, pcoumaric acid, p-hydroxybanzoic acid, phloroglucinol, prostaglandin-a-1, protocatechuic acid, pyrocatechol, quercetin, quinic acid, rutin, sinapic acid, spiraeoside, vanillic acid and xylitol. Essential oil: diallyl disulfide and diallyl trisulfide (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Raw onions are a source of chromium, copper, folate, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium, tryptophan and vitamins B6 and C (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Approved by the Commission E for the following health conditions: loss of appetite, arteriosclerosis, dyspeptic disorders, fevers and colds, cough/bronchitis, hypertension, tendency to infection, inflammation of the mouth and throat and common cold (Blumenthal et al. 1998). This herb can be administered as an oil maceration, as a juice pressed from the fresh bulbs (50 g daily), prepared as a syrup with honey or sugar (4-5 tablespoonfuls daily), tinctured in alcohol (4-5 teaspoonfuls daily), ingested raw (50 g daily) or dried (20 g daily) and applied externally as a juice or fresh poultice (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Allium cepa

Activity/Effect Antiasthmatic Preparation Crude ethanolic & chloroform extracts; water soluble fraction of crude ethanolic extract Design & Model In vivo: guinea pigs sensitized to ovalbumin via inhalation Results Crude ethanolic and chloroform extracts demonstrated asthmaprotective effects; water soluble fraction of ethanolic extract showed no activity; active constituents identified as isothiocyanates Reference Dorsch et al. 1984

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Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Aqueous extract

Design & Model In vitro: screened against 3 strains of bacteria

Antibacterial & antifungal

Antifungal

Oil; concentrations of 100, 200 & 500 ppm Plant extract

Antihyperlipidemic & antiatherosclerotic Antioxidant

Petroleum ether extract; administered orally Oil; administered 100 mg oil/kg b.w. for 21 days (simultaneous with nicotine) Raw juice from crushed onion

In vitro: bacteria: 4 Gram (+) and Gram (-); fungi: 4 toxigenic & 9 dermatophytic In vitro: using pus samples collected from patients with fungal ear-disease In vivo: albino rats with atherogenic dietinduced atherosclerosis In vivo: rats with nicotine-induced lipid peroxidation (given 0.6 mg nicotine/kg for 21 days) In vitro: collageninduced aggregation of human platelets

Results Demonstrated significant activity against all bacteria tested: Erwinia carotovora, Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris & Pseudomonas solanacearum Highly active against all Gram (+) & 1 Gram (-) bacteria & most fungi Showed significant activity against Aspergillus flavus Significantly prevented rise in serum cholesterol & triglyceride levels; showed protective effects against atherosclerosis Increased: resistance to lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzyme activity & concentrations of glutathione; concluded that onion oil is an effective antioxidant Demonstrated potent inhibitory effects of platelet aggregation; active compounds were isolated, all of which had a basic structure of 1(methylsulphinyl)-propyl alkyl (or alkenyl) disulphide Showed intermediate activity in augmentation of splenic natural killer cells

Reference Lirio et al. 1998

Zohri et al. 1995 Vijayan et al. 2003 Lata et al. 1991

Helen et al. 1999

Antiplatelet

Morimitsu & Kawakishi 1990

Antitumor

Aqueous extract of bulbs

In vivo: mice; 1 wks oral administration

Aubharfeil et al. 2001

REFERENCES
Abuharfeil NM, Salim M, Von Kleist S. 2001. Augmentation of natural killer cell activity in vivo against tumour cells by some wild plants from Jordan. Phytotherapy Research 15(2):109-13. Ali M, Thomson M, Afzal M. 2000. Garlic and onions: their effect on eicosanoid metabolism and its clinical relevance. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes & Essential Fatty Acids 62(2):55-73. August KT. 1996. Therapeutic values of onion (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.). Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 34(7):634-640. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp.

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Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Dorsch W, Adam O, Weber J, Ziegeltrum T. 1984. Antiasthmatic effects of onion extractsdetection of benzyl- and other isothiocyanates (mustard oils) as antiasthmatic compounds of plant origin. European Journal of Pharmacology 107(1):17-24. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Helen A, Rajasree CR, Krishnakumar K, Augusti KT, Vijayammal PL. 1999. Antioxidant role of oils isolated from garlic (Allium sativum Linn) and onion (Allium cepa Linn) on nicotine-induced lipid peroxidation. Veterinary & Human Toxicology 41(5):316-319. Kendler BS. 1987. Garlic (Allium sativum) and onion (Allium cepa): a review of their relationship to cardiovascular disease. Preventive Medicine 16(5):670-685. Lata S, Saxena KK, Bhasin V, Saxena RS, Kumar A, Srivastava VK. 1991. Beneficial effects of Allium sativum, Allium cepa and Commiphora mukul on experimental hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis--a comparative evaluation. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 37(3):132-135. Lirio LG, Hermano ML, Fontanilla MQ. 1998. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants from the Phillippines. Pharmaceutical Biology 36(5):357-359. Makheja AN, Bailey JM. 1990. Antiplatelet constituents of garlic and onion. Inflammation Research 29(3-4):360363. Morimitsu Y, Kawakishi S. 1990. Inhibitors of platelet aggregation from onion. Phytochemistry 29(11):3435-3440. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Vijayan K, Vetriselvi U, Balu S. 2003. Plant medicines for human ear disease. Journal of Economic & Taxonomic Botany 27(4):851-856. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zohri AN, Abdel-Gawad K, Saber S. 1995. Antibacterial, antidermatophytic and antitoxigenic activities of onion (Allium cepa L.) oil. Microbiological Research 150(2):167-172.

Cilantro
OTHER COMMON NAMES
222

Coriander (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Coriandrum sativum L. [Apiaceae (Carrot Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Gastritis - Gastrointestinal disorders - Heartburn - Indigestion - Stomach ache and abdominal pain Plant Part Used: Leaves, dried fruits. Traditional Preparation: Eaten raw; boiled or infused in hot water to make tea. Traditional Uses: The fresh leaves and dried fruits are used for gastrointestinal disorders (including padrejn and frialdad en el estomago or coldness in the stomach from eating something bad). A remedy for digestive disorders can be prepared with the leaves of cilantro, mint (hierbabuena) and bitter bush (rompezaragey) infused in boiling water, taken orally as needed. Another remedy for gastritis and heartburn (including acid reflux) is a medicinal broth made by boiling a head of crushed garlic (ajo) bulb, oregano (organo) leaves, cilantro and salt. A cup-full of this in the morning taken on an empty stomach is said to relieve and prevent such digestive upsets. Availability: As a common culinary seasoning, the fresh herb and dried fruits (or seeds) are available at most grocery stores and super markets.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cilantro (Coriandrum sativum) is an annual herb that grows upright to 1 m tall and has a strong aroma. Stems are have slight vertical striations. Leaves are multiply-compound and finely divided, with feathery upper leaves and broad, fan-shaped, deeply segmented lower leaves. Flowers are tiny, white and arranged in umbrella-like compound clusters. Fruits are spherical, yellowish light brown, ribbed on the surface and highly aromatic with a sweet, pleasant smell when crushed (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is probably native to Southern Europe, West Asia and North Africa in the Mediterranean region and is cultivated widely as a food seasoning (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

When used appropriately for therapeutic purposes, no health risks or negative side effects have been reported except for the slight possibility of sensitization or allergic reaction (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
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In preclinical studies, the fruits have shown the following effects: antioxidant, hypolipidemic and anticolitis (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Laboratory studies reported in secondary references have demonstrated the following effects of the essential oil: antibacterial, antifungal, carminative, spasmolytic and stimulation of gastric secretions (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Biologically active compounds identified in the fruit include: 1,8-cineole, acetic acid, alphaphellandrene, alpha-pinene, alpha-terpinene, alpha-terpineol, angelicin, apigenin, beta-phellandrene, betapinene, borneol, bornyl-acetate, caffeic acid, camphene, camphor, carvone, caryophyllene, cis-ocimene, citronellol, elemol, gamma-terpinene, geranial, geraniol, geranyl-acetate, homoeriodictyol, isoquercitrin, limonene, linalool, myrcene, myristicin, nerol, nerolidol, p-cymene, p-hydrobenzoic acid, petrocatechuic acid, psoralen, quercetin, rhamnetin, rutin, sabinene, scopoletin, terpinen-4-ol, terpinolene, triacontanol, umbelliferone and vanillic acid; and in the plant: chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid, cis-p-coumaric acid; and in the leaves: decanal, dodecanal, oxalic acid and toluene (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The leaves are a source of iron, magnesium and manganese (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006) and are rich in calcium, potassium and vitamin C (Brinker 1998). Indications and Usage: Cilantro has been approved by the German Commission E for the following health conditions: dyspeptic disorders and loss of appetite (Blumenthal et al. 1998). The crushed and powdered dried fruit can be taken internally and prepared as an infusion (2 teaspoons crushed fruits combined with 150 mL boiling water, strained after 15 minutes) or tincture (1:2 by weight percolated in 45% alcohol). Average daily dosages are as follows: dried fruits (crushed/powdered) - 3.0 g (1.0 g single dose taken 3 daily); infusion 1 fresh cup (3 daily between meals); and tincture (10-20 drops after meals; Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Coriandrum sativum

Activity/Effect Antioxidant Preparation Seeds, aqueous extract Design & Model In vitro: compared with ascorbic acid & other umbelliferous seeds In vivo: rats with titron-induced hyperlipidemia In vivo: mice w/acetic acid-induced colitis & rats w/indomethacininduced enterocolitis Results For 50% activity: scavenging of superoxide radicals = 370 micro/g; lipid peroxide inhibition = 4500 micro/g; hydroxyl radical inhibition = 1250 micro/g Active; reduced cholesterol & triglyceride levels; results comparable to Liponil (commercial herbal hypolipidemic drug) Active; significant inhibition of inflammatory activity; results comparable to standard drug prednisolone Reference Satyanarayana et al. 2004

Hypolipidemic

Seeds; dose: 1 g/kg body weight

Lal et al. 2004

Anticolitis

Aqueous extract of multi-herb formula containing seeds of cilantro

Jagtap et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Akker TW van den, Roesyanto-Mahadi ID, Toorenenbergen AW van, Joost T van. 1990. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Contact allergy to spies. Contact Dermatitis 22:267-272. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp.

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Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Jagtap AG, Shirke SS, Phadke AS. 2004. Effect of polyherbal formulation on experimental models of inflammatory bowel diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 90(2-3):195-204. Lal AA, Kumar T, Murthy PB, Pillai KS. 2004. Hypolipidemic effect of Coriandrum sativum L. in triton-induced hyperlipidemic rats. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 42(9):909-912. Satyanarayana S, Sushruta K, Sarma GS, Srinivas N, Subba Raju GV. 2004. Antioxidant activity of the aqueous extracts of spicy food additives evaluation and comparison with ascorbic acid in in-vitro systems. Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy 4(2):1-10. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Coco
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Coconut (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cocos nucifera L. [Arecaceae (Palm Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Asthma - Bronchitis - Cough - Intestinal parasites - Kidney disorders - Kidney stones - Pulmonary infections

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Plant Part Used: Fruit, milk from inside the fruit, oil. Traditional Preparation: Fresh coconut milk or coconut oil is typically taken orally either alone or in combination with other medicinal plants. Traditional Uses: Coco is a plant with many medicinal uses. The agua de coco or fresh coconut milk is taken as a remedy for kidney disorders or to expel kidney stones and can be combined with liquefied prickly pear cactus pads (alquitira). Coco can also be used with wild privet senna (sen) leaves and boiled as a tea for parasites. For asthma, leche de coco is taken with castor oil plant (higuereta) seed oil. Another remedy for asthma is made with coconut, gin (ginebra) and brown sugar. For asthma, cough, bronchitis and pulmonary infections, coconut oil is taken with salt by the spoonful. Availability: Whole coconuts are typically available at some grocery stores and food markets. Shredded coconut, coconut milk and coconut oil are also sold at many supermarkets.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Coco (Cocos nucifera) is a palm tree that grows to 30 m tall with a stout trunk that often leans slightly and is ringed with numerous visible leaf scars. Leaves are pinnately compound with numerous long segments. Each individual tree has both male and female flowers. Fruits hang down in heavy, branching clusters and are large (20-30 cm long) and oval with a thick, fibrous covering that is green or yellowish green. Seeds are round, 10-15 cm long, with a hard shell (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This tree is native to the tropical coast of the Pacific Ocean and was introduced to the New World by European settlers. It is now found throughout tropical and subtropical areas, usually near the ocean and is cultivated widely as a food plant and for the use of its oil in soap and body care products (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Coconut is generally considered safe for human consumption, and no health hazards are known in association with the use of the fruit of this plant for therapeutic purposes (Gruenwald et al. 2004). However, a few cases have been reported of severe systemic allergies following coconut consumption in patients who also had cross-reactivity with tree nuts and leguminous seed proteins (Teuber & Peterson 1999). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Coco has been used primarily as a foodstuff, especially considering its short-chained fatty acid content, and it has demonstrated the following pharmacological actions in preclinical studies: immunomodulating (in vivo, animal studies), antitumor and inhibition of cancerous growth (in vitro with human colon carcinoma cells). The fruits fibrous husk is rich in catechins; these polyphenols have demonstrated antioxidant activity, and this part of the plant has also shown anti-bacterial and anti-viral activity (Kirszberg et al. 2003). Biologically active compounds identified in the seed include: capric acid, caprylic acid, GABA, gamma-tocopherol, malic acid, phytosterols, quinic acid, squalene and tridecanoic acid. The endosperm has a high concentration of sorbitol (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Coconut milk (raw) contains

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the following nutrients: calcium, copper, folate, iron, magnesium, manganese, niacin, pantothenic acid, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, thiamin and vitamin C and zinc (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Preparations of the fruit and oil can be made for internal and external use. In diverse herbal medicine traditions, coco has been used for treating the following conditions: woundhealing, skin infections, colds, throat inflammation, tooth decay, dysuria, coughs and bronchitis (Gruenwald et al. 2004). However, more investigation is needed to substantiate these clinical applications.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Cocos nucifera

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Aqueous & methanolic extracts Design & Model In vitro: 8 species of enteropathogens that cause diarrhea & dyssentery Extract from fiber In vitro: human husk of fruit peripheral blood lymphocytes & erythroleukemia cell lines Flavonoids (10 In vivo: rats mg/kg body weight per day) Results Strongly active against most pathogens tested; methanol stronger than aqueous extracts Active; dose-dependent inhibitory effect on lymphocyte proliferation; suggest polyphenolic catechins involved Active; lowered lipid levels Reference Alanis et al. 2005

Antitumor

Kirszberg et al. 2003

Hypolipidemic

Koshy & Vijayalakshmi 2001

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Alanis AD, Calzada F, Cervantes JA, Torres J, Ceballos GM. 2005. Antibacterial properties of some plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100(1-2):153-157. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Eghafona NO. 1996. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Immune responses following cocktails of inactivated measles vaccine and Arachis hypogaea L. (groundnut) or Cocos nucifera L. (coconut) oils adjuvant. Vaccine 84:1703-1706. Kirszberg C, Esquenazi D, Alviano CS, Rumjanek VM. 2003. The effects of a catechin-rich extract of Cocos nucifera on lymphocytes proliferation. Phytotherapy Research 17(9):1054-1058. Koshy AS, Vijayalakshmi NR. 2001. Impact of certain flavonoids on lipid profilespotential action of Garcinia cambogia flavonoids. Phytotherapy Research 15(5):395-400. Nalini N, Sabitha K, Chitra S, Viswanathan P, Menon VP. 1980. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Antifungal activity of the alcoholic extract of coconut shell Cocos nucifera Linn. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 84:291-293.

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Nalini N, Sabitha K, Chitra S, Viswanathan P, Menon VP. 1997. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Histopathological and lipid changes in experimental colon cancer: effect of coconut kernel (Cocos nucifera Linn.) and (Capsicum annum Linn.) red chili powder. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 84:964-971. Teuber SS, Peterson WR. 1999. Systemic allergic reaction to coconut (Cocos nucifera) in 2 subjects with hypersensitivity to tree nut and demonstration of cross-reactivity to legumin-like seed storage proteins: new coconut and walnut food allergens. Journal of Allergy & Clinical Immunology 103(6):1180-1185. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Cola de Caballo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Horsetail, scouring rush, puzzle grass (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Equisetum spp. including Equisetum arvense L. and Equisetum hyemale L. Many species in this genus have a similar appearance and properties [Equisetaceae (Horsetail and Scouring Rush Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Bladder infections - Diabetes - Excess or abnormal vaginal discharge - Frialdad - Inflammation - Kidney infections - Kidney stones - Limpiar la sangre - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Painful urination - Sexually transmitted infections - Sore throat - Tonsillitis - Urinary tract infections - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Dried aerial parts.

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Traditional Preparation: To prepare a simple tea, the dried herb is boiled as a decoction or steeped in hot water as an infusion, taken orally as needed. Traditional Uses: Cola de caballo is renowned for its diuretic and cooling properties which allow it to remove excess heat and infection from the body and thus relieve inflammation. It is also reputed to strengthen and fortify the kidneys. For bladder infections, diabetes, kidney infections, kidney stones, urinary tract infections and symptoms of difficult or painful urination, the dried herb is boiled as a decoction and taken orally as a simple tea. Sometimes cinnamon (canela) bark is added for flavor. For menstrual cramps (dolores menstruales) and vaginal infections or excess discharge (flujo vaginal), a tea is prepared of this herb and false buttonweed (juana la blanca). This plant can also be combined with other plants to make a multi-herb preparation for treating various types of infections, including sore throat, tonsillitis, mala sangre (bad blood), sexually transmitted infections and frialdad. Availability: Sold for therapeutic purposes as packets of dried herb at most botnicas that carry medicinal plants; also, various preparations of the medicinal parts are sold at health food stores and natural pharmacies.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cola de caballo (Equisetum spp.) is a non-flowering herb that typically grows to 60 cm tall (although the Equisetum giganteum species can reach an exceptional height of 12 m) with an erect, hollow, jointed stem and whorled, vertical branches that are inserted in furrows along the stem, encircled at each joint by a ring of tooth-like segments. Fertile leaves grow from the tips of the leaf axes and are whorled, pentagonal or hexagonal in shape and form an upright, oblong cone at the tip of the stem (Liogier 1990). Distribution: This plant is cosmopolitan in distribution, often grows near fresh water and is most likely native to Eurasia and the Americas; in the Caribbean it can be found in mountainous and humid areas of Cuba and Hispaniola (Liogier 1990).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

In a clinical trial with 25 healthy human volunteers, no adverse effects were reported (Lemus et al. 1996). Cases of hyponatremia and hypokalemia have resulted from consumption of Equisetum telmateia (Miro et al. 1996), probably due to its diuretic effect and increased potassium excretion. Phytotherapeutic extracts of Equisetum myriochaetum showed no genotoxicity or acute toxicity in the Drosophila wing somatic assay (0.78 g/mL to 3700 g/mL) or in the in vitro human micronucleus test with cultured lymphocytes from healthy donors (12.5 g/mL and 500 g/mL; Tellez et al. 2006). Animal Toxicity Studies: In animal studies, the hydroalcoholic extract of the stem of Equisetum arvense via chronic intraperitoneal administration (50 mg/kg) showed no observable signs of toxicity in an acute toxicity test (Guilherme dos Santos et al. 2005). Oral administration of Equisetum hyemale in rats showed no signs of toxicity in acute toxicity studies (Xu et al. 1992). Contraindications: This herb should not be taken by patients who have edema associated with heart or kidney disorders (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Cases of toxicity from chewing on the stems have been reported in children due to the high silica content of this plant, so this herb is not recommended for children (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Cardiac glycosides and digitalis: the toxicity of these drugs may be enhanced due to potential potassium loss from the diuretic effect of this herb. Thiamine (vitamin B1): this herb has been shown to cause breakdown of thiamine in vitro and in horses resulting in vitamin-deficiency effects due to its thiaminase activity (Brinker 1998).

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical studies have shown the following effects of Equisetum spp.: diuretic, hypoglycemic, pharmacokinetic and renal excretion (see Clinical Data table below). Laboratory and animal studies have demonstrated the following activities: anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antiplatelet, clastogenic, cognitive enhancement, contractile response enhancement, diuretic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, radical scavenging, sedative, thiaminase and vasorelaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Research reported in a secondary reference indicate that this herb has demonstrated the following pharmacological effects: mild diuretic, spasmolytic, astringent (due to flavonoids and silicic acid content), diuretic (by increasing uric acid clearing and excretion rates) and improvement of plasma composition (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Major chemical constituents of this plant include the following: silica; volatile oil: main compounds are hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, cis-geranyl acetone, thymol and trans-phytol (Radulovic et al. 2006); tannins and saponins (Dos Santos et al. 2005); phenolic petrosins and flavonoids: apigenin, luteolin, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-glucoside (Oh et al. 2004); sterols: beta-sitosterol, campesterol, isofucosterol and trace amounts of cholesterol (DAgostino et al. 1984). Historically this plant has been used for scrubbing and washing pans because of its high silica content, hence its English common name scouring rush. Indications and Usage: Cola de caballo (Equisetum arvense) is approved by the Commission E for the following conditions: infections of the urinary tract, wounds, burns and kidney and bladder stones (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Standard typical daily dosage is 6 g dried herb, administered with plenty of fluids. The dried, cut and sifted herb can be prepared as a tea, infusion or tincture for internal use and as a decoction for external use. To prepare a tea, pour 200 mL boiling water over 2-3 g herb, boil for 5 minutes and strain after 10-15 minutes; drink 1 cup between meals 3-4 daily. To prepare an infusion, add 1.5 g herb per 1 cup boiling water and infuse until cool, then strain; drink 1 cup between meals 2-3 daily. To prepare a tincture, combine herbs in 25% alcohol in a 1:1 ratio by volume; take 1-4 mL 3 daily. To prepare a decoction, boil 10 g herb in 1 liter water; when cool, soak in a cloth and apply externally as needed (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Equisetum spp.

Activity/Effect Diuretic Preparation Water extract (infusion; 10%) E. bogotense (single dose administered daily for two consecutive days equal to 0.75 g of the plant per person) Water extract of aerial parts of E. myriochaetum (0.33 g/kg) Design & Model Controlled clinical trial: healthy volunteers Results Showed significant diuretic effect based on water balance assessment; no adverse reactions were presented; significant increase in urinary electrolyte excretion of sodium, potassium & chloride; daily diuretic dose for mild effects = 10.7 mg/kg body weight Active; significantly reduced blood glucose levels; no significant changes in insulin levels were observed Reference Lemus et al. 1996

Hypoglycemic

Placebo controlled clinical trial: 11 type 2 diabetic patients; administered single dose

Revilla et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Metabolism & renal excretion

Preparation Standardized extract (E. arvense)

Design & Model Human clinical study: 11 volunteers

Results Pharmacokinetics involve degradation of flavonoids & hydroxycinnamic acids (polyphenols) to benzoic acid

Reference Graefe & Veit 1999

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Equisetum spp.

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory & antinociceptive Preparation Hydroalcoholic stem extract: 10, 25, 50 & 100 mg/kg given intraperitoneally Petroleum ether extract (E. telmateia) Essential oil (diluted 1:10) Design & Model In vivo: mice; acetic acid-induced writhing, formalin tail flick & carrageenan-induced paw edema tests In vitro: pathogenic bacteria species In vitro: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidits, Aspergillus niger & Candida albicans In vitro: assays: DPPH, ESR & NO radical inhibition Results Active; showed antiinflammatory & antinociceptive effects via a non-opioid mechanism Active against Staphylococcus epidermidis Showed strong activity against all tested strains Reference Do Monte et al. 2004

Antimicrobial

Uzun et al. 2004 Radulovic et al. 2006

Antimicrobial

Antioxidant

Antioxidant & anti-inflammatory

Aerial parts phosphate buffer extracts: E. arvense, E. ramosissimum & E. telmateia Eviprostat, a phytotherapeutic agent consisting of extracts from Equisetum arvense, Chimaphila umbellata, Populus tremula, Pulsatilla pratensis & germ oil of Triticum aestivum

Showed strong radical scavenging activities; E. telmateia was most potent (reduced to 98.9%) Active; Equisteum suppressed radical oxygen species which may contribute to this products anti-inflammatory activity & its therapeutic effects on benign-prostatic hyperplasia; herbal extracts in combination reduced swelling in edema model

Stajner et al. 2006

In vivo: rats with carrageenan-induced paw edema; in vitro: reactive oxygen species, superoxide anion & hydroxyl anion, in human neutrophils & cellfree systems

Oka et al. 2007

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Activity/Effect Antiplatelet

Preparation Plant extract E. arvense Plant extract

Clastogenic

Design & Model In vitro: thrombin & ADP-induced aggregation In vitro: irradiated & unirradiated samples of cultured blood lymphocytes In vivo: aged rats; in vitro: antioxidant assays

Cognitive enhancement & antioxidant

Hydroalcoholic stem extract of Equisetum arvense; chronic intraperitoneal administration: 50 mg/kg Plant extract E. giganteum Chloroform extracts of Mexican Equisetum spp. Water or methanol extract; E. palustre herb Isolated MeOH extracts of phenolic petrosins & flavonoids from E. arvense Aqueous & butanolic extracts of aerial parts (E. myriochaetum) Dietary Equisetum hyemale & hyperlipid food Aqueous extract

Contractile response enhancement Diuretic

In vitro: rabbit aorta & guinea pig left atrium; KCl-induced contractile response In vivo: mice; compared with standard drugs

Results Active; dose-dependent inhibition of platelet aggregation Exhibited weak clastogenic properties; reduced the level of radiation-induced micronuclei & increased unirradiated micronuclei in a dose-dependent manner Improved short- & longterm retention of inhibitory avoidance task & enhanced cognitive performance in Morris Water Maze test; no signs of toxicity were observed; showed antioxidant activity Active; significantly enhanced contractile response

Reference Mekhfi et al. 2004 Joksic et al. 2003

Guilherme dos Santos et al. 2005

Matsunaga et al. 1997 Perez et al. 1985

Gastroprotective

Hepatoprotective & free radical scavenging

Active; effect similar to hydrochlorothiazide; in decreasing order of activity: E. hiemale var. affine, E. fluviatile, E. giganteum, & E. myriochaetum In vivo: rat with Active; exhibited significant ethanol-induced stomach protection against gastric ulcers ulcerogenesis In vitro: human Active; results support use liver-derived Hep G2 of E. arvense in hepatitis cells; positive treatment control: silybin In vivo: rats with streptozotocininduced diabetes In vivo: rats Active; single oral dose of 7 & 13 mg/kg aqueous or 8 & 16 mg/kg butanol extracts significantly lowered blood glucose levels Active; inhibited elevation of triglyceride & cholesterol levels; antagonized hyperlipidemia; showed low toxicity acute toxicity test Showed low radical scavenging activity

Gurbuz et al. 2002 Oh et al. 2004

Hypoglycemic

Andrade Cetto et al. 2000

Hypolipidemic

Xu et al. 1993

Radical scavenging

In vitro & ex vivo

Myagmar & Aniya 2000

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Activity/Effect Sedative & anticonvulsant

Preparation Hydroalcoholic extract of E. arvense; doses of 200 & 400 mg/kg

Design & Model In vivo: rats in openfield & barbiturateinduced sleeping time tests; response to experimentallyinduced seizures In vitro In vitro: isolated rat aorta strips

Thiaminase

Equisetum ramosissimum Caffeic acid derivative dicaffeoyl-mesotartaric acid

Vasorelaxant

Results Showed sedative & anticonvulsant effects; increased sleeping time (46% & 74%); reduced incidence & severity of convulsions & protected against death Showed strong thiaminase type 1& 2 activities & low thiamine content Showed relaxation against norepinephrine (NE)induced contraction of rat aorta; inhibited NE-induced vasoconstriction in the presence of nicardipine; mechanism involves decrease in calcium influx

Reference Dos Santos et al. 2005

Meyer 1989 Sakurai et al. 2003

REFERENCES
Andrade Cetto A, Wiedenfeld H, Revilla MC, Sergio IA. 2000. Hypoglycemic effect of Equisetum myriochaetum aerial parts on streptozotocin diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72(1-2):129-33. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. DAgostino M, Dini A, Pizza C, Senatore F, Aquino R. 1984. Sterols from Equisetum arvense. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper 60(12):2241-5. Do Monte FH, dos Santos JG Jr, Russi M, Lanziotti VM, Leal LK, Cunha GM. 2004. Antinociceptive and antiinflammatory properties of the hydroalcoholic extract of stems from Equisetum arvense L. in mice. Pharmacol Res 49(3):239-43. Dos Santos JG Jr, Blanco MM, Do Monte FH, Russi M, Lanziotti VM, Leal LK, Cunha GM. 2005. Sedative and anticonvulsant effects of hydroalcoholic extract of Equisteum arvense. Fitoterapia 76(6):508-13. Graefe EU, Veit M. 1999. Urinary metabolites of flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic acids in humans after application of a crude extract from Equisetum arvense. Phytomedicine 6(4):239-46. Guilherme dos Santos J Jr, Hoffmann Martins do Monte F, Marcela Blanco M, Maria do Nascimento Bispo Lanziotti V, Damasseno Maia F, Kalyne de Almeida Leal L. 2005. Cognitive enhancement in aged rats after chronic administration of Equisetum arvense L. with demonstrated antioxidant properties in vitro. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 81(3):593-600.

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Gurbuz I, Ustun O, Yesilada E, Sezik E, Akyurek N. 2002. In vivo gastroprotective effects of five Turkish folk remedies against ethanol-induced lesions. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 83(3):241-4. Joksic G, Stankovic M, Novak A. 2003. Antibacterial medicinal plants Equiseti herba and Ononidis radix modulate micronucleus formation in human lymphocytes in vitro. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology & Oncology 22(1):41-8. Lemus I, Garcia R, Erazo S, Pena R, Parada M, Fuenzalida M. 1996. Diuretic activity of an Equisetum bogotense tea (Platero herb): evaluation in healthy volunteers. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 54(1):55-8. Liogier A. 1990. Plantas medicinales de Puerto Rico y del Caribe. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Iberoamericana de Ediciones, Inc., 566 pp. Matsunaga K, Sasaki S, Ohizumi Y. 1997. Excitatory and inhibitory effects of Paraguayan medicinal plants Equisetum giganteum, Acanthospermum australe, Allophylus edulis and Cordia salicifolia on contraction of rabbit aorta and guinea-pig left atrium. Natural Medicines 51(5):478-481. Mekhfi H, El Haouari M, Legssyer A, Bnouham M, aziz M, Atmani F, Remmal A, Ziyyat A. 2004. Platelet antiaggregant property of some Moroccan medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 94(2-3):317-22. Meyer P. 1989. Thiaminase activities and thiamine content of Pteridium aquilinum, Equisetum ramosissimum, Malva parviflora, Pennisetum clandestinum and Medicago sativa. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 56(2):145-6. Miro O, Pedrol E, Nogue S, Cardellach F. 1996. [Severe hyponatremia and hypopotassemia induced by the consumption of Equisetum telmateia]. [Spanish] Medicina Clinica 106(16):639. Myagmar BE, Aniya Y. 2000. Free radical scavenging action of medicinal herbs from Mongolia. Phytomedicine 7(3):221-9. Oh H, Kim DH, Cho JH, Kim YC. 2004. Hepatoprotective and free radical scavenging activities of phenolic petrosins and flavonoids isolated from Equisetum arvense. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2-3):421-4. Oka M, Tachibana M, Noda K, Inoue N, Tanaka M, Kuwabara K. 2007. Relevance of anti-reactive oxygen species activity to anti-inflammatory activity of components of Eviprostat(), a phytotherapeutic agent for benign prostatic hyperplasia. Phytomedicine 14(7-8):465-72. Perez Gutierrez RM, Laguna GY, Walkowski A. 1985. Diuretic activity of Mexican Equisetum. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 14(2-3):269-72. Radulovic N, Stojanovic G, Palic R. 2006. Composition and antimicrobial activity of Equisetum arvense L. essential oil. Phytother Res 20(1):85-8. Revilla MC, Andrade-Cetto A, Islas S, Wiedenfeld H. 2002. Hypoglycemic effect of Equisetum myriochaetum aerial parts on type 2 diabetic patients. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81(1):117-120. Sakurai N, Iizuka T, Nakayama S, Funayama H, Noguchi M, Nagai M. 2003. [Vasorelaxant activity of caffeic acid derivatives from Cichorium intybus and Equisteum arvense.] [Japanese] Yakugaku Zasshi 123(7):593-8. Stajner D, Popovic BM, Canadanovic-Brunet J, Boza P. 2006. Free radical scavenging activity of three Equisetum species from Fruska gora mountain. Fitoterapia 77(7-8):601-4. Tllez MG, Rodriguez HB, Olivares GQ, Sortibran AN, Cetto AA, Rodriguez-Arnaiz R. A phytotherapeutic extract of Equisetum myriochaetum is not genotoxic in the in vivo wing somatic test of Drosophila or in the in vitro human micronucleus test. Journal of Ethnopharmacology [Epub ahead of print].

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Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Uzun E, Sariyar G, Adsersen A, Karakoc B, Otuk G, Oktayoglu E, Pirildar S. 2004. Traditional medicine in Sakarya province (Turkey) and antimicrobial activities of selected species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(23):287-296. Xu CF, Bian XY, Qu SM, You LH, Qi ZM, Cheng W, Liu XJ, Liu WZ, Ren SJ. 1993. [Effect of Equisteum hyemale on experimental hyperlipidemia in rats and its toxic test]. [Chinese] Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 18(1):523, 64. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Cranberry
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cranberry, large cranberry, American cranberry (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton. [Ericaceae (Heath and Blueberry Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - High cholesterol - Kidney disorders - Urinary tract infections - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Fruits, juice from fruits. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a juice, often diluted with water. Traditional Uses: The juice is sometimes combined with other diuretic herbs such as celery (apio) stalks (prepared as a juice by liquefying in a blender or juicer) or cornsilk (maz, barba de maz; boiled in water to prepare a tea by decoction). Availability: Cranberry fruit juice and frozen cranberries are sold at most grocery stores.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) is an evergreen shrub that grows to 1 m across with creeping stems (10-20 cm tall). Leaves are simple, alternate, narrowly oval to oblong in shape, shiny green on top, whitish underneath. Flowers grow in clusters and are pink or white with 4 petals that curve back, away from the center where the male and female reproductive parts are fused together in a cone-like shape. Fruits are dark red, round berries (2 cm in diameter) with a tart flavor, containing numerous seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

235

Distribution: These plants grow in acid bogs and swamps and are native to North America, from Newfoundland to Minnesota (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a widely consumed fruit juice, cranberry is generally considered safe. In a study with five volunteers, ingestion of cranberry tablets resulted in increased urinary oxalate levels which hypothetically indicate potential risk for nephrolithiasis (Terris et al. 2001). Contraindications: None reported in the literature. Drug Interactions: Warfarin - In one case report, a patient with a prosthetic mitral valve exhibited persistently elevated INR (International Normalized Ratio, a measure of blood coagulation based on laboratory tests) and subsequent symptoms of postoperative bleeding problems possibly due to an interaction between warfarin and cranberry juice; consequently, patients taking warfarin are advised to limit their consumption of cranberry juice (Grant 2004, Suvarna et al. 2003).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical trials, cranberry extracts have demonstrated the following effects: adherence inhibition (of bacteria to host cells), antiatherosclerotic, antihyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, renoprotective, antiurolithiasis, urinary tract infection prevention and urolithiatic (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: antibacterial, antifungal, antiproliferative, antioxidant, antitumor and antiviral (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The mechanism of cranberrys pharmacological effect is basically known: it reduces urinary pH most likely because it provides an acid load, and research suggests that it decreases urinary uric acid by retarding urate synthesis (Gettman et al. 2005). In a review article, it was concluded that the therapeutic effects of cranberry are primarily due to the antioxidant activity of constituent phenolic phytochemicals. In addition, use of the whole plant as opposed to its isolated phenolic phytochemicals was shown to be more therapeutic. The authors suggest enriching cranberry products with functional phytochemicals (Vattem et al. 2005). Biologically active compounds that have been identified in the fruit include the following: alphaterpineol, anisaldehyde, anthocyanosides, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, catechins, chlorogenic acid, eugenol, lutein, malic acid, oxalic acid, quercetin and quinic acid (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The fruits are a source of manganese and vitamins C and K (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: According to The 5-Minute Herb & Dietary Supplement Consult: Cranberry products are harmless and have antibacterial and antiadherence qualities that may be useful in preventing bacteriuria and urinary tract infections (Fugh-Berman 2003). Although insufficient information is available in the literature to make a general clinical recommendation, most commercial preparations and extracts list their own dosage recommendations.

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Clinical Data: Vaccinium macrocarpon

Activity/Effect Adherence inhibition Preparation A-linked proanthocyanidins from cranberry juice cocktail vs. B-linked proanthocyanidins from commercial grape & apple juices, green tea & dark chocolate Cranberry juice (250 mL three times daily for 2 wks) Design & Model In vitro & human clinical trial; test urine for antiadhesion activity after consuming single servings of food product Placebo-controlled clinical trial; two groups of healthy female subjects (11 per group) Clinical study; 21 men, 14-day intervention Results Cranberry exhibited in vitro adherence inhibition (of bacteria to host cell) at 60 g/mL & in human urine following ingestion; recommended for maintaining urinary tract health Significant increase in salicyluric & salicylic acids in urine and plasma; anti-inflammatory effect attributed to increased absorption of salicylic acid Significant increase in plasma antioxidant capacity & reduction in circulating oxidized LDL concentrations, supporting the potential use of cranberry in preventing heart disease Decreased urinary pH, increased excretion of oxalic acid & relative supersaturation for uric acid; recommended for treatment of UTIs & brushite & struvite stones because of its acidifying effect on the urine No significant difference in incidence of UTIs in the placebo vs. treatment group; however, there were significantly fewer infections with Escherichia coli in the cranberry group Reference Howell et al. 2005

Antiinflammatory

Duthie et al. 2005

Antioxidant, antiatherosclerotic & antihyperlipidemic

Flavonoid-rich cranberry juice supplements; 7 mL/kg body weight of cranberry juice daily, administered orally Cranberry juice (330 mL) 3 daily; consumed in place of mineral water in a standardized diet

Ruel et al. 2005

Antiurolithiasis

Controlled, clinical trial: 12 healthy male subjects aged 18-38 yrs

Kessler et al. 2002

Urinary tract infection (UTI) prevention

Cranberry juice (300 mL ingested daily)

Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial; 376 older patients in hospital

McMurdo et al. 2005

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Activity/Effect Urinary tract infection (UTI) prevention

Preparation Cranberry juice (250 mL 3 daily) and tablets (2 daily)

Design & Model Randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial (150 sexually active women, aged 21-72 yrs; duration: 1 yrs) Anonymous, crosssectional, selfadministered survey of parents in pediatric nephrology clinic (n=117; average patient age = 10.3 yrs; 15% reported recurrent UTI) Randomized controlled clinical trial (24 subjects: 12 normal, 12 with oxalate stones

Urinary tract infection (UTI) prevention & renoprotective

Cranberry products (varied)

Urolithiatic & antiurolithiasis

1 L cranberry juice daily in one phase; 1 L deoionized water in another phase

Results Both juice & tablets resulted in significant decrease in the number of patients experiencing at least 1 lower UTI/y (to 20% & 18% respectively) compared with placebo (to 32%) 29% all parents surveyed (vs. 65% of parents whose children had recurrent UTI) gave cranberry products therapeutically to children; overall perceived to be beneficial; only 1 reported side effect (nausea) Significant increase in urinary calcium & urinary oxalate, resulting in an 18% increase in urinary saturation of calcium oxalate; overall increased risk of calcium oxalate & uric acid stone formation but decrease in risk of brushite stones

Reference Stothers 2002

Super et al. 2005

Gettman et al. 2005

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Vaccinium macrocarpon

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Anthocyanin- & proanthocyanidinrich fractions isolated from cranberry juice Cranberry cordial (100% fruit) and fresh berries Total phenolics, both soluble free and bound forms in common fruits Design & Model In vitro: agar diffusion assay with 9 bacterial strains In vitro: 12 strains of bacteria & Candida albicans In vitro: antioxidant activity measured using TOSC assay; antiproliferation studied using human liver-cancer cells Results Active; Staphylococcus aureus exhibited the most susceptibility; mixed results Inhibited the growth of Mycobacterium phlei as well as gram-positive & gram-negative bacteria Cranberry had highest total phenolic content, highest antioxidant activity ( 177.0 M of vitamin C equivalent/g of fruit) & highest inhibitory effect (EC50 14.5). Reference Leitao et al. 2005

Antibacterial & antifungal

Cavanagh et al. 2003 Sun et al. 2002

Antioxidant & antitumor

238

Activity/Effect Antioxidant & antitumor

Preparation Whole fruit extracts in methanol and isolated phytochemicals of cranberry

Design & Model In vitro: seven tumor cell lines

Antiproliferative & antitumor

Antitumor

Warm-water extract of cranberry presscake fractionated to isolate flavonoids in an acidified methanol eluate Whole cranberry fruit, fractionated to determine active components Total cranberry extract (200 g/mL) vs. its fractionated phytochemical constituents (including anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins & flavonol glycosides) Cranberry juice constituents: high molecular weight materials (NDM)

In vitro: 8 human tumor cell lines of multiple origins

Results Radical-scavenging activity was greatest in an extract high in flavonol glycosides (antioxidant activity comparable or superior to that of vitamin E); cyanidin 3galactoside demonstrated highest antioxidant activity Inhibited proliferation of tumors & induced some tumor cells to undergo apoptosis in a dosedependent manner Major components: cis& trans-isomers of 3-Op-hydroxycinnamoyl ursolic acid (triterpenoid esters); both showed activity Total polyphenol extract was most active (up to 96.1% inhibition); hypothesized that multiple constituents together exert synergistic or additive antiproliferative effects NDM inhibited virus at concentrations of 125 g/mL or lower in a dose-dependent manner; significantly reduced infectivity & adhesion

Reference Yan et al. 2002

Ferguson et al. 2004

In vitro: tumor cell lines (breast, cervical & prostate)

Murphy et al. 2003

Antitumor

In vitro: human tumor cell lines (including oral, colon & prostate)

Seeram et al. 2004

Antiviral

In vitro: virus tissue culture with influenza virus A subtypes (H1N1 & H3N2) & type B

Weiss et al. 2005

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Genitourinary Preparation Cranberry juice vs. apple juice (354 mL daily) Design & Model Randomized trial of cranberry; 112 men with urinary symptoms during radiation therapy for prostate cancer Results No significant difference in urinary symptoms as measured by using the International Prostate Symptom Score Reference Campbell et al. 2003

239

Activity/Effect Urinary tract infection (UTI) prevention

Preparation 2 g concentrated cranberry juice extract or placebo in capsule from daily for 6 mo

Design & Model Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study (25 received extract & 22 received placebo)

Urinary tract infection (UTI) prevention

Standardized cranberry supplement, 400 mg tablets vs. placebo 3 daily for 4 wks

Double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study; 21 individuals with spinal cord injury & symptoms of UTI

Results No differences or trends detected between participants & controls in number of urine specimens with bacterial counts of at least 104 colonies per mL, types & number of bacterial species, numbers of urinary leukocytes, urinary pH or episodes of UTI No statistically significant effect in urinary pH, bacterial count, white blood cell count or reduction in UTIs

Reference Waites et al. 2004

Linsenmeyer et al. 2004

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Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Campbell G, Pickles T, Dyachkova Y. 2003. A randomized trial of cranberry versus apple juice in the management of urinary symptoms during external beam radiation therapy for prostate cancer. Clinical Oncology (Royal College of Radiologists) 15(6):322-8. Cavanagh HM, Hipwell M, Wilkinson JM. 2003. Antibacterial activity of berry fruits used for culinary purposes. Journal of Medicinal Food 6(1):57-61. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Duthie GG, Kyle JA, Jenkinson AM, Duthie SJ, Baxter GJ, Paterson JR. 2005. Increased salicylate concentrations in urine of human volunteers after consumption of cranberry juice. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 53(8):2897-900. Ferguson PJ, Kurowska E, Freeman DJ, Chambers AF, Koropatnick DJ. 2004. A flavonoid fraction from cranberry extract inhibits proliferation of human tumor cell lines. Journal of Nutrition 134(6):1529-35. Fugh-Berman A. 2003. The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 475 pp. Gettman MT, Ogan K, Brinkley LJ, Adams-Huet B, Pak CY, Pearle MS. 2005. Effect of cranberry juice consumption on urinary stone risk factors. Journal of Urology 174(2):590-4; quiz 801.

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Grant P. 2004. Warfarin and cranberry juice: an interaction? Journal of Heart Valve Disease 13(1):25-6. Howell AB, Reed JD, Krueger CG, Winterbottom B, Cunningham DG, Leahy M. 2005. A-type cranberry proanthocyanidins and uropathogenic bacterial anti-adhesion activity. Phytochemistry 66(18):2281-91. Kessler T, Jansen B, Hesse A. 2002. Effect of blackcurrant-, cranberry- and plum juice consumption on risk factors associated with kidney stone formation. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56(10):1020-3. Leitao DP, Polizello AC, Ito IY, Spadaro AC. 2005. Antibacterial screening of anthocyanic and proanthocyanic fractions from cranberry juice. Journal of Medicinal Food 8(1):36-40. Linsenmeyer TA, Harrison B, Oakley A, Kirshblum S, Stock JA, Millis SR. 2004. Evaluation of cranberry supplement for reduction of urinary tract infections in individuals with neurogenic bladders secondary to spinal cord injury. A prospective, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 27(1):29-34. McMurdo ME, Bissett LY, Price RJ, Phillips G, Crombie IK. 2005. Does ingestion of cranberry juice reduce symptomatic urinary tract infections in older people in hospital? A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Age & Ageing 34(3):256-61. Murphy BT, MacKinnon SL, Yan X, Hammond GB, Vaisberg AJ, Neto CC. 2003. Identification of triterpene hydroxycinnamates with in vitro antitumor activity from whole cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 51(12):3541-5. Ruel G, Pomerleau S, Couture P, Lamarche B, Couillard C. 2005. Changes in plasma antioxidant capacity and oxidized low-density lipoprotein levels in men after short-term cranberry juice consumption. Metabolism: Clinical & Experimental 54(7):856-61. Seeram NP, Adams LS, Hardy ML, Heber D. 2004. Total cranberry extract versus its phytochemical constituents: antiproliferative and synergistic effects against human tumor cell lines. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 52(9):2512-7. Stothers L. 2002. A randomized trial to evaluate effectiveness and cost effectiveness of naturopathic cranberry products as prophylaxis against urinary tract infection in women. Canadian Journal of Urology 9(3):155862. Sun J, Chu YF, Wu X, Liu RH. 2002. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of common fruits. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 50(25):7449-54. Super EA, Kemper KJ, Woods C, Nagaraj S. 2005. Cranberry use among pediatric nephrology patients. Ambulatory Pediatrics 5(4):249-52. Suvarna R, Pirmohamed M, Henderson L. 2003. Possible interaction between warfarin and cranberry juice. BMJ 327(7429):1454. Terris MK, Issa MM, Tacker JR. 2001. as cited in Fugh-Berman (2003). Dietary supplementation with cranberry concentrate tablets may increase the risk of nephrolithiasis. Urology 57:26-29. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Vattem DA, Ghaedian R, Shetty K. 2005. Enhancing health benefits of berries through phenolic antioxidant enrichment: focus on cranberry. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 14(2):120-30.

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Waites KB, Canupp KC, Armstrong S, DeVivo MJ. 2004. Effect of cranberry extract on bacteriuria and pyuria in persons with neurogenic bladder secondary to spinal cord injury. Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 27(1):35-40. Weiss EI, Houri-Haddad Y, Greenbaum E, Hochman N, Ofek I, Zakay-Rones Z. 2005. Cranberry juice constituents affect influenza virus adhesion and infectivity. Antiviral Research 66(1):9-12. Yan X, Murphy BT, Hammond GB, Vinson JA, Neto CC. 2002. Antioxidant activities and antitumor screening of extracts from cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 50(21):5844-9. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Cuaba
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cuava, ocote (Spanish); Caribbean pine, pine, heart pine (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Pinus caribaea Morelet. Synonyms: Pinus bahamensis Griseb., Pinus cubensis var. anomala Rowlee and Pinus hondurensis Loock. or Pinus occidentalis Sw. [Pinaceae (Pine Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Contraception - Joint pain - Menopausal hot flashes - Menstrual disorders - Muscle ache - Pain - Sore throat - Tonsillitis - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Wood, essential oil and pine needles. Traditional Preparation: Typically a piece of the wood is boiled in water to prepare a decoction that can be used as a gargle, taken orally as a tea or combined with other plants to make a botella. Traditional Uses: Cuaba wood can be used as a gargle for sore throat, prepared as a decoction in combination with divi divi (guatapanl) and baking soda (bicarbonato). For arthritis, joint pain and muscle ache, use a small stick (palito) of cuaba wood and boil in water with guinea hen-weed (anam) leaf, wormwood or ragweed (altamisa) leaf and tartago (pion ancho) wood with a stick of cinnamon (canela) for flavor. Typical dosage of this botella is 1-2 ounces three times for pain relief.

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The wood of is also good for cleansing the blood, especially during menopause, and to prevent hot flashes (calores). To prepare this remedy, use a stick of cuaba wood along with cinchona (quina) bark, prepared as a decoction by boiling in water, taken orally. Cuaba is considered a bitter (amarga) plant that can be used for contraception, prepared as a decoction and taken internally. This plant, prepared by decoction, is said to induce abortion when combined with malt beverage (malta alemana), palmbeach-bells (mala madre) and pharmaceutical pills (pastillas) for ulcers, taken orally. Availability: Typically the wood of this tree is used medicinally and sold in chunks or long, fist-sized pieces at botnicas. This wood has a slightly coarse texture with a straight grain; the heartwood is generally golden brown to a deep orange-reddish hue whereas the sapwood is lighter, the color of pale straw. This wood is characterized by a strong resinous odor.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cuaba (Pinus caribaea) is a tree that grows to 30 m tall and has thick bark that is grey to reddish brown with wide fissures and separate male and female flowers; the trunk is often branchless to a considerable height. Leaves are needlelike and usually grow in bundles of 3, bunched together at the ends of branches. Male flowers are numerous, yellow and grow in oval catkins. Female cones occur near the ends of branches with tan or reddish brown scales, each with a small prickle at the tip. Seeds are usually grey or light brown and narrowly oval with a persistent wing (Stanley and Ross 1989). Distribution: This tree is native to the Caribbean and Central America and is cultivated in plantations for lumber and the production of turpentine and rosin in other regions of the world.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Although no clinical or laboratory studies evaluating the biological activity of this particular species have been identified in the available literature, several closely-related species of the genus Pinus have shown the following effects: anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor and antiviral (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). According to a secondary reference, pine species have demonstrated the following activities in laboratory studies (using the shoots and volatile oils of these plants): secretolytic, mildly antiseptic and hyperemic; also, shown to stimulate peripheral circulation and bronchial secretion (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Biologically active compounds identified in a closely related species, Pinus strobus, include the following: resin: abietic acid, dehydroabietic acid, elliotic acid, isopimaric acid, laevopimaric acid, sandaracopimaric acid; wood: chrysin, pinocembrin, pinostrobin; plant: leucocyanidin, mucilage; bark: coniferin, coniferyl alcohol, dihydropinosylvin, pinoresinol and pinosylvin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: Pine shoots (of a closely related species) are approved by the German Commission E for the following health conditions: high or low blood pressure, common cold, cough, bronchitis, fever, inflammation of the mouth and throat, neuralgias and tendency to infection. In addition to the above ailments, pine needle oil is also approved for rheumatism (applied externally) and purified turpentine oil is approved for cough, bronchitis, inflammation of the mouth and throat and rheumatism (Blumenthal et al. 1998).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No safety or toxicity data was identified in the available literature for Pinus caribaea or Pinus occidentalis. For a closely related pine species, when appropriately administered (internally and externally), no health hazards or negative side effects are known in association with the use of the pine needles or essential oil. However, little information is available on the internal use of aqueous extracts of the wood which is the most commonly reported traditional Dominican use of this plant.

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Caution is advised in the external use of pine needle oil because it can lead to irritation of the skin or mucous membranes and worsening of bronchial spasms. When applying purified turpentine oil to a large area of the body, resorptive poisoning can occur resulting in kidney and central nervous system damage. Internal administration can potentially cause kidney damage at therapeutic dosages (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Pine needle oil or shoots: should not be taken by patients with bronchial asthma and whooping cough. Patients with acute dermatological conditions, cardiac insufficiency, high fevers, infectious diseases or hypertonia should not use this herb as a bath additive. Patients with acute inflammation of the breathing passages should not inhale the volatile oil or purified turpentine oil (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Pinus spp.

Activity/Effect Antimicrobial Preparation Pitch preparations: Pinus contorta Crude & organic extracts of tar from roots and stems: Pinus brutia Methanolic extract: Pinus densiflora Volitale gas extracts: Pinus sylvestris Bark extract: Pinus massoniana Diterpenes isolated from cones: Pinus luchuensis Pine cone extract: Pinus parviflora Extract (water or alcoholic): Pinus massoniana Methanol extract: Pinus halepensis Design & Model In vitro In vitro: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, E. coli and Candida albicans In vitro: kidney homogenates In vitro: tested inhibition of oxidation In vitro: human carcinoma cells Results Showed significant antimicrobial activity Crude extract was shown to be highly effective; organic extracts had similar but more moderate activity Showed strong antioxidant activity Increased cell viabilities against hexanal oxidation Antioxidant & radical scavenging activity increased (concentrationdependent); inhibited carcinoma cell growth Some compounds showed potent inhibitory effects on Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation Suppressed the growth of influenza virus Shown to be highly effective Shown to be active against the Sindbis virus and poliovirus Reference Ritch-Krc et al. 1996 Kizil et al. 2002

Antimicrobial

Antioxidant

Jung et al. 2003 Ka et al. 2005 Cui et al. 2005

Antioxidant

Antioxidant & anticancer

Antitumor

In vitro

Minami et al. 2002

Antiviral Antiviral

In vitro: MDCK cells In vitro: type 1 herpes simplex virus In vitro: herpes simplex virus, Sindbis virus & poliovirus

Nagata et al. 1990 Zheng 1990 Mouhajir et al. 2001

Antiviral

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REFERENCES
Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Cui Y, Xie H, Wang J. 2005. Potential biomedical properties of Pinus massoniana bark extract. Phytotherapy Research 19(1):34-38. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Jung MJ, Chung HY, Choi JH, Choi JS. 2003. Antioxidant principles from the needles of red pine, Pinus densiflora. Phytotherapy Research 17(9):1064-8. Ka MH, Choi EH, Chun HS, Lee KG. 2005. Antioxidative activity of volatile extracts isolated from Angelica tenuissimae roots, peppermint leaves, pine needles and sweet flag leaves. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 53(10):4124-9. Kizil M, Kizil G, Yavuz M, Aytekin C. 2002. Antimicrobial activity of the tar obtained from the roots and stems of Pinus brutia. Pharmaceutical Biology 40(2):135-138. Minami T, Wada S, Tokuda H, Tanabe G, Muraoka O, Tanaka R. 2002. Potential antitumor-promoting diterpenes from the cones of Pinus luchuensis. Journal of Natural Products 65(12):1921-3. Mouhajir F, Hudson JB, Rejdali M, Towers GHN. 2001. Multiple antiviral activities of endemic medicinal plants used by Berber peoples of Morocco. Pharmaceutical Biology 39(5):364-374. Nagata K, Sakagami H, Harada H, Nonoyama M, Ishihama A, Konno K. 1990. Inhibition of influenza virus infection by pine cone antitumor substances. Antiviral Research 13(1):11-21. Ritch-Krc EM, Turner NJ, Towers GH. 1996. Carrier herbal medicine: an evaluation of the antimicrobial and anticancer activity in some frequently used remedies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52(3):151-6. Stanley, T.D. and E. M. Ross. 1989. Flora of south-eastern Queensland. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Misc. Pub. 81020. 3:459. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zheng M. 1990. Experimental study of 472 herbs with antiviral action against the herpes simplex virus. Chung His I Chieh Ho Tsa Chih Chinese Journal of Modern Developments in Traditional Medicine 10(1):39-41, 6.

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Cundeamor
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Soros (Spanish); bitter melon (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Momordica charantia L. [Cucurbitaceae (Cucumber Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Cancer - Diabetes - Fever - Insect bites - Itching - Measles - Menopausal hot flashes - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Rash - Sexually transmitted infections - Skin infections - Stomach ailments - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaves, stems, flowers and fruits. Traditional Preparation: The aerial parts of this plant are typically prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction. This plant is also applied topically as a wash or a poultice. Traditional Uses: Cundeamor is a strongly bitter and cooling (fresco) herb that is well known for its use in treating diabetes, prepared as a tea or infusion of the aerial parts. This medicinal plant is often used as part of a popular remedy called tres golpes para la diabetes (three blows to diabetes) which also includes the herb insulina (Costus spp.) and wormwood (agenjo) or ragweed (altamisa). Cundeamor is also used for conditions of severe fever (paludismo or fiebre verde), prepared as a decoction with wild privet senna (sen) leaves. For stomach problems, menstrual disorders, dysmenorrhea, vaginal infections, excess vaginal discharge, sexually transmitted infections, menopausal hot flashes and cancer, this plant is prepared as a decoction and taken orally. To treat skin conditions including rash (rasquia, aara), measles, insect bites, boils (nacos), skin infection and itching, the aerial parts or leaves of this plant are applied topically as a wash prepared as a decoction or as a poultice of the fresh plant juice and baking soda. Availability: The dried herb can be purchased from select botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Cundeamor (Momordica charantia) is an herbaceous vine that grows to 8 m long with striated stems and curling tendrils. Leaves are simple, palmate and deeply lobed with fine, short hairs and slightly toothed

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leaf-edges. Flowers grow singly and have 5 bright yellow, spreading petals. Fruits are gourd- or cucumber-like capsules (3-5 cm long), turning orange-yellow when ripe and peeling back from the tip into three parts, revealing bright-red fleshy seed-coverings attached to the inside of the fruit wall (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is native to the Old World tropics but is now pantropical in distribution and is commonly found in open, moist areas of the Caribbean (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

In humans, a decoction of the fruit given orally at a dosage of 500 mg/person did not result in any signs of toxicity (Khan & Burney 1962); however, in pregnant women given 15 mL/person/day of an aqueous extract of the whole plant administered orally, the plant extract inhibited fetal development (West et al. 1971). In a human clinical trial of bitter melon capsules, few adverse effects were observed, and those that occurred were considered mild overall (Dans et al. 2007). Animal Toxicity Studies: Numerous animal toxicity studies have been conducted on this species, and results indicate that most parts of this plant are relatively non-toxic. In dermal toxicity studies, the fresh juice of the leaf applied to the skin of hairless rabbits and guinea pigs resulted in an irritation index of less than 5, indicating that the leaves are not irritating or allergenic (Gonzalez & Alfonso 1990a, Gonzalez & Alfonso 1990b). The LD50 of the mature fruit administered orally to mice was determined to be 3 g/kg body weight. When the whole plant extract (including the fruit and fresh leaves) was administered to mice orally and intraperitoneally (25 g/kg), it did not result in any fatalities (Mokkhasmit et al. 1971). Contraindications: Due to demonstrated inhibition of fetal development (West et al. 1971) and potential risk of provoking abortion (Ng 1998, Yeung 1988), this herb should not be taken internally during pregnancy due to potential risk of provoking abortion. Not to be taken orally during lactation or administered to children under 3 years of age (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Antidiabetic potential of the fruit and active constituents has been investigated in human clinical trials or reported in case series studies (see Clinical Data table below). In preclinical studies, this plant has demonstrated antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, antimicrobial and anthelmintic effects (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Biologically active compounds identified in the fruit include: 5-hydroxy tryptamine, alkaloids, beta-sitosterol-d-glucoside, charantin, citrulline, cryptoxanthin, fluoride, GABA, lanosterol, lutein, lycopene, momordicoside, oxalate, oxalic acid, pipecolic acid and zeaxanthin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). All parts of this plant are very bitter. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified Momordica charantia as REC indicating that it is recommended for the following traditional Caribbean uses: treatment of the common cold (resfriado); dry, irritated or itchy skin conditions; boils; and pediculosis (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

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Clinical Data: Momordica charantia

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic Preparation Bitter melon capsules (Charantia ; extract of active constituents from the fruits & seeds) Bitter melon extract, administered subcutaneously Design & Model Randomized, doubleblind, placebo controlled trial; n=40 patients with poorly controlled or recently diagnosed Type II diabetes Controlled clinical trial (n=19) Results Lowered mean glycosylated hemoglobin (A1c) levels (0.22%); total cholesterol, weight & mean fasting blood sugar showed no significant difference Showed 21% decrease in mean blood glucose levels 30 mins posttreatment; peak drop at 4 hrs (49%) Reference Dans et al. 2007

Antidiabetic

Baldwa et al. 1977

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Momordica charantia

Activity/Effect Anthelmintic Preparation Fresh fruit juice dissolved in ethanol (100 mg/mL) Methanolic extract of dried leaf (2 mg/mL) Design & Model In vitro Results Active against Ascardia galli Reference Lal et al. 1976

Antimicrobial

In vitro: pathogenic bacterial & fungal species

Antimicrobial

Aqueous, chloroform, ether, & methanolic fruit extracts

In vitro: pathogenic bacterial & fungal species

Active against Corynebacterium diphteriae, Neisseria spp., Streptobacillus spp., Streptococcus spp. & Staphylococcus aureus Aqueous extract most active against Bacillus subtilis & Candida albicans; extracts also active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi & Shigella dysenteriae

Hussain & Deeni 1991

Maneelrt & Satthampongsa 1978

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Baldwa VS, Bhandari CM, Pangaria A, Goyal RK. 1977. Clinical trial in patients with diabetes mellitus of an insulin-like compound obtained from plant sources. Upsala J Med Sci 82:39-41. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57.

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Dans AM, Villarruz MV, Jimeno CA, Javelosa MA, Chua J, Bautista R, Velez GG. 2007. The effect of Momordica charantia capsule preparation on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus needs further studies. J Clin Epidemiol 60(6):554-9. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Gonzalez A, Alfonso H. 1990a. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Evaluacin de la toxicidad drmica de Momordica charantia L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill y Cassia occidentalis L. en cobayos. Informe TRAMIL. Centro Nacional de Salud Animal, La Habana, Cuba. TRAMIL VI, Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, UAG/endacaribe. Gonzalez A, Alfonso H. 1990b. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Evaluacin de la toxicidad drmica de Momordica charantia L. y Cassia occidentalis L. en conejos. Informe TRAMIL. Centro Nacional de Salud Animal, La Habana, Cuba. TRAMIL VI, Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, UAG/enda-caribe. Hussain H, Deeni Y. 1991. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Plants in Kano ethnomedicine: screening for antimicrobial activity and alkaloids. International Journal of Pharmacology 29(1)51-56. Khan AH, Burney A. 1962. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). A preliminary study of the hypoglycemic properties of indigenous plants. Pakistan J. Med Res 2:100-116. Lal J, Chandra S, Raviprakash V, Sabir M. 1976. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). In vitro anthelmintic action of some indigenous medicinal plants on Ascardia galli worms. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 20:64. Maneelrt S, Satthampongsa A. 1978. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Antimicrobial activity of Momordica charantia. Undergraduate special project report. Bangkok, Thailand: Mahidol University, Faculty of Pharmacy. Mokkhasmit M, Sawasdimongkol K, Satrawaha P. 1971. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Study on toxicity of Thai medicinal plants. Bull Dept Med Sci 12(1-2):36-65. Ng T. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Effects of momorcharins on ovarian response to gonadotropin induced superovulation in mice. Int J Fertil 33(2):123-128. West M, Sidrak G, Street S. 1971. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). The anti-growth properties of extract from Momordica charantia. West Indian Med J 20(1):25-34. Yeung HW, Li WW, Feng Z, Barbieri L, Stirpe F. 1988. Trichosanthin, alpha-momorcharin and beta-momorcharin: identity of abortifacient and ribosome-inactivating protein. Int J Peptide Protein Res 31(3):265-268. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Diente de len
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Hoja de len (Spanish); dandelion (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Taraxacum officinale Weber. [Asteraceae (Aster or Daisy Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003). - Limpiar la sangre - Liver disorders - Menstrual disorders - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Leaves and roots. Traditional Preparation: Leaves can be eaten fresh or liquefied in a blender to make a juice. Dried roots are prepared in boiling water by decoction and taken internally as a tea. Traditional Uses: In general, this plant is used to support, cleanse and heal inflammation of the liver. Impaired liver function can also affect womens reproductive disorders, and this plant is often used for both types of health conditions. The leaves are sometimes also combined with other food plants which are prepared as a juice or eaten raw for improving liver function: parsley (perejil) leaves and cucumber (pepino) fruit. Availability: Fresh leaves are sold at many grocery stores and super markets. Dried roots and root preparations can be purchased from health food or nutritional supplement stores.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Diente de len (Taraxacum officinale) is a perennial herbaceous plant that can grow to 46 cm tall. Leaves emerge from the base of the stem in a dense, radiating cluster and are lance-shaped with wavy margins and a milky sap. Flower heads grow singly atop a long, hollow stem and are golden-yellow with numerous tiny petals. Seeds are cylindrical, ribbed and grey-brown, attached to fluffy, white filaments for wind-dispersal; numerous seeds are arranged in a tight, spherical cluster such that their filaments collectively resemble a snowball (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is most likely native to Eurasia, cosmopolitan in range, commonly grows in disturbed open areas and is sometimes cultivated for its edible greens (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No adverse effects have been reported in association with the use of the root, leaves and flowersthe most commonly used medicinal parts of this plant. However, one report indicates that children who consumed the milky latex from the flower stem have experienced nausea, diarrhea, vomiting and cardiac arrhythmia (DeSmet 1993). In a survey conducted in Italy of women who visited outpatient hospital

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facilities, some respondents reported adverse gastrointestinal effects from taking dandelion (Cuzzolin et al. 2006). Animal Toxicity Studies: Acute toxicity is extremely low. The LD50 in mice (administered intraperitoneally) was 36.6 g/kg for the root and 28.8 g/kg for the entire plant (Racz-Kotilla et al. 1974). In a chronic toxicity study in rabbits, no toxic effects were observed when they were given 6 g/kg orally for up to 7 days (Akhtar et al. 1995). Contraindications: This herb is contraindicated for those with the following conditions: occlusion of the bile ducts, cholecystitis or small bowel obstruction (Fugh-Berman 2003, Weiss 1988). The root may be contraindicated in patients with acute stomach inflammation or irritable bowel conditions due to potential hyperacidity from stimulation of gastric secretions. For individuals with digestive weakness, the root may provoke gastrointestinal upset, gas and loose stools. In patients with gallstones, bile duct obstruction and biliary or gall bladder inflammation (with pus), caution is advised due to the demonstrated cholagogue activity of the root. As this herb is a laxative, use in individuals with intestinal obstruction may also be contraindicated (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Lithium toxicity may be exacerbated as a result of sodium depletion from the diuretic effects of the leaves and root and the sodium excretion that accompanies this effect; however, this herbdrug interaction is hypothetical and has not been substantiated by clinical data (Brinker 1998). A related species (Taraxacum mongolicum Hand-Mazz), which is used in Chinese medicine (common name: Pu gong ying) for its antibacterial and hepatoprotective effects, has been shown to interact with a fluoroquinolone by decreasing maximum plasma concentrations of ciprofloxacin by 73% in rats when both the herb (an aqueous extract of 2 g whole herb/kg) and drug (20 mg/kg ciprofloxacin) were administered concomitantly (Zhu et al. 1999).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: analgesic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, bile secretion increase, cytotoxic, diuretic, hypoglycemic, insulin release stimulation and nitric oxide synthesis stimulation (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). In animal studies, the root did not show diuretic effects and the herb did not show hypoglycemic effects (see Effect Not Demonstrated table below). According to The 5-Minute Herb & Dietary Supplement Consult, Dandelion leaf is a benign vegetable and medicinal herb with poorly documented but easily demonstrable diuretic effects (FughBerman 2003). The exceptionally high potassium content of the leaves (4.51% by wet weight) suggests possible applications of this plant for preventing potassium depletion, although no clinical trials of this effect have been identified (Hook et al. 1993). The antioxidant activity of the flowers may have applications for cardiovascular health considering the demonstrated association between increased dietary intake of flavonoids and reduced incidence of ischemic heart disease. This effect is possibly due to the antioxidant effects of flavonoids (Halliwell 1995; Hu and Kitts 2005; Hollman and Katan 1999; Geleijnse et al. 2002). Biologically active constituents of this plant include: caffeic acid, coumestrol, cycloartenol, faradiol, p-coumaric acid, taraxasterol and xanthophylls. The leaf contains luteolin-7-glucoside. The root is high in inulin and contains mannitol, mucilage, nicotinic acid, pectins, taraxerol and tyrosinase (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Raw dandelion greens are a significant source of calcium, folate, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, B6, C, E and K (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Typical dosage amounts provided in Fugh-Berman (2003) are as follows: Leaf Adults: 4-10 g dried herb in capsules or by infusion 3 times daily; 2-5 mL tincture (1:5, ethanol 25%

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V/V) three times daily; or 5-10 mL juice from fresh leaf twice daily; Root - Adults: 3-5 g dried root in capsules or by infusion three times daily; 5-10 mL tincture (1:5, ethanol 25%) three times daily.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Taraxacum officinale

Activity/Effect Analgesic & antiinflammatory Preparation Ethanol root extract: 100 mg/kg , administered intraperitoneally Aqueous extract 100 mg/kg ethanol root extract 100 and 1000 g/mL Flowers: freezedried, extracted in ethanol, filtered, dried Design & Model In vivo: mice in tests of nociception & inflammation In vitro In vivo: rats; intraperitoneal administration In vitro: rat astrocyte cultures In vitro: radical scavenging activity tested chemically; inhibition of nitric oxide production tested with biological assay In vivo; mice; given intraperitoneally In vitro: human hepatoma cell line, Hep G2 In vivo: rats & dogs In vivo: mice; administered for 30 days In vivo; normal rabbits, given orally In vitro Results Active; reduced writhing response to phenylquinone & briefly improved reaction time in the hot plate test (+38% at 180 degrees F) Showed potent alphaglucosidase inhibitory activity Active; inhibited carrageenaninduced paw edema (-42% at 3 hours) May inhibit TNF-alpha production by inhibiting IL-1 production; anti-inflammatory in the central nervous system Active; demonstrated radical scavenging activity & inhibition of nitric oxide production; both properties attributed to phenolic content Active; demonstrated antitumor effects Induced cytotoxicity through tumor necrosis factor-alpha & interleukin-1alpha secretion at 2 0.02 mg/mL concentration Increased bile flow (3 studies-1931-1959) Demonstrated diuretic effects: activity was equivalent to that of furosemide; herb extract was superior to root extract Produced hypoglycemic response at 8 & 12 hours (at 4 hrs with 2 g dose) Showed promotion of insulin secretion Reference Tita et al. 1993

Antidiabetic Antiinflammatory Antiinflammatory

Onal et al. 2005 Tita et al. 1993 Kim et al. 2000

Antioxidant

Hu and Kitts 2005

Antitumor Antitumor & cytotoxic

Aqueous extract Aqueous extract, freeze-dried, dissolved in saline Herb extract 4% aqueous extract (leaves) 1-2 g/kg herb Ethanol extract

DeSmet 1993 Koo et al. 2004

Bile secretion increase Diuretic

ESCOP 1996 Racz-Kotilla et al. 1974 Akhtar et al. 1995 Hussain et al. 2004

Hypoglycemic

Insulin release stimulation

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Activity/Effect Nitric oxide synthesis stimulation

Preparation Aqueous extract of dried leaves

Design & Model In vitro: mouse peritoneal macrophages; dosedependent administration combined with rIFN gamma

Results Synergistic effect observed; extract did increase nitric oxide production in mouse peritoneal macrophages after treated with rIFN-gamma via herb-induced TNF-alpha secretion

Reference Kim et al. 1999

Effect Not Demonstrated Activity/Effect Diuretic Preparation Fractionated extracts of ovendried root Ethanol root extract 1-2 g/kg herb Dried herb Design & Model In vivo: mice; salineloaded; results checked at 5 hrs In vivo: rodents; oral or intraperitoneal administration In vivo: rabbits with alloxan-induced diabetes In vivo: mice; administered orally as part of diet Results No significant diuretic activity No diuretic or natriuretic activity, although potassium excretion doubled No hypoglycemic effect No effect on glucose levels in diabetic or streptozotocindiabetic animals Reference Hook et al. 1993 Tita et al. 1993 Akhtar et al. 1995 Swanston-Flatt et al. 1989

Diuretic

Hypoglycemic

Hypoglycemic

REFERENCES
Akhtar MS, Khan QM, Khaliq T. 1985. Effects of Portulaca oleracea (Kulfa) and Taraxacum officinale (Dhudhal) in normoglycaemic and alloxan-treated rabbits. J Pod Med Assoc 35:207-210. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Cuzzolin L, Zaffani S, Benoni G. 2006. Safety implications regarding use of phytomedicines. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 62(1):37-42. De Smet PAGM. 1993. Taraxacum officinale. In: De Smet PAGM, Keller K, Hnsel R, et al. Adverse effects of herbal drugs, vol 2. New York: Springer-Verlag, 297-302. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). ESCOP-European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. 1996. Monographs of the medicinal use of plant drugs. Taraxaci folium: dandelion leaf and taraxaci radix (dandelion root). Exeter, UK. Fugh-Berman A. 2003. The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 475 pp.

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Geleijnse JM, Launer LJ, Van der Kuip DA, Hofman A, Witteman JC. 2002. Inverse association of tea and flavonoid intakes with incident myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 75:880886. Halliwell B. 1995. How to characterize an antioxidant: an update. In: Rice-Evans, C., Halliwell, B., Lunt, G.G. (Eds.), Free Radical and Oxidative Stress: Environments, Drugs and Food Additives. Portland Press, pp. 73102. Hollman PC, Katan MB. 1999. Dietary flavonoids: intake, health effects and bioavailability. Food Chem. Toxicol 37:937942. Hook I, McGee A, Henman M. 1993. Evaluation of dandelion for diuretic activity and variation in potassium content. Int J Pharmacog 3:29-34. Hu C, Kitts DD. 2005. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flower extract suppresses both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide and prevents lipid oxidation in vitro. Phytomedicine 12:588597. Hussain Z, Waheed A, Qureshi RA, Burdi DK, Verspohl EJ, Khan N, Hasan M. 2004. The effect of medicinal plants of Islamabad and Murree region of Pakistan on insulin secretion from INS-1 cells. Phytotherapy Research 18(1):73-7. Kim HM, Oh CH, Chung CK. 1999. Activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase by Taraxacum officinale in mouse peritoneal macrophages. General Pharmacology 32(6):683-8. Kim HM, Shin HY, Lim KH, Ryu ST, Shin TY, Chae HJ, Kim HR, Lyu YS, An NH, Lim KS. 2000. Taraxacum officinale inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha production from rat astrocytes. Immunopharmacology & Immunotoxicology 22(3):519-30. Koo HN, Hong SH, Song, BK, Kim CH, Yoo YH, Kim HM. 2004. Taraxacum officinale induces cytotoxicity through TNF-a and IL-1a secretion in Hep G2 cells. Life Sciences 74:1149-1157. Onal S, Timur S, Okutucu B, Zihnioglu F. 2005. Inhibition of alpha-glucosidase by aqueous extracts of some potent antidiabetic medicinal herbs. Preparative Biochemistry & Biotechnology 35(1):29-36. Racz-Kotilla E, Racz G, Solomon A. 1974. The action of Taraxacum officinale extracts on the body weight and diuresis of laboratory animals. Planta Med 26:212-217. Swanston-Flatt SK, Day C, Flatt PR et al. 1989. Glycaemic effects of traditional European plant treatments for diabetes: studies in normal and streptozotocin diabetic mice. Diabetes Res 10:69-73. Tita B, Bello U, Faccendini P et al. 1993. Taraxacum officinale W: pharmacological effect of ethanol extract. Pharmacol Res 27(Suppl 1):23-24. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Weiss RF. 1988. Herbal medicine. Translated from the sixth edition of Lehrbuch der phytotherapie by AR Meuss. Gothenburg, Sweden: AB Arcanum; Beaconsfield, England: Beaconsfield Publishers, Ltd. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zhu M, Womg PY, Li RC. 1999. Effects of Taraxacum mongolicum on the bioavailability and disposition of ciprofloxacin in rats. J Pharm Sci 88:632-634.

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Eucalipto
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Eucalyptus (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and other species of the genus Eucalyptus. [Myrtaceae (Myrtle Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Asthma - Common cold - Cough - Flu - Sinus congestion - Upper or lower respiratory tract infections - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Leaves (fresh or dried) and essential oil. Traditional Preparation: The leaves are typically prepared as a tea or boiled to release their volatile oils for steam inhalation. Traditional Uses: This highly aromatic plant is often combined with other medicinal plants, including lemongrass (limoncillo) leaves and soursop (guanbana) leaves. Also, steam inhalation of the vapor from the boiled leaves is used to relieve sinus congestion, cough and pulmonary infections. Availability: Can be purchased from select botnicas and from some health food, herbal supplement or drug stores.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Eucalipto (Eucalyptus globulus) is a tall deciduous tree that grows to 40 m in height and has silver-grey, warty bark. Leaves are lance-shaped (7-16 cm long), elongate and narrow but slightly curved towards the tip with a clear central vein and dark bluish-green color. Flowers grow singly and have white petals with numerous red stamens. Fruits are dry, rounded, cone-shaped, 4-sided capsules. All parts of this plant are highly aromatic (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This tree is native to Australia and is an invasive plant in other temperate regions, and it is cultivated extensively in subtropical regions for use in the paper industry (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Potential adverse effects of this herb, especially in concentrated preparations, include the following (reported occasionally in the literature): nausea, vomiting, epigastric pain (heartburn), esophagitis and diarrhea. Uncommon side effects include: erythema, contact urticaria, pruritus and micropapular rash (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Inhalation of eucalyptus vapors has been reported to transmit Aspergillus fungal spores (Whitman & Ghazizadeh 1994). Hypersensitivity and systemic symptoms may result from topical

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administration. One pediatric case of severe adverse effects from excessive and prolonged topical administration of a preparation containing 7.7% eucalyptus oils has been reported; symptoms included slurred speech, ataxia, muscle weakness and eventual unconsciousness (Darben et al. 1998). Life-threatening poisonings can result from overdose of eucalyptus oil. Doses of 4-5 mL in adults (a few drops in children) of the oil can lead to severe poisoning. Symptoms of overdose include drop in blood pressure, circulatory disorders, collapse and asphyxiation. In such cases, therapy includes activated charcoal administration, diazepam for spasms, atropine for colic, electrolyte replenishment and sodium bicarbonate infusions for possible acidosis. Vomiting should not be induced due to danger of aspiration (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Contraindicated for those with inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract or bile ducts, serious liver disease or hypersensitivity to eugenol (one of the main constituents of the essential oil). Pediatrics: Infants and young children should not be administered this herb or its oil on the face or nose as this may lead to laryngeal spasms and consequent respiratory arrest (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: Therapeutic efficacy of drugs metabolized by hepatic microsomal enzymes may be hindered by concomitant use of eucalyptus oil. Antidiabetic drugs potential interaction due to hypoglycemic effects demonstrated in animal studies, so blood glucose levels and signs of hypoglycemia should be monitored closely in patients taking both simultaneously; Barbiturates herb may decrease desired therapeutic effects of barbiturates so concomitant administration is to be avoided pending further investigation; Pyrrolizidine-containing herbs the hepatotoxic effects of plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids (i.e. borage, coltsfoot and others) may be potentiated by eucalyptus potentially resulting in liver damage and concomitant use should be avoided (White et al. 1983, Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In preclinical studies, the essential oil of this plant has demonstrated the following effects: antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antisecretory (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). According to a secondary reference, the essential oil of this plant has shown the following additional pharmacological activities: anti-inflammatory, antineoplastic, expectorant and wound-healing. Euglobulin from the leaf exhibited anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative effects in animal studies and inhibited TPA-induced EBV-EA activity in vitro (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Biologically active compounds identified in the leaves include: 1,8-cineole, alpha-phellandrene, alpha-pinene, aromadendrene, beta-eudesmol, beta-pinene, butyraldehyde, caffeic acid, camphene, carvone, citriodorol, cuminaldehyde, ellagic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, gentisic acid, hyperoside, isoamyl-alcohol, p-cymene, paraffin, pinene, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, quercetol, quercitrin, rutin, trans-pinocarveol and viridiflorol (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: The leaves of eucalipto (Eucalyptus globulus) have been approved by the German Commission E for the treatment of cough and bronchitis (used internally and externally), and eucalyptus oil has been approved for rheumatism (applied externally; Blumenthal et al. 1998). Standard dosages and forms of administration include the following: Essential oil - average daily dose of eucalyptus essential oil is 0.3 to 0.6 g taken internally; for inhalation, 2-3 (or 3-6) drops in boiling water (150 mL) used several times daily; for external use, prepare in concentrations of 5-20% essential oil in an oil, salve or cream base or 5-10% essential oil in aqueous-alcoholic preparations; essential oil by itself can be applied directly to the skin in small quantities (few to several drops). Leaf can be prepared as a powder, tincture or tea with an average daily dose of 4-6 g herb in single doses of 1.5 g every 3-4 hours; for powder, take 1-4 g up to 4 daily; for tincture, prepare 1:5 herb/ethanol (70%) by volume, taken 1 g 3-4 daily; for tea, pour 1 cup boiling water over 1.5-2 g finely cut herb, cover and infuse for 5-10 minutes, then strain and take 1 cup up to 3 daily (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Eucalyptus globulus

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory & antisecretory Antibacterial Preparation Oil Design & Model In vivo: rat; lipopolysaccharideinduced chronic bronchitis In vitro Results Exhibited anti-inflammatory effects & inhibited hypersecretion of airway mucins Active; most active: E. camadulensis, E. terticornis, E. robusta, E. alba and 7 other Eucalytpus spp. Active; showed lipid peroxidation activity Reference Lu et al. 2004

Essential oil; leaf (multiple species of Eucalyptus) Essential oil

Cimanga et al. 2002 Dessi et al. 2001

Antioxidant

In vitro: linoleic acid autoxidation

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Cimanga K, Kambu K, Tona L, Apers S, De Bruyne T, Hermans N, Totte J, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ. 2002. Correlation between chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 79(2):213220. Darben T, Cominos B, Lee CT. 1998. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Topical eucalyptus oil poisoning. Aust J Dermatol 39(4):265-267. Dessi MA, Deiana M, Rosa A, Piredda M, Cottiglia F, Bonsignore L, Deidda D, Pompei R, Corongiu FP. 2001. Antioxidant activity of extracts from plants growing in Sardinia. Phytotherapy Research 15(6):511-518. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Lu XQ, Tang FD, Wang Y, Zhao T, Bian RL. 2004. [Effect of Eucalyptus globulus oil on lipopolysaccharideinduced chronic bronchitis and mucin hypersecretion in rats]. [Chinese] China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica 29(2):168-171. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. White RD, Swick RA, Cheeke PR. 1983. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Effects of microsomal enzyme induction in the toxicity of pyrrolizidine (Senecio) alkaloids. J Toxicol Environ Health 12:633-640.

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Whitman BW, Ghazizadeh H. 1994. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Eucalyptus oil: therapeutic and toxic aspects of pharmacology in humans and animals. J Paediatr Child Health 30(2):190-191. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Gucima
OTHER COMMON NAME
Guazuma (Spanish); bastard cedar, jackass calalu, West Indian elm (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. [Sterculiaceae (Cacao Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Common cold - Cough - Flu - Menopausal hot flashes - Menstrual disorders - Ovarian cysts - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Bark, leaves, roots and wood. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea of the leaves or bark by infusion or decoction. Traditional Uses: For cough and symptoms of the common cold or flu symptoms, the leaf is prepared as a decoction, sweetened with sugar and taken orally. For womens health conditions (including menstrual disorders, fibroids, ovarian cysts and menopausal symptoms), a multi-herb decoction (tizana) is prepared using the bark (cscara or corteza) along with other plants. This plant is attributed cooling (fresca) properties, and in the Dominican Republic, it is harvested from conucos (ecologically diverse small-scale agricultural plots) in the countryside. Availability: Dried plant material can sometimes be purchased from botnicas that specialize in Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Gucima (Guazuma ulmifolia) is a tree that grows from 5-10 (or up to 20) m tall with rough, grayishbrown bark and slightly hairy branches. Leaves are oblong to oval, covered with tiny, fine hairs on the underside and with scalloped or toothed margins. Flowers grow in clusters with yellow petals and have small, purple appendages. Fruits are warty, oblong capsules that turn black when mature, each containing numerous seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

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Distribution: This plant is native to tropical America, grows throughout the Caribbean, has been introduced to Asia, Africa and Hawaii and is commonly found in disturbed areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

TRAMIL has designated this herb as safe for internal use for specific conditions when properly administered (see Indications and Usage below). Ingestion of large quantities of the plant can cause nausea and vomiting (Hoehne 1939). In a clinical study of patients diagnosed with the common cold, no signs of toxicity were shown when the dried leaf decoction (12 g/L) was administered at a dosage of 720 mL/day for 7 consecutive days (Carballo 1995A). Animal Toxicity Studies: No signs of toxicity were evident in an animal study of the aqueous dry leaf extract administered orally to mice at 25 g/kg. The LD50 of this extract administered intraperitoneally was determined to be 5.975 0.193 g/kg. In another animal study, no observable signs of mortality or toxicity were shown when the dry leaf decoction (1 g plant matter/mL extract) was given orally to mice (18.75 g/kg) every 12 hours for 28 days (Herrera 1990). Contraindications: No information is available on the safety of this plant in children and pregnant or lactating women (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Laboratory studies have shown the following biological activity of gucima: angiotensin II receptor binding inhibition, antibacterial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antisecretory, antiviral and hypoglycemic (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Major chemical constituents of this plant include the following: proanthocyanidins (CaballeroGeorge et al. 2002), friedelin-3alpha-acetate and friedelin-3beta-ol. The leaves contain caffeine (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998), and the bark contains flavonoids: epicatechin and procyanidin derivatives (Hr et al. 1996). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has categorized this plant as recommended specifically for its traditional use in treating flu, cold and cough (Germosn-Robineau 2005). The recommended dosage is a decoction of 12 g crushed leaves in 1 liter (4 cups) of water, boiled for at least 10 minutes in a covered container, strained, cooled and taken orally in the amount of 3-4 cups daily (Carballo 1995B, Caceres 1996, Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Guazuma ulmifolia

Activity/Effect Angiotensin II receptor binding inhibition Angiotensin II receptor binding inhibition Preparation Methanol: dichloromethane extracts of bark Acetone extract (70%) of bark & proanthocyanidins Design & Model In vitro: radioligandreceptor-binding assay In vitro Results Inhibited the [3H]-AT II binding (angiotensin II to AT1 receptor) by more than 50% Active; showed dosedependent inhibition of angiotensin II binding to the AT1 receptor Reference Caballero-George et al. 2001 Caballero-George et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Hexane, chloroform & methanol extracts of bark Plant extract

Design & Model In vitro: against strains of 4 types of aerobic bacteria Screened in vitro against 5 enterobacteria pathogenic to humans In vivo; rabbit model

Antibacterial

Results Hexane extract showed activity against E. coli & the methanol extract showed activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Exhibited antibacterial activity against gastrointestinal pathogens Significantly decreased the hyperglycemic peak & the area under the glucose tolerance curve; results suggest effectiveness in diabetes mellitus control Showed radical scavenging activity Completely inhibited cholera toxin-induced chloride secretion if given prior to the toxin; adding after administration of the toxin had no effect on secretion; effect due to procyanidins Showed significant activity; ethyl acetate fraction inhibited replication by at least 99%; blocked the synthesis of viral antigens

Reference Camporese et al. 2003

Caceres et al. 1990

Antidiabetic & hypoglycemic

Bark decoction (water extract)

Alarcon-Aguilara et al. 1998

Antioxidant Antisecretory

Methanol & aqueous extract Bark extract

In vitro In vitro: rabbit distal colon mounted in an Ussing chamber

Navarro et al. 2003 Hor et al. 1995

Antiviral

Crude extract & fractions: aqueous & ethyl acetate

In vitro: poliovirus 1 & bovine herpes virus 1; HEp-2 cultured cells

Felipe et al. 2006

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Alarcon-Aguilara FJ, Roman-Ramos R, Perez-Gutierrez S, Aguilar-Contreras A, Contreras-Weber CC, Flores-Saenz JL. 1998. Study of the anti-hyperglycemic effect of plants used as antidiabetics. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(2):101-10. Caballero-George C, Vanderheyden PM, Solis PN, Pieters L, Shahat AA, Gupta MP, Vauquelin G, Vlietinck AJ. 2001. Biological screening of selected medicinal Panamanian plants by radioligand-binding techniques. Phytomedicine 8(1):59-70. Caballero-George C, Vanderheyden PM, De Bruyne T, Shahat AA, Van den Heuvel H, Solis PN, Gupta MP, Claeys M, Pieters L, Vauquelin G, Vlietinck AJ. 2002. In vitro inhibition of [3H]-angiotensin II binding on the human AT1 receptor by proanthocyanidins from Guazuma ulmifolia bark. Planta Med 68(12):1066-71. Caceres A. 1996. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Plantas de uso medicinal en Guatemala. Guatemala, Guatemala: Editorial Univeresitaria de San Carlos. p. 126.

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Caceres A, Cano O, Samayoa B, Aguilar L. 1990. Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. 1. Screening of 84 plants against enterobacteria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 30(1):55-73. Camporese A, Balick MJ, Arvigo R, Esposito RG, Morsellino N, De Simone F, Tubaro A. 2003. Screening of antibacterial activity of medicinal plants from Belize (Central America). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87(1):103-7. Carballo A. 1995A. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Plantas medicinales del Escambray Cubano. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio provincial de produccin de medicamentos, Sancti Spiritus, Cuba. TRAMIL VII, Isla San Andrs, Colombia, UAG/U.Antioquia/enda-caribe. Carballo A. 1995B. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Clculo de concentracin y dosis de las drogas vegetales TRAMIL: Mensuraciones farmacognsticas y aproximaciones tcnico-clnicas. Laboratorio provincial de produccin de medicamentos, Sancti Spiritus, Cuba. TRAMIL VII, Isla San Andrs, Colombia, UAG/U. Antioquia/enda-caribe. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Felipe AM, Rincao VP, Benati FJ, Linhares RE, Galina KH, de Toledo CE, Lopes GC, de Mello JC, Nozawa C. 2006. Antiviral effect of Guazuma ulmifolia and Stryphnodendron adstringens on Poliovirus and Bovine Herpesvirus. Biol Pharm Bull 29(6):1092-5. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Herrera J. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Determinacin de parmetros farmacolgicos en vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional en la Cuenca del Caribe. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de fitofarmacologa, Departamento de Farmacologa, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. TRAMIL V, Livingston, Guatemala, CONAPLAMED/enda-caribe. Hoehne FC. 1939. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Plantas e substncias vegetais txicas e medicinais. So Paulo, Brazil: Dept. Bot. do Estado Sao-Paulo. Ed Graphicas. Hr M, Rimpler H, Heinrich M. 1995. Inhibition of intestinal chloride secretion by proanthocyanidins from Guazuma ulmifolia. Planta Medica 61(3):208-12. Navarro MC, Montilla MP, Cabo MM, Galisteo M, Caceres A, Morales C, Berger I. 2003. Antibacterial, antiprotozoal and antioxidant activity of five plants used in Izabal for infectious diseases. Phytotherapy Research 17(4):325-9. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Guajabo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Guajaba, guajava, guajavo (Spanish); ringworm bush, senna (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Synonym: Cassia alata L. [Caesalpiniaceae (Senna Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Diarrhea - Intestinal parasites - Limpiar la sangre - Skin fungal infections Plant Part Used: Leaves. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion and often combined with other plants. Traditional Uses: The leaves of this tree are considered cooling (fresco). For infections (in general), contaminated blood (mala sangre) and to cleanse the blood, guajabo leaves are combined with coffee (caf) leaves and boiled in water to make a decoction that is taken orally as a tea. This remedy may be prepared with golden shower tree (caafstula) bean pods and pineapple (pia) fruit rind. For diarrhea and intestinal parasites, a tea is prepared with guajabo leaves and/or flowers combined with the leaves of coffee (caf), wild privet senna (sen) and wormseed (apazote). To treat skin disorders (including pao), the leaves are prepared as a decoction and used externally as a wash. Availability: Dried leaves can be purchased from select botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Guajabo (Senna alata) is a shrub that grows to 3 m tall and has many branches emerging from the base of the plant. Leaves are pinnately compound with 5-12 pairs of opposite leaflets which are oblong to oval in shape, thin and papery in texture, fuzzy on the underside and rounded at the tip with a strongly asymmetric base and smooth leaf-edges. Flowers are clustered at the leaf bases and have yellow petals. Fruits are leguminous seeds pods (10-17 cm long), oblong in shape with a longitudinal wing along the side of the opening and contain wedge-shaped, brown seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is most likely native to the South America, particularly the Orinoco and Amazon basins, but is naturalized throughout the tropics, including the Caribbean. It grows in moist, open areas, is somewhat uncommon and is sometimes cultivated in gardens (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

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In one human clinical trial conducted in Thailand, the aqueous leaf extract (120 mL) administered as a single oral dose showed minimal self-limited side effects in 16-25% of patients. These side-effects included abdominal pain, diarrhea, dyspepsia and nausea (Thamlikitkul et al. 1990). For topical use, one clinical trial conducted in India reported that no negative side-effects were observed when the aqueous leaf extract was administered as a single application for the treatment of skin fungal infection (Domadaran & Venkataraman 1994). Animal Toxicity Studies: Animal studies have shown that this plant is relatively safe and non-irritating when applied topically and has not shown toxic effects when administered orally. No evident clinical signs of adverse effects were observed in rabbits when an aqueous extract of the fresh leaf (20%; macerated for 1 hour) was applied (0.6 mL dose) topically to hairless skin for 4, 24, 48 and 72 hours with observations made at each interval (Martinez, Morejon, Boucourt et al. 2003). In mice, no signs of toxicity were observed when the hydroalcoholic leaf extract (10 g dry plant/kg body weight) was administered orally and subcutaneously (Mokkhasmit et al. 1971) No mortality or evident clinical signs of adverse effects were observed when the fresh leaf decoction (30%) was administered orally (6154 mg/kg) in rats and observed continuously for 14 days. Results of histopathology studies did not reveal any organic damage, so this extract was determined to be nontoxic in this study (Martinez, Morejon, Lopez et al. 2003). Contraindications: Contraindicated in patients with: intestinal obstruction (due to stimulation of peristalsis), gastrointestinal inflammatory disease (due to potential irritation), anal prolapse (due to aggravation of bowels actions), hemorrhoids (due to potential induction of prolapse, stenosis and thrombosis), pregnancy (may cause endometrial stimulation although shown to be safe during pregnancy in human clinical trial), lactation (due to potentially genotoxic and mutagenic constituents), children under age 12 (due to potential dehydration), extended use (due to damage) and abdominal pain or appendicitis of unknown origin (due to the possibility of rupturing by contracting an inflamed organ; Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Diuretics (may aggravate potassium loss if co-administered), cardiac glycosides (if herb is over-used or misused, may increase the toxicity of these drugs; Brinker 1998).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
The following effects of the leaf have been investigated in human clinical trials: constipation treatment and Pityarisis versicolor treatment (see Clinical Data table below). Leaves and leaf extracts of this plant have demonstrated the following pharmacological effects in laboratory and animal studies: adherence inhibition, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiplatelet and dermatophilosis improvement (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Much scientific research has been conducted on related Senna spp. (see plant profile for caafstula [Cassia alata] for more information), particularly on their laxative effects due to the presence of anthraquinones. Biologically active compounds identified in this plant include: aloe emodin, chrysophanol, emodin and rhein; and in the leaf include: chrysarobin, dihydroxymetholanthraquinone, rhein glycoside and tannin. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated this herb as REC meaning that it is recommended for the following conditions: pao (pitiriasis versicolor), bumps on the skin, tinea and fungal infections of the skin (hongos or interdigital mycosis). For skin infections, pimples or bumps (granos) on the skin, chop 50 grams of the leaf (15-20 small leaves) and add them to 1 liter (4 cups) of boiled water; let it sit for 12 hours to infuse; and use this decoction to wash the affected area 2-3 times per day (note: this preparation will not keep for more than 24 hours and should be prepared fresh daily). For skin fungal infections: wash the affected area with soap and water, wash the laves, crush them to make a poultice and apply 1 spoonful

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(5 grams) of this vegetal matter topically on the affected area; cover with a bandage or clean cloth and change 3-4 times daily (Germosn-Robineau 2005, Girn 1988).

Clinical Data: Senna alata

Activity/Effect Constipation treatment Preparation Leaf infusion (120 mL) administered at bed time; evaluation 24 hrs post-treatment Design & Model Multicenter randomized placebo-controlled trial; n=80 adult patients w/ constipation for 72 hrs Human clinical trial (n=200 patients w/Pityriasis versicolor); single application of treatment w/follow up observation for 9 mos Results Showed significant laxative effect (P < 0.001) w/minimal, selflimited side effects, such as nausea, dyspepsia, abdominal pain & diarrhea in 16-25% of patients Cured skin fungal infection & prevented recurrence for up to 1 yr; no negative side effects were observed Reference Thamlikitkul et al. 1990

Pityarisis versicolor treatment

Crude aqueous extract of the leaves at varying concentrations

Damodaran & Venkataraman 1994

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Senna alata

Activity/Effect Adherence inhibition Preparation Crude extract (50 or 95% ethanol & dried); 0.5% (w/v) concentration tested Leaf extract from heat-treated laves Design & Model In vitro: adherence of Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175 & TPF-1 to glass surface In vitro: rat peritoneal exudates cells Results Active; showed significant effect Reference Limsong et al. 2004

Antiinflammatory

Antimicrobial

Leaf & bark; ethanol & water extracts; compared to standard antifungal drug Tioconazole at equivalent concentration

In vitro: against Aspergillus fumigatus, Microsporum canis, Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aereus & Escherichia coli

Showed strong inhibition of Concanavalin Ainduced histamine release, 5-lipoxygenase inhibition & cyclooxygenase inhibition (1 & 2) Active; water extracts from the bark showed stronger inhibition than ethanol extracts; leaf extract was stronger than bark against S. aureus; bark extract as potent as standard drug against C. albicans; no effect on E. coli

Moriyama et al. 2003b

Somchit et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Antiplatelet

Preparation Adenine isolated from leaves (1.0 g/mL final concentration) Ethanolic leaf extract prepared as an ointment; applied once daily for 8-15 days

Dermatophilosis improvement

Design & Model In vitro: platelet aggregation induced by collagen or adenosine diphosphate (ADP) In vivo: bovine dermatophilosis in 9 animals with chronic or acute lesions (for which standard antibiotic therapies had failed to work)

Results Active in collageninduced platelet aggregation but not ADP-induced Complete recovery & elimination of the infection which did not recur for more than 3 yrs

Reference Moriyama et al. 2003a

Ali-Emmanuel et al. 2003

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Ali-Emmanuel et al. 2003. Treatment of bovine dermatophilosis with Senna alata, Lantana camara and Mitracarups scaber leaf extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86(2-3):167-171. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Damodaran S, Venkataraman S. 1994. A study on the therapeutic efficacy of Cassia alata, Linn. Leaf extract against Pityriasis versicolor. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 42(1):19-23. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Girn L. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlntica). Centro Mesoamericano de Tecnologa CEMAT, Guatemala, Guatemala. Limsong J, Beniavongkulchai E, Kuvatanasuchati J. 2004. Inhibitory effect of some herbal extracts on adherence of Streptococcus mutans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92(2-3):281-289. Martinez MJ, Morejon Z, Boucourt E, Fuentes V, Moron F. 2003. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Irritiabilidad drmica primaria de hoja fresca de Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacologa, Facultad de Ciencias Mdicas Dr. Salvador Allende, La Habana, Cuba. Martinez MJ, Morejon Z, Lopez M, Boucourt E, Barcelo H, Laynez A, Fuentes V, Moron F. 2003. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Clase de Toxicidad Aguda (CTA) de hoja fresca de Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacologa, Facultad de Ciencias Mdicas, Dr. Salvador Allende, La Habana, Cuba. Mokkhasmit M, Swatdimongkol K, Satrawaha P. 1971. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Study on toxicity of Thai medicinal plants. Bull Dept Med Sci 12(2-4):36-65. Moriyama H, Iizuka T, Nagai M, Hoshi K. 2003a. Adenine, an inhibitor of platelet aggregation, from the leaves of Cassia alata. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 26(9):1361-1364.

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Moriyama H, Iizuka T, Nagai M, Miyataka H, Satoh T. 2003b. Antiinflammatory activity of heat-treated Cassia alata leaf extract and its flavonoid glycoside. Yakugaku Zasshi Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 123(7):607-611. Somchit MN, Reezal I, Nur IE, Mutalib AR. 2003. In vitro antimicrobial activity of ethanol and water extracts of Cassia alata. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 84(1):1-4. Thamlikitkul V, Bunyapraphatsara N, Dechatiwongse T, Theerapong S, Chantrakul C, Thanaveerasuwan T, Nimitnon S, Boonroj P, Punkrut W, Gingsungneon V et al. 1990. Randomized controlled trial of Cassia alata Linn. For constipation. J Med Assoc Thai 73(4):217-22. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Guanbana
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Custard apple, soursop, sweet apple (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Annona muricata L. [Annonaceae (Custard-apple Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Anxiety - Bruises - Common cold - Contusions and musculoskeletal trauma - Fever - Flu - Nervios - Stress Plant Part Used: Leaves and fruits. Traditional Preparation: Typically the leaves are prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction for a short period of time. The leaves are also used to prepare a bath. Traditional Uses: For the common cold or flu, a tea is prepared using the leaves of guanbana combined with cinnamon (canela) bark, acerola cherry (cereza) leaves and bitter orange (naranja agria) leaves. Guanbana leaves are used to support recovery from musculoskeletal injury, typically prepared as a tea in combination with lemongrass (limoncillo) leaves, sweet orange (naranja) leaves and lime/lemon (limn) fruit. For menopausal hot flashes, a tea is prepared of the leaves and is considered a relaxant, often combined with the leaves/stalk of lemongrass (limoncillo). To calm down anxiety and nerves (los

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nervios), a sedative tea is prepared of the leaves along with lemon/lime (limn) or sweet orange (naranja) leaves and taken internally. For children with fever, a bath is prepared using the leaves of this plant. The fruit is thought to be cold (fro) or cooling (fresco) and is used as a diuretic and to lower fever. Healers consider the leaves of this plant to be potentially toxic if taken in large doses, so caution is advised and only small to moderate amounts of the tea should be taken internally. This herb should not be taken for an extended period of time. To avoid extracting too many toxins from this potent plant, herbalists advise that the leaves be boiled only for a very short period of time when preparing a tea/decoction. Herbalists contraindicate eating the fruit during pregnancy or menstruation because it is attributed very cold properties which could cause complications such as menstrual cramps, the accumulation of phlegm and mucha frialdad en la matriz (lots of coldness in the womb). Availability: Fruits are available in season on a limited basis (as they are highly perishable) at ethnic grocery stores, food markets and fruit stands in Latino/Caribbean neighborhoods. Dried leaves can be purchased from botnicas that specialize in selling Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
This tree grows on average 3-8 m in height and has cylindrical stems covered with small, whitish, raised bumps or lenticels. Leaves are alternate and narrowly oval (6-17 cm long) with a thin, papery texture, shiny surface and smooth leaf edges that curl up slightly. Flowers have greenish-yellow, heart-shaped petals. Fruits are fleshy and shaped like a rounded or elongated heart (15-30 cm long) with green skin and covered with small bumps or lumpy spine-like projections. Seeds are numerous, dark brown and surrounded by a tart, white pulp (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to tropical America, this plant grows in the Caribbean and is often found in disturbed areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

An epidemiological case control study has suggested a possible connection between the ingestion of Annona fruits or leaf teas and the incidence of atypical Parkinsonism in the Caribbean (CaparrosLefebvre & Elbaz 1999). Potentially neurotoxic compounds have been identified in the leaves and other parts of Annona muricata and other members of the plant family Annonaceae; however, these compounds were not detected in the fruit pulp or seeds. Compounds detected were reticuline and Nmethylcoculaurine which were shown to be toxic to SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and inhibited mitochondrial respiratory complex I. Uptake and accumulation of these benzylisoquinoline derivatives in the brain may be related to the high incidence of atypical levodopa-resistant Parkinsonism and progressive supranuclear palsy in Guadeloupe in the French West Indies (Kotake et al. 2004). Animal and Laboratory Toxicity Studies: No mortality was observed in mice given 1-5 g/kg of the aqueous decoction orally (Saravia 1992). No mortality or evidence of toxicity was observed in mice given the leaves at doses of 100 and 2000 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally for 14 days consecutively, resulting in an LD1 >2000 mg/kg (Rolland et al. 1988). The leaves administered orally to rats resulted in fibrosarcomas, and the topical application in hamsters caused skin cancer development (OGara et al. 1971; Dunham et al. 1974). Plants in the family Annonaceae have been shown to contain annonaceous acetogenins which are powerful, lipophilic complex I inhibitors. Annonacin has been shown to be toxic to mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons by impairing energy metabolism (Lannuzel et al. 2003). In an in vivo study with rats which were intravenously administered annonacin (3.8 and 7.6 mg/kg per day for 28 days), researchers observed neuropathological abnormalities in the basal ganglia and brainstem nuclei, decreased brain ATP levels, inhibition of complex I in brain homogenates, significant loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and a distribution of lesions comparable to that in patients with atypical

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Parkinsonism. These results suggests that ingestion of Annonaceae plants may play a role in the development of Guadeloupean Parkinsonism (Champy et al. 2004). Another related in vitro study has been conducted investigating the potential toxicity of the root bark and two of the most abundant subfractions, coreximine and reticuline, which negatively affected dopaminergic neurons and GABAergic neurons. Results suggest that alkaloids from Annona muricata can modulate the function and survival of dopaminergic nerve cells and could conceivably cause neuronal dysfunction and degeneration after repeated consumption (Lannuzel et al. 2002). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Guanbana has demonstrated the following effects in laboratory studies: antiherpetic, antioxidant, antischistosomal, antiviral, cytotoxic, molluscicidal and serotonin antagonist (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Biologically active constituents identified in this plant include: caffeic acid, campesterol, citrulline, coclaurine, coreximine, GABA, HCN, malic acid, methanol, p-coumaric acid, paraffin, procyanidin and reticuline (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The edible portion of the fruit (the white pulp) is a source of potassium and vitamins B1, B2 and C (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Pending additional research on the potential toxicity and therapeutic effects of this plant in humans, it has been classified as INV by TRAMIL meaning that further investigation is needed (Germosn-Robineau 1995).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Annona muricata

Activity/Effect Antioxidant Preparation Ethanol extract of stem bark Design & Model In vivo: albino rats Results Inhibited cold immobilization stressinduced increase in lipid peroxidation in the liver & brain of rats Most extracts were shown to be lethal to mollusk; Annona muricata LD90 (< 20 ppm) values were 8.75 against vector for schistosomiasis; also toxic to snail egg masses Annona muricata was highly active: LD50=11.86 ppm against adults & LD50=49.62 ppm against egg masses Reference Padma et al. 1997

Antischistosomal Ethanolic extracts from 6 species of & molluscicidal Annonaceae family, including Annona muricata leaves Antischistosomal 27 crude extracts from 26 plant & molluscicidal species

Evaluated against adult forms & egg masses of Biomphalaria glabrata Molluscicidal bioassays; Biomphalaria glabrata adults & egg masses

dos Santos & SantAna 2001

dos Santos & SantAna 2000

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Activity/Effect Antiviral

Preparation Ethanolic extract

Antiviral & antiherpetic

Cytotoxic

Extracts from Annona muricata used as a positive control due to known cytotoxicity and numerous species tested 5 new compounds isolated from the seeds

Design & Model In vitro: Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) & clinical isolate obtained from human keratitis lesion In vitro: HEp-2 cells; MTT (Tetrazolium blue) & Neutral Red colorimetric assays In vitro: bioassays using human solid tumor cell lines

Results Exhibited cytopathic effect of HSV-1 on cells; minimum inhibitory concentration of ethanolic extract: 1 mg/mL Methanolic extract of Annona spp. showed significant antiherpetic activity at therapeutic levels

Reference Padma et al. 1998

Betancur-Galvis L et al. 1999

Cytotoxic

Cytotoxic

Acetogenins isolated from the seeds and leaves of Annona muricata Acetogenins isolated from the seeds of this plant Acetogenin compounds isolated from the leaves: muricoreacin and murihexocin C Fruit and leaf extracts & isolated isoquinoline derivatives

Cytotoxic

Serotonin antagonist

In vitro: human hepatoma cell lines, Hep G2 & 2,2,15 In vitro: two human hepatoma cell lines, Hep G(2) & 2,2,15 In vitro: 6 human tumor cell lines with selectivities to the prostate adenocarcinoma & pancreatic carcinoma cell lines In vitro: NIH-3T3 cells stably transfected with the 5-HT1A human receptor

Cis-annonacin was selectively cytotoxic to colon adenocarcinoma cells (HT-29) and demonstrated potency 10,000 stronger than adriamycin, an anticancer drug Showed significant activity

Rieser et al. 1996

Chang et al. 2003

Exhibited significant cytotoxic activity Exhibited significant cytotoxic activity suggesting possible use as an antitumor agent

Liaw et al. 2002

Kim et al. 1998

Demonstrated inhibition of the binding of the radioligand to the 5-HT1A receptor; results imply antidepressive effects

Hasrat et al. 1997

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Betancur-Galvis L, Saez J, Granados H, Salazar A, Ossa J. 1999. Antitumor and antiviral activity of Colombian medicinal plant extracts. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 94(4):531-535.

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Caparros-Lefebvre D, Elbaz A. 1999. Possible relation of atypical parkinsonism in the French West Indies with consumption of tropical plants: a case-control study. Caribbean Parkinsonism Study Group. Lancet 1999 354(9188):1472-1473. Champy P, Hoglinger GU, Feger J, Gleye C, Hocquemiller R, Laurens A, Guerineau V, Laprevote O, Medja F, Lombes A, Michel PP, Lannuzel A, Hirsch EC, Ruberg M. 2004. Annonacin, a lipophilic inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I, induces nigral and striatal neurodegeneration in rats: possible relevance for atypical parkinsonism in Guadeloupe. Journal of Neurochemistry 88(1):63-9. Chang FR, Liaw CC, Lin CY, Chou CJ, Chiu HF, Wu YC. New adjacent Bis-tetrahydrofuran Annonaceous acetogenins from Annona muricata. Planta Medica 69(3):241-246. dos Santos AF, SantAna AE. 2001. Molluscicidal properties of some species of Annona. Phytomedicine 8(2):115120. dos Santos AF, SantAna AE. 2000. The molluscicidal activity of plants used in Brazilian folk medicine. Phytomedicine 6(6):431-438. Dunham L, Sheets R, Morton J. 1974. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Proliferative lesions in check and esophagus of hamster treated with plants from Curaao. J Natl Inst 53(5):1259-1270. Hasrat JA, de Bruyne T, de Backer JP, Vauquelin G, Vlietinck AJ. 1997. Isoquinoline derivatives isolated from the fruit of Annona muricata as 5-HT1A receptor agonists in rats: unexploited antidepressive (lead) products. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 49(11):1145-1149. Kim GS, Zeng L, Alali F, Rogers LL, Wu FE, Sastrodihardjo S, McLaughlin JL. 1998. Muricoreacin and murihexocin C, mono-tetrahydrofuran acetogenins, from the leaves of Annona muricata. Phytochemistry 49(2):565-571. Kotake Y, Okuda K, Kamizono M, Matsumoto N, Tanahashi T, Hara H, Caparros-Lefebvre D, Ohta S. 2004. Detection and determination of reticuline and N-methylcoculaurine in the Annonaceae family using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography B: Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical & Life Sciences 806(1):75-8. Lannuzel A, Michel PP, Caparros-Lefebvre D, Abaul J, Hocquemiller R, Ruberg M. 2002. Toxicity of Annonaceae for dopaminergic neurons: potential role in atypical parkinsonism in Guadeloupe. Movement Disorders 17(1):84-90. Lannuzel A, Michel PP, Hoglinger GU, Champy P, Jousset A, Medja F, Lombes A, Darios F, Gleye C, Laurens A, Hocquemiller R, Hirsch EC, Ruberg M. 2003. The mitochondrial complex I inhibitor annonacin is toxic to mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons by impairment of energy metabolism. Neuroscience 121(2):287-296. Liaw CC, Chang FR, Lin CY, Chou CJ, Chiu HF, Wu MJ, Wu YC. 2002. New cytotoxic monotetrahydrofuran annonaceous acetogenins from Annona muricata. Journal of Natural Products 65(4):470-475. OGara R, Lee C, Morton J. 1971. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Carcinogenicity of extracts of selected plants from Curaao. J Natl Cancer Ind 46(6):1131-1137. Padma P, Chansouria JP, Khosa RL. 1997. Effect of alcohol extract of Annona muricata on cold immobilization stress induced tissue lipid peroxidation. Phytotherapy Research 11(4):326-327. Padma P, Pramod NP, Thyagarajan SP, Khosa RL. 1998. Effect of the extract of Annona muricata and Petunia nyctaginiflora on Herpes simplex virus. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(1):81-83. Riesser MJ, Gu ZM, Fang XP, Zeng L, Wood KV, McLaughlin JL. 1996. Five novel mono-tetrahydrofuran ring acetogenins from the seeds of Annona muricata. Journal of Natural Products 59(2):100-108.

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Rolland et al. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Recherche de quelques activits pharmacologiques traditionnelles dAnnona muricata et dAnnona reticulate chez lanimal. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, 318-. Saravia A. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Estudios sobre plantas TRAMIL. TRAMIL VI, Guadeloupe, U.A.G./enda-caribe. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Guandul
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Gandul, gandules, guandules (Spanish); pigeon pea (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cajanus cajan (L.) Mills. Synonym: Cajanus bicolor D.C. [Fabaceae (Bean or Pea Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Abortifacient - Arthritis - Inflammation - Joint pain Plant Part Used: Leaves, roots and seeds (beans). Traditional Preparation: The beans are cooked and ingested. The leaves are applied topically as a poultice. The root is prepared as a tea by decoction and taken orally. Traditional Uses: The beans (pigeon peas) of this plant are used for nutrition and nourishment and prepared as a part of Dominican culinary traditions. For arthritis and joint pain, the leaf is applied locally to the affected area to relieve pain and inflammation. To induce abortion, the root of this plant is boiled to make a strong decoction and taken internally as a tea. In the Caribbean, this plant is used to treat toothache and conjunctivitis (Germosn-Robineau 1995). Availability: Dried roots can be purchased from select botnicas in New York City. Beans can be purchased from grocery stores and supermarkets, especially in Latino and Caribbean neighborhoods.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Guandul (Cajanus cajan) is a shrub that typically grows to 3 m tall. Leaves are alternate and pinnately compound, each with 3 leaflets (2.5-10 cm long). On the underside, leaves have yellow spots, resinous dots and are covered with whitish, woolly hairs. Flowers are yellow and red, grow in loose clusters at the

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tip of the stem and have bracts and sepals covered with short, rust-colored, wooly hairs. Fruits are oblong bean pods covered with short, soft, gland-bearing hairs and are slightly constricted around the seeds which are green, turning light brown as they mature (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Thought to be native to Africa, this plant is an important grain legume that is widely cultivated throughout the tropics and primarily produced in India (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The seeds (pigeon peas) are cooked as beans and widely consumed as a common foodstuff. No data on the safety of the leaves or root in humans has been identified in the available literature. Animal Toxicity Studies: In rats, the whole plant administered intraperitoneally resulted in toxic effects at 100 mg/kg and at 112.5 mg/kg of the ethanolic (95%) plant extract (Suffness et al. 1988). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No human clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature. Guandul has shown the following effects in preclinical studies: antimalarial (Yarnell et al. 2004), antidiabetic (Grover et al. 2001) and antisickling activity. Cajanone, an isoflavone from the seed and root, has demonstrated antimicrobial and antifungal properties (Dhar et al. 1968, Preston 1977; see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Phenylalanine is the active constituent responsible for the antisickling effects of the seed extract (Ekeke & Shode 1990). In addition to hypoglycemic properties, the seed has demonstrated activity in restoring erythrocyte morphology in blood samples from individuals with sickle-cell anemia (Iwu et al. 1988). Cajanus cajan is recognized by the Pharmacopeia of Oriental Medicine, 1968 edition (Penso 1980). Compounds identified in the plant include: 2-hydrozygenistein, cajanone and ferreirin; root: 20-methylcajanone, alpha-amyrin, cajaflavanone, cajaisoflavone, cajaquinone, geinstein, isogenistein-7-0glucoside, lupeol; and seed: cajanin and concajanin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The cooked beans are high in potassium and phosphorus, contain moderate amounts of calcium and magnesium and have a low content of iron, zinc, copper and manganese (Nwokolo 1987). The raw beans also contain significant amounts of vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5 and B6 (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has categorized this plant as INV meaning that more investigation is needed before making a clinical recommendation for the use of the leaf decoction in treating toothache and arthritis. To validate the efficacy of traditional use, more research is needed on the antiinflammatory and analgesic effects of the leaf (Germosn-Robineau 1995).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Cajanus cajan

Activity/Effect Antibacterial & antituberculosis Preparation Dry leaf extract; 50 mg/mL dose Leaf decoction Design & Model In vitro Results Active against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus & Mycobacterium smegmatis Active against strains of Shigella flexneri and Staphylococcus aureus Reference Boily & Van Puyvele 1986 Kambu et al. 1989

Antimicrobial

In vitro

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial & antigonorrheal Antimalarial

Preparation Leaf tincture

Design & Model In vitro

Antisickling

Compounds isolated from roots and leaves: 2 stilbenes (longistylin A & C) & betulinic acid Aqueous methanol extract (3:1, v/v) of seeds; 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, & 2.5 mg/mL

In vitro

Results Active against Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Candida albicans & Staphylococcus aureus Showed moderately high activity against the chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum strain 3D7 Demonstrated significant, concentration-dependent antisickling activity; due to reversal of presickled erythrocyte cells, results suggest potential use in the management of painful episodes of sickle cell disease

Reference Caceres et al. 1992

Duker-Eshun et al. 2004

In vitro: presickled erythrocyte (HbSS) cells

Ogoda Onah et al. 2002

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Boily Y, Van Puyvele L. 1986. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Screening of medicinal plants of Rwanda (Central Africa) for antimicrobial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 16(1):1-13. Caceres A, et al. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Antigonorrhoeal activity of plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. TRAMIL VI, Guadeloupe, U.A.G./enda-caribe. Dhar M et al. 1968. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: part I. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 6:232-247. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Duker-Eshun G, Jaroszewski JW, Asomaning WA, Oppong-Boachie F, Brogger Christensen S. 2004. Antiplasmodial constituents of Cajanus cajan. Phytotherapy Research 18(2):128-130. Ekeke G, Shode F. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Phenylalanine is the predominant antisickling agent in Cajanus cajan seed extract. Planta Medica 56(1):41-43. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Grover JK, Yadav S, Vats V. 2002. Medicinal plants of India with anti-diabetic potential. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81(1):81-100. Iwu M, et al. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Effect of cajaminose on oxygen affinity of sickle cell hemoglobin. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 23(1):99-104.

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Kambu K et al. 1989. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Evaluation de lactivit animicrobienne de quelques preparations traditionnelles antidiarrhiques utileses dans la ville de Kinshasa-Zaire. Bull Md Trad Pharm 3(1):15-. Nwokolo E. 1987. Nutritional evaluation of pigeon pea meal. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 37(4):283-90. Ogoda Onah J, Akubue PI, Okide GB. 2002. The kinetics of reversal of pre-sickled erythrocytes by the aqueous extract of Cajanus cajan seeds. Phytotherapy Research 16(8):748-750. Penso G. 1980. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Inventory of medicinal plants used in different countries. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Preston N. 1977. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Cajanone: an antifungal isoflavanone from Cajanus cajan. Phytochemistry 16:143-144. Suffness M, et al. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). The utility of P388 leukemia compared to B17 melanoma. Phytotherapy Research 2(2):89-97. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yarnell E, Abascal K. 2004. Botanical treatment and prevention of malaria: Part 2 Selected botanicals. Alternative and Complementary Therapies 10(5):277-284. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Guatapanl
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Divi-divi, guatapan, cascalote (Spanish); Divi divi (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. Synonyms: Caesalpinia thomaea Spreng., Poinciana coriaria Jacq. [Caesalpiniaceae (Senna Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Cleansing the reproductive system - Fever - Inflammation - Reproductive disorders - Sexually transmitted infections - Sore throat - Tonsillitis - Toothache

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Vaginal infections

Plant Part Used: Dried seeds and seed pods. Traditional Preparation: The seed pods are typically prepared as a gargle or mouth rinse by decoction and are also used as a tea, mouth rinse and vaginal wash. Traditional Uses: Guatapanl is most popularly known as a remedy for sore throat and tonsillitis. A decoction of the dried fruits, seeds or fruit husk is prepared by boiling in water and taken as a gargle a few times daily while symptoms persist. Sometimes this gargle preparation is also made with additional ingredients, such as Caribbean pine (cuaba) and bicarbonato (sodium bicarbonate or baking soda). Oral administration of the fruit decoction is said to lower fever and decrease inflammation and infection. For toothache, mouth and gum inflammation or oral infections, the fruit is boiled with coffee (caf) and salt to prepare a mouth rinse. The fruits are also used to make a douche (lavado vaginal) for vaginal or ovarian infections, inflammation and swelling; pain in the reproductive organs; menstrual disorders; sexually transmitted infections; and to cleanse the reproductive system. This vaginal wash is sometimes prepared with powdered Massengill, an over-the-counter drug from the pharmacy, together with guatapanl; when combined, this pharmaceutical product is said to get rid of the bacteria while the herb works by removing the infection and inflammation.. Availability: Dried seed pods can be purchased from select botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Guatapanl (Caesalpinia coriaria) is a small deciduous tree that typically grows to 7-8 m tall with a trunk diameter of 30 cm. Leaves are feathery and twice divided with 9-17 secondary leaf axes each with 16-24 pairs of tiny, rounded leaflets. Flowers are light yellow to whitish with 5 petals and grow in short clusters at the leaf bases. Fruits are light brown, hard bean pods (3-6 cm long) turning dark reddish brown when mature; they are often concave, curved in a circular form or S-shaped (Little et al. 1974). Distribution: This plant grows in the Caribbean and Central America and is cultivated in tropical regions of the world (Little et al. 1974).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No clinical or laboratory data was found by conducting a literature search on Medline and BIOSIS databases using the species name. Phytochemistry studies have shown the fruits of this plant to contain gallic- and ellagen-tannic acids which decompose upon hydrolysis into water and ellagic acid (Loewe 1875 in Felter & Lloyd 1898). These compounds are known to have astringent properties suggesting their therapeutic potential in treating conditions such as diarrhea, sore throat and mucous membrane inflammation. No information has been found on the safety, adverse effects, contraindications, herb-drug interactions or indications and usage of this plant. A closely related species, Caesalpinia bonducella (also commonly called divi-divi) is used in a similar manner: the roasted seeds are taken as a febrifuge and anti-inflammatory agent in India and South America. See medicinal plant entry for Brasil for information on this and other species of the plant genus Caesalpinia (Gruenwald et al. 2004). This plant is important commercially because of the high concentration of tannin and gallic acid in the pods which are used for tanning leather.

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REFERENCES
Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Felter HW and Lloyd JU. 1898. Kings American Dispensatory. Eighteenth Edition. Third Revision. Cincinnati: Ohio Valley Company. Little EL, Woodbury RO, Wadsworth FH. 1974. Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Second Volume. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1024 pp. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Guauc
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Guaucl, periquito, tiquitaque (Spanish); wild petunia, minnieroot, many roots, Christmas pride (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Ruellia tuberosa L. [Acanthaceae (Acanthus Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Childbirth complications - Kidney disorders - Limpiar el sistema - Menstrual disorders - Pregnancy - Urinary tract infections - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Roots. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion and taken internally; may also be added to complex herbal mixtures and prepared as a decoction or tincture, extracted in alcohol. Traditional Uses: Guauc is an important plant for womens health. The root is a common ingredient in herbal remedies prepared with mixtures of multiple plants (bebedizos and botellas) for womens reproductive health conditions. It is often used for complications associated with childbirth and pregnancy

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and can be taken as a remedy for labor pain and to support postpartum recovery. For vaginal or urinary tract infections, a tea is made of the root of guauc and is sometimes combined with Spanish clover (amor seco) to cleanse the reproductive system and to treat kidney disorders. Availability: Dried roots can be purchased from botnicas that specialize in supplying Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Guauc (Ruellia tuberosa) is an herbaceous plant that grows to 50 cm tall and has many branches and quadrangular stems emerging from a short woody base. Leaves are clustered at nodes and narrowly oval to oblong in shape. Flowers have lilac-colored to mauve petals with 5 rounded lobes. Fruits are cylindrical brown capsules (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant grows in open and disturbed areas in the Caribbean and is widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical America (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Insufficient information is available in the literature on the safety, contraindications, drug interactions and indications and usage of this plant.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Laboratory studies have shown the following effects of this plant: analgesic, antibacterial, antioxidant and gastroprotective (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below.) Major chemical constituents of this plant include flavonoids (Wagner et al. 1971) and the triterpenoid 21-methyldammar-22-en-3,18,27-triol 1 (Singh et al. 2002). Other plant constituents include: beta-sitosterol, campesterol, hentriacontane, nonacosane and stigmasterol (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Ruellia tuberosa

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Fractions: hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate & methanol (100 mg/mL) Methanolic extract & nhexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate & water fractions Crude aqueous extract of the roots (470, 940 & 1880 mg/kg) Design & Model In vitro: Gram positive & Gram negative bacteria Results Active; methanol & ethyl acetate fractions showed most potent antibacterial activity; showed particularly strong inhibition of Staphyloccus aureus & Pseudomonas aeruginosa Active; the ethyl acetate fraction exhibited the strongest activity Reference Wiart et al. 2005

Antioxidant

Gastroprotective & analgesic

In vitro: DPPH freeradical scavenging & hydrogen peroxideinduced luminal chemiluminescence assays In vivo: rats with alcohol-induced gastric lesions

Chen et al. 2005

Active; strong dosedependent effects in reducing size of gastric lesions; also showed mild erythropoeitic & moderate analgesic activities

Arambewela et al. 2003

277

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Arambewela LS, Thambugala R, Ratnasooriya WD. 2003. Gastroprotective activity of Ruellia tuberosa root extracts in rats. Journal of Tropical Medicinal Plants 4(2):191-4. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Chen FA, Wu AB, Shieh P, Kuo DH, Hsieh CY. Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of Ruellia tuberosa. Food Chemistry 94(1):14-8. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 14, 2007). Singh RS, Pandey HS, Pandey RP, Singh BK. 2002. A new triterpenoid from Ruellia tuberosa Linn. Indian J. Chem., Sect. B: Org chem. include med chem 41(8):1754-6. Wagner H, Danninger H, Iyengar MA, Seligmann O, Farkas L, Subramanian SS, Nair AG. 1971. [Synthesis of glucuronides in the flavonoid-series. 3. Isolation of apigenin-7D-glucuronide from Ruellia tuberosa L. and its synthesis] [Article in German]. Chem Ber 104(9):2681-7. Wiart C, Akaho E, Yassim M, Hammimah H, Au TS, Sulaiman M, Hannah M. 2005. Antimicrobial activity of Ruellia tuberosa L. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 33(4):683-5. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Guayacn
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Palo santo, palo vencedor (Spanish); guaiac, guaiacum, lignum vitae, pockwood (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Guaiacum officinale L. [Zygophyllaceae (Creosote-bush Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Alopecia, baldness - Arthritis - Sexually transmitted infections

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Skin disorders Upper or lower respiratory tract infections

Plant Part Used: Wood and resin of heart wood; sold powdered or as sticks. Traditional Preparation: This plant is typically prepared as a tincture, extracted in alcohol or boiled in water as a decoction and applied externally. Traditional Uses: The sticks (los palos), branches and wood (madera) of this plant are prepared as a tincture in gin (ginebra) and used for the treatment of upper or lower respiratory tract infections, skin disorders, arthritis and sexually transmitted infections. For arthritis (reumatismo), rub the tincture externally on the affected area and take 1-2 spoonfuls per day internally. To prevent hair loss, the wood is boiled in water to prepare a decoction that is then applied topically to the scalp. Availability: Can be purchased from some botnicas that specialize in selling medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Guayacn (Guaiacum officinale) is a small tree that typically grows 5-10 m tall and has dark brown, shaggy bark that peels off in thick plates. Leaves grow in opposite pairs along branches and are pinnately compound with 1-3 pairs of opposite, oval to oblong leaflets. Flowers are small and pale violet to periwinkle-blue and grow at the branch tips. Fruits are yellowish-orange, flattened capsules which open to reveal hanging seeds surrounded by a bright, scarlet red, fleshy aril (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is native to tropical America and grows in the Caribbean. It can occasionally be found in dry coastal forests and is sometimes cultivated (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

When appropriate therapeutic doses are used, no health risks or side effects have been identified in the literature associated with this herb. However, cases of skin rashes subsequent to herb intake have been reported and potential adverse reactions of excess use or high dosages include diarrhea, grastrointestinal inflammation (gastroenteritis) and intestinal colic (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
This plant has shown ant-inflammatory activity in animal studies (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The following additional effects of Guaiacum spp. have been demonstrated in laboratory studies (according to a secondary reference): hypotensive and fungistatic (due to saponin content; Gruenwald et al. 2004). Aqueous extracts of a closely related species, Guaiacum coulteri, have shown significant hypoglycemic activity in vivo in rabbits with experimentally-induced diabetes and hyperglycemia (Roman Ramos, Lara Lemus et al. 1992, Roman Ramos, Alarcon-Aguilar et al. 1992). Major chemical constituents that have been identified in species of the Guaiacum genus include the following: cresol, essential oil, furoguaiacidin, furoguaiacin, furoguaiaoxcidin, guaiacene, guaiacol, guaiaconic acid, guaiagutin, guaiaretic acid, guaiasaponin, guaiazulene, guaiene, guaiguttin, guaiol, guaioxide, hydroguaiaretic acid, meso-dihydroguaiaretic acid, officigenin, resin, saponin, tannin and vanillin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998).

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Indications and Usage: Approved by the German Commission E for the treatment of rheumatism (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Guaiacum can be administered as an infusion, decoction, tincture or various commercial preparations including ointments and drops. Average daily dosage is 4-5 g of the powdered wood or 20-40 drops of the tincture. To prepare an infusion or decoction, use 1.5 g of the pulverized wood in 1 cup cold water (150 mL), bring to a boil, remove from heat, infuse for 15 minutes and strain (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Guaiacum officinale

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory Preparation Aqueous ethanolic extract Design & Model In vivo: rats with carrageenaninduced paw edema Results Active at 200 mg/kg in chronic phase of inflammation Reference Duwiejua et la. 1994

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Ahmad VU, Bano N, Bano S. 1984. Sapogenins from Guaiacum officinale. Phytochemistry 23:2613-2616. Ahmad VU, Bano N, Bano S. 1986. A saponin from the stem bark of Guaiacum officinale. Phytochemistry 25:951952. Ahmad VU, Bano N, Bano S, Fatima A, Kenne L. 1986. Guaianin, a new saponin from Guaiacum officinale. Journal of Natural Products 49:784-786. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Duwiejua M, Zeitlin IJ, Waterman PG, Gray AI. 1994. Anti-inflammatory activity of Polygonum bistorta, Guaiacum officinale and Hamamelis virginiana in rats. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 46(4):286290. King FE and Wilson JG. 1964. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). The chemistry of extractives from hardwoods. Part XXXVI. The lignans of Guaiacum officinale L. J Chem Soc 4011-4024. Roman Ramos R, Lara Lemus A, Alarcon Aguilar F, Flores Saenz JL. 1992. Hypoglycemic activity of some antidiabetic plants. Archives of Medical Research 23(3):105-109. Roman Ramos R, Alarcon-Aguilar F, Lara-Lemus A, Flores-Saenz JL. 1992. Hypoglycemic effect of plants used in Mexico as antidiabetics. Archives of Medical Research 23(1):59-64. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Hierba Mora
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Yerba mora, mata gallina (Spanish); black nightshade (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Solanum americanum Miller var. nodiflorum (Jacq.) Edmonds. Synonyms: Solanum nigrum sensu Britton & P. Wilson, Solanum nodiflorum Jacq. [Solanaceae (Nightshade Family)]. Note: In New York City, the common name hierba mora may also be used for other species in the genus Solanum, including Solanum dulcamara L. In the Dominican Republic, an additional species used under the same common name is Solanum nigrescens M. Martens & Galeotti (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Allergies - Cancer - Childbirth - labor pain - Cysts - Infections - Limpiar la sangre - Postpartum - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Whole herb, usually collected in flower. Traditional Preparation: This plant is typically prepared as a tea by decoction and taken orally. Traditional Uses: This remedy can be prepared in combination with the leaves of the cotton plant (algodn morado) and sticks of cinchona (quina) wood. Hierba mora is also used for cleansing or purifying the blood and for treating allergies and womens health conditions. For labor pain during childbirth and to support postpartum recovery, the leaves are prepared as a multi-herb decoction (botella or bebedizo) and combined with other ingredients including minnieroot (guauc) root. Availability: This herb is sometimes sold at botnicas that specialize in supplying medicinal plants and may be found growing in parks and open, disturbed areas in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Hierba mora (Solanum americanum) is an herbaceous plant that grows upright to a height of 30-80 cm. Leaves are oval to lance-shaped in general outline (5-17 cm 2-10 cm). Flowers grow in short, umbrellalike clusters along the sides of branches; petals are white and fused together at the base in a tube-like shape, opening at the end with 5 lobes, surrounding yellow anthers in the center. Fruits are round, fleshy berries turning from yellowish green to purplish black as they mature and containing numerous beige seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

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Distribution: This plant is native to North America and grows in the Caribbean; commonly found along roadsides and in disturbed, moist areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

When administered appropriately, no adverse effects or health hazards have been identified in the literature associated with this herb. However, when taken in excess, cases of overdose have been reported from internal use of large quantities of the fresh leaves due to their high alkaloid content. Symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, queasiness, vomiting, headache and rarely mydriasis (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Animal Toxicity Studies: TRAMIL investigations of a closely related species, Solanum nigrescens: an aqueous extract of the dried leaf (5 g/kg) administered orally to mice did not show signs of acute toxicity (Girn 1992). The fresh fruits of Solanum americanum contain alpha-solamargine which was isolated and administered intraperitoneally to rats in lethality studies which determined the LD50 to be 42 mg/kg body weight and in subchronic toxicity investigations, no significant toxic effects were observed at doses below 35 mg/kg body weight (Al Chami et al. 2003). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical trial, an extract of this plant has shown anticandidal and vaginal yeast infection improvement effects (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has demonstrated the following activity: anticandidal, antidermatophytic, antifungal, antimicrobial, antitrypanosomal, immunomodulatory and vaginal yeast infection improvement (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The isolated steroid alkaloid glycosides from this plant have shown the following pharmacological effects in laboratory and animal studies: local anesthetic, sedative and antiulcer (may be due to inhibition of pepsin and hydrochloric acid secretion; Gruenwald et al. 2004). Other major chemical constituents that have been identified in this plant include the following: alkaloids, alpha-solamargine, ascorbic acid, beta-sitosterol, beta-solamargine, chaconine, citric acid, diosgenin, glycoalkaloids, linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, saccharopine, saponin, solamargine, solanine, solansodamine, solasodine, solasonine, stearic acid, tannin, titogenin, uttronin, uttrosides and xi-solaninigrin (Duke & BeckstromSternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: According to TRAMIL, the leaves of the closely related species Solanum nigrescens are categorized as REC meaning that they are recommended for use in the treatment of excess vaginal discharge or infection, administered as a douche or vaginal wash, prepared from the leaves as a decoction (Germosn-Robineau 2005). According to Gruenwald et al. (2004), Solanum americanum can be administered as a powder, tincture, infusion or compress. Average daily dose is 10 drops of liquid extract 2-3 daily or 5-10 g tincture daily. For external use, a rinse or moist compress can be administered as needed. To prepare a tincture, combine 1 part herb to 1 part alcohol (95% ethanol) by volume. To prepare a compress or rinse, add a handful of herb to 1 liter water and boil for 10 minutes (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Clinical Data: Solanum americanum

Activity/Effect Anticandidal & vaginal yeast infection improvement Preparation Preparation of ethanolic extract of aerial parts (Solanum nigrescens); compared to Nystatin treatment Design & Model Clinical trial; 2 groups of 50 women with Candida albicans vaginal infection; treated intravaginally 2 times daily for 15 days Results Active; plant preparation cured 90% of patients (determined by negative culture) whereas Nystatin cured 94% Reference Aguilar 1985

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Solanum americanum

Activity/Effect Anticandidal Preparation Hydromethanolic extract (50%) of dry plant; (Solanum nigrescens) Preparation of ethanolic extract of aerial parts (Solanum nigrescens); compared to Nystatin treatment Plant extracts (Solanum americanum) Hydroalcoholic (45%) extract of dry leaf; (Solanum nigrescens) Ethanolic extract of the dried leaf (1:10); (Solanum nigrescens) Design & Model In vitro: concentration of 0.15 mL/disc Clinical trial; 2 groups of 50 women with Candida albicans vaginal infection; treated intravaginally 2x daily for 15 days In vitro: against 5 dermatophyte species In vitro Results Active against Candida albicans Reference Girn et al. 1988

Anticandidal & vaginal yeast infection improvement

Active; plant preparation cured (negative culture) 90% of patients whereas Nystatin cured 94% (not a significant difference) Active Active against Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans, but not against Aspergillus fumigatus Active against Bacillus subtilis (0.1 mL/disc); Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans (30 L/disc) Active in vitro against yeast Cryptococcus neoformans & in vivo against Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes Active; increased lymphocyte population & serum antibody levels

Aguilar 1985

Antidermatophytic

Caceres et al. 1991 Cooney et al. 1991

Antifungal

Antimicrobial

In vitro

Caceres et al. 1987

Whole dried plant extracted in ethanol, water & dichloromethane (Solanum americanum) Immunomodulatory Leaf decoction; (Solanum nigrescens) Antitrypanosomal & antifungal

In vitro & in vivo: mice inoculated with parasite

Caceres et al. 1998

In vivo: mice

Lara et al. 1991

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REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Aguilar G. 1985. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Tratamiento de la candidosis vaginal con extracto de Solanum nigrescens (Tesis Mag. Sc). Fac Ciencias Qumicas y Farmacuticas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, USAC, Guatemala, Guatemala. Akhtar MS, Munir M. 1989. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Evaluation of gastric antiulcerogenic effects of Brassica oleracea and Ocimum basilicum in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27:163-176. Al Chami L, Mendez R, Chataing B, OCallaghan J, Usubillaga A, LaCruz L. 2003. Toxicological effects of alphasolamargine in experimental animals. Phytotherapy Research 17(3):254-258. Caceres A, Girn L, Alvarado S, Torres M. 1987. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Screening of antimicrobial activity of plants popularly used in Guatemala for the treatment of dermatomucosal diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 20(3):223-237. Caceres A, Lopez B, Gonzalez S, Berger I, Tada I, Maki J. 1998. Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of protozoal infections. I. Screening of activity to bacteria, fungi and American trypanosomes of 13 native plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 62(3):195-202. Caceres A, Lopez BR, Giron MA, Logemann H. 1991. Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of dermatophytic infections. 1. Screening for antimycotic activity of 44 plant extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 31(3):263-276. Cooney G, Buckley H, Brickus T, Caceres A. 1991. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Fungicidal activity of a Solanum plant extract from Guatemala, CA. Pharmacy World Congress, Washington USA. CS 52. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Giron LM, Aguilar GA, Caceres A, Arroyo GL. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Anticandidal activity of plants used for the treatment of vaginitis in Guatemala and clinical trial of Solanum nigrescens preparation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 22(3):307-313. Giron LM, Caceres A, Freire V, Alonzo A, Salvador L. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Toxicidad aguda del extracto acuoso de Solanum nigrescens. FARMAYA, Guatemala, Guatemala. TRAMIL VI, Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, UAG/enda-caribe. Lara R, Sandoval H, Jimenez M, de la Roca D, Guzman A. 1991. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Determinacin de la actividad inmunomoduladora de los extractos de zarzaparrilla, quilete y pericn. IV Congreso Nacional de Microbiologa, Guatemala, Guatemala. Moundipa PF, Domngang FM. 1991. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Effect of the leafy vegetable Solanum nigrum on the activities of some liver drug-metabolizing enzymes after aflatoxin B1 treatment in female rats. Br J Nutr 45:81-91.

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Sultana S, Perwaiz S, Iqbal M, Athar M. 1995. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Crude extracts of hepatoprotective plants Solanum nigrum and Cichorium intybus inhibit free radical-mediated DNA damage. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 45:189-192. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Hierbabuena
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Hierba buena, mentha, menta, toronjil, yerba buena (Spanish); mint, peppermint, spearmint (English)

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Mentha spp.; various species in this genus are used, most commonly Mentha spicata (called hierbabuena or spearmint) and Mentha piperita (toronjil or peppermint). [Lamiaceae (Mint Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anxiety - Burns - Diabetes - Indigestion - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Minor skin abrasions - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Stress - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Leaves, stems, flowers and volatile oil distilled from the fresh aerial parts of the herb in flower. Traditional Preparation: Typically the leaves are prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction. Traditional Uses: Hierbabuena leaves and stems (either fresh or dried) make a delicious tea for easing stomach ache, abdominal pain or indigestion. As a tea for the relief of stress and anxiety, this herb is sometimes combined with chamomile (manzanilla). They can be prepared as either a hot or cold tea. For diabetes, a tea of the leaves is prepared without sugar or sweetener. For burns or minor abrasions, a poultice is made by crushing or liquefying the fresh leaves so that they exude a small amount of green juice (zumo), and this zumo is applied to the affected area. For menstrual cramps (dolores menstruales), hierbabuena is boiled with eggshells (cscaras de huevos) and cinnamon (canela) to make a tea.

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Availability: In New York City, this plant can often be purchased from supermarkets, grocery stores and sometimes at botnicas where they may be sold either fresh or dried. Also, this plant can be cultivated in home gardens or occasionally found growing wild in parks.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Hierbabuena (Mentha spp.) is a perennial herb that grows from 30-100 cm. Leaves are narrowly oval to ovate (3-7 cm 0.8-2.5 cm), have toothed edges and are often hairy on the underside along the main veins. Flowers are densely clustered along slender, terminal spikes from the axils of the leaf bracts; petals are pale lilac, pink or whitish. Fruits are small nutlets. The entire plant is highly aromatic (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to the Mediterranean region, this plant is now established in Europe and North America, growing along stream banks and moist places and is widely cultivated (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Because negative side effects associated with the appropriate use of this plant occur rarely, Mentha spicata can be considered a relatively safe herb when administered properly. Due to the menthol and Lcarvone content of the essential oil, it may have a weak potential for sensitization and allergic reaction (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Although negative side effects are rare, oral administration of peppermint oil is associated with the following adverse reactions: abdominal pain, bradycardia, contact dermatitis, dyspepsia, heartburn, hypersensitivity, muscle tremor and perianal burning (McKay & Blumberg 2006; Liu et al. 1997; Lawson et al. 1988; Rees et al. 1979; Pittler & Ernst 1998; Wilkinson & Beck 1994; Morton et al. 1995; Nash et al. 1986; Weston 1987). Ingestion of the essential oil has been linked to abdominal distension and increased flatulence reported in one patient in a clinical trial (Hiki et al. 2003). These effects may be due to the smooth muscle relaxant activity of the essential oil. Menthol vapor resulted in temporary respiratory arrest or lowered respiratory rate and tachycardia in premature infants (n=44; Javorka et al. 1980). High levels of pesticide residues have been detected in several samples if peppermint through gas chromatography and spectroscopy. Pesticides identified include residues of chlorpyrifos, terbacil, dithiocarbamates and diazinon, and the concentration of these pesticides exceeded the European Union Maximum Residue Levels for tea in 14% of analyzed samples (Sadlo et al. 2006). Animal Toxicity Studies: When an infusion of M. piperita (20 g/L) was administered to male Wistar albino rats (n=48) instead of drinking water for 30 days, no signs of nephrotoxicity were observed (Akdogan et al. 2003; Akdogan et al. 2004). Contraindications: Oral administration of this herb, especially the essential oil, is contraindicated in cases of gastroesophageal reflux disease and hiatal hernia because of its relaxing effect on the esophageal sphincter (Lawson et al. 1988). Caution advised in cases of kidney or gallbladder disorders. The essential oil should not be applied topically to the chest or face area of young children, especially near the nose or mouth, due to potential respiratory distress, spasms of the bronchi or larynx, apnea or other adverse effects attributed to menthol, one of the primary constituents (Javorka et al. 1980). Insufficient information is available on the use of this plant during pregnancy or lactation. Drug Interactions: The following potential drug interactions associated with the use of peppermint oil have been identified in the available literature: 5-fluorouracil (administered topically, may increase skin absorption of this drug, based on animal studies; Abdullah et al. 1996); antibacterial medication (may potentiate effects or interact synergistically based on in vitro data; Schelz et al. 2006); benzoic acid (may decrease percutaneous penetration of benzoic acid based on an in vitro study; Nielsen JB. 2006);

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calcium channel blockers and antihypertensives (may have an additive effect due to calcium channelblocking activity of the oil shown in animal studies; Beesley et al. 1996); cyclosporine (potential increased oral bioavailability due to CYP 450 3A4 inhibition; Wacher et al. 2002); cytochrome P450 metabolized drugs (may inhibit CYP 450 3A4; Wacher et al. 2002, Dresser et al. 2002; Dresser, Wacher, Wong et al. 2002); and oxytetracycline (may potentiate effects based on in vitro research; Schelz et al. 2006).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Pharmacological effects of Mentha spicata: essential oil has a high concentration of carvone which imparts the herb with its unique spearmint scent and has demonstrated antispasmodic, carminative, stimulant, antimicrobial and sedative effects (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Major chemical constituents identified in Mentha spicata include: (+)-pulegone, 1,8-cineole, beta-pinene, carvone, caryophyllene, limonene, linalool, menthone, myrcene, rosmarinic acid and viridiflorol (concentration is greater than 1000 ppm; Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Compounds identified in Mentha spp. Include hesperidin, limonene, menthofuran, menthol, menthone and menthyl acetate (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: Typical forms of administration include use as an essential oil, tea or concentrate (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Mentha spp.

Activity/Effect Tuberculosis supplemental therapy Preparation Essential oil (Mentha piperita) inhalation (via 20min heat evaporation into room atmosphere) Design & Model Patients with disseminated & infiltrative pulmonary tuberculosis; duration: 2 months Results Showed significant positive effect (26.8% & 58.5% abacillation at doses of 0.01 & 0.005 mL/m3, respectively); results suggest use of essential oil as a supplement to combined multidrug therapy Reference Shkurupii et al. 2002

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Mentha spp.

Activity/Effect Antioxidant Preparation M. piperita, M. aquatica & M. spicata leaves (previously frozen) aqueous solution; 2.0 g homogenized in 15 mL buffer M. piperita dried herb Design & Model In vitro: Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) value Results ORAC values: M. piperita = 15.84 0.42 micromol Trolox equivalents (TE)/g fresh weight; M. aquatica = 19.80 0.43 micromol TE/g; M. spicata = 8.10 0.26 micromol TE/g Showed high antioxidant activity with a relative value of 78.5 mmol/g Reference Zheng & Wang 2001

Antioxidant

In vitro: Ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay

Dragland et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant

Preparation M. piperita & M. aquatica essential oil

Antitumor

M. piperita

Antitumor

M. piperita aqueous extract

Immunomodulatory

M. piperita ethanol extract

Design & Model In vitro: Ability to reduce the radical generator DPPH (2,2diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl) & inhibit OH radical generation in Fenton reaction In vitro: Non-12-Otetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate (TPA)-type tumor promoter, okadaic acid (OA), which inhibits protein phosphatase-2A In vitro: 3-amino-1methyl-5Hpyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-2), a human carcinogen from cooked meat, in Salmonella typhimurium assay In vitro: Human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells

Results Reference M. piperita IC50 = 2.53 Mimica-Dukic et g/mL in DPPH model al. 2003 & inhibited OH formation in Fenton reaction by 24%; showed greater activity than M. aquatica Showed potent inhibition of tumor promoter (86100%) Ohara & Matsuhisa 2002

Strongly inhibited the mutagenicity of this human carcinogen in the Ames test

Natake et al. 1989

Antiviral

Aqueous extracts of peppermint leaves

Antiviral

Aqueous extract of M. piperita & water-soluble polar substances

In vitro: Influenza A, Newcastle disease virus, Herpes simplex virus & Vaccinia virus in egg & cellculture systems In vitro: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 in MT4 cells

Showed increased secretion of interleukin (IL)-8, probably due to presence of constituent monocyclic sesquiterpene humulene Showed significant antiviral activity

Satsu et al. 2004

Herrmann & Kucera 1967

Antimicrobial

Essential oils of M. piperita

In vitro: 21 human & plant pathogenic microorganisms; microdilution, agar diffusion & bioautography assays

Showed strong antiHIV-1 activity; effective dose = 16 g/mL; hydrophilic polar compounds inhibited HIV-reverse transcriptase Moderately inhibited human pathogens; menthol was identified as the primary antimicrobial constituent

Yamasaki et al. 1998

Ican et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Essential oils of M. piperita, M. spicata & M. arvensis & constituents

Antimicrobial

M. aquatica, M. longifolia & M. piperita essential oils

Design & Model In vitro: Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) & methicillin sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) In vitro: pathogenic bacterial & fungi species

Results Showed dose-dependent inhibition of bacterial proliferation in each strain; also showed bactericidal activity in phosphate-buffered saline

Reference Imai et al. 2001

Antifungal

Peppermint oil

Gastrointestinal actions

Aqueous extracts of M. piperita fresh or dried leaf

In vitro: 12 pathogenic fungi, including Candida albicans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Aspergillus fumigatus & Cryptococcus neoformans Animal model: isolated rabbit duodenum with acetylcholine- & barium chlorideinduced muscle contraction

All essential oils showed strong antibacterial activity, especially against Escherichia coli strains, & significant fungistatic & fungicidal activity; M. piperita showed the most potent activity Showed fungicidal activity against 11 of 12 fungi tested with a MIC range of 0.25-10 L/mL

Mimica-Duki et al. 2003

Pattnaik et al. 1996

Gastrointestinal effects

Peppermint oil (78 g/mL) & menthol

Animal models: isolated muscle & gastrointestinal preparations, including guinea-pig ileum

Smooth muscle relaxant effect; exhibited decrease in spontaneous activity; dried leaf extract showed more activity than fresh leaf; results suggest mechanism does not involve cholinergic antagonism or adrenergic agonism Smooth muscle relaxation via calcium channel antagonism; competitively inhibited binding of calcium channel blockers

Mahmood et al. 2003

Hawthorn et al. 1988

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Activity/Effect Bile flow (choleretic) stimulant

Hepatic phase I metabolizing enzyme inhibition

Preparation Peppermint oil & menthol; 25-50 mg/kg administered intravenously Pretreatment with peppermint tea (2% solution) for 4 wks

Design & Model In vivo: anesthetized rats

In vivo: female Wistar rats (n=5)

Results Active; significantly increased & stimulated bile flow; showed dose& time-dependent effects Active; significantly decreased cytochrome P450 isoforms

Reference Trabace et al. 1993

Maliakal & Wanwimolruk 2001

REFERENCES
Abdullah D, Ping QN, Liu GJ. 1996. Enhancing effect of essential oils on the penetration of 5-fluorouracil through rat skin. Yao Xue. Xue. Bao.(Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica) 31(3):214-21. Akdogan M, Kilinc I, Oncu M, Karaoz E, Delibas N. 2003. Investigation of biochemical and histopathological effects of Mentha piperita L. and Mentha spicata L. on kidney tissue in rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 22:213-9. Akdogan M, Ozguner M, Aydin G, Gokalp O. 2004. Investigation of biochemical and histopathological effects of Mentha piperita L. and Mentha spicata L. on liver tissue in rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 23:21-8. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Beesley A, Hardcastle J, Hardcastle PT, Taylor CJ. 1996. Influence of peppermint oil on absorptive and secretory processes in rat small intestine. Gut 39(2):214-219. Caceres A, Cano O, Samayoa B, Aguilar L. 1990. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. 1. Screening of 84 plants against Enterobacteria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 30:55-73. Ciobanu V, Pisov M, Peleah E. 1997. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). New advanced hybrids of Mentha plants for medicine. Pharm Pharmacol Lett 7(2/3):109-110. Dragland S, Senoo H, Wake K, Holte K, Blomhoff R. 2003. Several culinary and medicinal herbs are important sources of dietary antioxidants. J Nutr 135(5):1286-90. Dresser GK, Wacher V, Ramtoola Z, et al. 2002. Peppermint oil increases the oral bioavailability of felodipine and simvastatin. American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Annual Meeting, March 2427:TPII-95. Dresser GK, Wacher V, Wong S, Wong HT, Bailey DG. 2002. Evaluation of peppermint oil and ascorbyl palmitate as inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A4 activity in vitro and in vivo. Clin Pharmacol Ther 72(3):247-55. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007).

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Hawthorn M, Ferrante J, Lchowski E, Rutledge A, Wei XY, Triggle DJ. 1988. as cited in McKay & Blumberg (2006). The actions of peppermint oil and menthol on calcium channel dependent processes in intestinal, neuronal and cardiac preparations. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2:101-18. Herrmann EC Jr, Kucera LS. 1967. Antiviral substances in plants of the mint family (Labiatae). 3. Peppermint (Mentha piperita) and other mint plants. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 124:874-8. Hiki N, Kurosaka H, Tatsutomi Y, Shimoyama S, Tsuji E, Kojima J, Shimizu N, Ono H, Hirooka T, Noguchi C, Mafune K, Kaminishi M. 2003. Peppermint oil reduces gastric spasm during upper endoscopy: a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy controlled trial. Gastrointest Endosc 57(4):475-82. Imai H, Osawa K, Yasuda H, Hamashima H, Arai T, Sasatsu M. 2001. Inhibition by the essential oils of peppermint and spearmint of the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Microbios 106(Suppl 1):31-9. Ican G, Kirimer N, Krkcolu M, Baer KH, Demirci F. 2002. Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita essential oils. J Agric Food Chem 50(14):3943-6. Javorka K, Tomori Z, Zavarska L. 1980. Protective and defensive airway reflexes in premature infants. Physiol Bohemoslov 29(1):29-35. Liu JH, Chen GH, Yeh HZ, Huang CK, Poon SK. 1997. Enteric-coated peppermint-oil capsules in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a prospective, randomized trial. J Gastroenterol 32(6):765-8. Mahmood SA, Abbas NA, Rojas RL. 2003. as cited in McKay & Blumberg (2006). Effects of aqueous extracts of peppermint, fennel, dill and cumin on isolated rabbit duodenum. U Aden J Nat Appl Sci 7:377-83. Maliakal PP, Wanwimolruk S. 2001. Effect of herbal teas on hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 53:1323-29. McKay DL, Blumberg JB. 2006. A review of the bioactivity and potential health benefits of peppermint tea (Mentha piperita L.). Phytother Res 20(8):619-633. Mimica-Duki N, Bozin B, Sokovi M, Mihajlovi B, Matavulj M. 2003. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of three Mentha species essential oils. Planta Med 69(5):413-9. Morton CA, Garioch J, Todd P, Lamey PJ, Forsyth A. 1995. Contact sensitivity to menthol and peppermint in patients with intra-oral symptoms. Contact Dermatitis 32(5):281-84. Nash P, Gould SR, Bernardo DE. 1986. Peppermint oil does not relieve the pain of irritable bowel syndrome. Br J Clin Pract 40(7):292-93. Natake M, Kanazawa K, Mizuno M et al. 1989. Herb water-extracts markedly suppress the mutagenicity of Trp-P-2. Agric Biol Chem 53:1423-25. Nielsen JB. 2006. Natural oils affect the human skin integrity and the percutaneous penetration of benzoic acid dosedependently. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 98(6):575-81. Pattnaik S, Subramanyam VR, Kole C. 1996. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of ten essential oils in vitro. Microbios 86(349):237-46. Pittler MH, Ernst E. 1998. Peppermint oil for irritable bowel syndrome: A critical review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 93(7):1131-5. Rees WD, Evans BK, Rhodes J. 1979. Treating irritable bowel syndrome with peppermint oil. Br Med J 2(6194):835-6.

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Satsu H, Matsuda T, Toshimitsu T et al. 2004. Regulation of interleukin-8 secretion in human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells. Biofactors 21:137-9. Shkurupii VA, Kazarinova NV, Ogirenko AP, Nikonov SD, Tkachev AV, Tkachenko KG. 2002. [Efficiency of the use of peppermint (Mentha piperita L) essential oil inhalations in the combined multi-drug therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis] [Article in Russian]. Probl Tuberk 2002(4):36-9. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Trabace L, Avato P, Mazzoccoli M, Siro-Brigiani G. 1993. Choleretic activity of Thapsia Chem I, II, and III in rats: comparison with terpenoid constituents and peppermint oil. Phytother Res 8:3057. Wacher VJ, Wong S, Wong HT. 2002. Peppermint oil enhances cyclosporine oral bioavailability in rats: comparison with D-alpha-tocopheryl poly(ethylene glycol 1000) succinate (TPGS) and ketoconazole. J Pharm Sci 91(1):77-90. Weston CF. 1987. Anal burning and peppermint oil. Postgrad Med J 63(742):717. Wilkinson SM, Beck MH. 1994. Allergic contact dermatitis from menthol in peppermint. Contact Dermatitis 30(1):42-43. Yamasaki K, Nakano M, Kawahata T et al. 1998. Anti-HIV-1 activity of herbs in Labiatae. Biol Pharm Bull 21:82933. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zheng W, Wang SY. 2001. Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds in selected herbs. J Agric Food Chem 49(11):5165-70.

Higuereta
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Higuera, ricino (Spanish); castor bean, palma Christi, castor oil plant (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Ricinus communis L. [Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Asthma - Bronchitis - Childbirth labor pain - Postpartum recovery - Pulmonary infections

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Plant Part Used: Seeds and the oil made from the seeds. Traditional Preparation: Seed oil. Traditional Uses: The oil made from the seeds of higuereta has many reported medicinal uses, most notably for asthma (pecho apretado) and bronchitis, often in combination with honey and animal-derived oils such as snake oil (aceite de culebra), turtle oil (aceite de tortuga), shark oil (aceite de tiburn) and/or cod fish oil (aceite de bacalao). This combination of oils is sometimes called a botella, and different versions of this remedy are traditionally administered to children with asthma. For bronchitis and pulmonary infections, higuereta oil is combined with coffee (caf) and administered orally. This plant is also used for womens health conditions. For labor pain during childbirth and to support postpartum recovery, higuereta oil is combined with the following plants to make a medicinal drink (bebedizo): guinea hen-weed (anam), minnieroot (guauc), passionflower (caguazo) and annatto (bija). Availability: In New York City, castor oil (aceite de higuereta) can be purchased from botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) in glass or plastic bottles.

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The seeds are strongly emetic and highly toxic when administered orally. In one clinical trial of the seeds administered as a single oral dose, the following adverse effects were observed: dysmenorrhea, headache, loss of appetite, nausea, raised blood pressure, vomiting and weight gain. However, no changes in renal or liver function were detected in laboratory tests (Isichei et al. 2000). Animal Toxicity Studies: Brown Hisex chicks fed a diet containing 0.5% castor oil plant seeds resulted in high mortality, toxic symptoms, lesions and growth changes; the authors advise that caution should be observed in tropical countries where people are accustomed to chewing castor bean when in need of a laxative (el Badwi et al. 1995). Contraindications: Castor oil is contraindicated for internal use in the following conditions: intestinal obstruction (due to purgative effects), abdominal pain of unknown cause (due to potential irritation of the stomach) and pregnancy (due to its abortifacient and emmenagogue effects). Because of the risk of severe electrolyte loss due to extended use, the oil should not be taken for more than 8-10 days (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: This herb may have negative interactions with the following drugs: cardiac glycosides (possible potentiation of drug effects due to electrolyte loss from frequent use of castor oil) and oilsoluble anthelmintics with potential toxicity (i.e. Dryopteris filix-mas) because of increased absorption (Brinker 1998).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Ricino (Ricinus communis) is a shrub or small tree that grows to 1-2.5 m tall and produces abundant clear watery latex. Leaves are alternate and 7-9-palmately lobed. Flowers grow in numerous small, rounded clusters. Fruits are rounded-egg-shaped capsules each containing 3 seeds and covered with soft, spine-like projections. Seeds are rounded-oval in shape (1-1.8 cm long) with a brown, black mottled surface (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to Africa, this plant is widely cultivated and grows throughout tropical America, including the Caribbean, and is frequently found in disturbed areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
The following effects of the seed or oil have been investigated in clinical trials: labor induction in postterm pregnancy and contraceptive (see Clinical Data table below). In one in vitro study, a lectin from the bean exhibited tumor cell growth inhibition effects (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below).

Clinical Data: Ricinus communis

Activity/Effect Induce labor in post-term pregnancy Contraceptive & pathological chemical Preparation Single oral dose of castor oil (60 mL) vs. no treatment Seeds (var. minor) RICOM-1013J; single oral dose 2.3-2.5 once per 12 mo Design & Model Clinical: 103 singleton post-term pregnancies with intact membranes at 40-42 wks Clinical trial; 50 women volunteers Results 30 of 52 women (57.7%) began active labor vs. 2 of 48 (4.2%) receiving no treatment; 83.3% successful births delivered vaginally Showed antifertility & contraceptive efficacy; protected against pregnancy in all subjects for 1 yr; minimal clinical side effects observed & no renal or liver function effects shown in lab tests Reference Garry et al. 2000

Isichei et al. 2000

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Ricinus communis

Activity/Effect Inhibition of tumor cell growth Preparation Lectin from bean Design & Model In vitro Results Active Reference Gurtler & Steinhoff 1972

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. el Badwi SM, Adam SE, Hapke HJ. 1995. Comparative toxicity of Ricinus communis and Jatropha curcas in Brown Hisex chicks. DTW Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 102(2):75-55. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Garry D, Fibueroa R, Guillaume J, Cucco V. 2000. Use of castor oil in pregnancies at term. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 6(1):77-79. Gurtler L, Steinhoff D. 1972. [Inhibition of tumor cell growth using lectin from the bean of Ricinus communis]. [German] Hoppe-Seylers Zeitschrift fur Physiologische Chemie 353(10):1521. Isichei CO, Das SC, Ogunkeye OO, Okwusaba FK, Uguru VE, Onoruvew O, Olayinka AO, Dafur SJ, Ekwere EO, Parry O. 2000. Preliminary clinical investigations of the contraceptive efficacy and chemical pathological effects of ROCIM-1013-J of Ricinus communis var. minor on women volunteers. Phytotherapy Research 14(1):40-42.

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Okwuasaba FK, Osunkwo UA, Ekwenchi MM, Ekpenyong KI, Onwukeme KE, Olayinka AO, Uguru MO, Das SC. 1991. Antinociceptive and estrogenic effects of seed extract of Ricinus communis var. minor. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 34(2-3):141-145.

Higero
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Calabash (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Crescentia cujete L. [Bignoniaceae (Trumpet-creeper Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Childbirth labor pain - Cleansing the reproductive system - Infertility - Menopausal hot flashes - Ovarian cysts - Postpartum - Tumors in the reproductive system - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Fruits and the fresh pulp from inside the fruits. Traditional Preparation: The fruit (ideally fresh) is added to herbal preparations (bebedizos) made of several medicinal plants. Traditional Uses: The fruit of higero is reputed to be a particularly cooling plant (bien fresco) that is used for treating all types of infections in the body but is particularly used in preparations for womens health. For gynecological conditions, specifically for cleansing the [reproductive] system (limpiar el sistema or limpiar la mujer). In the Dominican Republic, the fresh leaf is heated slightly and the freshly squeezed juice of the leaf is applied to the ear to treat ear infections (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Availability: This medicinal plant is not commonly found in New York City as it is difficult to import the whole, fresh fruit, which is the part that is most often used medicinally. However, the dried shell of the fruit casing is often sold as a bowl for mixing herbs in botnicas (Latino herb shops).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Higero or calabash (Crescentia cujete) is a small tree that grows to 10 m tall. Leaves are tightly bundled along side branches and have an oblong to oval general shape and covered with several dotlike scales. Flowers grow singly or in pairs with yellow- to greenish petals, tinged red along the nerves. Fruits are round to rounded-oval (10-20 cm long) changing color as they mature from green to brown, contain whitish seeds (1 cm long) and hang from trunks or branches (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1997).

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Distribution: Native to Central America, this plant is widely cultivated in tropical America and common throughout the Caribbean (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1997).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No data on the safety of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature; however, the toxic compound prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) has been identified in the fruit pulp (Contreras & Zolla 1982). Animal Toxicity Studies: The fruit pulp induced nausea, vomiting and upset stomach and signs of toxicity in birds (Standley 1938). Fruit pulp toxicity has been attributed to the presence of hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid) and in cattle, the fruit pulp induced abortion due to the presence of oxytocic substances that have not yet been identified (Contreras & Zolla 1982). Contraindications: Should not be used by pregnant women due to risk of abortion. Contraindicated for external use in treating ear infections in the following cases: if ear secretions are present and/or perforation of the ear drum is a concern (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No clinical trials of the effects of this plant in humans have been identified in the available literature. Crescentia cujete has demonstrated antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial in laboratory studies (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Significant chemical constituents identified in this plant include the following furanonaphthoquinones isolated from the MeCOEt extract: 2S,3S)-3-hydroxy-5,6-dimethoxydehydroisoalpha-lapachone, (2R)-5,6-dimethoxydehydroiso-alpha-lapachone, (2R)-5-methoxydehydroiso-alphalapachone, 2-(1-hydroxyethyl)naphtho[2,3-b]furan-4,9-dione, 5-hydroxy-2-(1-hydroxyethyl)naphtho[2,3b]furan-4,9-dione, 2-isopropenylnaphtho[2,3-b]furan-4,9-dione and 5-hydroxydehydroiso-alphalapachone (Hetzel et al. 1993). The following additional compounds have been identified: triterpenoids, steroids, flavonoid heterosides, phenolics, polyphenols and quaternary alkaloids (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified this plant as Recommended for the external treatment of earache using the fresh juice of the heated leaf applied to the affected area following strict standards of hygiene to avoid contamination or additional infection (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Crescentia cujete

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Ethanol extract of leaf & stem Fruit pulp Hydroalcoholic extract (80%) of leaf; oral dosage: 1200 mg/kg Design & Model In vitro Results Active against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli & Staphylococcus aureus Inhibited strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae Active in a dose-dependent manner, equivalent or superior to sodium diclofenac 100 mg/kg Reference Contreras & Zolla 1982 Caceres 1992 Gupta & Esposito Avella 1988

Antibacterial Antiinflammatory

In vitro In vivo: rat; paw inflammation induced by formaldehyde injection

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial

Preparation Methanol extracts of the leaves & stem bark Crude extract (related species: Crescentia alata); concentrations of 5 mg/mL or less Hydroalcoholic extract (95%) of leaf (5 mg/mL) Hydroalcoholic maceration of leaf

Antimicrobial

Design & Model In vitro: Grampositive and Gramnegative bacteria and fungi In vitro

Results Showed broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity Strongly active against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli & Candida albicans Active against Bacillus subtilis & Staphylococcus aureus Inhibited growth of Salmonella typhi

Reference Binutu & Lajubutu 1994 Rojas et al. 2001

Antimicrobial

In vitro In vitro

Verpoorte & Dihal 1987 Caceres & Samayoa 1989

Antimicrobial

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antimicrobial Preparation Hydroalcoholic extract (95%) of the fruit pulp Design & Model In vitro: against bacteria & fungi Results No activity against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger & Candida albicans Reference Le Grand & Wondergem 1986

REFERENCES
Binutu OA, Lajubutu BA. 1994. Antimicrobial potentials of some plant species of the Bignoniaceae family. African Journal of Medicine & Medical Sciences 23(3):269-73. Caceres A. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of respiratory diseases. 2:Evaluation of activity of 16 plants against Gram-positive bacteria. Facultad de Ciencias Qumicas y Farmacia, Universidad de San Carlos, Guatemala, Guatemala. TRAMIL VI, Basse Terre, Guadeloupe, UAG/enda-caribe. Caceres A, Samayoa B. 1989. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Tamizaje de la actividad antibacteriana de plantas usadas en Guatemala para el tratamiento de afecciones gastrointestinales. Guatemala, Guatemala: Direccin General de Investigaciones, Universidad Sand Carlos (DIGI-USAC). Contreras A, Zolla C. 1982. Plantas txicas de Mxico. Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mxico DF, Mxico. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Gupta M, Esposito Avella M. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Evaluacin qumica y farmacolgica de algunas plantas medicinales de TRAMIL. CIFLORPAN, Universidad de Panam, Panam, Panam. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe.

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Hetzel CE, Gunatilaka AA, Glass TE, Kingston DG, Hoffmann G, Johnson RK. 1993. Bioactive furanonaphthoquinones from Crescentia cujete. Journal of Natural Products 56(9):1500-1505. Le Grand A, Wondergem PA. 1986. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Antimicrobial activity of 10 Caribbean species. TRAMIL inform. Dep. of Pharmacognosy, University of Leyden, Leyden, Holland. TRAMIL II, Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana, UASD/enda-caribe. Rojas G, Levaro J, Tortoriello J, Navarro V. 2001. Antimicrobial evaluation of certain plants used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of respiratory diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 74(1):97-101. Standley PC. 1938. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Flora de Costa Rica, Pt. IV. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. 783 pp. Verpoorte R, Dihal PP. 1987. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Medicinal plants of Surinam. IV. Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 21(3):315-318. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Hinojo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Ans comino, ans hinojo (Spanish); fennel, sweet fennel (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Foeniculum vulgare Miller. Synonym: Foeniculum officinale L. (Note: Botanists dispute the synonymy of these species.) [Apiaceae (Carrot Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Allergies - Colic - Digestive disorders - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Indigestion - Inflammation - Sinusitis - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Womens health conditions Plant Part Used: Seeds and the essential oil extracted from the fresh or dried fruits. Traditional Preparation: Seeds are primarily taken as a tea, often in combination with other anise-like medicinal plants.

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Traditional Uses: Hinojo is associated with other anise-like seeds due to its similarity the closely related species anise (ans chiquito, Pimpinella anisum) in appearance, taste and medicinal properties; hence, one of hinojos common names is ans hinojo. The sweet and warming seeds of this plant are prepared as a tea (decoction) for digestive disorders, inflammation, allergies, sinusitis and womens health conditions. Hinojo seeds are also used for stomach ache and abdominal pain, indigestion and gas, prepared as a tea. For a description of the preparation of t de ans or t de los tres anises, see the medicinal plant entry for Ans. This plant is considered a type of small anise (ans or ans chiquito) or ans de semilla (seed anise) because of its small seeds, as opposed to large anise (ans grande) or star anise (ans de estrella) which has large, star-shaped dried fruits that contain seeds. Distinguishing between anise and star anise is important because of the potential for contamination of Chinese star anise (Illicium verum) by its poisonous look-alike, Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum) which has neurotoxic effects. Typically, children are given seed anise teas (especially for colic), and star anise (ans de estrella) is only added to teas for adults. Availability: As a common culinary spice, the dried fruits or seeds can be purchased from most grocery stores and supermarkets and are sometimes sold at botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Hinojo (Foeniculum vulgare) is an erect, multistem, perennial herb that grows to 2 m tall. Stem is smooth, light bluish-green, succulent, becoming hollow with age and bulbous at the leaf base. Roots are stout, woody and carrot-shaped. Leaves are narrow, finely divided and feathery. Flowers are small, yellow and grow in umbrella-like clusters. Fruits are curved, ribbed, seed-like and brown to greenish-grey in color. Entire plant has a characteristic sweet-spicy, hay-like aroma (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Europe and the Mediterranean, it is considered an invasive weed and often grows in disturbed areas in temperate regions, particularly along coastal areas (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As the entire plant is edible and is consumed widely, it is generally considered safe. No adverse effects or health risks have been reported when therapeutic dosages are followed, and allergic reactions have rarely been documented, except possibly with patients who are allergic to celery (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Animal toxicity studies in mice of ethanol extracts of the fruit (seed) with an acute dose of 0.5, 1.0 and 3 g/kg and a chronic dosage of 100 mg/kg per day of the extract did not cause mortality or spermatotoxic effects as administered (Shah et al. 1991). This plant should only be harvested in the wild by a specialist who can identify and distinguish it from poisonous look-alikes of the same botanical family. Contraindications: The oil is contraindicated for epileptics and young children. Strong preparations, such as the essential oil and tincture, are contraindicated during pregnancy. However, the herb itself or infusions of the herb are considered safe for children and pregnant women (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: None identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
The seeds have been investigated in clinical trials for their use as a treatment for infant colic (see Clinical Data table below). According to a secondary reference, the therapeutic effects of the essential oil and the seeds include antispasmodic and antimicrobial activity; in addition, they have been shown experimentally to stimulate gastrointestinal motility and respiratory tract secretions, and the aqueous extract has been shown to raise the mucociliary activity of the ciliary epithelium (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Biologically active compounds identified in the fruit contain the following compounds: 1,8cineole, alpha-phellandrene, alpha-pinene, anisaldehyde, anisic acid, apiole, benzoic acid, bergapten, beta-phellandrene, beta-pinene, caffeic acid, camphene, camphor, cinnamic acid, cis-anethole, dlimonene, estragole, fenchone, ferulic acid, fumaric acid, gamma- gamma-tocotrienol, gentisic acid, isoquercitrin, l-limonene, linalool, malic acid, methyl chavicol, myrcene, myristicin, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, p-hydroxycynnamic acid, petroselinic acid, protocatechuic acid, rutin, scoparone, scopoletin, seselin, sinapic acid, trans-anethole, trigonelline, umbelliferone, vanillic acid, vanillin and xanthotoxin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Although the bulb is not the part of this plant that is primarily used for medicinal purposes, it is widely consumed as a vegetable and is a significant source of the following nutrients: calcium, copper, dietary fiber, folate, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, niacin, phosphorus, potassium and especially vitamin C (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Fennel seed and oil have been approved by the Commission E for the following health conditions: upper or lower respiratory tract infections (cough, bronchitis, catarrh) and gastrointestinal disorders (flatulence, indigestion, spastic disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, feelings of fullness; Blumenthal et al. 1998). The suggested administration is 0.1 to 0.6 mL of the essential oil after meals, taken internally, for up to 2 weeks. The seed can be crushed or ground for teas or tinctures, administered daily in the following amount: 5-7 g herb per cup of water in an infusion or 5-7.5 g of tincture per day.

Clinical Data: Foeniculum vulgare

Activity/Effect Infant colic treatment Preparation Standardized extract: seeds plus chamomile (Matricaria recutita) & lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) Seed oil emulsion Design & Model Clinical trial, randomized double-blind placebo-controlled; 93 breastfed colicky infants; 2 daily for 1 wks Clinical trial, randomized placebo-controlled; 125 colicky infants, 2-12 wks old Results Active; reduced crying time in 85.4% subjects in the treatment group vs. 48.9% reduction in placebo group; no side effects reported Active; fennel oil emulsion eliminated colic (according to Wessel criteria) in 65% (40/62) infants treated (vs. 23.7% in placebo group); no side effects reported Reference Savino et al. 2005

Infant colic treatment

Alexandrovich et al. 2003

REFERENCES
Alexandrovich I, Rakovitskaya O, Kolmo E, Sidorova T, Shushunov S. 2003. The effect of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed oil emulsion in infantile colic: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Alternative Therapies in Health & Medicine 9(4):58-61. Aye-Than Kulkarni HJ, Wut-Hmone Tha SJ. 1989. Anti-diarrhoeal efficacy of some Burmese indigenous drug formulations in experimental diarrhoeal test models. Int J Crude Drug Res 27:195-200. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp.

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Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Chantraine JM, Laurent D, Ballivian C, Saavedra G, Ibanez R, Vilaseca LA. 1998. Insecticidal activity of essential oils on Aedes aegypti larvae. Phytother Res 12(5):350-354. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Kinoshita K, Kawai T, Imaizumi T, Akita Y, Koyama K, Takahashi K. 1996. Anti-emetic principles of Inula linariaefolia flowers and Forsythia suspense fruits. Phytomedicine 3(1): 51-8. Masaki H, Sakaki S, Atsumi T, Sakurai H. 1995. Active-oxygen scavenging activity of plant extracts. Biol Pharm Bull 18(1): 162-66. Massoud H. 1992. Study on the essential oil in seeds of some fennel cultivars under Egyptian environmental conditions. Planta Med 58(7):A681. Pepeljnjak S, Cvetnik Z. 1998. Aflatoxigenicity of Rhizopus nigricans strains isolated from drug plants. Acta Pharm 48:139-44. Savino F, Cresi F, Castagno E, Silvestro L, Oggero R. 2005. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of a standardized extract of Matricaria recutita, Foeniculum vulgare and Melissa officinalis (ColiMil) in the treatment of breastfed colicky infants. Phytotherapy Research 19(4):335-340. Shah AH, Qureshi S, Ageel AM. 1991. Toxicity studies in mice of ethanol extracts of Foeniculum vulgare fruit and Ruta chalapensis aerial parts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 34(2-3):167-172. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Jagua
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Genipa, caruto (Spanish); genipap, marmalade box (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Genipa americana L. [Rubiaceae (Madder or Bedstraw Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

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In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Common cold - Cough - Flu - Headache - High blood pressure - Infections - Inflammation - Intestinal parasites - Kidney disorders - Limpiar la sangre - Menopausal hot flashes - Menstrual disorders - Ovarian cysts - Sore throat - Tumors - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Fruit. Traditional Preparation: Typically a drink is prepared by cutting the fresh fruit into pieces, removing the seeds, letting the chunks of fruit sit in water for a period of time (several hours to a few days) and then drinking the water. Traditional Uses: Jagua is considered a particularly refreshing fruit, and it is attributed cooling properties. For health conditions that are associated with excess heat in the body, including infection, inflammation, high blood pressure, headache, kidney disorders, bad blood (mala sangre) and menopausal hot flashes, the fruits are prepared as a drink by soaking them in water. This fruit is also used for cleansing the blood and as a diuretic and is often combined with the juice of other refreshing fruits such as passion fruit (chinola), cucumber (pepino), pineapple (pia), papaya (lechosa), large passion fruit (granadillo) and watermelon (sanda). Sometimes jagua is taken along with wild privet senna (sen) leaves for a particularly cleansing remedy that is especially good for treating intestinal parasites. For the common cold and flu symptoms (gripe), the fruit is prepared as a tea and combined with lemon/lime (limn) fruit, lemongrass (limoncillo) leaves and bitter orange (naranja agria) leaves. For womens health, the fruit drink is said to break down clotted or coagulated blood (cogulo) in the uterus so that it can pass with the menstrual blood and thus prevent the formation of cysts, uterine fibroids or tumors. This is thought to be particularly important as a woman approaches menopause (el cambio de vida) because these blood clots can accumulate in the uterus once menstruation ceases. A refreshing drink for menopausal symptoms and hot flashes is prepared by adding water to fresh pieces of jagua fruit and pineapple (pia) rind and allowing the fruit to ferment and impart its flavor to the water for a week. This remedy can be taken daily as needed. Availability: In New York City, fresh jagua fruit can sometimes be purchased from fruit stands in Latino/Dominican neighborhoods, at select markets or grocery stores and occasionally at botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) but are often quite expensive (up to $10 per fruit).

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BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Jagua (Genipa americana) is a tree that typically grows 10-15 m tall and has dark gray, smooth bark and cylindrical, rough twigs. Leaves are simple and narrowly oval to oblong-lance-shaped. Flowers grow in small, round clusters with cream-colored petals. Fruits are round to oblong (7-10 6-7 cm) and brown, containing numerous circular, flattened seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Widespread throughout the Caribbean and Central and South America, it is found in secondary moist forests (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The fruit, which is the part that is used for medicine, is widely consumed and commonly prepared as a beverage in areas where it grows. Animal Toxicity Studies: Toxicity studies have shown that the LD50 of the hydromethanolic extract (1:1) of the leaves and branches administered intraperitoneally to mice is 1 g/kg body weight (Nakanishi et al. 1965). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Compounds from the fruit and leaf have demonstrated antitumor-promoting effects (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The following pharmacological activities of this plants constituents have been demonstrated in laboratory experiments: antimicrobial (monoterpenes: genipic and genipinic acid; Tallent 1964), osmotic diuretic (manitol; Negwer 1987) and antitumor (iridoid glucosides: geniposide and geniposidic acid; Ueda et al. 1991). The following additional chemical constituents have been identified in this plant: iridoids: gardendiol, genipin, deacetyl asperulosicidic acid methyl ester and shanzhiside; iridoid glucosides: genamesides A-D, geniposidic acid, geniposide, gardenoside and genipin-gentiobioside; monoterpenoids: genipacetal, genipamide and genipaol (Ono et al. 2007, Ono et al. 2005). Nutritional studies have shown the fruit to be a rich source of iron, riboflavin and tannins; it also contains amino acids, manitol and vitamin C (Fihlo et al. 1962, Guedes & Oria 1978). This fruit is notorious for its ability to stain the skin and was historically used by the Taino in the Caribbean as a black or blue pigment and body paint (Morton 1987). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has provisionally classified the use of the fruit for the treatment of arterial hypertension as recommended (Germosn-Robineau 1995). Caution is advised as this is a provisional recommendation, pending further research on its therapeutic properties and is only recommended as a complementary or adjunct therapy.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Genipa americana

Activity/Effect Antitumor Preparation Fruits & leaves Design & Model Phytochemical analysis Results Identified antitumorpromoting iridoid glucosides in plant: geniposide & geniposidic acid Reference Ueda et al. 1991

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REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Fihlo J, Lima I, Ventura M. 1962. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Free amino acids in some Brazilian fruits. Phyton 19:121-5. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Guedes Z, Oria H. 1978. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Nutritive values of edible fruits from Ceara (Brazil). Rev Bras Farm 59(7-12):91-7. Morton J. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. Miami, Florida: Julia F. Morton, pp. 441-3. Nakanishi K, et al. 1965. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Phytochemical survey of Malaysian plants. Preliminary chemical and pharmacological screening. Chem Pharm Bull 13:882-90. Negwer M. 1987. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Organic chemical drugs and their synonyms (an international survey). 6th Ed. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1&2, 1406 pp. Ono M, Ishimatsu N, Masuoka C, Yoshimitsu H, Tsuchihashi R, Okawa M, Kinjo J, Ikeda T, Nohara T. 2007. Three new monoterpenoids from the fruit of Genipa americana. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 55(4):632-4. Ono M, Ueno M, Masuoka C, Ikeda T, Nohara T. 2005. Iridoid glucosides from the fruit of Genipa americana. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 53(10):1342-4. Tallent W. 1964. Two new antibiotic cyclopentannoid monoterpenes of plant origin. Tetrahedron 20(7):1781-87. Ueda S, Iwashi Y, Takuda H. 1991. Production of anti-tumor-promoting iridoid glucosides in Genipa americana and its cell cultures. Journal of Natural Products 54(6):1677-80.

Jengibre
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Gengibre (Spanish); ginger, common ginger, true ginger, Canton ginger (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Zingiber officinale Roscoe [Zingiberaceae (Ginger Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis

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Childbirth labor pain Fever Flatulence and intestinal gas Indigestion Joint pain Morning sickness Nausea Postpartum recovery

Plant Part Used: Root-stem (rhizome)ideally fresh but also dried and powdered. Although ginger is often referred to as a root, technically the part of this plant that is most often used for medicine is the rhizome or underground stem of the plant. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion and may also be tinctured in alcohol for topical application. Traditional Uses: It has been used as a tea to treat indigestion, flatulence, intestinal gas, morning sickness (in small doses), labor pain during childbirth, postpartum recovery and to reduce fever. For arthritis and joint pain, it is combined with malagueta seeds, tinctured in alcohol and applied externally by rubbing it on the affected area. Availability: As a popular culinary seasoning, jengibre fresh and/or dried rhizomes can be found at many grocery stores and super markets and are also sold at some botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herbal and spiritual shops).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Jengibre (Zingiber officinale) is an herbaceous plant that can grow to 50 cm tall with aromatic, tuberous rhizomes and erect, leafy, cane-like stems. Leaves are elongate and occur in two vertical rows along stems with parallel veination. Flowers are arranged in dense terminal spikes with 3-lobed, yellow-green petals. Fruits are 3-valved capsules; however, most cultivars are sterile (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to tropical Southeast Asia, this plant is widely cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS

Widely used as a culinary seasoning, the root (rhizome) is generally considered safe for human consumption and has been designated as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) for use as a flavoring agent by the US FDA in 1976 (Section 582.10; Anon 1976). In a randomized, multiple crossover human clinical trial, 9 healthy women and 9 men ingested 40 g/day of the rhizome for two weeks, and venous blood samples showed no significant thromboxane B2 production compared to placebo at the end of the treatment period (Vaes & Chyka 2000). Allergenic activity of the juice has been reported in human adults based on reactions to patch tests when applied topically to individuals who had already been exposed regularly to this substance whereas those who had not been exposed previously showed few reactions of hypersensitivity (Seetharam & Pasricha 1987). Animal Toxicity Studies: The LD50 in mice of the hydroalcoholic extract (1:1) of the dried aerial parts administered intraperitoneally was 178.0 mg/kg (Aswal et al. 1984). Toxic effects were observed in mice when administered a dose of 3.00 g/kg of the ethanolic extract of the rhizome intragastrically (Mascolo et al. 1989). Embryotoxic effects of the infusion of the dried rhizome (20.0 g/L) administered in drinking water have been shown in pregnant rats on days 6-16 of gestation; results of the treatment group showed

305

twice the embryonic loss as that of the control group (Wilkinson 2000). No teratogenic activity was observed in pregnant rats administered the ethanolic extract (95%) of the dried rhizome intragastrically (Weidner & Sigwart 2001). No toxic effects were observed in rabbits when administered an extract of the rhizome via gastric intubation at a dose of 1-118 g/animal (Emig 1931). Death occurred in rabbits after intravenous administration of the ethanolic extract (95%) of the dried rhizome at a dose of 1.5 mL (Emig 1931). However, no toxic effects (i.e. no change in respiration, blood pressure or heart rate) were observed in dogs when intravenously administered the ethanolic extract (95%) at a rate of 1 mL/per minute to achieve a dose of up to 50 mL/animal (Emig 1931). The LD50 in mice of the benzene extract of the dried rhizome administered intraperitoneally was shown to be 1000 mg/kg (Vishwakarma et al. 2002). The LD50 of the ethanolic (90%) extract administered intraperitoneally in mice was 1.0 g/kg (Woo et al. 1979). The LD50 of the aqueous low speed supernatant of the dried rhizome administered intravenously to mice was 1500 mg/kg (Hantrakul & Tejason 1976). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Preparations of the rhizome have shown synergistic effects with nifedipine on antiplatelet aggregation when administered orally to adult human volunteers and patients with hypertension (Young et al. 2006). The aqueous-methanolic extract (1:1) showed significant barbiturate potentiation (P < 0.01) in mice when 10.0 g/kg was administered subcutaneously (Kasahara et al. 1983).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In human clinical trials, the following effects have been evaluated: antiarrhythmic, antiemetic, anti-inflammatory, antimigraine, anti-motion sickness, antinauseant, antiplatelet, antivertigo, fibrinolytic, gastric motility stimulant, gastric mucosal exfoliant and platelet aggregation inhibition (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: analgesic, anesthetic, anthelmintic, antiatherosclerotic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, antiedema, antiemetic, antifungal, antihepatotoxic, antihypercholesterolemic, antihypothermic, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antinauseant, antinematodal, antiobesity, antioxidant, antipyretic, antisecretory, antispasmodic, antitumor-promoting, antiulcer, antiviral, anxiolytic, arachidonate metabolism inhibition, carcinogenesis inhibition, central nervous system stimulant, chemokine expression, choloretic, cholesterol level decrease, cholesterol synthesis inhibition, cyclooxygenase 2 inhibition, cytokinin antagonist, diuretic, Epstein-Barr virus early antigen activation inhibition, gastric emptying time, gastric motility stimulant, HIV-1 integrase inhibition, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, hypotensive, hypotriglyceridemic, immunoglobulin production inhibition, immunostimulant, interleukin-1-alpha release inhibition, interleukin-1-beta release inhibition, lipid peroxidase inhibition, monoamine oxidase activity increase, platelet aggregation inhibition, positively inotropic, prostaglandin inhibition, protease inhibition, respiratory stimulant, serotonin (5-HT) antagonist, smooth muscle relaxant, thermogenic, tyrosinase inhibition, white blood cell stimulant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL (Germosn Robineau 2005) classified this species as recommend for the treatment of asthma, cough, cold, influenza, fever, nausea, diarrhea, stomach ache, intestinal gas and indigestion. However, medical attention is mandated if the symptoms do not improve within 2 days, and in general, in the case of a serious cold, this is considered a complementary rather than a primary treatment with initial medical evaluation recommended. This plant should not be used during lactation nor if the patient is a child younger than 6 years of age

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Clinical Data: Zingiber officinale

Activity/Effect Antiarrhythmic Preparation Fresh rhizome methanolinsoluble fraction; dose: 1.0 g given orally; compared with prostaglandin E1 analog misoprostol (400 g) Rhizome; dose: 1.0 g/person, administered orally Design & Model Double-blind placebo controlled human clinical trial; healthy adult volunteers (n=22) with hyperglycemiainduced gastric slow wave dysrhythmias via endogenous prostaglandins Results Active; showed statistically significant results (P < 0.05) in preventing gastric slow wave dysrhythmias caused by acute hyperglycemia but did not affect dysrhythmias due to prostaglandin E1 analog; results suggest that gingers mechanism involves a reduction of the production of prostaglandins instead of hindering their action Active; ginger was more effective than placebo in reducing emesis Reference Gonlachanvit et al. 2003

Antiemetic

Antiemetic

Antiemetic

Antiemetic

Double-blind, randomized crossover clinical trial; pregnant women with hyperemesis gravidarum during pregnancy Rhizome Double-blind, powder; dose: randomized placebo1.0 g/person controlled clinical trial; patients with nausea who were undergoing same-day gynecological laparascopic surgery (n=120) Dried rhizome; Double-blind, dose: 2.0 g/day, randomized placebogiven orally; 3. controlled clinical tiral; human adult cycles of patients (male & treatment (vs. metoclopramide female) taking & ondansetron) cyclophosphamide Dried rhizome; Double-blind dose: 1.0 g/day placebo-controlled clinical trial; patients with nausea & vomiting induced by chemotherapy

FischerRasmussen et al. 1990

Showed antiemetic activity

Phillips et al. 1993

Active; ginger decreased nausea by 62% & vomiting by 68%; results showed that ginger was less effective than ondansetron & more effective than metoclopramide Active

Sontakke et al. 2003

Sontakke et al. 2003

307

Activity/Effect Antiemetic & antinauseant

Preparation Rhizome administered orally (1.0 g/day) vs. identical placebo; administered for 4 days Rhizome extract; dose: 510.0 mg/day; duration: three weeks; vs. ibuprofen & placebo Fresh rhizome powder

Design & Model Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled human clinical trial; women with nausea & vomiting due to pregnancy at or before 17 wks gestation (n=70) Randomized, controlled, doubleblind, cross-over study with one-week washout period; human adults with osteoarthritis of the hip or knee Human clinical trial: rheumatoid arthritis patients (n=28) with osteoarthritis (n=18) or muscular discomfort (n=10)

Antiinflammatory

Results Showed significant decrease in number of vomiting episodes, severity of vomiting (based on visual analogue-scales) & symptom Likert scale of symptom severity pre- & post-therapy vs. placebo group; no adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes were observed Did not show significant activity compared to placebo although did show improvement during initial explorative tests during first treatment Active; results showed relief of pain & swelling in 75% of arthritis patients; all patients with muscular discomfort reported relief in pain; proposed mechanism involves inhibition of prostaglandin & leukotriene biosynthesis Showed therapeutic potential as treatment for acute migraine

Reference Vutyavanich et al. 2001

Bliddal et al. 2000

Antiinflammatory

Srivastava & Mustafa 1992

Antimigraine

Anti-motion sickness & antivertigo effect

Anti-motion sickness effect

Rhizome, administered sublingually as part of Gelstat migraine product (combined with feverfew) Dried rhizome powder; dose: 1.0 g/person, administered orally Dried rhizome powder; dose: 940.0 mg/person administered orally

Clinical trial: human adults, both male & female, with acute migraine (n=30); administered during mild pain phase Human clinical trial; seasickness on the open sea Clinical trial; human volunteers susceptible to motion sickness (n=36)

Cady et al. 2005

Active

Grontved et al. 1988

Active

Mowrey & Clayson 1982

308

Activity/Effect Antinauseant

Preparation Dried rhizome powder; dose: 250.0 mg/person, given orally, 4 daily for 4 days Fresh rhizome; dose: 250.0 mg/person given orally Rhizome powder; dose: 5.0 g/person Rhizome; dose: 1.0 g/person, given orally Dried rhizome powder; 5 g administered orally Dried rhizome, hydro-alcoholic extract; 200.0 mg/day, administered orally Fresh rhizome aqueous extract; dose = 6.0 g/person administered intragastrically Powdered dried rhizome; dose: 10.0 g; given orally

Design & Model Placebo-controlled human clinical trial: women with hyperemesis gravidarum (n=30); 2-day washout period Double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial: healthy volunteers (n=1761) Human clinical trial; adults with ADP- or epinephrine-induced aggregation Controlled clinical trial; human adults Human clinical trial; administered fatty meal with 50 g of fat to healthy adult volunteers (n=30) Randomized doubleblind placebocontrolled clinical trial; two-period crossover study; male volunteers (n=12) Human clinical trial; adult volunteers

Antinauseant

Results Active; significant improvement, diminishment or elimination of symptoms compared to placebo based on scoring systems of symptom relief & severity; no adverse effects were reported Active; showed efficacy as a treatment for seasickness Active

Reference FischerRasmussen et al. 1991

Schmid et al. 1995 Verma et al. 1993

Antiplatelet

Antivertigo

Active Prevented fall in fibrinolytic activity induced by fatty meal & significantly increased fibrinolytic activity (P < 0.001) Fasting & postprandial gastroduodenal motility measured by stationary manometry; showed significant increase in gastroduodenal motility & motor response to test meal, during fasting & overall Active; showed significant increase in exfoliation of epithelial cells of the gastric surface Active; showed significant reduction in platelet aggregation induced by ADP & epinephrine

Grontved & Hentzer 1986 Verma & Bordia 2001

Fibrinolytic

Gastric motility stimulant

Micklefield et al. 1999

Gastric mucosal exfoliant

Desai et al. 1990

Platelet aggregation inhibition

Controlled clinical trial

Bordia et al. 1997

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Zingiber officinale

Activity/Effect Analgesic Preparation Dried rhizome juice; dose: 199.8 mg/animal, administered intragastrically Dried rhizome aqueousmethanolic extract (1:1), administered subcutaneously Rhizome, hot water extract; 1.0% concentration, applied topically Dried rhizome saline extract Dried rhizome, aqueousethanolic extract (50%); dose: 500.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Rhizome, ethanolic extract (80%) Design & Model In vivo: mice; tail flick response to radiant heat model Results Active; showed analgesic effect equivalent to that of 10 mg/kg b.w. aspirin Reference Latifah 1987

Analgesic

In vivo: mice; inhibition of aceticacid induced writhing model Frog sciatic nerve

Active; at a dose of 10.0 g/kg showed analgesic effects

Kasahara et al. 1983

Anesthetic

Active

Sugaya et al. 1979

Anthelmintic

Antiatherosclerotic & hypolipidemic

Anisakis spp. larvae (anisakiasis-causing parasitic nematode) In vivo: male cholesterol-fed rabbits

Active at a concentration of 2.5%; showed 100% larvicidal effect Active; showed reduction in atherogenic index from 4.7 to 1.2 & lowered LDL& total cholesterol levels

Kasuya et al. 1988 Sharma et al. 1996

Antibacterial

Antibacterial

Dried rhizome, methanolic extract

In vitro: agar plate against Bacillus subtilis, B. anthracis, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, S. hemolyticus, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis & Pseudomonas aeruginosa In vitro: agar plate; Helicobacter pylori

Active at a concentration of 500.0 g/disc

Mascolo et al. 1989

Active; MIC = 25.0 g/mL

Mahady et al. 2000

310

Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Fresh rhizome aqueous extract

Anticonvulsant

Rhizome, hot water extract Dried rhizome, benzene extract; dose: 20.0, 30.0 & 30.0 mg/kg respectively; administered intraperitoneally Rhizome, methanolic extract; dose: 2.0 g/ear, applied topically Dried rhizome, CHCl3 extract; dose: 1.0 g/kg, administered intragastrically Dried rhizome, acetone extract; dose: 200.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically

Design & Model In vitro: agar plate against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella paratyphi, S. typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Chromobacterium violaceum, Bacillus subtilis & Staphylococcus aureus In vitro: snail neurons with metrazolinduced bursting In vivo: male rats with experimentallyinduced convulsions

Results Active at a concentration of 0.3 mL/well

Reference Srinivasan et al. 2001

Anticonvulsant, anxiolytic & antiemetic

Active; showed inhibition of abnormal bursting activity induced by metrazol in snail neurons Active

Sugaya et al. 1978 Vishwakarma et al. 2002

Antiedema

Antiemetic

Active; showed an In vivo: mice with inhibition ratio (IR) of 9 experimentallyinduced ear inflammation (12-Otetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate (TPA)) In vivo: frogs with Active copper sulfateinduced emesis In vivo: male & female dogs with cisplatin-induced emesis Active

Yasukawa et al. 1993

Kawai et al. 1994

Antiemetic

Sharma et al. 1997

311

Activity/Effect Antiemetic

Antiemetic & antinauseant

Antiemetic mechanism

Preparation Dried rhizome administered orally; dose: 2.0 g/day; compared with droperidol 1.25 mg or both ginger & droperidol Rhizome powder administered orally; dose = 0.5 g Fresh rhizome; dose: 1.0 g/person, orally

Design & Model Randomized placebo controlled clinical trial; human female adults (n=120) scheduled for gynecological diagnostic laparoscopy Clinical trial: pregnant women with major gynecological surgery (n=60) Double-blind placebo-controlled trial; human adults

Results Inactive; did not show significant decrease in postoperative nausea & vomiting compared to placebo or positive control

Reference Visalyaputra et al. 1998

Active

Bone et al. 1990

Antifungal

Essential oil (full strength concentration)

In vitro: agar plate

Antihepatotoxic

Anti-hepatotoxic

Fresh rhizome ethanolic (95%) extract; dose: 100.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Dried rhizome

In vivo: male & female rats with country-made-liquorinduced injury In vitro: cell culture of liver cells In vivo: rats fed high cholesterol diet to induce hypercholesterolemia

Determined mechanism of antiemetic action does not involve the central nervous system (nystagmus response to optokinetic or vestibular stimuli) bur rather most likely is due to gingers influence on the gastrointestinal system Active against several species of fungi including Aspergillus candidus, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. nidulans, Trichophyton rubrum, Mucor mucedo, Penicillium digitatum, Microsporum gypseum, Rhizopus nigricans, Helminthosporium saccharii, Cladosporium herbarum, Trichothecium roseum & Cunninghamella echinulata Active

Holtmann et al. 1989

Sharma & Singh 1979

Bhandari et al. 2003

Oleoresin Antihypercholesterolemic administered orally

Active against Dgalactosamine- & CCl4induced hepatotoxicity Active; inhibited cholesterol absorption; parameters measured: serum & hepatic cholesterol levels

Hikino 1985 Gujral et al. 1978

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Activity/Effect Preparation Dried rhizome: Antihypercholesterolemic ethanolic extract (95%); dose: 200.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Rhizome, Anti-hyperglycemic ethanolic extract & antidiabetic (100%); dose: 250.0 mg/kg; administered intragastrically Dried rhizome Antihyperglycemic ethanolic extract & antidiabetic (95%); dose: activity 250.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Fresh rhizome Antihyperlipidemic ethanolic (95%) extract; administered intragastrically Fresh rhizome Antihypothermic acetone extract; dose: 100.0 mg/kg via gastric intubation Rhizome, hot Anti-inflammatory water extract, dose: 2.0 g/kg, administered intragastrically Rhizome, Anti-inflammatory ethanolic extract (80%); dose: 50.0 mg/kg administered intragastrically Dried rhizome Anti-inflammatory methanolic extract; dose: 20.0 L/animal

Design & Model In vivo: cholesterolfed male rabbits

Results Active; showed decrease in serum cholesterol levels

Reference Bhandari, Sharma et al. 1998

In vivo: albino rats

Active as shown in oral glucose tolerance tests

Kar et al. 1999

In vivo: male rats with alloxan-induced hyperglycemia

Active

Kar et al. 2003

In vivo: male rabbits

Active

Bhandari, Grover et al. 1998 Huang et al. 1990

In vivo: mice with serotonin-induced hypothermia

Active

In vivo: rats with formalin-induced paw edema In vivo: rats with carrageenan-induced paw edema

Active

Basavarajaiah et al. 1990

Active

Mascolo et al. 1989

Active In vivo: mice with 12-Otetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate (TPA)induced ear inflammation

Okuyama et al. 1995

313

Activity/Effect Anti-inflammatory

Preparation Fresh rhizome hydro-alcoholic extract given intraperitoneally Dried rhizome aqueousethanolic (1:1) extract Rhizome, methanolic extract; 1.0 mg/mL Dried rhizome, methanolic extract; dose: 250.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Rhizome, ethanolic extract (75%) Rhizome: juice, aqueous high speed supernatant & hot water extract Rhizome; given as 5.0% of diet Rhizome, ethanolic extract (80%); dose: 100.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Dried rhizome, hot water extract; dose: 20.0 mg/mL, administered intragastrically

Antimalarial

Design & Model In vivo: rats with carrageenan-induced paw edema & serotonin-induced paw & skin edema Plasmodium falciparum Against larvae of the parasitic nematode Toxocara canis In vivo: female mice with gold thioglucose-induced obesity In vitro & in vivo: rats with alloxaninduced diabetes In vitro

Results Active; significantly inhibited paw & skin edema Active

Reference Penna et al. 2003

Etkin 1997

Antinematodal

Active

Kiuchi et al. 1989 Goyal & Kadnur 2006

Antiobesity

Active

Antioxidant

Active; IC50 = 22.0 g/mL Active at concentrations of 0.02 mL, 0.04 mL & 0.02 mL, respectively Active Active

Sabu & Kuttan 2003 Lee et al. 1986

Antioxidant

Antioxidant Antipyretic

In vivo: rats In vivo: rats with hyperthermia induced by yeast injection

Afshari et al. 2007 Mascolo et al. 1989

Antipyretic & interleukin-1-alpha release inhibition

In vivo: female mice with influenza virus infection

Active

Kurokawa et al. 1998

314

Activity/Effect Antisecretory

Antispasmodic

Preparation Dried rhizome aqueousmethanolic extract (1:1); dose: 10.0 g/kg (dry weight of plant), administered subcutaneously Dried rhizome, acetone extract Dried rhizome, ethanolic extract (95%) Dried rhizome ethanolic (95%) & aqueous extracts; concentration: 200.0 g/mL Dried rhizome methanolic extract

Design & Model In vivo: mice

Results Active; showed significant gastric antisecretory activity (P < 0.05)

Reference Kasahara et al. 1983

Antispasmodic

Antispasmodic

In vitro: isolated rat ileum with electrically induced contractions Isolated rabbit ileum with acetylcholineinduced contractions Guinea pig ileum with experimentallyinduced contractions

Active at a concentration of 1.0 g/mL Active Active; ethanolic extract showed antispasmodic activity in histamine- & barium-induced contractions while aqueous extract was active against barium-induced contractions Strongly active at a concentration of 200.0 g/mL

Borrelli et al. 2004 Annamalai & Manavalan 1990 Itokawa et al. 1983

Antitumorpromoting

Antiulcer

Antiulcer

Rhizome (150.0 mg/kg), butanol extract (285.0 mg/kg), water extract (640.0 mg/kg) & acetoneethanolic extract (1:1) (500.0 mg/kg) Dried rhizome, ethanolic extract (95%); administered intravenously for 2 days

In vitro: cell culture of raji cells with 12Otetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate (TPA)induced Epstein Barr virus early antigen activation In vivo: rats with Active; inhibited ulcer HCl- & ethanolformation by 57.5%, induced gastric ulcers 12.4%, 45.8% & 91.9%, respectively

Maurakami et al. 1997

Yamahara et al. 1992

In vivo: male rabbits with aspiring-induced ulceration of the stomach

Active

Annamalai & Manavalan 1990

315

Activity/Effect Antiulcer

Antiulcer

Antiulcer

Antiulcer

Antiviral Antiviral

Preparation Dried rhizome hot water extract; dose: 50.0 mg/kg; administered intragastrically Rhizome acetone & methanolic extracts; dose: 1000 mg/kg of each extract Dried rhizome ethanolic (95%) extract; dose: 500.0 mg/kg Fresh rhizome, ethanolic (70%) & acetone extracts Rhizome, decoction Dried rhizome hexane extract Lyophilized extract of rhizome Dried rhizome decoction; dose: 0.125% administered in drinking water Dried rhizome, ethanolic extract (95%); 1.5 mL, administered intravenously Fresh rhizome aqueousethanolic (1:1) extract

Design & Model In vivo: male & female rats with cold stress-, aspirin- & pylorus ligationinduced ulcers In vivo: rats with HCl-ethanol-induced ulcers

Results Active

Reference Agrawal et al. 2000

Active

Yamahara et al. 1988

In vivo: rats

Active against aspirin-, indomethacin- & cold stress-induced ulcers Active; ED50 = 62.01 mg/kg Active at a concentration of 0.05 mg/mL Active; showed antiviral activity against rhinovirus type 1-B Active against influenza A virus; effect mediated by macrophage activation & subsequent production of TNF-alpha Active; inhibited carcinogenesis in mouse mammary gland Active

Al Yahya et al. 1989 Sertie et al. 1992

In vivo: rats with stress- (restraint) & pylorus ligationinduced ulcers In vitro: cell culture; virus-rotavirus In vitro: cell culture, plaque assay In vitro: cell culture

Kim et al. 2000 Denyer et al. 1994 Imanishi et al. 2006

Antiviral

Carcinogenesis inhibition

In vivo: female mice with spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis In vivo: rabbits

Nagasawa et al. 2002

Central nervous system stimulant

Emig 1931

Chemokine expression

In vitro: human peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes

Active; at a concentration of 10.0 mg/mL showed stimulation of interleukin6 formation & tumor necrosis factor induction; at 20.0 mg/mL, showed stimulation of interleukin1 formation & GM-CSF secretion

Chang et al. 1995

316

Activity/Effect Choleretic

Cholesterol level decrease

Preparation Design & Model In vivo: rats Rhizome chromatographic fraction; intraduodenal administration In vivo: rats Dried rhizome powder; given as part of feed: 50.0 mg % Dried rhizome; ethanolic extract (95%), administered intragastrically Hydroalcoholic (1:)1) extract of the dried aerial parts; administered intraperitoneally; dose: 45.0 mg/kg Dried rhizome ethanolic extract (95%) In vivo: atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein-E deficient mice In vivo: rats

Results Active at a dose of 150.0 mg/kg; results significant (P < 0.01) Active; showed cholesterol-lowering effects as detected in adrenal gland steroidogenesis Active; reduced plasma triglycerides, cholesterol, VLDL, LDL & lipid peroxides; inhibited cholesterol synthesis, LDL oxidation & aggregation Active

Reference Yamahara et al. 1985

Babu & Srinivasan 1993

Cholesterol synthesis inhibition, antiatherosclerotic, hypotriglyceridemic & hypocholesterolemic Diuretic

Fuhrman et al. 2000

Aswal et al. 1984

Epstein-Barr Virus early antigen activation inhibition

Gastric emptying time

Gastric motility stimulant

HIV-1 integrase inhibition

Dried rhizome: ethanolic extract (100%) & juice; dose: 500.0 mg/kg & 4.0 mL/kg; administered intragastrically Rhizome, acetone extract; dose: 75.0 mg/kg administered intragastrically Dried rhizome ethanolic (95%) & aqueous extracts

In vitro: Raji cells with 12-Otetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate (TPA)induced early antigen activation In vivo: male & female rats with cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying

Active at a concentration of 100.0 g/mL

Kapadia et al. 2002

Active; reversed cisplatininduced effect by stimulating an increase in rate of gastric emptying

Sharma & Gupta 1998

In vivo: mice

Active

Yamahara et al. 1990

In vitro: cell culture; virus HIV-1

Active; ethanolic extract was active at IC50 = 4.0 g/mL & aqueous extract at IC50 = 1.8 g/mL

Tewtrakul et al. 2003

317

Activity/Effect Hypoglycemic

Hypoglycemic

Hypoglycemic & hypolipidemic

Hypotensive

Hypotensive

Immunoglobulin production inhibition Immunostimulant

Interleukin-1-beta release inhibition, cyclooxygenase 2 inhibition & cytokinin antagonist

Preparation Hydroalcoholic (1:1) extract of the dried aerial parts; administered by gastric intubation; dose: 45.0 mg/kg Rhizome, ethanolic extract (80%); dose: 100.0 mg/kg, administered intragastrically Dried rhizome, administered as part of feed (0.5%) Dried rhizome aqueousmethanolic extract (1:1) administered intravenously Dried rhizome aqueous low speed supernatant; doses of 10, 25, 50, 100 & 200 mg (dry weight of plant)/kg, intravenously Rhizome, saline extract; concentration: 10.0 mg/mL Ethanolic extract (5%) of the dried fibers; dose: 25.0 mg/kg administered intragastrically Dried rhizome extract

Design & Model In vivo: rats

Results Active

Reference Aswal et al. 1984

In vivo: rabbits

Active

Mascolo et al. 1989

In vivo: male albino rats In vivo: rats

Active based on evaluation of serum glucose levels & lipid profile Active; dose of 0.25 m/kg showed hypotensive activity & dose of 0.5 g/kg showed significant activity (P < 0.01) Showed highly dosedependent & significant activity with a maximum effective dose of 100 mg/kg; pulse pressure decreased; presence of potassium ions in the extract did not produce significant change Active

Ahmed & Sharma 1997 Kasahara et al. 1983

In vivo: dogs

Hantrakul & Tejason 1976

In vitro: rat lymphocytes In vivo: mouse

Kaku et al. 1997

Active

Puri et al. 2000

In vitro: cell culture of THP-1 monocytes with beta-amyloid peptide-induced chemokine & cytokine expression

Active; inhibited chemokine & cytokine expression

Grzanna et al. 2004

318

Activity/Effect Lipid peroxidase inhibition

Monoamine oxidase activity increase Platelet aggregation inhibition

Preparation Dried rhizome powder; administered as part of feed: 1.0% of diet Dried rhizome methanolic extract Dried rhizome; ethyl-acetate & methanolic extracts Dried rhizome aqueousmethanolic extract (1:1) Rhizome decoction; concentration: 0.3 mg/plate Rhizome, ethanolic extract (80%) Dried rhizome methanolic extract Dried rhizome ethanolic (95%) extract administered intravenously Rhizome, acetone extract Essential oil Dried rhizome, aqueous extract Fresh rhizome ethanolic (95%) extract Dried rhizome, CHCl3 extract

Design & Model In vivo: male rats with experimentallyinduced lipid peroxidation & oxidative stress In vitro: mitochondria In vitro: platelets with collagen-, ADP& platelet aggregating factorinduced aggregation Guinea pig atrium

Results Active; significantly lowered malathioninduced lipid peroxidation & oxidative stress in serum Active at a concentration of 1.0 g/mL Active; IC50 < 0.3 mg/mL & 1.0 mg/mL, respectively

Reference Ahmed et al. 2000

Hwang et al. 1999 Okada et al. 1997

Positively inotropic

Prostaglandin & arachidonate metabolism inhibition Prostaglandin inhibition Protease inhibition

In vitro: microsomes; sheep vesicular gland microsomal fraction In vitro: leukocyte cell culture In vitro: hepatitis C virus In vivo: cats

Active: showed positive inotropic effect at a concentration of 9.1 mg/mL Active; measured proportion of PGH2 & arachidonic acid metabolites Active at a concentration of 100. g/mL Active at a concentration of 100.0 g/mL Active

Kasahara et al. 1983 Umeda et al. 1988 Mascolo et al. 1989 Hussein et al. 2000 Ally 1960

Respiratory stimulant

Serotonin (5-HT) antagonist Smooth muscle relaxant Smooth muscle relaxant Smooth muscle relaxant Thermogenic

Isolated guinea pig ileum with 5-HTinduced contractions Isolated guinea pig ileum & trachea Isolated guinea pig ileum Isolated guinea pig ileum Isolated rat hind quarters, perfusion

Active; at a concentration of 25.0 g/mL Active; ED50 = 171 mg/L for isolated trachea & 36.0 mg/L for isolated ileum Active at a concentration of 10.0 mg/mL Active at a concentration of 50.0 mg/mL; showed dose-dependent effect Active at a concentration of 5.0 & 50.0 g/mL; stimulated hindlimb oxygen intake

Yamahara et al. 1989 Reiter & Brandt 1985 Chakma et al. 2001 Ketusinh et al. 1984 Eldershaw et al. 1992

319

Activity/Effect Tyrosinase inhibition

White blood cell stimulant

Preparation Dried rhizome, methanolic extract Fresh rhizome juice; administered intraperitoneally

Design & Model In vitro In vivo: mice

Results Active at a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL Active; ED50 = 0.08 mL/animal; showed 76% increase in neutrophil accumulation

Reference Khanom et al. 2000 Yamazaki & Nishimura 1992

REFERENCES
Afshari AT, Shirpoor A, Farshid A, Saadatian R, Rasmi Y, Saboory E, Ilkhanizadeh B, Allameh A. 2007. The effect of ginger on diabetic nephropathy, plasma antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in rats. Food Chem 101(1):148-53. Agrawal AK, Rao CV, Sairam K, Joshi VK, Goel RK. 2000. Effect of Piper longum Linn, Zingiber officinalis Linn and Ferula species on gastric ulceration and secretion in rats. Indian J Exp Biol 38(10):994-98. Ahmed RS, Sharma SB. 1997. Biochemical studies on combined effects of garlic (Allium sativum Linn) and ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) in albino rats. Indian J Exp Biol 35(8):841-3. Ahmed RS, Seth V, Pasha ST, Banerjee BD. 2000. Influence of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) on oxidative stress induced by malathion in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 38(5):443-50. Al Yahya MA, Rafatullah S, Mossa JS, Ageel Am, Parmar NS, Tariq M. 1989. Gastroprotective activity of ginger, Zingiber officinale Rosc., in albino rats. Amer J Chinese Med 17(1/2):51-6. Ally MM. 1960. The pharmacological action of Zingiber officinale. Proc Pan Indian Ocean Sci Congr 4th Karachi Pakistan, pp. 11-12. Annamalai AR, Manavalan R. 1990. Effects of Trikatu and its individual components and piperine on gastro intestinal tracts: Trikatu-A bioavailable enhancer. Indian Drugs 27(12):595-604. Anon. 1976. GRAS status of foods and food additives. Fed Regist 41 (Section 582.10), 38644 pp. Aswal BS, Bhakuni DS, Goel AK, Kar K, Mehrotra BN, Mukherjee KC. 1984. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: Part X. Indian J Exp Biol 22(6):312-32. Babu PS, Srinivasan K. 1993. Influence of dietary spices on adrenal steroidogenesis in rats. Nutr Res 13(4):435-44. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Basavarajaiah CR, Lucas DS, Anadarajashekhar R, Parmesh RR. 1990. Fundamentals of Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals: anti-inflammatory activity of different preparations of three medicinal plants. J Res Edu Ind Med 9(3):25-30. Bhandari U, Grover JK, Sharma JN. 1998. Effect of indigenous drugs on changes in morphology and cholesterol level of aorta in early atherosclerotic progression. A comparative experimental study. Hamdard Med 41(4):56-9. Bhandari U, Sharma JN, Zafar R. 1998. The protective action of ethanolic ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract in cholesterol fed rabbits. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(2):167-71.

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Bhandari U, Shamsher AA, Pillai KK, Khan MSY. 2003. Antihepatotoxic activity of ginger ethanol extract in rats. Pharmaceutical Biol 41(1):68-71. Bliddal H, Rosetzsky A, Schlichting P, Weidner MS, Andersen LA, Ibfelt HH, Christensen K, Jensen ON, Barslev J. 2000. A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 8(1):9-12. Bone ME, Wilkinson DJ, Young JR, McNeil J, Carlton S. 1990. Ginger root: A new antiemetic. The effect of ginger root on postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynaecological surgery. Anaesthesia 45(8):669-71. Bordia A, Verma SK, Srivastava KC. 1997. Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent Fatty Acids 56(5):379-84. Borrelli F, Capasso R, Pinto A, Izzo AA. 2004. Inhibitory effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on rat ileal motility in vitro. Life Sci 74(23):2889-96. Cady RK, Schreiber CP, Beach Me, hart CC. 2005. Gelstat migraine (sublingually administered feverfew and ginger compound) for acute treatment of migraine when administered during the mild pain phase. Med Sci Monit 11(9):165-9. Chakma TK, Choudhuri MSK, Jabbar S, Khan TH, Alamgir M, Gafur MA, Ahmed K, Roy BK. 2001. Effect of some medicinal plants and plant parts used in Ayurvedic system of medicine on isolated guinea-pig ileum preparations. Hamdard Med 44(2):70-3. Chang CP, Chan JY, Wang FY, Chang JG. 1995. The effect of Chinese medicinal herb Zingiberis rhizoma extract on cytokine secretion by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48(1):13-9. Denyer CV, Jackson P, Loakes DM, Ellis MR, Young DAB. 1994. Isolation of antirhinoviral sesquiterpenes from ginger (Zingiber officinale). J Nat Prod 57(5):658-62. Desai HG, Kalro RH, Choksi AP. 1990. Effect of ginger & garlic on DNA content of gastric aspirate. Indian J Med Res 92(2):139-41. Eldershaw TPD, Colquhoun EQ, Dora KA, Peng ZC, Clark MG. 1992. Pungent principles of ginger (Zingiber officinale) are thermogenic in the perfused rat hindlimb. Int J Obesity 16:755-63. Emig HM. 1931. The pharmacological action of ginger. J Amer Pharm Ass 20:114-6. Etkin NL. 1997. Antimalarial plants used by Hausa in Northern Nigeria. Trop Doctor 27(1):12-6. Fischer-Rasmussen W, Kjaer SK, Dahl C, Asping U. 1990. Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 38:19-24. Fischer-Rasmussen W, Kjaer SK, Dahl C, Asping U. 1991. Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 38(1):19-24. Fuhrman B, Rosenblat M, Hayek T, Coleman R, Viram M. 2000. Ginger extract consumption reduces plasma cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation and attenuates development of atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Nutr 130(5):1124-31. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp.

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Okuyama T, Matsuda M, Masuda Y, Baba M, Masubuchi H, Adachi M, Okada Y, Hashimoto T, Zou LB, Nishino H. 1995. Studies in cancer bio-chemoprevention of natural resources. X. Inhibitory effect of spices on TPA-enhanced 3H-choline incorporation in phospholipid of C3H10T1/2 cells and on TPA-induced ear edema. Zhongua Yaoxue Zazhi 47(5):421-30. Penna SC, Medeiros MV, Aimbire FSC, Faria-Neto HCC, Sertie JAA, Lopes-Martins RAB. 2003. Antiinflammatory effect of the hydroalcoholic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizomes on rat paw and skin edema. Phytomedicine 10(5):381-5. Phillips S, Ruggier R, Hutchinson SE. 1993. Zingiber officinale (ginger)an antiemetic for day case surgery. Anaesthesia 48(8):715-17. Puri A, Sahai R, Singh KL, Saxena RP, Tandon JS, Saxena KC. 2000. Immunostimulant activity of dry fruits and plant materials used in Indian traditional medical system for mothers after child birth and invalids. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71(1/2):89-92. Reiter M, Brandt W. 1985. Relaxant effects on tracheal and ileal smooth muscles of the guinea pig. Arzneim-Forsch 35(1):408-15. Sabu MC, Kuttan R. 2003. Antioxidant activity of Indian herbal drugs in rats with alloxan-induced diabetes. Pharmaceutical Biol 41(7):500-5. Schmid R, Schick T, Steffen R, Tschopp A, Wilk T. 1995. Comparison of seven commonly used agents for prophylaxis of seasickness. J Travel Med 1:102-6. Seetharam KA, Pasricha JS. 1987. Condiments and contact dermatitis of the finger-tips. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 53(6):325-8. Sertie JAA, Basile AC, Oshiro TT, Silva FD, Mazella AAG. 1992. Preventive anti-ulcer activity of the rhizome extract of Zingiber officinale. Fitoterapia 63(1):55-9. Sharma SS, Gupta YK. 1998. Reversal of cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying in rats by ginger (Zingiber officinale). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 62(1):49-55. Sharma SK, Singh VP. 1979. The antifungal activity of some essential oils. Indian Drugs Parm Ind 14(1):3-6. Sharma SS, Kochupillai V, Gulta SK, Seth SD, Gupta YK. 1997. Antiemetic efficacy of ginger (Zingiber officinale) against cisplatin-induced emesis in dogs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57(2):93-6. Sharma I, Gusain D, Dixit VP. 1996. Hypolipidaemic and antiatherosclerotic effects of Zingiber officinale in cholesterol fed rabbits. Phytother Res 10(6):517-8. Sontakke S, Thawani V, Naik MS. 2003. Ginger as an antiemetic in nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy: A randomized, cross-over, double blind study. Indian J Pharmacol 35:32-6. Srinivasan D, Nathan S, Suresh T, Perumalsamy PL. 2001. Antimicrobial activity of certain Indian medicinal plants used in folkloric medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 74:217-20. Srivastava KC, Mustafa T. 1992. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders. Med Hypoth 39(4):342-8. Sugaya A, Tsuda T, Sugaya E, Takato M, Takamura K. 1978. Effects of Chinese medicine Saiko-keishi-to on the abnormal bursting activity of snail neurons. Planta Med 34:294-8.

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Sugaya A, Tsuda T, Sugaya E, Usami M, Takamura K. 1979. Local anesthetic action of the Chinese medicine saikokeishi-to. Planta Med 37:274-6. Tewtrakul S, Miyashiro H, Nakamura N, Hattori M, Kawahata T, Otake T, Yoshinaga T, Fujiware T, Supavita T, Yuenyongsawad S, Rattanasuwon P, Dej Adisai S. 2003. HIV-1 integrase inhibitory substaces from Coleus parvifolius. Phytother Res 17(3):232-9. Umeda M, Amagaya S, Ogihara Y. 1988. Effects of certain herbal medicines on the biotransformation of arachidonic acid: A new pharmacological testing method using serum. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 23(1):91-8. Vaes LPJ, Chyka PA. 2000. Interactions of warfarin with garlic, ginger, ginkgo or ginseng: Nature of the evidence. Ann Pharmacother 34(12):1478-82. Verma SK, Bordia A. 2001. Ginger, fat and fibrinolysis. Indian J Med Sci 55(2):83-6. Verma SK, Singh J, Khamesra R, Bordia A. 1993. Effect of ginger on platelet aggregation in man. Indian J Med Res 98(5):240-2. Visalyaputra S, Petchpaisit N, Somcharoen K, Choavaratana R. 1998. The efficacy of ginger root in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient gynecological laparoscopy. Anaesthesia 53(5):50620. Vishwakarma SL, Pal SC, Kasture VS, Kasture SB. 2002. Anxiolytic and antiemetic activity of Zingiber officinale. Phytother Res 16(7):621-6. Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri RA. 2001. Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: Randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 97(4):577-82. Weidner MS, Sigwart K. 2001. Investigation of the teratogenic potential of Zingiber officinale extract in the rat. Reproduct Toxicol 15(1):75-80. Wilkinson JM. 2000. Effect of ginger tea on the fetal development of Sprague-Dawley rats. Reproduct Toxicol 14(6):5-7-12. Woo WS, Lee EB, Han BH. 1979. Biological evaluation of Korean medicinal plants. III. Arch Pharm Res 2:127-31. Yamahara J, Miki K, Chisaka T, Sawada T, Fujumura H, Tomimatsu T, Nakano K, Nohara T. 1985. Cholagogic effect of ginger and its active constituents. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 13(2):217-25. Yamahara J, Mochizuki M, Rong HQ, Matsuda H, Fuimura H. 1988. The anti-ulcer effect in rats of ginger constituents. J Ethnopharmacol 23(2/3):299-304. Yamahara J, Rong HQ, Iwamoto M, Kobayashi G, Matsuda H, Fuimura H. 1989. Active components of ginger exhibiting antiserotonergic action. Phytother Res 3(2):70-1. Yamahara JJ, Huang QR, La YH, Xu L, Fujimura H. 1990. Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger and its active constituents. Chem Pharm Bull 38(2):430-1. Yamahara J, Hatakeyama S, Taniguchi K, Kawamura M, Yoshikawa M. 1992. Stomachic principles in ginger. II. Pungent and anti-ulcer effects of low polar constituents isolated from ginger, the dried rhizoma of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, cultivated in Taiwan. The absolute stereostructure of a new diarylheptanoid. Yakugaku Zasshi 112(9):645-55. Yamazaki M, Nishimura T. 1992. Induction of neutrophil accumulation by vegetable juice. Biosci Biotech Biochem 56(1):150-1.

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Yasukawa K, Yamaguchi A, Arita J, Sakurai S, Ikeda A, Takido M. 1993. Inhibitory effect of edible plant extracts on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced ear oedema in mice. Phytother Res 7(2):185-9. Young HY, Liao JC, Chang YS, Lu MC, Peng WH. 2006. Synergistic effect of ginger and nifedipine on human platelet aggregation: A study in hypertensive patients and normal volunteers. Amer J Chinese Med 34(4):545-51.

Juana la Blanca
OTHER COMMON NAMES
False buttonweed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Spermacoce verticillata L. or Spermacoce assurgens Ruiz and Pavn; synonym: Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb. [Rubiaceae (Madder and Bedstraw Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Excess or abnormal vaginal discharge - Infertility - Kidney infections - Kidney stones - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Whole plant. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by infusion or decoction; may also be added to complex multi-herb preparations. Traditional Uses: Juana la blanca is used to treat infertility and is often added as an ingredient along with other plants to botellas for women. It is also an ingredient in the popular purchased proprietary herbal formula known as La Sra. Mueller. For menstrual cramps (dolores menstruales) and vaginal infections or excess discharge (flujo vaginal), a tea is prepared of juana la blanca and horsetail (cola de caballo). For kidney infections and kidney stones, boil juana la blanca and molasses (melaza) in water, taken as a tea. Availability: The dried herb can be purchased from select botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Juana la blanca (Spermacoce assurgens) is a subshrub that grows upright or along the ground (30-50 cm long). Leaves grow in opposite pairs and are narrowly oval (2.5-5.5 0.5-1.7 cm), thin and papery in texture and smooth-surfaced with tiny, sharp hairs along the edges. Flowers grow in terminal clusters and

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along the sides of branches with white petals. Fruits are narrowly oval capsules with two chambers, each containing a light brown seed (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: This plant is native to tropical America and has been introduced and naturalized in tropical Africa and Asia; as a common weed, in can often be found in open, disturbed areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Insufficient information available in the literature. Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No published laboratory or clinical studies were found in a Medline search for the species Spermacoce assurgens; however, one study on the antioxidant effects of a related species in the same genus was identified and is described in the table below.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Spermacoce spp.

Activity/Effect Antioxidant & nitric oxide (NO) inhibition Preparation Methanol plant extract (Spermacoce articularis & S. exilis ) Design & Model In vitro; using FTC, TBA & DPPH free radical scavenging methods; Griess assay for measuring NO inhibition Results Spermacoce articularis showed strong NO inhibition & DPPH free radical scavenging activity that was comparable to standards; S. exilis showed moderate antioxidant activity & NO inhibition (due to cytotoxic effects on cells) Reference Saha et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Saha K, Lajis NH, Israf DA, Hamzah AS, Khozirah S, Khamis S, Syahida A. 2004. Evaluation of antioxidant and nitric oxide inhibitory activities of selected Malaysian medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92(2-3):263-7.

Lechosa
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Papaya (Spanish); papaya (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
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Carica papaya L. [Caricaceae (Papaya Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Gastrointestinal pain - Heart disease - Heartburn - High blood pressure - Indigestion Plant Part Used: Fruit and leaves. Traditional Preparation: The fruit is typically ingested raw. Traditional Uses: For digestive disorders including indigestion, flatulence, intestinal gas, stomach or intestinal pain, heartburn, the fruit is recommended because it is not very acidic like other fruits and can alleviate gas and excess acid in the stomach. Also, the fruit is considered a supportive therapy for people with heart disease and high blood pressure. For menopausal hot flashes and other conditions associated with excess heat in the body, the fruit is eaten for its cooling properties. In the Caribbean, the unripe fruit is applied topically to treat skin infections and the root maceration is taken orally for urinary tract infections (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Availability: In New York City, lechosa fruit can be found at grocery stores, supermarkets and fruit stands that sell tropical fruit, depending on seasonal availability.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Lechosa (Carica papaya) is a small tree (typically 6 m tall), all parts of which contain an abundant milky exudate. Numerous large leaf scars mark the trunk. Leaves are palmately lobed with 7-11 sharply pointed segments. Male and female flowers typically grow on separate trees and have white- to creamy-yellowcolored petals. Fruits are typically oblong and somewhat pear-like in shape (5-45 5-15 cm), turning from green to yellow as they ripen and containing a yellow to light-orange, sweet-tasting pulp and numerous black seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to tropical America, this plant is now cultivated widely in tropical regions, and although it is usually found only in cultivation, it sometimes grows spontaneously in disturbed, moist areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The ripe fruit is consumed widely and generally considered safe. Allergic reactions including asthma attacks have been reported in association with this plant, its pollen and papain, an extract of its enzymes (Blanco et al. 1998). Animal Toxicity Studies: In mice, the aqueous root extract (100 g/500 mL water) administered orally (10 mL/kg) for 14 days did not show observable signs of toxicity (Souza Brito 1988). In rabbits, the grated unripe fruit applied topically (2 g/5 cm2) for 5 consecutive days did not show signs of dermal irritation (Garcia-Gonzalez et al. 2001). Toxicity studies have determined the LD50 of the crude ethanol extract of

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the unripe fruit administered intraperitoneally in mice to be 325.2 mg/kg body weight (Mansfield et al. 1985). Contraindications: Pregnancy & lactation unripe papaya fruits and papain enzymes are not to be taken by pregnant women or during lactation due to possible abortifacient, embryotoxic and teratogenic effects (Lohiya et al. 1994). Not to be taken by children under 12 years of age due to lack of clinical data on potential effects. Contraindicated for individuals with a history of allergic reaction or hypersensitivity to papain (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Warfarin: concomitant use with papaya extract has demonstrated increased international normalized ratio (INR) levels; therefore, patient should be monitored for symptoms of bleeding and INR levels if taking both simultaneously (Shaw et al. 1997).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
The following effects of this plant have been investigated in human clinical trials: antiparasitic, immunomodulatory and wound-healing (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and animal studies, this plant has shown the following activity: abortifacient, anthelmintic, antiamebic, antifertility (in males and females), antihypertensive, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-salmonella, diuretic, immunomodulatory, immunostimulatory and uterine stimulant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Laboratory research on papain, the raw proteolytic enzymes of the latex of this plant, has demonstrated it to have the following therapeutic effects: anti-inflammatory (contradictory evidence), antimicrobial (contradictory evidence), anthelmintic, anti-ulcer, edema-reducing and possibly fibrinogenous effects. Also, it has been shown to be useful for digestive disorders and pancreatic conditions and as a wound-healing agent due to its proteolytic activities (Gruenwald et al. 2004). More specifically, chymopapain, one active constituent, appears to function as a desloughing agent, thus promoting growth and healing scar tissue, while carpaines and aglycones have demonstrated antimicrobial activity which is also important for disinfecting and treating wounds (Starley et al. 1999). Biologically active constituents identified in the fruit include the following: 4-terpineol, alphalinolenic acid, alpha-phallandrene, alpha-terpinene, benzaldehyde, benzyl-isothiocyanate, betaphellandrene, butyl-alcohol, caryophyllene, ethyl-acetate, gamma-terpinene, geranyl-acetone, hexanal, isoamyl-acetate, linalool, lycopene, malic acid, methyl-acetate, methyl-salicylate, myrcene, papain, terpinolene and zeaxanthin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). This fruit is a significant source of dietary fiber, folate, potassium and vitamins A, C, E and K (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has classified this plant as REC meaning that it is recommended for the following uses: to treat urinary tract infections (root prepared as a maceration and taken orally) and forunculosis (green fruit crushed or baked and applied topically). This plant should not be administered for more than 7 consecutive days (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Commercial preparations of papaya enzymes (papain) are available in tablet form and typical dosage depends on the preparation.

Clinical Data: Carica papaya

Activity/Effect Antiparasitic Preparation Leaves prepared as a paste with opium & salt; applied for 3 days Design & Model Epidemiological & clinical study of guinea worm infection (dracunculiasis) Results Relieved symptoms & allowed for easier extraction of the worm (Dracunculus medinensis) from the body Reference Sanghvi 1989

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Activity/Effect Immunomodulatory

Wound-healing

Preparation Polyenzyme preparation (Wobenzyme) containing 20 mg papain per 100 mg drug Crushed papaya fruit, applied externally on gauze to the burn twice daily for several wks

Design & Model Placebo-controlled clinical trial with 28 healthy volunteers; dose: 5-20 tablets Clinical trial; treating pediatric patients with fullthickness & infected burns

Results Increased production of reactive oxygen species and cytotoxicity in polymorphonuclear leukocytes Positive outcome; some cases resulted in wounds clean enough for successful grafting; however, in other cases, partial thickness burns became full-thickness wounds after treatment

Reference Zavadova et al. 1995

Starley et al. 1999

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Carica papaya

Activity/Effect Abortifacient & antifertility (female) Preparation Selected fruit components; administered orally (ingested) Design & Model In vivo: albino Wistar rats (cycling and pregnant) Results Interrupted estrous cycle & induced abortions; abortifacient property decreased as fruit ripened; no malformations observed in surviving fetuses; exogenous progesterone counteracted adverse effects on pregnancy Antiparasitic efficacy of 55.5, 60.3, 67.9 & 84.5% with corresponding dose levels; potentially effective as anthelmintic against patent intestinal nematodes of mammalian hosts Exhibited significant activity (MIC less than 100 g/mL), as compared with metronidazole as a reference product Reference Gopalakrishnan & Rajasekharasetty 1978

Anthelmintic

Latex suspended in water; dose levels of 2, 4, 6 & 8 g/kg body weight

In vivo: mice infected with Heligmosomoides polygyrus

Satrija et al. 1995

Antiamebic

Extract of mature seeds

In vitro

Tona et al. 1998

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Activity/Effect Antifertility (male)

Preparation Seed chloroform extract, benzene chromatographic fraction of; oral administration

Design & Model In vivo: male albino rats; dose regimens 5 and 10 mg/animal/day orally for 150 days

Antifertility (male)

Seeds: benzene, chloroform & ethyl acetate chromatographic fraction of the chloroform extract of the seeds

In vivo: adult male rabbits; dose regimen: 50 mg/animal/day for 150 days

Antihypertensive

Antihypertensive

Crude ethanol extract prepared from the unripened fruit (10 g/mL) Crude ethanol extract prepared from the unripened fruit

In vitro: using isolated rabbit arterial (aorta, renal & vertebral) strips In vivo: rats divided into 3 groups with 15 members per group: renal, DOCA-salt hypertensives & normotensives; then further divided into 3 groups: untreated, hydrallazine & extract-treated groups

Results Exhibited antifertility effects in rats by suppression of cauda epididymal sperm motility & decreased sperm count, viability & % normal sperm without adverse toxicity; observed changes returned to normal 60 days after ending treatment Benzene chromatographic fraction resulted in uniform azoospermia after 15 days of treatment & was maintained throughout course of the study; no toxicity or change in libido observed; results were reversible; effects appear to be mediated through the testis Produced relaxation of vascular muscle tone which was attenuated by phentolamine (0.5-1.5 g/mL) Produced a significant decrease in mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate; the fruit juice contains antihypertensive agents which exhibit alpha-adrenoceptor activity primarily

Reference Pathak et al. 2000

Lohiya et al. 1999

Eno et al. 2000

Eno et al. 2000

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial & antioxidant

Preparation Unripe papaya: meat, seed & pulp

Design & Model In vitro: agar-cup method

Anti-salmonella

Methanol extracts In vitro of leaves and roots, alone and in combination with other herbs

Antiulcer

Latex of the unripened fruit; crystalline papain

Diuretic

Root extract; administered orally; dose: 10 mg/kg

In vivo: rats; stomach acid secretion induced by intravenous infusion of histamine in chronic gastric fistulated rats In vivo: rats

Results Bacteriostatic against enteropathogens; exhibited scavenging action on superoxide and hydroxyl radicals; antioxidant activity may explain ability to counteract oxidative stress of gastrointestinal disease A mixture containing Carica papaya roots and other plants exhibited greater bactericidal activity at lower concentrations than a mixture containing the leaves and other plants Fruit latex & papain were both effective in protecting exogenous ulcers & significantly reduced acid secretion; concluded that papain is the active principle Showed significant increase in urine output (74% of the effect of the equivalent dose of hydrochlorothiazide); perhaps due to high salt content of extract Enhanced phytohemagglutinin responsiveness of lymphocytes; not able to protect against toxicity from chromium; some active constituents showed hemolytic effects

Reference Osato et al. 1993

Nkuo-Akenji et al. 2001

Chen et al. 1981

Sripanidkulchai et al. 2001

Immunomodulatory & immunostimulatory

Crude extract of seed & isolated bioactive factors

In vitro: lymphocyte proliferation assays & complementmediated hemolytic assay

Mojica-Henshaw et al. 2003

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Activity/Effect Uterine stimulant

Preparation Fruit latex extract

Design & Model In vitro: rat uterine preparations at different stages of the estrous and gestation periods

Results Remarkably increased uterine contractile activity in a dosedependent manner; more active in proestrus and estrus stages compared to metestrus and diestrus stages; evoked sustained contraction of the uterus acting mainly on the alpha adrenergic receptor population of the uterus

Reference Cherian 2000

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antimicrobial Preparation Papaya leaf sprouts; ethanol, water & acetonediluted extracts Design & Model In vitro: E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus; samples from local shrimp and fish muscle Results Demonstrated no microbicidal activity Reference Vieira et al. 2001

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Blanco C, Ortega N, Castillo R et al. Carica papaya pollen allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 81(2):171-175. Chen CF, Chen SM, Chow SY, Han PW. 1981. Protective effects of Carica papaya Linn on the exogenous gastric ulcer in rats. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 9(3):205-212. Cherian T. 2000. Effect of papaya latex extract on gravid and non-gravid rat uterine preparations in vitro. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70(3):205-212. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Eno AE, Owo OI, Itam EH, Konya RS. 2000. Blood-pressure depression by the fruit juice of Carica papaya (L.) in renal and DOCA-induced hypertension in the rat. Phytotherapy Research 14(4):235-239. Garcia-Gonzalez M, Coto MT, Gonzalez CS, Pazos L. 2001. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Irritabilidad drmica del fruto fresco rallado de Carica papaya dosis repetida. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biolgicos LEBI, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica. TRAMIL X, Clayton, Panam, CIFLORPAN/enda-caribe. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp.

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Gopalakrishnan M, Rajasekharasetty MR. 1978. Effect of papaya (Carica papaya linn) on pregnancy and estrous cycle in albino rats of Wistar strain. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 22(1):66-70. Lohiya NK et al. 1994. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Antifertility effects of aqueous extract of Carica papaya seeds in male rats. PM 60(5):400. Lohiya NK, Mishra PK, Pathak N, Manivannan B, Jain SC. 1999. Reversible azoospermia by oral administration of the benzene chromatographic fraction of the chloroform extract of the seeds of Carica papaya in rabbits. Advances in Contraception 15(2):141-61. Mansfield L, Ting S, Haverly R et al. 1985. The incidence and clinical implications of hypersensitivity to papain in an allergic population, confirmed by blinded oral challenge. Ann Allergy 55(4):541-543. Mojica-Henshaw MP, Francisco AD, De Guzman F, Tigno XT. 2003. Possible immunomodulatory actions of Carica papaya seed extract. Clinical Hemorheology & Microcirculation 29(3-4):219-29. Nkuo-Akenji T, Ndip R, McThomas A, Fru EC. 2001. Anti-Salmonella activity of medicinal plants from Cameroon. Central African Journal of Medicine 47(6):155-158. Osato JA, Santiago LA, Remo GM, Cuadra MS, Mori A. 1993. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of unripe papaya. Life Sciences 53(17):1383-9. Pathak N, Mishra PK, Manivannan B, Lohiya NK. 2000. Sterility due to inhibition of sperm motility by oral administration of benzene chromatographic fraction of the chloroform extract of the seeds of Carica papaya in rats. Phytomedicine 7(4):325-33. Pollack PJ. 1962. Oral administration of enzymes from Carica papaya: report of a double-blind clinical study. Current Therapeutic Research, Clinical & Experimental 4:229-37. Sanghvi PK. 1989. Epidemiological studies on guinea-worm in some newly discovered villages of Jhabua District (M.P.) and test of carica papaya leaves of guinea worm infection. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 43(5):123-4. Satrija F, Nansen P, Murtini S, He S. 1995. Anthelmintic activity of papaya latex against patent Heligmosomoides polygyrus infections in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48(3):161-4. Shaw D, Leon C, Kolev S, Murray V. 1997. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Traditional remedies and food supplements: a 5-year toxicological study. Drug Safety 17(5):342-356. Souza Brito A. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Toxicidad aguda del extracto de raz de Carica papaya. Informe TRAMIL. Dep. de Fisiologa y Biofsica, Universidad de Campinas, Campinas, Brasil. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Starley I, Mohammed P, Schneider G et al. 1999. The treatment of paediatric burns using topical papaya. Burns 25(7):636-639. Sripanidkulchai B, Wongpanich V, Laupattarakasem P, Suwansaksri J, Jirakulsomchok D. 2001. Diuretic effects of selected Thai indigenous medicinal plants in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75(2-3):185-90. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Tona L, Kambu K, Ngimbi N, Cimanga K, Vlietinck AJ. 1998. Antiamoebic and phytochemical screening of some Congolese medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61(1):57-65.

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Vieira RH, Rodrigues DP, Goncalves FA, Menezes FG, Aragao JS, Sousa OV. 2001. Microbicidal effect of medicinal plant extracts (Psidium guajava Linn. and Carica papaya Linn.) upon bacteria isolated from fish muscle and known to induce diarrhea in children. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 43(3):145-8. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zavadova E, Desser L. Mohr T. 1995. Stimulation of reactive oxygen species production and cytotoxicity in human neutrophils in vitro and after oral administration of a polyenzyme preparation. Cancer Biother 10(2):147152.

Limn
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Limn agrio, raz de limn (Spanish); lemon, lime (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. or Citrus aurantifolia Swingle. [Rutaceae (Rue Family)]. Note: Because lemon (Citrus limon) and lime (Citrus aurantifolia) are often used interchangeably (and both may be referred to by the same common names: limn or limn agrio), information for these two species is combined in the sections that follow.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical interviews conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using this plant for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Bruises - Burns - Common cold - Contusions and musculoskeletal trauma - Flu - Kidney stones - Menstrual disorders - Pao Plant Part Used: Fruit, leaves and root. Traditional Preparation: Lemon or lime fruit juice is used to prepare a raw syrup (mixed with honey or sugar) which may be taken by the spoonful on its own, added to teas or applied topically. The root is an ingredient in some complex multi-herb preparations and may also be extracted by decoction or tincturing in alcohol. Traditional Uses: Limn is commonly used as an ingredient in home remedies and teas for numerous ailments, both as a flavoring and a therapeutic agent. Most frequently, it is used to treat symptoms of the common cold or flu. The fresh fruit or its juice (zumo) is typically combined with honey (or sugar) and

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taken orally by the spoonful. It can also be prepared as a tea with cinnamon (canela). A similar preparation can be used for treating kidney stones. For burns or bruises, the fresh fruit juice is applied topically to the affected area. Lime or lemon fruit juice is an ingredient in a remedy for contusions or musculoskeletal injury in combination with soursop (guanbana) leaves, lemongrass (limoncillo) leaves and sweet orange (naranja) leaves, prepared as a tea and taken orally. For pao, lemon juice is combined with seashells (concha de caracl) until the calcium from the shells begins to dissolve due to the acidity of the citrus juice. This preparation is then applied topically to the affected area. For diarrhea, the fresh fruit juice is taken with salt. The root is added to complex, multi-herb preparations of herbs for treating womens health conditions, including menstrual disorders. Availability: In New York City, limn fruits are commonly sold at grocery stores, supermarkets and fruit stands. Lime or lemon leaves are sometimes available at botnicas, select grocery stores or from homegrown plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Limn (Citrus limon) is a small tree that usually grows 6-7 m tall, and its trunk and branches are typically covered with short, stout spines. Leaves are compound but reduced to a single leaflet; leaflets are oblong to narrowly-oval (10 cm long) with toothed or scalloped margins, dotted with glands and yielding a characteristic pungent odor when crushed. Flowers grow singly or in small clusters, have 5 white petals and exude a sweet fragrance. Fruits are round- to pear-shaped with a nipple at the end and thick, leathery skin that turns bright yellow when ripe, containing numerous seeds and pale-yellow, highly acidic pulp. Fruit acidity, shape and size vary between cultivars (Bailey-Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Most likely native to Southeast Asia, this plant is widely cultivated (particularly in California and Italy) for its fruits (Bailey-Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

When used appropriately, no major adverse effects or health hazards associated with the therapeutic use of the fruit have been identified in the available literature. Skin contact with the essential oil of lemon can lead to allergic reactions, but the potential for sensitization is low (Gruenwald et al. 2004; see Hypersensitivity below). Lemon or lime oil is known to cause phototoxicity when applied topically prior to sun exposure (see Phototoxicity below). The fruit juice may erode teeth enamel due to its high acidity (see Erosive Capacity below). Hypersensitivity: In a human clinical trial of Indonesian cosmetics, the raw source material for Citrus aurantifolia fragrance, when administered via a patch test to 32 subjects, resulted in hypersensitivity reactions in 4 (12.5%) of the study participants. Another series of patch tests using extracts of citrus fruits and flowers was administered to 159 patients who did not test positive to fragrance mixtures and who were suspected of contact dermatitis. Of this group, only 2 subjects (1.2%) tested positive for hypersensitivity, indicating that citrus-based raw materials for fragrance are not strongly antigenic (Roesyanto-Mahadi et al. 1990). Phototoxicity: Lemon oil contains compounds that may result in phototoxicity. The constituents which cause this effect are the furanocoumarin (or furocoumarin) derivatives oxypeucedanin and bergapten, and the relative amounts of these compounds in lemon essential oil vary substantially depending on the region and conditions of cultivation. Lime essential oil also contains significant quantities of oxypeucedanin which has been shown to cause skin photopigmentation in animal studies using guinea pigs (Naganuma et al. 1985). Based on a case report of a 6-year-old boy who presented with severe bullous photodermatitis due to prolonged dermal contact with lime juice and subsequent sun exposure. The compounds determined to be responsible for the phototoxic reaction in this case were the furanocoumarins (particularly bergapten)

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present in the citrus fruit rind. Symptoms of phytophototoxicity typically include mild erythema and postinflammatory hyperpigmentation; however, severe reactions, such as painful erythema, edema and large bullae are possible as was shown in this case (Wagner et al. 2002). In another clinical report, exposure to limes and subsequent sun-bathing during a beach vacation caused phytophotodermatitis in one patient. Phototoxicity manifested as acute erythema and vesiculation with an appearance resembling that of severe sunburn followed by inflammation and hyperpigmentation (Weber et al. 1999). In some cases, phytophotodermatitis, caused by topical application of lime juice and subsequent sun exposure, manifesting as skin lesions and hyperpigmentation, may simulate the signs of child abuse. If the clinical symptoms of plant-induced phototoxicity in a child are misinterpreted, the patients caretakers may be erroneously investigated for child abuse (Coffman et al. 1985). Erosive Capacity: Lemon and lime fruit juices have been shown to erode human teeth in laboratory studies. Erosive capacity was measured by the amount of calcium and phosphate dissolved from teeth enamel into solution and was attributed to the acidity (low pH) of these juices (Lissera et al. 1998). Contraindications: Do not use lemon or lime in cases of hypersensitivity or potential allergy (Gruenwald et al. 2004; Roesyanto-Mahadi et al. 1990). Avoid exposure to sunlight if using the essential oil or after prolonged contact with the fruit rind due to the photosensitizing effects of constituent furocoumarins (Coffman et al. 1985; Naganuma et al. 1985; Wagner et al. 2002; Weber et al. 1999). Prolonged exposure of teeth enamel to lemon or lime juice should be avoided to minimize potential demineralization (Lissera et al. 1998). Drug Interactions: Lime juice has been shown to inhibit cytochrome P (CYP) 450 3A4 enzymes which mediate the metabolism of many drugs and other substances (Bailey et al. 2003). Concomitant administration of lime juice and CYP 450-metabolized drugs, supplements or food is not advised.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, C. limon essential oil as an ingredient in a mouth rinse (including dilute peppermint and tea tree essential oils) has been shown to effectively decrease malodor and volatile sulphur compound production (Hur et al. 2007). However, a nasal spray containing lemon juice and Cydonia oblongata fruit did not show significant effects on intranasal mucociliary clearance (Degen et al. 2000; see Clinical Data table below). Laboratory and preclinical studies have demonstrated the following effects of extracts or constituents of C. limon or C. aurantifolia: antibacterial, antimutagenicity, antioxidant, antiproliferative, immunomodulatory and insecticidal (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Major chemical constituents: The fruit has been shown to contain high quantities of flavonoids which are important for their health-related functions and could partially explain their medicinal activity (del Rio et al. 2004). Other major chemical constituents identified in this plant include the following: aureusidin, bergamottin, bergapten, beta-bisabolene, beta-elemene, diosmetin and stachydrine; fruit: caffeic acid, diosmin, ferulic acid, hesperidin, imperatorin, isopimpinellin, limonin, p-coumaric acid, perillaldehyde, rutin, salicylates and thymol; essential oil: alpha-humulene, alpha-phellandrene, alphapinene, alpha terpinene, alpha-terpineol, beta-pinene, byakangelicin, cadinene, camphene, carveol, carvone, citral, gamma-terpinene, geranial, geraniol, hexanal, isoimperatorin, limonene, myrcene, neral, oxypeucedanin, terpinen-4-ol and terpinolene; pericarp: naringin, narirutin, neohesperidin, p-cymene and syringin; root: osthole, seselin, xanthoxyletin and xanthyletin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Lemons are a rich source of vitamin C (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: Modes of internal administration of lemon include the following: fresh fruit, juice, oil or tincture (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Insufficient information is available on the recommended administration and dosage of this plant.

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Clinical Data: Citrus limon & C. aurantifolia

Activity/Effect Intranasal mucociliary clearance Preparation Design & Model 1% & 3% Clinical trial, 3-way solution of lemon crossover study; 18 juice (C. limon) & healthy male & aqueous extract of female subjects (age: 20-49 y); a modified Cydonia saccharin test was oblongata fruit; used to measure dose: 20 puffs mucociliary transport (0.13 mL per time, before & after puff) in each nostril within 24 h treatment Clinical trial; Diluted essential intensive care unit oil (C. limon) mouthwash (with patients; malodour detected by a 10 cm essential oils of visual analogue scale; Melaleuca halimeter used to alternifolia & Mentha piperita), detect volatile sulfur administered for 3 compounds before, 5 min after & 1 h postminutes treatment; positive control: Tantum (benzydamine hydrochloride) Results Reference Degen et al. 2000 No effect; the results indicated that the agents tested showed no detectable difference in intranasal mucociliary function

Mouth malodor reduction

Significantly reduced levels of mouth malodour & volatile sulphur compound production between 5min & 1 h posttreatment assessments (p<0.001)

Hur et al. 2007

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Citrus limon & C. aurantifolia

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Lemon & lime juice concentrates Design & Model In vitro: temperature: -23 degrees C to 0 degrees C In vitro: against Vibrio cholerae In vitro: activity against mutagens in a Salmonella/ microsome assay Results Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes & Salmonella spp. Lime juice inhibited bacterial growth Showed weak activity against benzo[a]pyrene Reference Nogueira et al. 2003

Antibacterial Antimutagenicity

Lime juice Citrus flavonoids: naringin, hesperidin & tangeretin

Rodrigues et al. 2000 Calomme et al. 1996

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant

Preparation Lemon & lime fruits

Antiproliferative

Antiproliferative

34 citrus juices, extracted fractions with flavonoid glycosides removed 27 citrus flavonoids

Design & Model In vitro: radical scavenging activity against hydroxy radical, HOCI & hydrogen peroxide; positive control: the common food additives butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) & butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) In vitro: cancer cell lines

Results Lemon showed strong radical scavenging activity against hydroxy radicals; lime showed strong activity against HOCI; both were effective against hydrogen peroxide

Reference Murcia et al. 2001

Sweet lime inhibited 3 out of 4 cancer cell lines & was markedly less cytotoxic in normal cell lines 7 flavonoids were strongly active against tumor cell lines but showed weak effects against normal cells: luteolin, natsudaidain, quercetin, tangeretin, eriodictyol, nobiletin, & 3,3',4',5,6,7,8heptamethoxyflavone Showed significant inhibition of RPMI-8866 cell line spontaneous proliferation; no effect observed in MDA-MB453 cell line; effect attributed to protein components of lime juice extract 250 & 500 g/mL of the extract significantly inhibited proliferation of phytohemagglutinin activated mononuclear cells; the extract only inhibited proliferation of staphylococcal protein A activated mononuclear cells at 500 g/mL (p<0.05)

Kawaii et al. 1999A

In vitro: tumor vs. normal human cell lines

Kawaii et al. 1999B

Antiproliferative

Immunomodulatory (Antiproliferative)

Concentrated lime juice (C. aurantifolia) from freeze-dried fresh juice, adjusted to physiological pH & depleted low molecular weight micronutrients Concentrated lime juice (C. aurantifolia) extract; freeze dried & buffered

In vitro: breast carcinoma MDAMB-453 & lymphoblastoid B RPMI-8866 human tumor cell lines; 24 hrs of incubation In vitro: human mitogen activated mononuclear cell culture; effect determined by the production of specific polyclonal antibodies in rabbits

Gharagozloo et al. 2002

Gharagozloo & Ghader 2001

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Activity/Effect Insecticidal

Preparation Lemon peel oil

Design & Model Culex pipiens & Musca domestica larvae & adults

Results Active against larvae, pupae & adult stages of these insects

Reference Shalaby et al. 1998

REFERENCES
Bailey DG, Dresser GK, Bend JR. 2003. Bergamottin, lime juice, and red wine as inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A4 activity: comparison with grapefruit juice. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 73(6):529-537. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Calomme M, Pieters L. Vlietinck A, Vanden Berghe D. 1996. Inhibition of bacterial mutagenesis by Citrus flavonoids. Planta Medica 62(3):222-226. Coffman K, Boyce WT, Hansen RC. 1985. Phytophotodermatitis simulating child abuse. Am J Dis Child 139(3):239-240. Degen J, Seiberling M, Meer I, Thomann P, Schrholz T. 2000. [The effect of a nasal spray consisting of a standardized mixture of Citrus limon (succus) and an aqueous extract of Cydonia oblongata (fructus) on nasal mucociliar clearance] [Article in German]. Arzneimittelforschung 50(1):39-42. del Rio, JA, Fuster MD, Gomez P, Porras I, Garcia-Lidon A, Ortuno A. 2004. Citrus limon: a source of flavonoids of pharmaceutical interest. Food Chemistry 84(3):457-461. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Gharagozloo M, Doroudchi , Ghaderi A. 2002. Effects of Citrus aurantifolia concentrated extract on the spontaneous proliferation of MDA-MB-452 and RPMI-8866 tumor cell lines. Phytomedicine 9(5):475-477. Gharagozloo M, Ghaderi A. 2001. Immunomodulatory effect of concentrated lime juice extract on activated human mononuclear cells. J Ethnopharmacol 77(1):85-90. Hur MH, Park J, Maddock-Jennings W, Kim DO, Lee MS. 2007. Reduction of mouth malodour and volatile sulphur compounds in intensive care patients using an essential oil mouthwash. Phytotherapy Research 21(7):641643. Kawaii S, Tomono Y, Katase E, Ogawa K, Yano M. 1999A. Antiproliferative effects of the readily extractable fractions prepared from various citrus juices on several cancer cell lines. J Agric Food Chem 47(7):25092512. Kawaii S, Tomono Y, Katase E, Ogawa K, Yano M. 1999B. Antiproliferative activity of flavonoids on several cancer cell lines. 63(5):896-899. Lissera RG, Luna Maldonado ER, Battellino LJ. 1998. In vitro erosive capacity of some fruit juices and soft or low alcoholic strength beverages on human teeth. Acta Odontol Latinoam 11(1):55-71.

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Murcia MA, Jimnez AM, Martnez-Tom M. 2001. Evaluation of the antioxidant properties of Mediterranean and tropical fruits compared with common food additives. J Food Prot 64(12):2037-46. Naganuma M, Hirose S, Nakayama Y, Nakajima K. Someya T. 1985. A study of the phototoxicity of lemon oil. Arch Dermatol Res 278(1):31-36. Nogueira MC, Oyarzbal OA, Gombas DE. 2003. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella in cranberry, lemon, and lime juice concentrates. J Food Prot 66(9):16371641. Rodrigues A, Sandstrm A, C T, Steinsland H, Jensen H, Aaby Ph. 2000. Protection from cholera by adding lime juice to food results from community and laboratory studies in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa. Trop Med Int Health 5(6):418-422. Roesyanto-Mahadi ID, Geursen-Reitsma AM, van Joost T, van den Akker TW. 1990. Sensitization to fragrance materials in Indonesian cosmetics. Contact Dermatitis 22(4):212-217. Shalaby AA, Allam KA, Mostafa AA, Fahmy SM. 1998 Insecticidal properties of citrus oils against Culex pipiens and Musca domestica. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology 28(2):595-606. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Wagner AM, Wu JJ, Hansen RC, Nigg HN, Beiere RC. 2002. Bullous phytophotodermatitis associated with high natural concentrations of furanocoumarins in limes. American Journal of Contact Dermatitis 13(1):10-14. Weber IC, Davis CP, Greeson DM. 1999. Phytophotodermatitis: The other lime disease. J Emerg Med 17(2):235237. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Limoncillo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Lemongrass (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. [Poaceae (Grass Family)]. Note: This grass-like herb is not to be confused with the small, green, lime-like, round fruit which is also often called limoncillo or quenepa (Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq. [Sapindaceae]) in the Dominican Republic.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003):

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Arthritis Asthma Common cold Contusions and musculoskeletal trauma Diarrhea Flu Gastrointestinal pain Indigestion Menopausal hot flashes Stomach disorders

Plant Part Used: Leaves and leafy stem. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea of the leaves by infusion or decoction. Traditional Uses: Limoncillo is a pleasant-tasting tea, renowned for its sweet, lemon-like flavor and stress-relieving properties. It is commonly added to other teas or herbal preparations as both a flavoring and a therapeutic agent. For asthma, the common cold and flu symptoms, a tea is prepared of the leaves. This remedy may be combined with other medicinal plants, such as the eucalyptus (eucalipto) and soursop (guanbana) leaves. This herb is a popular tea for treating stomach disorders including indigestion and gastrointestinal pain. In children with diarrhea, the leaves are prepared as a tea with ragweed (altamisa) leaves and lemon/lime (limn) leaves; this remedy is said to cleanse the intestines. The tea of this herb is also used for treating hot conditions including menopausal hot flashes. For arthritis, the leaves are prepared as a tea with cinchona (quina) bark. As an infusion, the leaves are an ingredient in a remedy for healing from contusions and musculoskeletal injury (golpe), combined with soursop (guanbana) leaves, lemon/lime (limn) fruit and sweet orange (naranja) leaves. Availability: In New York City, limoncillo can sometimes be found at grocery stores and supermarkets where it may be sold fresh or dried; also, it is sold at select botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb shops).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Limoncillo (Cymbopogon citratus) is an aromatic grass that grows to 2 m tall with a smooth stalk. Leaves are long, narrow and tapered at both ends with rough edges and parallel veins (90 1.3 cm). Flowers grow in large, loose, branching clusters, with reddish brown slender bracts and hairs along the joints and sides of the inflorescence. Fruits are linear- to lance-shaped spikelets. As a cultigen, this plant rarely develops flowers or fruits (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to South India and Sri Lanka, this plant is cultivated widely as a culinary seasoning and for its essential oil (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Clinical studies have shown that an herbal tea made of the leaves and stalk of limoncillo is not toxic; when given as a single dose or orally administered daily for 2 weeks, no significant changes were observed in serum measures, urine analysis, EEG or EKG (Leite et al. 1986). In rare cases, allergic reactions have been reported linked to dermal application of salves containing the essential oil and 2 cases have been documented of toxic alveolitis due to inhalation of the essential oil (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Animal Toxicity Studies: Animal studies have also confirmed that this herb, when taken internally as an infusion, has no toxic properties. In one study, no toxic effects were induced when doses up to 20 times

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greater than the estimated corresponding human dosage were administered orally to male and female rats; when given to rodents prior to mating or during pregnancy, no evidence of toxicity was observed in their offspring (Souza et al. 1986). Contraindications: Should not be used during pregnancy. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
One clinical study has been identified in the literature, and the results of this study did not support its use as an anxiolytic and hypnotic agent. In laboratory and preclinical studies, this medicinal plant and/or its constituents have demonstrated the following effects: antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antitumor, carcinogenesis inhibition, chemopreventive, enzyme inhibition (acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase and lipoxygenase), heart rate-lowering, hypocholesterolemic, polyphenol oxidase inhibition and vasorelaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Major chemical constituents identified in this plant include: 1,8-cineole, alpha-citral (geranial), alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol, caprylic acid, caryophyllene, citral, citronellal, citronellol, cymbopogone, diacetyl, dipentene, farnesal, farnesol, furfural, geraniol, geranyl acetate, isopulegol, isovaleraldehyde, isovaleric acid, limonene, linalyl acetate, luteolin, myrcene, neral, nerol, quercetin, rutin, saponin and triacontanol (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). The essential oil is 80% citral (Abe et al. 2003). Indications and Usage: Typical administration is as a tea prepared with 2 g of dried leaf in 150 mL of boiling water. Standard daily dosage is approximately 2.0 mL/kg b.w., 2 g dried leaf powder or 2 fresh, chopped leaves (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Cymbopogon citratus

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Essential oil Design & Model In vitro: against Staphylococcus albus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Cholera spp. & Klebsilla spp. In vitro: agar diffusion method; against Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus; examined by flow cytometry in Listeria innocua Results Exhibited dose dependent inhibition of growth of all bacteria tested except for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Reference Katewa et al. 2003

Antibacterial

Essential oil

Exhibited significant antibacterial activity due to permeabilization of cytoplasmic membrane

Nguefack et al. 2004

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Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Essential oil constituents

Design & Model In vitro: gram negative and gram positive organisms

Antibacterial

Essential oil

Antifungal

Essential oil, citral & cream

Antifungal

Essential oil & citral, the chief constituent (80%) of the essential oil

In vitro: against zoonotic enteropathogens, including Salmonella species, Escherichia coli & Clostridium perferingens In vitro: against 35 clinical isolates of 4 dermatophytes: Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, Epidermophyton floccosum & Microsporum gypseum In vitro: against growth of Candida albicans

Results Individual antibacterial components identified: alpha-citral (geranial) and beta-citral (neral); myrcene enhanced activities of these components although it did not have antibacterial activity on its own Exhibited significant antibacterial activity

Reference Onawunmi et al. 1984

Wannissorn et al. 2005

Antiinflammatory

Infusion of fresh leaves administered orally, essential oil & its constituents

Antimalarial

Essential oil of fresh leaves

In vivo: rats with hyperalgesia induced by subplantar injections of carrageenan, prostaglandin E2 or dibutyryl cyclic AMP; mice with iloprost i.p. injection-induced writhing In vivo: mice; 4-day suppressive test

Demonstrated significant antifungal activity in agar diffusion method; mechanism determined to be fungicidal; 2.5% essential oil was the minimum concentration for preparation of antifungal cream for further clinical study Both essential oil and citral inhibited mycelial growth at 25 and 200 g/mL; also, more than 200 micro g/mL of citral markedly inhibited yeast-form growth; suggest potential use in treating oral or vaginal yeast infections Infusion exhibited dosedependent peripheral analgesic effects in first two tests with a different mechanism than aspirin-like drugs; myrcene identified as the primary analgesic constituent and confirmed in contortion test with mice Showed significant suppression of parasitaemia: 62.1%, 81.7% & 86.6% (at concentrations of 200, 300 & 500 mg/kg of mouse per day; chloroquine (10 mg/kg of mouse, positive control) activity was 100%

Wannissorn et al. 1996

Abe et al. 2003

Lorenzetti et al. 1991

Tchoumbougnang et al. 2005

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Activity/Effect Antimicrobial

Preparation Essential oil

Design & Model In vitro against Helicobacter pylori and in vivo in mice

Antinociceptive

Essential oil

Antioxidant

Methanol, methanol/water extracts, infusion & decoction Citral (from essential oil); 44.5 microM (same amount as 1 cup of tea from 1 g herb) 80% ethanol extract; doses of 0.5 or 5 g/kg body weight by gavage Crude ethanolic extract of leaves Aqueous extract of leaves; doses of 0.038, 0.38, 3.8 & 38 mg

Antitumor

Chemopreventive

Enzyme inhibition

Heart rate lowering

Results Completely inhibited bacterial growth at a concentration of 0.1% (v/v); no resistance developed even after 10 sequential passages as compared with the drug clarithromycin to which resistance developed under same conditions; reduced density of H. pylori in stomach of mice significantly In vivo: mice; tests: Significant activity observed reaction time to thermal at the following doses: 25stimulus, acetic acid100 mg/kg i.p., 50-200 induced writhing & mg/kg, p.o. or i.p. & 50 and formalin 200 mg/kg i.p. respectively in each test; results suggest activity at both peripheral and central levels In vitro: peroxidation of Showed significant DPPH radical and antioxidant activity at scavenging of concentrations of 33 and 50 superoxide anion g/mL & inhibited lipid peroxidation in erythrocytes at 500 g/mL In vitro: several Induced apoptosis, DNA hematopoietic cancer fragmentation & caspase-3 cell lines catalytic activity; mechanism of apoptotic effect depended upon alpha, beta-unsaturated aldehyde group In vivo: rats with Significantly inhibited DNA azoxymethane-induced adduct formation and DNA adducts and aberrant crypt foci aberrant crypt foci (predictive of tumor incidence) in rat colon Exhibited significant In vitro: against inhibition activity ( 50%) acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase& lipoxygenase enzymes Ex vivo: isolated hearts Demonstrated significant of 21 male rats reduction in cardiac rate (possibly due to stimulation of cardiac muscarinic receptors) & did not alter contractile force

Reference Ohno et al. 2003

Viana et al. 2000

Cheel et al. 2005

Dudai et al. 2005

Suaeyun et al. 1997

Khattak et al. 2005

Gazola et al. 2004

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Activity/Effect Carcinogenesis inhibition

Preparation Leaf extract at concentrations of 0.2, 0.6 or 1.8% for 10 wks

Design & Model In vivo: male rats with diethylnitrosamineinduced hepatocarcinogenesis

Hypocholesterolemic

Leaves; ingested (15% of diet)

In vivo: normal and hypercholesterolemic rats (n=24)

Polyphenol oxidase inhibition Vasorelaxant

Essential oil

In vitro

Extract of stalk

In vitro: isolated rat aorta and mesenteric vascular bed

Results Exhibited inhibition of early phase hepatocarcinogenesis: reduced the number of putatively preneoplastic, glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive lesions & injury levels of oxidative hepatocyte nuclear DNA Reduced triglycerides in hypercholesterolemic & normal rats, no effect on total serum cholesterol; increased HDL triglycerides; reduced fat accumulation Inhibited the activity of polyphenol oxidase; suggest use as a naturally occurring tyrosinase inhibitor Exhibited significant vasodilatory activity in resistance vessels involving several biochemical mediators

Reference Puatanachokchai et al. 2002

Mohamed et al. 2002

Ranasinghe et al. 2003 Runnie et al. 2004

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Hypnotic & anxiolytic Preparation Herbal tea from dried leaves Design & Model Double-blind placebocontrolled clinical trial; 50 healthy volunteers; given a single dose or 2 wks of daily oral administration Results No significant hypnotic (measured by changes in sleep induction, sleep quality, dream recall & reawakening) or anxiolytic (assessed by anxiety-inducing test) effects Reference Leite et al. 1986

REFERENCES
Abe S, Sato Y, Inoue S, Ishibashi H, Maruyama N, Takizawa T, Oshima H, Yamaguchi H. 2003. [Anti-Candida albicans activity of essential oils including Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil and its component, citral]. [Japanese] Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 44(4):285-291. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Cheel J, Theoduloz C, Rodriguez J, Schmeda-Hirschmann G. 2005. Free radical scavengers and antioxidants from Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf). Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 53(7):25112517. Dudai N, Weinstein Y, Krup M, Rabinski T, Ofir R. 2005. Citral is a new inducer of caspase-3 in tumor cell lines. Planta Medica 71(5):484-488.

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Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Gazola R, Machado D, Ruggiero C, Singi G, Macedo Alexandre M. 2004. Lippia alba, Melissa officinalis and Cymbopogon citratus: effects of the aqueous extracts on the isolated hearts of rats. Pharmacological Research 50(5):477-480. Katewa SS, Jain A, Chaudhary BL. 2003. Antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic grasses. Journal of Tropical Medicinal Plants 4(1):15-20. Khattak S, Saeed-Ur-Rehman, Shah HU, Khan T, Ahmad M. 2005. In vitro enzyme inhibition activities of crude extracts derived from medicinal plants of Pakistan. Natural Product Research 19(6):567-571. Leite JR, Seabra Mde L, Maluf E, Assolant K, Suchecki D, Tufik S, Klepacz S, Calil HM, Carlini EA. 1986. Pharmacology of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf). III. Assessment of eventual toxic, hypnotic and anxiolytic effects on humans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 17(1):75-83. Lorenzetti BB, Souza GE, Sarti SJ, Santos Filho D, Ferreira SH. 1991. Myrcene mimics the peripheral analgesic activity of lemongrass tea. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 34(1):43-48. Mohamed S, Noordin MM, Baharuddin IN, Abdullah R, Hamsan K. 2002. The effects of Cymbopogon citratus (Serai) on the heart, liver and kidney of normal and hypercholesterolaemic rats. Journal of Tropical Medicinal Plants 3(1):1-11. Nguefack J, Budde BB, Jakobsen M. 2004. Five essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon: their antibacterial activity and ability to permeabilize the cytoplasmic membrane of Listeria innocua examined by flow cytometry. Letters in Applied Microbiology 39(5):395-400. Ohno T, Kita M, Yamaoka Y, Imamura S, Yamamoto T, Mitsufuji S, Kodoma T, Kashima K, Imanishi J. 2003. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils against Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 8(3):207-215. Onawunmi GO, Yisak WA, Ogunlana EO. 1984. Antibacterial constituents in the essential oil of Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 12(3):279-286. Puatanachokchai R, Kishida H, Denda A, Murata N, Konishi Y, Vinitketkumnuen U, Nakae D. 2002. Inhibitory effects of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus, Stapf) extract on the early phase of hepatocarcinogenesis after initiation with diethylnitrosamine in male Fischer 344 rats. Cancer Letters 183(1):9-15. Ranasinghe LS, Jayawardena B, Abeywickrama K. 2003. Polyphenol oxidase inhibitory activity of essential oils of Cymbopogon nardus and Cymbopogon citratus. Journal of Tropical Medicinal Plants 4(1):5-8. Runnie I, Salleh MN, Mohamed S, Head RJ, Abeywardena MY. 2004. Vasorelaxation induced by common edible tropical plant extracts in isolated rat aorta and mesenteric vascular bed. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92(2-3)311-316. Souza Formigoni ML, Lodder HM, Gianotti Filho O, Ferreira TM, Carlini EA. 1986. Pharmacology of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf.). II. Effects of daily two month administration in male and female rats and in offspring exposed in utero. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 17(1):65-74. Suaeyun R, Kinouchi T, Arimochi H, Vinitketkumnuen U, Ohnishi Y. 1997. Inhibitory effects of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf) on formation of axoxymethane-induced DNA adducts and aberrant crypt foci in the rat colon. Carcinogenesis 18(5):949-955.

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Tchoumbougnang F, Zollo PH, Dagne E, Mekonnen Y. 2005. In vivo antimalarial activity of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on mice infected with Plasmodium berghei. Planta Medica 71(1):20-23. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Viana GS, Vale TG, Pinho RS, Matos FJ. 2000. Antinociceptive effect of the essential oil from Cymbopogon citratus in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70(3):323-327. Wannissorn B, Jarikasem S, Siriwangchai T, Thubthimthed S. 2005. Antibacterial properties of essential oils from Thai medicinal plants. Fitoterapia 76(2):233-236. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Llantn
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Plantain (herb), great plantain, narrow-leaf plantain (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Plantago major L. or Plantago lanceolata L. [Plantaginaceae (Plantain Family)]. Note: Because of their similar appearance and comparable properties, the two species Plantago major and P. lanceolata are often used interchangeably as an herbal remedy; therefore, information for both species is included in the description below. This plant should not be confused with the banana-like fruit called plantain (pltano, Musa spp.), even though this fruit shares the same English common name as llantn (Plantago spp.).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Abortifacient - Headache - High cholesterol - Liver disorders - Menopausal hot flashes - Menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding) - Migraine headache - Nausea - Skin abrasions - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections - Wound-healing

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Plant Part Used: Leaves. Traditional Preparation: The fresh leaves can be crushed or liquefied to extract their juice or a tea can be prepared by decoction of the fresh or dried leaves, either alone or in combination with other medicinal herbs. For external application, the fresh leaves are crushed or warmed and applied topically to the affected area. Traditional Uses: Llantn is considered a cooling (fresco) plant with many traditional uses as a remedy. If the fresh plant is available, it can be crushed and liquefied (using a blender, juice extractor, grater or mortar and pestle) to extract the green juice of the leaves which is reported to have numerous therapeutic applications, including wound-healing properties. For liver disorders, vaginal infections, high cholesterol, stomach ache and abdominal pain, menopausal hot flashes or conditions associated with excess heat in the body, a refreshing tea is prepared of the leaves and can be sweetened with molasses (melaza). For treating headache, migraines (jaqueca) and nausea, the leaves are slightly warmed and combined with animal lard or sheeps tallow (sebo de flande) and bitter orange (naranja agria) leaves and applied to the forehead or affected area as a bandage, covered with a cloth. As an abortifacient, this plant is used either on its own or in combination with other plants in a multi-herb decoction or tincture (botella). Availability: This medicinal plant can be found growing along roadsides, sidewalks and parks in urban areas of New York City. Also, the dried aerial parts of this plant can be purchased from some botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Llantn (Plantago major) is a perennial herbaceous plant that typically grows to about 20-30 cm tall. Leaves grow directly from the base of the plant in a whorl-like pattern; each leaf is simple, widely-oval to lance- or spatula-shaped (15-25 6-10 cm), narrowing at the base, with numerous prominent parallel veins and leaf edges that are slightly wavy. Flowers are numerous, tiny and grow in a dense, elongated cluster or spike, born atop a central stalk with white petals. Fruits are tiny, round, dry, straw-colored capsules, each containing 15-20 wedge-shaped seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to Eurasia, this plant is a cosmopolitan species that is often found in wet, moist areas and grows throughout the Americas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

In one human clinical trial, the plant extract did not show any toxic effects when administered for 25-30 days (Matey et al. 1982). Animal Toxicity Studies: In an animal study, no evidence of acute toxicity or deaths were caused by doses of up to 2 g/kg body weight of the methanol seed and leaf extracts in mice (Atta & El Sooud 2004). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical trial, an extract of Plantago major showed improvement of chronic bronchitis symptoms (see Clinical Data table below). In another clinical trial of this plant, no diuretic effect was observed on urine output or sodium excretion (see Effect Not Demonstrated table below). In laboratory and/or animal studies, Plantago major has demonstrated the following effects: antibacterial, antidiarrheal, antinociceptive, antitumor, antiviral, chemopreventive, cytotoxic, gastroprotective, immunomodulatory

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and laxative (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The following additional pharmacological effects of llantn (Plantago lanceolata) have been demonstrated or suggested in the literature: antibacterial, blood clotting, epithelization and treatment of respiratory tract infections (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Biologically active constituents of Plantago major include: acetoside, adenine, alkaloids, allantoin, apigenin, aucubin, baicalein, baicalin, benzoic acid, caffeic acid, catalpol, chlorogenic acid, cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, fumaric acid, geniposidic acid, gentisic acid, hispidulin, luteolin, mucilage, neo-chlorogenic acid, nepetin, oleanolic acid, p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicyclic acid, sorbitol, syringin, tyrosol, ursolic acid and vanillic acid (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: Llantn (Plantago lanceolata) is approved by the Commission E for the following health conditions: common cold, cough, bronchitis, fevers, inflammation of the mouth and throat and inflammation of the skin (Blumenthal et al. 1998).

Clinical Data: Plantago major

Activity/Effect Bronchitis treatment Preparation Plant extract; administered for 25-30 days Design & Model Clinical trial: n=25 patients with chronic bronchitis Results Active; rapid effect on reported symptoms & clinical measures in 80% of patients; no toxic effects observed Reference Matey et al. 1982

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Plantago major

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Leaf compound: soluble pectin polysaccharide; administered intraperitoneally Design & Model In vivo: mice infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae; treated 1x 3 days before infection or 1-3 from 3-48 hrs after challenge In vivo: rats with castor oil-induced diarrhea (measure: distance traveled by charcoal meal in intestines); rabbit duodenum motility In vivo: mice, acetic acidinduced writhing & tail-flick test Results Active; protected against pneumococcal infection if administered pre-challenge as recorded in the number of bacteria in blood & survival rate; mechanism due to stimulation of innate rather than adaptive immune system Significant, dose-dependent effect; decreased gastrointestinal movement; at low doses (1.6 mg/kg), methanol extract temporarily stimulated motility followed by inhibition Active; showed significant inhibition of nociception; no major signs of acute toxicity or mortality at doses up to 2 g/kg b.w. Reference Hetland et al. 2000

Antidiarrheal

Leaf extract; 200 & 400 mg/kg

Atta & Mouneir 2005

Antinociceptive

Methanol seed & leaf extracts; 400 mg/kg orally administered

Atta & El-Sooud 2004

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Activity/Effect Antitumor

Preparation Way-bread subcutaneous injection of intracellular fluid Aqueous extract & pure compounds

Design & Model In vivo: female mice

Antiviral

In vitro: HSV-1/2, adenoviruses

Antiviral, cytotoxic & immunomodulatory

Hot water plant extract

In vitro: against HSV-1 & -2, adenoviruses & human cancer cells In vivo: rats with amidopyrine- & sodium nitriteinduced tumors & hepatotoxicity In vitro: rat peritoneal macrophages

Chemopreventive

Polyphenolic complex plantastine

Immunomodulatory Leaf endotoxinfree methanol extract

Laxative & gastroprotective

Polyholozidic fraction of Plantago seeds & leaves

Two unspecified experimental models

Results Reduced incidence of tumor formation (i.e. control tumor frequency was 93.3 % vs. 18.2% in treated mice) Aqueous extract showed slight anti-herpes virus activity whereas isolated phenolic compounds exhibited potent activity Active; dual immunomodulatory effect: enhanced lymphocyte proliferation & secretion of interferon-gamma at < 50 g/mL but inhibited effect at >50 g/mL Active; inhibited carcinogenesis by reducing hepatotoxicity & decreasing tumor yield from 87.5% to 33.3% Increased nitric oxide & TNF-alpha production; showed dose-dependent potentiation of Con Ainduced lymphoproliferation Active; showed gastroprotective action & laxative action at higher doses

Reference Lithander 1992

Chiang et al. 2002

Chiang et al. 2003

Karpilovskaia et al. 1989

Gomez-Flores et al. 2000

Hriscu et al. 1990

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Diuretic Preparation Traditional plant remedy Design & Model Placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover clinical trial Results No effect shown in measures of 12- & 24-hour urine output or sodium excretion Reference Doan et al. 1992

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Atta AH, Mouneir SM. 2005. Evaluation of some medicinal plant extracts for antidiarrhoeal activity. Phytotherapy Research 19(6):481-485.

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Atta AH, El-Sooud KA. 2004. The antinociceptive effect of some Egyptian medicinal plant extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2-3):235-238. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Chiang LC, Chiang W, Chang MY, Lin CC. 2003. In vitro cytotoxic, antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of Plantago major and Plantago asiatica. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 31(2):225-234. Chiang LC, Chiang W, Chang MY, Ng LT, Lin CC. 2002. Antiviral activity of Plantago major extracts and related compounds in vitro. Antiviral Research 55(1):53-62. Doan DD, Nguyen NH, Doan HK, Nguyen TL, Phan TS, van Dau N, Grabe M, Johansson R, Lindgren G, Stjernstrom NE. 1992. Studies on the individual and combined diuretic effects of four Vietnamese traditional herbal remedies (Zea mays, Imperata cylindrical, Plantago major and Orthosiphon stamineus). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 36(3):225-231. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Gomez-Flores R, Calderon CL, Scheibel LW, Tamez-Guerra P, Rodriguez-Padilla C, Tamez-Guerra R, Weber RJ. 2000. Immunoenhancing properties of Plantago major leaf extract. Phytotherapy Research 14(8):617-622. Hetland G, Samuelsen AB, Lovik M, Paulsen BS, Aaberge IS, Groeng EC, Michaelsen TE. 2000. Protective effect of Plantago major L. pectin polysaccharide against systemic Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in mice. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 52(4):348-355. Hriscu A, Stanescu U, Ionescu A, Verbuta A. 1990. [A pharmacological investigation of the effect of polyholozidic substances extracted from Plantago sp. on the digestive tract]. [Romanian] Revista Medico-Chirurgicala a Societatii de Medici Si Naturalisti Din Iasi 94(1):165-170. Karpilovskaia ED, Gorban GP, Pliss MB, Zakharenko LN, Gulich MP. 1989. [Inhibiting effect of the polyphenolic complex from Plantago major (plantastine) on the carcinogenic effect of endogenously synthesized nitrosodimethylamine]. [Russian]. Farmakologiia i Toksikologiia 52(4):64-67. Lithander A. 1992. Intracellular fluid of waybread (Plantago major) as a prophylactic for mammary cancer in mice. Tumour Biology 13(3):138-141. Matey M, Angelova I, Koichev A, Leseva M, Stefanov G. 1982. [Clinical trial of a Plantago major preparation in the treatment of chronic bronchitis]. [Bulgarian] Vutreshni Bolesti 21(2):133-137. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp.

Maguey
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Maguey amargo, maguey blanco, maguey de bestia, maguey morado, maguey gruesa (Spanish); agave, tequila plant (English).

352

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Agave spp.; most commonly: Agave antillarum Descort. [Agavaceae (Century Plant or Cactus Family)]. Note: The genus Agave includes more than 300 different species, and there is some variation in the characteristics associated with each species. Dominicans who reported medicinal uses for this plant often distinguish between several distinct types of maguey. For example, Maguey de bestia has long, purple, wavy (blandita) leaves; whereas, maguey gruesa and other varieties have thicker leaves.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Asthma - Cysts - Headache - Joint pain - Limpiar la sangre - Muscle strain - Sexually transmitted infections - Sprain or strain - Stomach ache and abdominal pain - Tumors - Ulcers - Upper or lower respiratory tract infections - Uterine fibroids - Vaginal infections Plant Part Used: Leaves (las pencas) and bark. Traditional Preparation: Typically the leaves and/or bark of this plant is prepared as a tea by decoction or added to multi-herb decoctions or tinctures. For external use, the leaves may be heated or prepared as a syrup or oil and applied topically. Traditional Uses: To treat arthritis, joint pain and symptoms associated with sangre sucia (dirty blood), a few small pieces of the husk or bark (cscara) of maguey are prepared as a decoction with aloe (sbila) leaf (penca) and guinea hen-weed (anam) root. For headache, maguey leaves can be heated and applied topically to the forehead. Maguey de bestia is used for sprains or strains and is applied by wrapping the leaves around the affected area. For asthma, pulmonary infections or phlegm in the lungs, the leaf can be added to a syrup/oil botella along with other medicinal plants and ingredients. For stomach ache, abdominal pain and ulcers, this plant is prepared as a tea. To treat sexually transmitted infections, the leaf is tinctured in alcohol along with other plants to prepare a multi-herb botella that is taken internally until the infection has cleared. Maguey can be used in a vaginal wash for womens health conditions such as excessive vaginal discharge and yeast or other vaginal infections, prepared by boiling the leaves. For cysts, tumors and fibroids, the bark or husk (cscara) is used as an ingredient in multi-herb tinctures (botellas) or strong decoctions. Availability: In New York City, maguey leaves can be purchased from some grocery stores, supermarkets, bodegas and botnicas. Because the sharp spines along the edges of the leaves are usually

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removed in commerce, it can be difficult to determine which particular species of maguey is used without this identifying characteristic.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Maguey (Agave spp.) is a robust perennial herb which can appear stemless because its stems are so short. Roots are hard and fibrous. Leaves are large, succulent or fibrous with a stiff, sharp spine at the tip; leaf edges are often armed with sharp prickles, but they can be smooth. Flowers grow in branching or spikelike, umbrella-shaped or rounded clusters, each borne atop a long, leafless flower-stem; each flower has six large creamy white to yellowish or light green petals. Fruits are capsules which contain numerous black, flattened seeds (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Distributed widely throughout Latin America and southern U.S., some species of maguey are cultivated for their strong fibers or distilled to make tequila (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Contact dermatitis has been reported in cases of prolonged and repeated occupational exposure due to calcium oxalate crystals in fresh leaf juice. According to a case report of irritant contact dermatitis from a tequila distillery and agave plantation workers, one droplet (0.03 mL) of juice pressed from the leaves of Agave tequilana contains 100-150 calcium oxalate crystals (raphides) which are 30-500 m in length and sharpened at both ends (Salinas 2001). In another case report, oxalic acid crystals from A. americana embedded in the skin caused oxalism and purpuric eruption, potentially leading to vascular damage (Cherpelis & Fenske 2000). Contraindications: Because of its emmenagogue and abortifacient effects, this herb is contraindicated during pregnancy (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
No human clinical trials of this plant have been identified in the available literature. Laboratory studies of Agave spp. have shown the following effects: anti-inflammatory, capillary permeability decreased, cytotoxic and steroidal (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Steroidal compounds have been identified and isolated in several species of this genus. Biologically active compounds of Agave species include agavegenin (cholestane steroid), chlorogenin, oxalic acid, saponins (including steroidal saponins), sapogenins (hecogenin and diosgenin), smilagenin and tigogenin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998, Jin et al. 2004, Quilez et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Agave spp.

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory Preparation Dry extracts from decoctions (A. intermixta) Design & Model In vivo: carrageenaninduced rat paw edema (orally); mouse ear edema test (topically), tetradecanoylphorbol acetate used as an inflammatory agent Results Showed significant antiinflammatory effect in both models; reduced levels of myeloperoxidase enzyme in tissues Reference Garcia et al. 2000

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Activity/Effect Capillary permeability decreased Cytotoxic

Preparation Saponins isolated from leaves (A. shrevei) A. intermixta

Design & Model In vitro

Steroidal

Steroid constituents isolated from waste residue of fiber separation of leaves (A. americana) Saponins isolated from leaves (A. lophantha) Saponin isolated from leaves (A. attenuate)

Steroidal

Steroidal

In vitro: anti-mitotic assay for determination of inhibition of cell division & cytostatic activity against Hep-2 cells Isolation of steroid constituents; structures determined through spectroscopic analysis, NMR & hydrolytic cleavage. Structures: 2 steroidal saponins determined by spectroscopic & chemical methods & NMR. Haemolytic potential was evaluated; antiinflammatory activity shown in capillary permeability assay

Results Showed significant inhibition of capillary permeability activity, but did not show hemolytic effects Complete inhibition of cell division at 24 hrs of treatment & a moderate cytostatic activity against Hep-2 cells Four new steroid constituents found: 3 steroidal saponins & 1 cholestane steroid agavegenin. New structures determined & pharmacological activities discussed Novel steroidal saponin was isolated; anti-inflammatory activity shown

Reference da Silva & Parente 2005 Saenz et al. 2000

Jin et al. 2004

Abdel-Khalik et al. 2002

da Silva et al. 2002

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory Preparation Isolated sapogenins (A. intermixta) Design & Model Steroidal sapogenins (hecogenin & diosgenin) were isolated and identified Results No effect shown in isolated sapogenins on the histamine release in peritoneal mast cells Reference Quilez et al. 2004

REFERENCES
Abdel-Khalik SM, Miyase T, Melek FR, el-Shabraway OA, Mahmoud II, Mina SA. 2002. New steroidal saponins from Agave lophantha Schiede and their pharmacological evaluation. Pharmazie 57(8):562-6. Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp.

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Cherpelis BS, Fenske NA. 2000. Purpuric irritant contact dermatitis induced by Agave americana. Cutis 66(4):2878, 2000 da Silva BP and Parente JP. 2005. A new bioactive steroidal saponin from Agave shrevei. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung. Section C. Journal of Biosciences 60(1-2):57-62. da Silva BP, de Sousa AC, Silva GM, Mendes TP, Parente JP. 2002. A new bioactive steroidal saponin from Agave attenuata. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung. Section C. Journal of Biosciences 57(5-6):423-8. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Garcia MD, Quilez AM, Saenz MT, Martinez-Dominguez ME, De la Puerta R. 2000. Anti-inflammatory activity of Agave intermixta Trel. and Cissus sicyoides L., species used in the Caribbean traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71(3):395-400. Jin JM, Zhang YJ, Yang CR. 2004. Four new steroid constituents from the waste residue of fiber separation from Agave americana leaves. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 52(6):654-8. Quilez AM, Saenz MT, Garcia MD, de la Puerta R. 2004. Phytochemical analysis and anti-allergic study of Agave intermixta Trel. and Cissus sicyoides L. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 56(9):1185-9. Saenz MT, Garcia MD, Quilez A, Ahumada MC. 2000. Cytotoxic activity of Agave intermixta L. (Agavaceae) and Cissus sicyoides L. (Vitaceae). Phytotherapy Research 14(7):552-4. Salinas ML, Ogura T, Soffchi L. 2001. Irritant contact dermatitis caused by needle-like calcium oxalate crystals, raphides, in Agave tequilana among workers in tequila distilleries and agave plantations. Contact Dermatitis 44(2):94-6. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Mala Madre
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Bruja (Spanish); palm beach-bells (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri Raym. Hamet and H. Perrier. [Crassulaceae (Sedum Family)]. Note: The Spanish common name mala madre can also be used to refer to another species; see entry for: Bruja (Kalanchoe pinnata). Distinguishing feature: the leaves of mala madre are longer than those of bruja.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003):

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Abortifacient Contraception Infections Inflammation Menopausal hot flashes Menorrhagia Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) Ovarian cysts Pain Urinary tract infections Vaginal infections

Plant Part Used: Leaves. Traditional Preparation: The leaves are typically prepared as a tea by boiling them in water and are often combined with other medicinal plants. They may also be prepared as a douche. Traditional Uses: Mala madre is considered a cooling (fresca) or refreshing plant that is used for treating many illnesses, including pain (unspecified), urinary tract infections or inflammation (in general) and to alleviate womens health conditions. To treat menstrual disorders, ovarian cysts, tumors, fibroids and menopausal symptoms, the leaves are added to multi-herb preparations (botellas) and taken orally. For vaginal infections, menstrual cramps or excessive menstrual bleeding, the leaves are prepared as a douche or vaginal wash with other herbs and taken internally as a tea with Mexican prickly poppy (cardo santo). This preparation is said to cleanse the vagina from the inside out. For contraception it is prepared as a vaginal wash along with alum (alumbre). Also, it can be taken to induce abortion in combination with Caribbean pine (cuaba), malt beverage (malta alemana) and pharmaceutical pills (antiulcer medication), all boiled together and taken internally as a tea. Availability: In New York City, the fresh leaves of mala madre are available at select botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) and are sometimes grown as house-plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Mala madre (Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri) is a succulent, perennial herb that grows to 76 cm tall. Leaves grow in opposite pairs along stems and are lance- or spatula-shaped (15-38 cm long), smooth-surfaced, with wavy or scalloped leaf edges. Flowers grow in rounded clusters at the tops of stems and are tubular and flask-like in shape with yellowish to reddish 4-lobed petals (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Africa and Madagascar, this plant is cultivated and has become naturalized in pantropical regions (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No information on the safety or potential adverse effects of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature. Animal Toxicity Studies: In vivo studies have shown the LD50 in mice to be 596 mg/kg of the aqueous extract administered orally (Vasquez Tineo 1990). The administration of 1.5 mL of the fresh leaf juice administered to 30 mice did not cause mortality or evidence of toxic effects even after 30 days of observation (Vasquez Tineo 1995). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature.

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Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Only one pharmacological study of this species was identified in the available literature, and this study showed antifertility and contraceptive effects of the leaf juice in rats (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Laboratory studies on other closely related species of the genus Kalanchoe have demonstrated the following biological activities: analgesic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Related Kalanchoe spp. table below). Major chemical constituents found in the leaves of this plant include: catechol tannins, coumarins, flavones, saponins, sterols and triterpenes (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998, Germosn-Robineau 1995). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated this herb as INV meaning that more investigation is needed before making a recommendation with regard to its traditional use in the Caribbean as a leaf decoction taken orally for urogenital infections, stomach ache and abdominal pain and used externally as a wash for infections of the genitalia or urinary tract (Germosn-Robineau 1995).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri

Activity/Effect Antifertility & contraceptive Preparation Leaf juice (Kalanchoe gastonisbonnieri) Design & Model In vivo (male rats); 150-300 mg/kg orally administered for 30 days Results 50-100% fertility inhibition, with 100% recovery of fertility 30 days after stopping treatment; sperm motility, viability and density were also decreased significantly Reference de la Luz Miranda-Beltran et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Related Kalanchoe spp.

Activity/Effect Analgesic Preparation Aqueous and ethanol extracts of dry leaves (Kalanchoe crenata) Juice obtained from the leaves (Kalanchoe brasiliensis) Design & Model In vivo: mice and rats In vivo (male rats) Results Both extracts showed some analgesic effects Treatment reduced footpad thickness, leukocyte infiltration & blood flow in the footpad area; reduced B cell number in lymph node cells; reduced zymosaninduced inflammation Reference Nguelefack et al. 2004 Ibrahim et al. 2002

Immunomodulatory & anti-inflammatory

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp.

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Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. De la Luz Miranda-Beltran M, Puebla-Perez AM, Guzman-Sanchez A, Huacuja Ruiz L. 2003. Male rat infertility induction/spermatozoa and epididymal plasma abnormalities after oral administration of Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri natural juice. Phytotherapy Research 17(4):315-319. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Ibrahim T, Cunha JM, Madi K, da Fonseca LM, Costa SS, Goncalves Koatz VL. 2002. Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of Kalanchoe brasiliensis. International Immunopharmacology 2(7):875-883. Nguelefack TB, Fotio AL, Watcho P, Wansi SL, Dimo T, Kamanyi A. 2004. Analgesic properties of the aqueous and ethanol extracts of the leaves of Kalanchoe crenata (Crassulaceae). Phytotherapy Research 18(5):385388. Vasquez Tineo M. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1990). Personal Communication. TRAMIL V, Livingston, Guatemala, enda-caribe/CONAPLAMED. Vasquez Tineo M. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Personal Communication. QUIPRONA/CIBIMA. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Malagueta
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Allspice (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. [Myrtaceae (Myrtle Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Allergies - Anxiety - Depression - Diabetes - Gastrointestinal disorders - Lack of energy - Limpiar el sistema

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Menorrhagia Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) Nausea Nervous system support Postpartum depression Pregnancy Sinusitis Stomach disorders Stress Upper or lower respiratory tract infections Vomiting

Plant Part Used: Unripe, dried fruit. Traditional Preparation: Typically the seeds are prepared as a tea by decoction and are often combined with other plants. Traditional Uses: Malagueta seeds are commonly used as a culinary spice and flavoring agent, especially when preparing tea, and are attributed numerous therapeutic properties. This medicinal plant is described as being hot (caliente), stimulating and energy-giving (levanta el nimo), and it is said to function in part by heating the body. Sometimes the seeds are added to soups as a culinary seasoning. An invigorating and delicious tea that is good for digestive disorders, nausea and stomach disorders can be made by combining malagueta seeds with anise (ans) seeds, cinnamon (canela) bark and mint (hierbabuena) leaves. For stress, anxiety, nervous tension and to support the nervous system, a decoction of the seeds is prepared with cloves (clavo dulce), cinnamon (canela) and mint (hierbabuena). For sinusitis, allergies and upper or lower respiratory tract infections, the seeds are prepared as a tea with cumin (ans comino or comino) seeds, rose (rosa) petals and cinnamon (canela). In the Dominican Republic, the seeds are commonly used as a treatment for vomiting, prepared as a decoction with salt and cinnamon, administered orally (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Availability: Dried malagueta seeds are often available at grocery stores and supermarkets as a culinary spice. They can also be found at many botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Malagueta (Pimenta dioica) is an aromatic tree that typically grows to 20 m tall with a stem diameter of approximately 30 cm and light brown bark that peels off in thin strips. Leaves are alternate, narrowly oval and highly aromatic. Flowers are small, numerous and white, arranged in branching terminal clusters. Fruits are round, dark brown berries (6-8 mm diameter; Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to the Caribbean and Central America, this plant grows in forested areas and is widely cultivated (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Widely used as a culinary spice, the seeds (dried unripe berries) of this plant are generally considered safe for human consumption. Animal Toxicity Studies: Animal studies have shown that this plant has relatively low toxicity. The LD50 in mice of the aqueous seed decoction was shown to be 24.4 4.84 g/kg when administered orally and 5

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 1.46 g/kg when administered intraperitoneally. During 30 consecutive days of oral administration of 18.75 mL/kg in mice, no mortality was provoked (Herrera 1988). Contraindications: No information is available on the safety of this plant in children, during pregnancy or lactation (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Radical scavenging effects of this plant have been studied extensively and at least 25 compounds isolated from the berries have demonstrated high antioxidant activity (Nakatani 2000). This plant has also demonstrated antihemorrhagic properties (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The fruit of this plant contains the following biologically active constituents: alpha-humulene, calcium oxalate, delta-3-carene, delta-cadinene, eugenol, eugenol methyl ether, methyl eugenol and terpinen-4-ol (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated the seeds of this plant as recommended for its traditional use in treating vomiting, prepared as a decoction and administered orally (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Pimenta dioica

Activity/Effect Antihemorrhagic Preparation Ethanolic, ethyl acetate, & aqueous extracts of Costa Rican tropical plants, including Pimenta dioica Galloylglucosides isolated from berries Ethyl acetate-soluble extract of berries and isolated compounds Design & Model In vivo: mice injected intradermally with venom of snake Bothrops asper or venom-extract mixture In vitro: radical 1, 1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyl In vitro: against 1,1diphenyl-2picrylhydrazl radical and on liposome peroxidation Results Resulted in total inhibition of hemorrhage; mechanism probably due to chelation of zinc required for the catalytic activity of the venoms hemorrhagic metalloproteinases Showed radical scavenging activity nearly equivalent to that of gallic acid Showed strong antioxidant and radicalscavenging activity Reference Castro et al. 1999

Antioxidant

Kikuzaki et al. 2000 Miyajima et al. 2004

Antioxidant

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Castro O, Gutierrez JM, Barrios M, Castro I, Romer M, Umana E. 1999. [Neutralization of the hemorrhagic effect induced by Bothrops asper (Serpentes: Viperidae) venom with tropical plant extracts]. [Spanish] Revista de Biologia Tropical 47(3):605-16.

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Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Herrera J. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Determinacin de actividades biolgicas de vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional. Informe TRAMIL. Dep. de Farmacologa, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe. Kikuzaki H, Sato A, Mayahara Y, Nakatani. 2000. Galloylglucosides from berries of Pimenta dioica. Journal of Natural Products 63(6):749-752. Miyajima Y, Kikuzaki H, Hisamoto M, Nikatani N. 2004. Antioxidant polyphenols from berries of Pimenta dioica. Biofactors 21(1-4):301-303. Nakatani N. 2000. Phenolic antioxidants from herbs and spices. Biofactors 13(1-4):141-146. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Manzana
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Apple, common apple (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Malus pumila Mill. Snonyms: Malus communis Poir, Malus domestica Borkh. [Rosaceae (Rose Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Common cold - Flu - Heart disease - High blood pressure - High cholesterol - Menopausal hot flashes Plant Part Used: Fruits. Traditional Preparation: The fruits are prepared as a remedy by boiling them in hot water and preparing a tea.

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Traditional Uses: Manzana is considered a fresh plant with cooling and calming properties. For treating conditions caused by excessive heat in the body, the fruit is prepared by cutting it into small pieces and boiling it as a tea (decoction method) with other medicinal herbs and spices. The fruit is eaten for nutritional purposes and to prevent and/or treat high blood pressure, high cholesterol and heart disease. As a remedy for the common cold or flu, a tea is prepared of manzana fruits combined with cinnamon (canela) bark and lemon/lime (limn) juice. Availability: As a popular food, manzana fruit is typically available at most grocery stores and supermarkets in the produce section.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Manzana (Malus pumila) is a small tree (2-12 m tall). Leaves are twice as long as their leaf-stems, narrowly oval to egg-shaped in outline, rounded- or sharply-toothed along the leaf edges with persistent soft hairs densely covering the underside of the leaf. Flowers are arranged in umbrella-like clusters of 4-7 with white or pinkish petals and fuzzy sepals. Fruits are of variable size with crisp, juicy, white, sweet to sour flesh and skin color ranging from yellow to green, red or variegated, depending on the particular cultivar (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Europe and southwest Asia, this plant is cultivated widely for its fruits (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

This fruit is widely consumed and generally considered safe. There are no known health hazards or negative side effects associated with the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: None identified in the available literature. Drug Interactions: None identified in the available literature. Indications and Usage: The fresh, dried or juiced fruit can be taken orally, and the peel can be used in teas. Pharmaceutical preparations are available in liquid and dried pectin forms (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Manzana has demonstrated improvement of gastroenteritis in clinical studies and anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antirheumatic effects in laboratory and/or animal studies (see data tables below). Bioactive fruit constituents include: acetic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, asparagine, avicularin, biotin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, d-catechin, estragole, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, lutein, p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, quercitrin and reynoutrin. The skin or pericarp contains the flavonoids quercetin and rutin (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 2006). Apples are a significant source of dietary fiber and vitamin C (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 2006).

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Clinical Data: Malus pumila

Activity/Effect Gastroenteritis treatment Preparation Pectin-containing apple paste; single ingestion Design & Model Clinical; 56 patients with chronic enteritis in different stages aged 19-55 Results Myoelectrical activity of intestines studied pre- & post-treatment; intestinal absorptive function & condition of microflora evaluated post-treatment; exhibited positive effects on the pathogenic measures of enteritis Reference Filak 2002

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Malus pumila

Activity/Effect Antioxidant Preparation Phenolic extracts from fruit; total phenolics calculated as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) Dried 96% ethanol extract dissolved in water; administered as an oral dose of 500 mg/kg b.w. Design & Model In vitro: via autoxidation of methyl linoleate Results Demonstrated strong antioxidant activity even though total phenolic contents were low (GAE < 12.1 mg/g) Extract (23%) showed significant inhibition of inflammation in both models Reference Kahkonen et al. 1999

Antirheumatic & anti-inflammatory

In vivo: rats with carrageenan- & cotton pellet-induced inflammation; done 1 hour after treatment

Ageel et al. 1989

REFERENCES
Ageel AM, Mossa JS, al-Yahya MA, al-Said MS, Tariq M. 1989. Experimental studies on antirheumatic crude drugs used in Saudi traditional medicine. Drugs Under Experimental & Clinical Research 15(8):369-372. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 10, 2007). Filak FH. 2002. [Effectiveness of natural pectin-containing fruit pastes in patients with chronic enteritis]. [Ukrainian] Likarska Sprava (5-6):87-9. Kahkonen MP, Hopia AI, Vuorela HJ, Rauha JP, Pihlaja K, Kujala TS, Heinonen M. 1999. Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 47(10):39543962. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Manzanilla
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Chamomile (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (English chamomile) and Matricaria recutita L. (German chamomile). Synonym: Matricaria chamomilla L. [Asteraceae (Aster or Daisy Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anxiety - Childbirth - labor pain - High blood pressure - Insomnia - Menopausal hot flashes - Menorrhagia - Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) - Nervios - Postpartum - Stress - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Flowers. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by steeping the dried flowers in hot water; also frequently added to other herbal teas. Traditional Uses: Manzanilla flowers are sweet, pleasant-tasting and well-known for their calming effects. The tea (infusion/decoction) can be prepared as for regulating blood pressure, relieving menstrual cramps and to improve circulation. Often combined with linden (tilo) flowers or mint (hierbabuena) leaves, it is a popular remedy for relaxation and to relieve anxiety, nervousness, stress and insomnia. This herb is sometimes given to children when they have trouble falling asleep. Also, for labor pain during childbirth and to support postpartum recovery, a tea is prepared of manzanilla flowers, star anise (ans de estrella) seeds and allspice (malagueta) fruits. Availability: In New York City, manzanilla dried flowers can be purchased from health food and herbal supplement stores, farmers markets, some grocery stores and pharmacies and most botnicas.

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BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Matricaria recutita is very similar to Chamaemelum nobile in appearance, and these species are often used interchangeably. Manzanilla (Chamaemelum nobile) is a perennial, creeping, many-branched herb that grows to 30 cm with downy stems that can be upright or low to the ground. Leaves are alternate and 2-3-times divided with feathery, linear segments. Flowers are terminal and have frilly, white petals arranged in a ring around a yellow, disc-shaped flower head (up to 2.5 cm across). Fruits are dry, 3-angled and light brown with vertical ribs; each fruit contains single seed (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Western Europe, the Mediterranean and northern Africa, this plant is cultivated widely (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Note: Because Chamaemelum nobile and Matricaria recutita are often used interchangeably in Dominican herbal medicine, their use information above has been combined; however, since most experimental and clinical research on this plant is species-specific with varying results for each species, these two species of manzanilla will be addressed separately in the following sections.

Research Results for Manzanilla: Chamaemelum nobile SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

There are no known health risks or pathological side effects associated with the proper use of manzanilla (Chamaemelum nobile) except for a small potential for sensitization (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: In early pregnancy, orally administration of the whole plant extract may be contraindicated if taken in excessive doses due to its emmenagogue effect; however, the flowers have not shown an emmenagogue effect. If the flower infusion is administered topically, avoid contact with the eyes or surrounding area due to potential irritation. Allergic reactions have been reported but appear to be rare (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: The essential oil of Matricaria recutita has been shown to inhibit ulcer formation caused by indomethacin in animal studies (Brinker 1998).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory and/or animal studies, this plant has shown hypoglycemic activity (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: Until further research on the clinical efficacy of this herb (Chamaemelum nobile) has been conducted, no therapeutic application can be recommended. Typical forms of administration include as a decoction (3 g herb/100 mL water), infusion (7-8 flower heads/1 cup water), tincture, syrup, ointment or powder. Average daily dose of the herb is 1.5 g (3 daily with meals) and of the infusion is 50 mL to 200 mL. As a bath additive, 50 g to herb can be added to 10 L water. Poultices and compresses can be applied 2-3 times daily (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Chamaemelum nobile

Activity/Effect Hypoglycemic Preparation Aqueous extract of aerial parts; administered both as a single dose and daily for 15 days (20 mg/kg body weight) HMG-containing flavonoid glucoside chamaemeloside Design & Model In vivo: normal and streptozotocininduced rats; measured blood glucose concentrations and basal insulin levels Phytochemical study based on in vivo results Results Exhibited significant hypoglycemic effect in both normal and diabetic rats without affecting basal plasma insulin concentrations Determined that HMG (3-hydroxy-3methylglutaric acid) has hypoglycemic activity comparable to that of free HMG; improved isolation scheme presented Reference Eddouks et al. 2005

Hypoglycemic

Konig et al. 1998

Research Results for Manzanilla: Matricaria recutita SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Considered safe if used appropriately; however, in high doses, Matricaria recutita may cause emesis (Bradley 1992). Contraindications: In early pregnancy, oral administration of the whole plant extract may be contraindicated if taken in excessive doses due to its emmenagogue effect; however, the flowers have not shown an emmenagogue effect. If the flower infusion is administered topically, avoid contact with the eyes or surrounding area due to potential irritation. Allergic reactions have been reported but appear to be rare (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Anticoagulants increased risk of bleeding when taken simultaneously due to umbelliferone, a coumarin present in this herb (Newall et al. 1996); therefore, caution is advised when administered concomitantly and signs and symptoms of excessive bleeding in patient should be monitored closely (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Alcohol/Benzodiazepines - concomitant use may result in enhanced or additive effects of alcohol and benzodiazepines and should be avoided (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical case report, a mouthwash made from Matricaria recutita was effective in treating oral mucositis induced by methotrexate therapy for rheumatoid arthritis (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and/or animal studies, this plant has shown antifungal, antipruritic, antiulcer and anxiolytic activity (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: Approved by the German Commission E for the following health conditions: cough/bronchitis, fevers and colds, inflammation of the skin, inflammation of the mouth and throat, tendency to infection and wounds and burns (Blumenthal et al. 1998).

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Clinical Data: Matricaria recutita

Activity/Effect Oral mucositis treatment Preparation Wild chamomile mouthwash Design & Model Case report: patient with rheumatoid arthritis & methotrexate therapyinduced oral mucositis Results Successfully treated oral mucositis with chamomile mouthwash Reference Mazokopakis et al. 2005

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Matricaria recutita

Activity/Effect Antifungal Preparation Aqueous, ethanolic & petroleum ether extracts Design & Model In vitro: strains of Candida albicans isolated from clinical samples obtained from patients with acute vaginitis In vivo: mice with induced scratching (by compound 48/80) Results Activity possibly attributed to flavonoids Reference Trovato et al. 2000

Antipruritic

Antipruritic

Ethyl acetate extract of dried flower, ethanol extract, & hot water extract; ingested as part of diet (1.2 w/w%); 11 days Ethyl acetate flower extract (300 mg/kg) or essential oil & combined effect with antiallergic agents; single oral administration Plant extract

In vivo: mice with pruritis provoked by compound 48/80 subcutaneous injection

Antiulcer

In vivo: rats with indomethacin induced gastric ulcers

Dose-dependently suppressed scratching without affecting body weight increase; comparable to antiallergic agent oxatomide (10 mg/kg p.o.) Showed significant dosedependent inhibition of scratching without affecting spontaneous motor activity; enhanced effectiveness of antihistamine H1 antagonists (oxatomide & fexofenadine) Exhibited dose dependent effect; linked to reduced acid output & increased mucin secretion; confirmed histologically; possibly due to flavonoid content & antioxidant properties

Kobayashi et al. 2003

Kobayashi et al. 2005

Khayyal et al. 2001

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Activity/Effect Anxiolytic

Preparation Apigenin from flowers

Design & Model In vivo: mice

Results Apigenin (a ligand for central benzodiazepine receptors) exerted anxiolytic & slight sedative effects, but no anticonvulsant or muscle relaxant activity was shown

Reference Viola et al. 1995

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Bradley PR 1992. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). British Herbal Compendium, Vol 1, A Handbook of Scientific Information on Widely Used Plant Drugs. Bournemouth, Dorset, UK: British Herbal Medicine Association. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Eddouks M, Lemhadri A, Zeggwagh NA. 2005. Potent hypoglycemic activity of the aqueous extract of Chamaemelum nobile in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Diabetes Research & Clinical Practice 67(3):189-195. Khayyal MT, el-Ghazaly MA, Kenawy SA, Seif-el-Nasr M, Mahran LG, Kafafi YA, Okpanyi SN. 2001. Antiulcerogenic effect of some gastrointestinally acting plant extracts and their combination. ArzneimittelForschung 51(7):545-53. Kobayashi Y, Nakano Y, Inayama K, Sakai A, Kamiya T. 2003. Dietary intake of the flower extracts of German chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) inhibited compound 48/80-induced itch-scratch responses in mice. Phytomedicine 10(8):657-64. Kobayashi Y, Takahashi R, Ogino F. 2005. Antipruritic effect of the single oral administration of German chamomile flower extract and its combined effect with antiallergic agents in ddY mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 101(1-3):308-12. Konig GM, Wright AD, Keller WJ, Judd RL, Bates S, Day C. 1998. Hypoglycaemic activity of an HMG-containing flavonoid glucoside, chamaemeloside, from Chamaemelum nobile. Planta Medica 64(7):612-4. Mazokopakis EE, Vrentzos GE, Papadakis JA, Babalis DE, Ganotakis ES. 2005. Wild chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) mouthwashes in methotrexate-induced oral mucositis. Phytomedicine 12(1-2):25-7. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Pillipson JD. 1996. Herbal Medicines, A Guide for Health-Care Professionals. London, UK: The Pharmaceutical Press.

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Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Trovato A, Monforte MT, Forestieri AM, Pizzimenti F. 2000. In vitro anti-mycotic activity of some medicinal plants containing flavonoids. Bollettino Chimico Farmaceutico 139(5):225-7. Viola H, Wasowski C, Levi de Stein M, Wolfman C, Silveira R, Dajas F, Medina JH, Paladini AC. 1995. Apigenin, a component of Matricaria recutita flowers, is a central benzodiazepine receptors-ligand with anxiolytic effects. Planta Medica 61(3):213-6. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Naranja Agria
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Bitter orange, sour orange (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Citrus aurantium L. [Rutaceae (Rue Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Diarrhea - Sinusitis - Headache - Common cold - Flu Plant Part Used: Fruit, fruit juice, fruit peel, leaves. Traditional Preparation: The leaves are prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion, or the fruit juice is taken on its own or combined with other herbs as a mixture. Traditional Uses: For diarrhea, the fresh juice is boiled in water with garlic (ajo) and lemon/lime (limn), taken as a tea. For sinusitis or headache, the leaves are heated and applied topically to the forehead or face. The leaves can also be prepared as a tea, often with lime/lemon (limn) as a remedy for cold and flu (gripe) and headache. For sinusitis, naranja agria fruit juice is combined with castor bean plant (higuereta) oil, camphor (alcanfor) essential oil and tallow (cebo flande) to make a salve or ointment that is applied externally to the affected area. Availability: In New York City, naranja agria fruits are sold at Latino/Caribbean grocery stores, super markets and fruit stands and leaves are sometimes sold at botnicas.

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BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Naranja agria (Citrus aurantium) is a spiny tree that typically grows 6-9 m tall. Leaves are alternate and compound but reduced to one, simple leaflet with broadly-winged leaf-stalks; each leaf is oblong-to-oval in shape (10 cm long), thick and leathery, dotted with glands and fragrant when crushed. Flowers grow singly and have 5 white scented petals. Fruits are leathery-skinned, 8.5 cm in diameter, with orange to reddish skin, containing many seeds and orange pulp and bear some resemblance to the fruits of sweet orange, a closely related Citrus spp. However, naranja agria fruits are considerably more acidic, sour or bitter in taste than most commercial oranges (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to southern Vietnam, this plant is cultivated in many subtropical and tropical regions, including Florida and the Caribbean (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Naranja agria is one of the main export crops of the Dominican Republic and it is primarily cultivated for the aromatic essential oil of its flowers (known commercially as neroli) which is used for fragrance.

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No health risks or negative side effects have been identified in the scientific literature associated with the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant; however, increased UV-sensitivity is possible due to the phototoxic effect of its furocoumarin constituents. Sensitization has reported due to frequent contact in an occupational setting resulting in dermatological irritations (Gruenwald et al. 2004). After ephedrine was withdrawn from the dietary supplement marketplace, weight-loss products have replaced their former ephedrine content with synephrine from bitter orange and concerns have been raised about the safety of this alkaloid and its two isomers: p-synephrine and m-synephrine (Allison et al. 2005). Adverse reactions have been reported associated with the use of weight loss herbal preparations containing naranja agria as a primary constituent (Firenzuoli et al. 2005). One of the reported adverse effects is the possible incidence of acute lateral-wall myocardial infarction (MI) which coincided with the use of naranja agria (300 mg daily for a year) in a dietary supplement (Editas Skinny Pill); the patient was a 55-year-old white woman with no previous history of heart disease, hypertension or hyperlipidemia, although she did smoke (Nykamp et al. 2004). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical trial, the oil of this plant showed antifungal activity against tinea corporis, cruris and pedis (see Clinical Data table below). Antifungal, antioxidant, insecticidal and relaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). According to the Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, this plant has also shown mild spasmolytic effects and stimulation of gastric juice secretion in laboratory studies (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: The fruit peel is approved by the Commission E for the treatment of dyspeptic disorders and loss of appetite (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Typical daily dosage is 4 to 6 g dried fruit peel, prepared as a tea using 1 teaspoon of dried, cut and coarsely powdered fruit peel infused in hot water for 10 minutes, then strained (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Clinical Data: Citrus aurantium

Activity/Effect Antifungal Preparation Oil; 25% emulsion (3 daily); 20% of oil in alcohol (3 daily); pure oil (1 daily) Design & Model Clinical trial; 60 patients (20 in each of 3 groups) with tinea corporis, cruris & pedis Results Exhibited antifungal activity: group 1: 80% patients cured in 1-2 wks, the remaining 20% in 2-3 wks; group 2: 50% cured in 1-2 wks, 30% in 2-3 wks, 20% in 3-4 wks; group 3: 25% did not continue trial; remaining patients: 33.3% cured in 1 wks, 60% in 1-2 wks, 6.7% in 2-3 wks; produced no side effects except mild irritation when using pure oil Reference Ramadan et al. 1996

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Citrus aurantium

Activity/Effect Antifungal Antioxidant Preparation Oil Cyanidine 3-O-betaglucopyranoside Design & Model In vitro: pathogenic dermatophytes In vitro: inhibitory effects measured on the oscillations of hydrogen peroxide, acidic iodate, malonic acid and Mn(II)-catalyzed system (BriggsRauscher reaction) In vitro: susceptibility tests in mosquito larvae (Culex quinquefasciatus) In vitro: tracheal and ileal smooth muscles of guinea pig Results Active Antioxidant activity demonstrated Reference Ramadan et al. 1996 Cervellati et al. 2002

Insecticidal

Extract of oil from fruit peel

Larvae mortalities observed; potentially useful insecticide Demonstrated relaxant effects on the tracheal smooth muscle; produced marked increase in resting force (i.e. contracture)

Mwaiko 1992

Relaxant

Essential (volatile) oils

Reiter & Brandt 1985

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REFERENCES
Allison DB, Cutter G, Poehlman ET, Moore DR, Barnes S. 2005. Exactly which synephrine alkaloids does Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) contain?. International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 29(4):443-6. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Cervellati R, Renzulli C, Guerra MC, Speroni E. 2002. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of some natural polyphenolic compounds using the Briggs-Rauscher reaction method. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 50(26):7504-9. Firenzuoli F, Gori L, Galapai C. 2005. Adverse reaction to an adrenergic herbal extract (Citrus aurantium). Phytomedicine 12(3):247-8. Guengerich FP, Kim DH. 1990. In vitro inhibition of diydropyridine oxidation and aflatoxin B1 activation in human liver microsomes by naringenin and other flavonoids. Carcinogenesis 11(12):2275-2279. Guo L, Yamazoe Y. 2004. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 by furanocoumarins in grapefruit juice and herbal medicines. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 25(2):129-136. Miyazawa M, Tougo H, Ishihara M. 2001. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity by essential oil from Citrus paradisi. Natural Product Letters 15(3):205-210. Mwaiko GL. 1992. Citrus peel oil extracts as mosquito larvae insecticides. East African Medical Journal 69(4):2236. Neuman M. 2002. [Metabolic effects and drug interactions provoked by certain vegetables: grapefruit, St. Johns wort and garlic.] [French] Presse Medicale 31(30):1416-1422. Nykamp DL, Fackih MN, Compton AL. 2004. Possible association of acute lateral-wall myocardial infarction and bitter orange supplement. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 38(5):812-6. Ramadan W, Mourad B, Ibrahim S, Sonbol F. 1996. Oil of bitter orange: new topical antifungal agent. International Journal of Dermatology 35(6):448-9. Reiter M, Brandt W. 1985. Relaxant effects on tracheal and ileal smooth muscles of the guinea pig. ArzneimittelForschung 35(1A):408-14. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Unger M, Frank A. 2004. Simultaneous determination of the inhibitory potency of herbal extracts on the activity of six major cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry and automated online extraction. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 18(19):2273-2281. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Zayachkivska OS, Konturek SJ, Drozdowicz D, Brzozowski T, Gzegotsky MR. 2004. Influence of plant-originated gastroprotective and antiulcer substances on gastric mucosal repair. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal 50(6):118127.

Organo de Comer
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Organo (Spanish); oregano, Greek or Italian oregano (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Origanum spp.; typically Origanum vulgare L. [Lamiaceae (Mint Family)]. Note: Several different species are referred to by the name Organo, including organo de comer (Origanum vulgare), organo poleo (Coleus amboinicus), oreganillo (Lippia micromera), organo mejorana (Origanum marjorana) and others.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Allergies - Common cold - Diarrhea - Empacho - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Gastrointestinal disorders - Indigestion - Lack of appetite - Madre - Nasal congestion - Nausea - Padrejn - Pasmo - Saltadura - Sinusitis - Stomach disorders - Vomiting Plant Part Used: Leaves, stems and oil. Traditional Preparation: Typically a tea is prepared of the leaves by infusion or decoction. Traditional Uses: For indigestion and stomach disorders, including gastrointestinal inflammation, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, this herb (either the leaves or the aerial parts: leaves, stems and flowers) is prepared as a tea, sometimes with a small amount of salt added instead of sugar. For sinusitis, nasal congestion and difficulty breathing due to common cold or allergies, the leaves are applied topically to the face. This is said to open up the blocked nasal passages. For pain in the womb or pelvic area due to gas or pasmo, this tea is also used in combination with star anise (ans de estrella), anise (ans) and pepperweed (mastuerzo). For lack of appetite and culturally-specific illnesses associated with indigestion

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or blockage of the digestive tract, such as empacho, padrejn, madre and saltadura, the fresh leaves are taken as a tea (prepared by decoction) with crushed garlic (ajo) and salt. Availability: Typically dried and sometimes fresh organo herb can be found at many grocery stores, supermarkets and botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Organo de comer (Origanum vulgare) is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows to 76 cm tall. Stems are square in cross-section. Leaves are arranged in opposite pairs along stems and are narrowly oval to eggshaped (to 3-4 cm long), can be smooth or hairy on the surface and typically have smooth or sometimes toothed leaf-edges. Flowers occur in dense, oblong-shaped spikelets at the tops of stems with purple bracts and tiny, white to purplish petals. Fruits are small nutlets (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Europe and central Asia, this plant has become naturalized in the eastern United States and is cultivated widely as a culinary seasoning with highly variable subspecies (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Internal therapeutic use of this herb is considered relatively safe when used appropriately (Gruenwald et al. 2004). This herb is widely consumed as a culinary herb and generally regarded as safe. Contraindications: During pregnancy, excessive use should be avoided due to potential abortifacient and emmenagogue effects of this plant (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: None identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical trial, the essential oil administered in tablet form was effective in 10 out of 13 patients in the treatment of enteric parasites (see Clinical Data table below). Oregano oil and/or its isolated constituents have shown the following effects in laboratory and/or animal studies: antifungal, antimicrobial, antimutagenic and antioxidant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: This herb can be administered as an infusion (tea) or can be added to bathwater for a therapeutic soak. For internal use, prepare as a tea (1 teaspoon herb/1 cup boiling water), steeped for 10 minutes and strained; taken orally several times daily as needed (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Origanum vulgare

Activity/Effect Antiparasitic Preparation Essential oil in tablet form; 3 daily for 6 wks Design & Model Clinical trial; n=13 with enteric parasites; 8 w/Blastocystis hominis & 4 w/Entamoeba hartmanni Results Active; 77% (10 of 13) patients were parasite-free at end of treatment; reduced symptoms of bloating, gastrointestinal cramping, diarrhea, constipation & fatigue Reference Force et al. 2000

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Origanum vulgare

Activity/Effect Antifungal Preparation Essential oil & phenolic compounds Essential oil & phenolic compounds Isolated constituent: rosmarinic acid Essential oil & nonpolar residue of plant matter Design & Model In vitro: against Candida albicans In vitro In vitro Phytochemical analysis Results Active; most active constituent identified as phenolic compound carvacrol Active constituents identified as thymol & carvacrol Showed antimutagenic & anticarcinogenic effects Identified tocopherols as primary antioxidant components Reference Stiles et al. 1995 Biondi et al. 1993 Milic & Milic 1998 Lagouri & Boskou 1996

Antimicrobial

Antimutagenic Antioxidant

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Biondi D, Cianci P, Geraci C et al. 1993. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of essential oils from Sicilian aromatic plants. J Flav & Frag 8(6):331-337. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Force M, Sparks W, Ronzio R. 2000. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Inhibition of enteric parasites by emulsified oil of oregano in vivo. Phytother Res 14(3):213-214. Lagouri V, Boskou D. 1996. as cited in the Gruenwald et al. (2004). Nutrient antioxidants in oregano. In J Food Sci Nutr 47:493-497. Milic B, Milic N. 1998. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Protective effects of spice plants on mutagenesis. Phytother Res 12(1):S3-S6. Stiles J, Sparks W & Ronzio R. 1995. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). The inhibition of Candida albicans by oregano. J Appl Nutr 47:96-102. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Organo Poleo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Organo de hoja ancha (Spanish); Spanish thyme, Indian borage, country borage (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng. Synonyms: Coleus aromaticus Benth.; Coleus amboinicus Lour. [Lamiaceae (Mint Family)]. Note: Several different species are referred to by the name Organo, including organo de comer (Origanum vulgare), organo poleo (Coleus amboinicus), oreganillo (Lippia micromera), organo mejorana (Origanum marjorana) and others.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Diarrhea - Earache - Empacho - Gastrointestinal disorders - Headache - Indigestion - Sinusitis - Stomach disorders Plant Part Used: Leaves. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea by decoction or infusion; also used topically as a poultice. Traditional Uses: For diarrhea, the leaves are boiled to prepare a tea. For indigestion or stomach disorders (particularly for adults), including empacho, a tea is prepared of the leaves with salt. The leaves can also be used as a poultice for headaches and sinusitis by heating them and applying them externally to the affected area. For earache, the heated and wilted leaf is applied topically to the ear. Availability: In New York City, the fresh leaves of this plant are sometimes available at ethnic markets or grocery stores (bodegas) in Latino neighborhoods. The fresh and/or dried leaves are sold at select botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) that specialize in selling medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Organo poleo (Plectranthus amboinicus) is an aromatic perennial herb that grows upright to 50-100 cm tall. Stems are square in cross-section. Leaves grow in opposite pairs and are fleshy, oval and dotted with glands on the underside; have scalloped or rounded-teeth along leaf-edges; and are covered with short, straight hairs (3.5-6.5 cm long). Flowers are arranged in clusters crowded at the tips of branches; they are small with pale purple petals that are fused together to form a tube, opening at the end into 4 lobes that look like two boat-shaped lips. Fruits are 4 small, smooth nutlets each containing a single seed (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

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Distribution: Although its exact origin is uncertain, this plant is most likely native to the Old World tropics and ranges in cultivation from India to the Malaysian Archipelago; it is also cultivated in tropical America where it is sold for culinary purposes (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Insufficient information available in the literature. Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
This species has shown the following effects in animal and in vitro studies: anticlastogenic (in bone marrow chromosomal aberrations induced by anticancer drugs), antimicrobial, antiurolithiatic, diuretic and nitric oxide radical scavenging. Related species of the same genus as Coleus amboinicus have demonstrated the following activity: inhibition of HIV-1 integrase, anti-implantation, antimicrobial, antiobesity and inhibition of complement-mediated hemolysis. The leaves are commonly used as a condiment. A closely related plant, Coleus forskohlii, has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries to treat a variety of diseases and is now popular in weightloss supplements; the active ingredient is forskolin, a diterpene compound which also affects drugmetabolizing enzymes in the liver (Ding & Staudinger 2005). Another related species, Coleus parvifolius, is used as a medicinal plant in Thailand. Indications and Usage: Insufficient information available in the literature.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Plectranthus amboinicus

Activity/Effect Anticlastogenic Preparation Ethanolic plant extract; doses: 10, 15, 25, 50 & 100 mg/kg b.w.; fed plant extract orally for 7 days Design & Model In vivo & in vitro: mice; given 2 doses of anticancer drugs via intraperitoneal injection after 7-days plant extract: cyclophosphamide (25 & 50 mg/kg b.w.) & mitomycin-C (4 & 8 mg/kg b.w.) In vitro; against 7 bacteria & 8 fungi In vivo; rats w/calcium oxalate stones induced by feeding 3% w/w sodium oxalate Results Showed activity in bone marrow chromosomal aberration assay & micronucleus test in chromosomal aberrations induced by cyclophosphamide & mitomycin-C; lower doses were more effective in protecting against cytogenetic damage Active; C. zeylanicus had a slightly higher inhibitory effect overall Active; effectively reduced kidney deposition of calcium oxalate & increased urinary excretion of calcium oxalate Reference Prasad et al. 2002

Antimicrobial

Antiurolithiatic

Essential oil (Coleus aromaticus & C. zeylanicus) Water extract of leaves (0.5 & 1.0 g/kg, given orally once daily for 30 days

Deena et al. 2002

Ghosh et al. 2000

378

Activity/Effect Diuretic

Nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging

Preparation Water extract of leaf; 0.5 g/kg & 1.0 g/kg p.o.) Plant extract

Design & Model In vivo; normal male rats using furosemide as standard reference drug (4 mg/kg p.o.) In vitro; nitroprusside as NO donor

Results Active; produced diuresis; significantly increased urine output & electrolyte concentration Showed significant, dosedependent effect; suggest use in illnesses associated with excess NO & peroxynitrite generation

Reference Sur et al. 2003

Jagetia & Baliga 2004

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Closely related species (Coleus spp.)

Activity/Effect Anti-HIV-1: inhibition of HIV1 integrase (IN) Preparation Water & ethanol extracts of Coleus parvilolius (aerial parts) Design & Model In vitro Results Showed potent activity (IC50 value of 9.2 g/mL) in inhibiting HIV-1 integrase which is an enzyme necessary for viral replication; active constituents identified Active; treatment w/880 mg/kg daily of plant extract before embryo implantation delayed fetal development & showed anti-implantation effect Reference Tewtrakul et al. 2003

Anti-implantation & delayed fetal development

Coleus barbatus hydroalcoholic extract at increasing doses: 220, 440 & 880 mg/kg daily by gavage Coleus blumei chloroform extract of airdried leaves Coleus forskohlii 50g/kg extract Coleus kilimanschari ethanolic extract

In vivo; pregnant rats received plant extract (or distilled H2O in control group) during preimplantation or organogenic periods of pregnancy (days 05 or 6 to 15) In vitro

Almeida & Lemonica 2000

Antimicrobial

Antiobesity

In vivo; female ovariectomized rats In vitro

Inhibition of complementmediated hemolysis

Isolated abietane type diterpene active against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa & Candida albicans Active; observed a reduction in fat accumulation, food intake & body weight Active against both the classical & alternative pathways of the complement system

Ragas et al. 2001

Han et al. 2005

Cos et al .2002

REFERENCES
Almeida FC, Lemonica IP. 2000. The toxic effects of Coleus barbatus B. on the different periods of pregnancy in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 73(1-2):53-60.

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Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Cos P, Hermans N, Van Poel B, De Bruyne T, Apers S, Sindambiwe JB, Vanden Berghe D, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ. 2002. Complement modulating activity of Rwandan medicinal plants. Phytomedicine 9(1):56-61. Deena MJ, Sreeranjini K. Thoppil JE. 2002. Antimicrobial screening of essential oils of Coleus aromaticus and Coleus zeylanicus. International Journal of Aromatherapy 12(2):105-7. Ding X, Staudinger JL. 2005. Induction of drug metabolism by forskolin: the role of the pregnane receptor and the protein kinase a signal transduction pathway. Journal of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics 312(2):849-56. Ghosh RB, Sur TK, Maity LN, Chakraborty SC. 2000. Antiurolithiatic activity of Coleus aromaticus Benth. in rats. Ancient Science of Life 20(1-2):44-7. Han LK, Morimoto C, Yu RH, Okuda H. 2005. Effects of Coleus forskohlii on fat storage in ovariectomized rats. Yakugaku Zaahi Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan 125(5):449-53. Jagetia GC, Baliga MS. 2004. The evaluation of nitric oxide scavenging activity of certain Indian medicinal plants in vitro: a preliminary study. Journal of Medicinal Food 7(3):343-8. Prasad S, Naik P, Vijayalaxmi KK. 2002. Efficiency of Coleus aromaticus extract in modifying cyclophosphamide and mitomycin-C induced clastogenicity in mouse bone marrow cells. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 40(9):1020-5. Ragas CY, Templora VF, Rideout JA. 2001. Diastereomeric diterpenes from Coleus blumei. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 49(7):927-9. Sur TK, Pandit S, Biswas TK, Ghosh RB, Bhattacharyya D. 2003. Diuretic activity of Coleus aromaticus Benth. on rats. Ancient Science of Life 22(4):146-51. Twtrakul S, Miyashiro H, Nakamura N, Hattori M, Kawahata T, Otake T, Yoshinaga T, Fujiwara T, Supavita T, Yuenyongsawad S, Rattansuwon P, Dej-Adisai S. 2003. HIV-1 integrase inhibitory substances from Coleus parvifolius. Phytotherapy Research 17(3):232-9.

Pia
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Pineapple (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. [Bromeliaceae (Pineapple Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Bacterial infections - High blood pressure - High cholesterol

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Inflammation Limpiar el sistema Kidney disorders Menopausal hot flashes Urinary tract infections Uterine fibroids

Plant Part Used: Fruit and fruit rind. Traditional Preparation: The fresh fruit may be eaten or prepared as a juice; the rind is also used to prepare a refreshing drink (called guarapo) by soaking it in water. Traditional Uses: Pia is a delicious tropical fruit and a popular natural remedy. Considered a cooling plant, pia can be taken as a refreshing remedy for conditions associated with excessive heat in the body such as inflammation. As a remedy for high cholesterol or high blood pressures, the fruit is liquefied in a blender to make a juice (batida). To make a nutritious and healthy-promoting drink, additional ingredients are sometimes added to this juice, such as celery (apio), cucumber (pepino) and/or kiwi. The juice is often taken as a diuretic (para sacar el agua) for urinary tract or kidney disorders, combined with honey (miel) as a sweetener. The fresh juice is considered a strong antibiotic and is taken internally as a treatment for diseases caused by infection. As a therapy for cancer, the fresh juice is taken orally and often combined with the juice of other fruits such as custard apple (ann). To make a cooling drink that is said to cleanse the body internally (called a guarapo), immerse pieces of the fruit rind (cscara) in water with sugar. This mixture is set in a covered container at room temperature for 3-4 days to allow it to ferment and then stored in the refrigerator until used. This fruit is regarded as being exceptionally sour (agria) and acidic; as such it can cause irritation in individuals who are sensitive or allergic. Dominican herbalists contraindicate this plant in individuals who have a history of hypersensitivity to this fruit because ingestion may cause an allergic reaction. Availability: Pia fruit can be purchased at grocery stores, fruit stands and supermarkets, depending on seasonal availability.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Pia (Ananas comosus) is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows to 1.2 m tall with a short stem. Leaves are arranged in a spiral pattern from the base of the plant and are narrow, linear (90 6 cm), thorny at the tip and toothed with sharp thorns along the leaf-edges. Flowers grow in dense clusters along spikes (30 cm long); emerge from the axils of reddish, thorny bracts; are blue, purple or white in color; 3-petaled and fused to form a funnel-like shape. Fruits are numerous and fused together to form a pinecone-like shape (10-25 15-25 cm) with yellow to orange red, bumpy or warty skin, white to golden yellow, sweet flesh and a tuft of leaves at the top. Native to tropical America, pia is cultivated extensively for its fruits (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976, Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

When administered appropriately, no health hazards are known in conjunction with the therapeutic use of this plant. Some reported side effects that may occur when taken internally include diarrhea and stomach disorders. When used repeatedly, allergic reactions have been reported (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature; however, caution is advised when administered to pregnant women due to possible abortifacient effects of steroids in plant extracts (Pakrashi & Basak 1976).

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Drug Interactions: Antibiotics: elevation of serum levels of antibiotics has been observed when administered concurrently. Anticoagulants and thrombocyte aggregation inhibitors: when taken concurrently with bromelain, an increased tendency to bleeding has been observed. Tetracyclines: when taken with bromelain, elevated plasma and urine concentrations have been observed (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory and/or animal studies, this plant has demonstrated the following effects: antidiabetic, antidyslipidemic, antifertility, antioxidant, antitumor, burn debridement and diuretic (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). According to a secondary clinical reference, pia has demonstrated the following pharmacological effects: antineoplastic, antiphlogistic, antineoplastic, fibrinolytic, proteolytic; wound-healing due to proteolytic enzymes; and inhibition of thrombocyte aggregation (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Also, plant extracts have shown burn-debridement and anti-fertility effects in vivo. Bromelain, a non-toxic enzyme complex extracted from the stem of Ananas comosus, has been associated with the following properties: (1) interference with growth of malignant cells; (2) inhibition of platelet aggregation; (3) fibrinolytic activity; (4) anti-inflammatory action; (5) skin debridement properties (Taussig & Batkin 1988). These biological effects of bromelain suggest its use in modulating: (a) tumor growth; (b) blood coagulation; (c) inflammatory changes; (d) debridement of third degree burns; (e) enhancement of absorption of drugs (Taussig & Batkin 1988). Indications and Usage: Pia is approved by the German Commission E for treating wounds and burns (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Typical dosage of bromelain (the mixture of proteolytic enzymes from the stem of pia which is extracted and sold commercially) is 500 to 2000 mg daily; for children: 150 to 300 FIP (Federation Internationale Pharmaceutique) units.

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Ananas comosus

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic, antioxidant & antidyslipidemic Preparation Ethanol extract of leaves; dosage: 0.40 g/kg Design & Model In vivo: rats with diabetes & dyslipidemia induced by alloxan and highfat/high-cholesterol diet Results Significantly inhibited increase in blood glucose in diabetic rats in oral glucose tolerance & increased postprandial triglyceride levels in both normal and diabetic rats in olive oil load tests; demonstrated antioxidant, antidiabetic & antidyslipidemic activity Showed antiimplantation activity Inhibited growth of tumor cells Showed rapid, even debridement of burn injury; suggest potential use as agents of non-surgical debridement Reference Xie et al. 2005

Antifertility (female) Antitumor

Burn debridement

Juice of unripe fruits; 50 mL daily for 1-7 days Bromelain (enzyme complex extracted from stem) Pineapple stem enzyme fractions; topical treatment (24 hours postburn)

In vivo: rats In vitro In vivo: rats with experimentally induced fullthickness skin burns

Garg et al. 1970 Taussig et al. 1985 Rowan et al. 1990

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Activity/Effect Diuretic

Preparation Root extract, given orally (10 mg/kg)

Design & Model In vivo: rats

Results Demonstrated significantly increased urine output (79% of the effect of an equivalent dose of hydrochlorothiazide with similar profiles of urinary electrolyte secretion)

Reference Sripanidkulchai et al. 2001

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Garg SK, Saksena SK, Chaudhury RR. 1970. Antifertility screening of plants. VI. Effect of five indigenous plants on early pregnancy in albino rats. Indian J Med Res 58(9):1285-1289. Pakrashi A, Basak B. 1976. Abortifacient effect of steroids from Ananas comosus and their analogues on mice. Journal of Reproduction & Fertility 46(2):461-462. Rowan AD, Christopher CW, Kelley SF, Buttle DJ, Ehrlick HP. 1990. Debridement of experimental full-thickness skin burns of rats with enzyme fractions derived from pineapple stem. Burns 16(4):243-246. Sripanidkulchai B, Wongpanich V, Laupattarakasem P, Suwansaksri J, Jirakulsomchok D. 2001. Diuretic effects of selected Thai indigenous medicinal plants in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75(2-3):185-90. Taussig SJ, Batkin S. 1988. Bromelain, the enzyme complex of pineapple (Ananas comosus) and its clinical application. An update. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 22:191-203. Taussig SJ, Batkin S. 1988. Modulation of pulmonary metastasis (Lewis lung carcinoma) by bromelain, an extract of the pineapple stem (Ananas comosus). Letter Cancer Invest 22:241-242. Taussig SJ, Szekerczes J, Batkin S. 1985. Inhibition of tumour growth in vitro by bromelain, an extract of the pineapple plant (Ananas comosus). Planta medica (6):538-539. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Xie W, Xing D, Sun H, Wang W, Ding Y, Du L. 2005. The effects of Ananas comosus L. leaves on diabeticdyslipidemic rats induced by alloxan and a high-fat/high-cholesterol diet. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 33(1):95-105. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Rbano
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Radish (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Raphanus sativus L. [Brassicaceae (Mustard Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Asthma - Bronchitis - Common cold - Flu Plant Part Used: Root. Traditional Preparation: Eaten raw or liquefied and taken orally as a juice. Traditional Uses: For asthma, it can be liquefied in a blender and taken as a drink with sugar and water. For bronchitis, the common cold, flu and cough, raw rbano is combined with honey and sometimes fresh watercress (berro), taken orally by the spoonful. Availability: This vegetable is commonly sold in the produce section of grocery stores and super markets.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Rbano (Raphanus sativus) is an annual or biennial herbaceous plant that grows to 1 m high with a slightly hairy stem. Roots vary between cultivars but are typically round and thick with reddish-purple skin and white, crisp, pungent flesh. Leaves grow in an alternate pattern along stems and are vertically lobed or cleft with rounded terminal lobes and smaller lower lobes. Flowers are white to yellowish with purplish-lilac veins and 4 petals. Fruits are green, podlike, many-seeded capsules (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Europe and eastern Asia, this plant is cultivated widely for its edible roots (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The roots are widely consumed as a vegetable and used medicinally as a laxative and abortifacient. Insufficient information available in the literature. The fresh root is approved by the German Commission E for its use in the treatment of peptic disorders, especially those related to dyskinesia of the bile ducts, catarrhs of the upper or lower respiratory tract (p. 193; Blumenthal 1998). Contraindications: Not to be used in cases of cholelithiasis (Blumenthal 1998). Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Medline literature searches yielded three published studies on the therapeutic effects of this plant, showing support for the following activity: antiurolithiatic, gastrointestinal stimulatory and uterotonic (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: The fresh root, prepared as a pressed juice and administered orally, is approved by the German Commission E for its use in the treatment of peptic disorders, especially those related to dyskinesia of the bile ducts, catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract (p. 193). According to the German Commission E, average daily dosage consists of 50-100 mL of the pressed juice (Blumenthal 1998).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Raphanus sativus

Activity/Effect Antiurolithiatic Preparation Aqueous extract of the bark Crude leaf extract, dietary administration (0.03-10 mg/mL) Design & Model In vivo: rats with urolithiasis induced by implantation of zinc disc in urinary bladder Ex vivo; isolated rabbit jejunum, rat stomach fundus & uterus (partially blocked by atropine) & guinea pig ileum In vivo & ex vivo; effect was insensitive to pre-treatment with atropine but totally eradicated by pyrilamine thus demonstrating involvement of H1 receptors; Results Active; decreased weight of stones after treatment; increased 24 hrs urine volume (as compared with control) Active; showed spasmogenic effect (possibly due to saponins); mechanism partially mediated through cholinergic receptors in rabbit & rat tissues; functioned through histaminergic activation in guinea-pigs Active; dose-dependent effect on spasmogenicity of guineapig ileum & colon; mechanism involved histaminergic (H1) receptors; high doses caused contractile effect followed by relaxation; enhanced transit of charcoal meal in mice (at 30-100 mg/kg); petroleum spirit, chloroform & aqueous fractions showed histaminergic activity; support use of plant in treating constipation Reference Vargas et al. 1999

Gastrointestinal stimulatory & uterotonic

Ghayur & Gilani 2005

Gut stimulatory

Crude leaf extract

Gilani & Ghayur 2004

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Ghayur MN, Gilani AH. 2005. Gastrointestinal stimulatory and uterotonic activities of dietary radish leaves extract are mediated through multiple pathways. Phytotherapy Research 19(9):750-5.

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Gilani AH, Ghayur MN. 2004. Pharmacological basis for the gut stimulatory activity of Raphanus sativus leaves. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2-3):169-72. Vargas R, Perez RM, Perez S, Zavala MA, Perez C. 1999. Antiurolithiatic activity of Raphanus sativus aqueous extract on rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86(1-3):335-8.

Remolacha
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Beet (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Beta vulgaris Roscoe [Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot or Beet Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anemia - Cysts of the ovaries or breasts - Purificar la sangre - Tumors - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Root. Traditional Preparation: Raw juice of 2-3 beets, usually mixed with 1-2 tablespoons of molasses, taken 1-2 times daily (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003). Traditional Uses: Remolacha is a popular remedy for cysts of the ovaries or breasts, uterine fibroids and tumors, and it is typically taken in combination with molasses (melaza). It is also used to treat anemia, often in combination with annatto (bija) and malt beverage (malta alemana). For ovarian cysts, the fresh juice (zumo) of the root may be prepared with guinea hen-weed (anam) root. Remolachas reported therapeutic action is to break apart (desbaratar) cysts, tumors and fibroids and to fortify and strengthen the blood (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003). Availability: As a common vegetable food, remolacha is available at most grocery stores, supermarkets and farmers markets in New York City (Yukes et al. 2002-2003).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Remolacha (Beta vulgaris) is a biennial or annual plant that grows to 1.5 m tall with stems that emerge during the second year of growth. Roots are thick, fleshy, edible tubers that can be deep-magenta, goldenyellow, pink or whitish in color. Leaves are oval to oblong in shape and grow upright on long leaf-stalks, emerging from the top of the tuber in a basal rosette. Flowers are small, greenish or reddish, without petals and arranged in tight clusters. Fruits are dried, woody, hardened, seed-like structures (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Eurasia, there are several varieties of this plant, and it is widely cultivated. The crassa [(Alef.) J. Helm.] variety is grown chiefly for its roots and is used as a vegetable or forage crop

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and as a source of sugar whereas the cicla (L.) cultivar is grown as a leafy vegetable, also known as chard (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Overall, the roots and leaves of this plant are safe for human consumption and medicinal use. However, when the leaves are ingested in extremely large quantities, they may lead to hypocalcemia or kidney damage due to their oxaluric acid content (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Contraindications: None identified in the literature. Drug Interactions: None identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In laboratory and/or animal studies, this plant has shown the following effects: anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral (influenza), estrogenic, glycosylation inhibition, hepatoprotective and hypoglycemic (se Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). According to the Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, this plants hepatoprotective effects are due to its ability to prevent fat from being deposited in the liver as shown in animal studies. The most likely active constituent responsible for this effect is the concentration of betaine in the herb which plays an important role in the livers transmethylation process (Gruenwald et al. 2004). In studies involving humans, beeturia (the pinkish or reddish coloration of urine that occurs in some individuals after consumption of beets) has been shown to be a likely indicator of iron-deficiency anemia (Sotos 1999). Nutritional analyses of beets have shown that they contain high amounts of dietary fiber (2.8 g/100 g raw beets; U.S. Department of Agriculture 2005) and iron (1.55 mg per half cup, boiled; Pennington 1989), both of which have therapeutic implications, especially in the treatment of estrogenrelated gynecological conditions and anemia (Fugh-Berman et al. 2004). Beets also contain extremely high quantities of carotenoids (precursors of Vitamin A) which are known to be antioxidant and could hypothetically inhibit the growth of fibroids as suggested by studies of retinoic acid (Vitamin A) and its inhibition of cell proliferation in tissue cultures of human uterine smooth muscle cells. This antiproliferative effect was shown to be linked to the expression of retinoic acid receptors of the steroid/thyroid family in uterine cells (Boettger-Tong et al. 1997). Indications and Usage: Beet roots can be administered as a cooked food (boiled, steamed or baked), fresh juice or powdered. Typical dosage is 10 grams daily after meals 3 times daily for 14 days; 5 grams per day thereafter for at least 3 months (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Beta vulgaris

Activity/Effect Preparation Anticarcinogenic Fresh leaves, orally; 1.5 g/kg b.w. (var. benghalensis) Antidiabetic Chard extract (var. cicla) Design & Model In vivo: male mice with induced toxicity by lead subacetate injection In vivo: diabetic rats Results Active; significantly reduced cytotoxic effects of known carcinogen Active; significantly decreased serum urea and creatinine levels Reference Nandi et al. 1997 Yanarda et al. 2002

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Activity/Effect Antidiabetic & antioxidant

Preparation Chard extract (var. cicla)

Design & Model In vivo: diabetic rats

Antidiabetic & glycosylation inhibition

Extract (var. cicla)

In vivo: diabetic rats

Antidiabetic & hepatoprotective Antiinflammatory Antiviral influenza

Extract (var. cicla) Ethanolic extract Aqueous extract

In vivo: diabetic rats In vivo: rat & mouse In vivo: mice

Estrogenic Hypoglycemic

Extract (var. benghalensis) Chard extract (var. cicla) Compounds isolated from root

In vivo: female mice In vivo: diabetic rats

Results Active; reversed the effects of diabetes on blood glucose, tissue lipid peroxidation & glutathione levels Active; shown to inhibit increases in nonenzymatic glycosylation of skin proteins & blood glucose, thereby inhibiting related diabetes symptoms Active; shown to have a protective effect on the liver in diabetes mellitus Active; dose-dependent effect in acute & chronic tests Exhibited partial protection against influenza infection, including significant decrease in the hemagglutination titers recorded in mouse lung homogenates, decrease in mortality rate & increase in survival time Active Reduced the blood glucose levels & increased the number of pancreatic B cells Isolated betavulgarosides II, III & IV exhibited hypoglycemic activity

Reference Sener et al. 2002

Tunali et al. 1998

Ozsoy-Sacan et al. 2004 Atta & Alkofahi 1998 Prahoveanu et al. 1986

Grunert et al. 1969 Bolkent et al. 2000 Yoshikawa et al. 1996

Hypoglycemic

In vivo: rats; oral glucose tolerance test

REFERENCES
Atta AH and Alkofahi A. 1998. Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of some Jordanian medicinal plant extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 60(2):117-24. Atta-ur-Rahman, Zaman K. 1989. Medicinal plants with hypoglycemic activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 26(1):1-55. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57.

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Boettger-Tong H, Shipley G, Hsu CJ, Stancel GM, 1997. Cultured human uterine smooth muscle cells are retinoid responsive. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 215:5965. Bolkent S, Yanardag R, Tabakoglu-Oguz A, Ozsoy-Sacan O. 2000. Effects of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla) extract on pancreatic B cells in streptozotocin-diabetic rats: a morphological and biochemical study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 73(1-2):251-9. Elghamry MI, Grunert E, Aehnelt E. 1970. as cited in Fugh-Berman et al. (2004). An active principle responsible for estrogenicity in the leaves of Beta vulgaris. Planta Medica 19:208214. Fugh-Berman A, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, OConnor B, Reiff M, Roble M, Lohr P, Brossi BJ, Lee R. 2004. Treatment of fibroids: the use of beets (Beta vulgaris) and molasses (Saccharum officinarum) as an herbal therapy by Dominican healers in New York City. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92:337-339. Grunert E, Elghamry MI, Aehnelt E. 1969. as cited in Fugh-Berman et al. (2004). Estimation of estrogenic and toxic potencies of sugar beet plant (Beta vulgaris) and silage in mice. Planta Medica 17:7178. Nandi P, Talukder G, Sharma A. 1997. Dietary supplementation with leaf extract of Beta vulgaris L. var. benghalensis Hort. in modifying cytotoxicity of lead subacetate in mouse in vivo. Phytotherapy Research 11(4):273-6. Ozsoy-Sacan O, Karabulut-Bulan O, Bolkent S, Yanardag R, Ozgey Y. 2004. Effects of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var cicla) on the liver of the diabetic rats: a morphological and biochemical study. Bioscience, Biotechnology & Biochemistry 68(8):1640-8. Pennington JAT. 1989. as cited in Fugh-Berman et al. (2004). Bowes and Churchs Food Values of Portions Commonly Used, 15th ed. Harper and Row, New York, pp. 189, 192. Prahoveanu E, Esanu V, Anton G, Frunzulica S. 1986. Prophylactic effect of a Beta vulgaris extract on experimental influenza infection in mice. Virologie 37(2):121-3. Sener G, Sacan O, Yanardag R, Ayanoglu-Dulger G. 2002. Effects of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla) extract on oxidative injury in the aorta and heart of streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Journal of Medicinal Food 5(1):3742. Sotos JG. 1999. Beeturia and iron absorption. Lancet 354(9183):1032. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Tunali T, Yarat A, Yanardag R, Ozcelik F, Ozsoy O, Ergenekon G, Emekli N. 1998. The effect of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla) on the skin of streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Pharmazie 53(9):638-40. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2005. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 18. Nutrient Data. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp (search results for Beets, raw). Watson WC, Luke RG, Inall JA. 1963. as cited in Sotos (1999). Beeturia: its incidence and a clue to its mechanism. BMJ 1963; 2: 97173. Yanarda R, Bolkent S, Ozsoy-Sacan O, Karabulut-Bulan O. 2002. The effects of chard (Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla) extract on the kidney tissue, serum urea and Creatinine levels of diabetic rats. Phytotherapy Research 16(8):758-61.

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Yoshikawa M, Murakami T, Kadoya M, Matsuda H, Muraoka O, Yamahara J, Murakami N. 1996. Medicinal foodstuff. III. Sugar beet. (1): Hypoglycemic oleanolic acid oligoglycosides, betavulgarosides I, II, III and IV, from the root of Beta vulgaris L. (Chenopodiaceae). Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 44(6):1212-1217. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Repollo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Repollo morado (Spanish); cabbage; green, purple or red cabbage (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L. [Brassicaceae (Mustard Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Diabetes - Heart disease - Menstrual disorders - Obesity - Intestinal parasites - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Leaves (fresh cabbage head) and juice from the leaves. Traditional Preparation: The leaves can be cooked (either as a vegetable or in a soup) or liquefied to make a fresh juice (zumo) and consumed as a nutritional foodstuff. Traditional Uses: Due to the disagreeable taste of the fresh juice, a small amount of fresh lemon/lime (limn) or carrot (zanahoria) juice can be added to make the juice more palatable and nutritious. In the Dominican Republic, the leaves are reputed to have wound-healing properties and are applied externally as a poultice (Liogier 2000). Availability: As a common vegetable, repollo can be purchased from most grocery stores, supermarkets and farmers markets in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Repollo (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) is an herbaceous plant that typically grows to 2 m tall with thin roots and a short, stout, woody stem; most of the plant is coated with a waxy bloom. Leaves are fleshy, smooth and, at the top of the plant, are tightly wrapped around each other forming a cabbage head; in color, they are blue-green, pale whitish-green or purple with visible, white veination; leaf edges are straight or slightly wavy. Flowers grow in clusters at the top of the plant and are 4-petaled and whitish- or golden-yellow. Fruits are dry and pod-like (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

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Distribution: Originally native to the Mediterranean, it is now cultivated widely in temperate and moist regions around the world (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No adverse effects have been identified in the literature associated with the appropriate use of this plant. Extracts of this plant were shown to be nontoxic in animal studies (Yurtsever & Yardimci 1999). Contraindications: Thyroid conditions: Caution is advised in patients with conditions such as hypothyroidism and euthyroid goiter which diminish thyroid function because the ingestion of cabbage leaves can reduce or interfere with iodine absorption (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Prothrombopenic anticoagulants: Anticoagulants such as bishydroxycoumarin (Dicoumarol), warfarin (Coumadin) and acenocoumarol may be antagonized or hindered by concomitant use of cabbage leaves due to their high Vitamin K content. Hypothyroid medications: Because cabbage leaves are goitrogenic, they may reduce thyroid iodine uptake and interfere with thyroid treatment (Brinker 1998).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Repollos therapeutic activities include its gastroprotective effects which are attributed to Vitamin U, an anti-ulcer factor that stimulates the regeneration of the mucous membrane of the stomach to protect it from gastric hydrochloric acid (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Cabbage leaves are a rich source of calcium (Brinker 1998). Indications and Usage: Repollo leaves can be eaten raw, prepared as a fresh juice or taken in pill form. Typical administration and dosage is 1 liter of juice taken daily for 3 weeks; duration of treatment not to exceed 6 weeks (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Brassica oleracea var. capitata

Activity/Effect Antitumor Preparation Juice extract prepared using petroleum ether, ether, ethanol and an A12O3 column Plant extract Leaf powder and aqueous extract Design & Model In vivo: mice with Ehrlich ascites (EA) solid tumors; administered 20 mg/day extract intraperitoneally for 28 days In vivo: experimental peptic ulceration In vivo: rats with aspirin-induced gastric ulcers Results Complete disappearance of tumors observed in 54.5% of treatment group and regression in 27%; also demonstrated strong protective and preventive effects Demonstrated peptic antiulcerogenic effects Active; gastric mucosal protection suggested by lowering of ulcer index & raised hexosamine levels Reference Yurtsever & Yardimci 1999

Antiulcer Antiulcer

Singh et al. 1962 Akhtar & Munir 1989

REFERENCES
Akhtar MS, Munir M. 1989. Evaluation of the gastric antiulcerogenic effect of Solanum nigrum, Brassica oleracea and Ocimum basilicum in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 27(1-2):163-176.

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Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Liogier AH. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola, 2nd Ed. Santo Domingo: Jardn Botnico Nacional. 598 pp. Singh GB, Zaidi SH, Bajpai RP. 1962. Effect of Brassica oleracea var. capitata in the prevention and healing of experimental peptic ulceration. Indian Journal of Medical Research 50(5):741-749. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Yurtsever E, Yardimici KT. 1999. The in vivo effect of a Brassica oleracea var. capitata extract on Ehrlich ascites tumors of MUS musculus BALB/C mice. Drug Metabolism & Drug Interactions 15(2-3):215-222.

Roble
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Roble prieto (Spanish); Indian bean (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Catalpa longissima (Jacq.) Dum.-Cours. Synonym: Bignonia longissima Jacq. [Bignoniaceae (Trumpetcreeper Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Abortifacient - Common cold - Delayed menses - Flu - Menstrual disorders - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Bark. Traditional Preparation: For the common cold or flu, the bark (cscara or corteza) is prepared as a tea. Traditional Uses: This herbal remedy is attributed bitter and astringent properties. To treat menstrual disorders, uterine fibroids, delayed menses and painful periods, the bark is added to multi-herb preparations (botellas) that are used for treating a variety of womens health conditions or taken as a simple decoction. The bark is sometimes combined with other herbs and used as an abortifacient. In the

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Dominican Republic, a decoction of the bark is used for treating stomach ache and abdominal pain (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Availability: In New York City, this plant is available for sale in select botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual stores) which specialize in selling medicinal plants from the Caribbean.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Roble (Catalpa longissima) is a deciduous tree that grows to 15 m. Leaves are arranged in opposite pairs along branches and are narrowly oval to lance-shaped and grow 10 -13 cm long with long leaf-stems. Flowers grow in branching, pendulous clusters with bell-shaped petals that are white in color with pink or purple fine lines. Fruits are long, slender capsules that split into 2 segments when ripe and contain numerous seeds adorned by a tuft of hairs at each end (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: This plant is native to the Caribbean and is planted in South Florida (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). This plant is often cultivated as an ornamental tree for its showy flowers and is also used for timber.

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No information on the safety or toxicity of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature. Animal Toxicity Studies: TRAMIL animal toxicity studies: an aqueous extract of the bark given orally to mice (25 g/kg) did not result in observable signs of toxicity or death; this extract administered intraperitoneally to mice yielded an LD50 of 17.26 4.28 g/kg. Daily administration of the extract for 30 days did not result in death during this study at doses of 6.25, 12.5 and 18.75 g/kg (Herrera 1988). Aqueous and organic fractions of the crude bark extract, administered orally at doses of up to 5 g/kg in mice did not induce observable signs of toxicity (Souza Brito 1995). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Roble (Catalpa longissima) and a closely related plant species (Catalpa ovata) have demonstrated the following pharmacological effects: antibacterial, antitumor, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, oxytocic and uterine relaxant (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Major biologically active chemical constituents are iridoid glycosides. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has designated Catalpa longissima as REC meaning that it is recommended for use in treating stomach ache and abdominal pain and amenorrhea (retraso de regla) prepared as a decoction of the bark and taken orally; it is also recommended for the treatment of fever prepared as decoction of the leaf with salt, taken orally (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Catalpa longissima and Related Species, Catalpa ovata
Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory Preparation Catalposide, an iridoid glycoside isolated from Catalpa ovata stem Design & Model In vitro: RAW 264.7 macrophages activated from lipopolysaccharide Results Showed inhibition of tumor necrosis factoralpha, interleutkin1beta and -6 & activation of nuclear factor kappaB; potential adjunctive therapy in gramnegative bacterial infections Significant antiinflammatory & antinociceptive effects; may be due to saponins, sterols or phenols content of leaves & pods Dramatically reduced weight loss, colonic damage & mucosal ulceration characteristic of TNBS-induced colitis; suppressed expression of TNF-alpha, interleukin-1beta & intercellular adhesion molecule-1, NF-kappa B p65 translocation into nucleus in colitis Exhibited significant inhibitory activity against 12-Otetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA)induced Epstein-Barr virus early antigen activation Active; inhibited lesion formation; in ethanolinduce gastric ulcer model, fractions showed 40% inhibition Reference An et al. 2002

Antiinflammatory & antinociceptive

Crude extracts of pods, seeds or leaves; ethyl ether, butanolic, & aqueous fractions of the pod extract (Catalpa longissima) Catalposide isolated from Catalpa ovata; intrarectal administration

In vitro

Munoz-Mingarro et al. 2003

Antiinflammatory & colitis treatment

In vivo: mice with trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis

Kim et al. 2004

Antitumor

Catalpa ovata stem bark extract; naphthoquinones isolated by bioassaydirected fractionation

In vitro: Raji cells

Fujiwara et al. 1998

Antiulcer

Catalpa longissima; aqueous & organic fractions of hydroalcoholic crude extract (70%); 1 g/kg

In vivo: administered orally in rats with indomethacin- & ethanol-induced gastric ulcers

Souza Brito 1995

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Activity/Effect Nitric oxide (NO) synthase & TNFalpha production inhibition

Preparation Stem bark of Catalpa ovata; methanol extract

Design & Model In vitro: endotoxin lipopolisaccharidestimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

Oxytocic

Catalpa longissima; leaf decoction (100 g)

In vitro: isolated rat uterus in estrus In vitro: isolated rat uterus

Uterine relaxant

Catalpa longissima leaf, aqueous extract; 33 mL/L

Results Inhibited production of TNF-alpha & nitric oxide with significant decreases in mRNA levels of TNF-alpha & inducible NO synthase, suggesting may have anti-inflammatory potential Active at doses of 12124 mg/mL; increased contraction amplitude but not frequency Active; exhibited muscle relaxant activity

Reference Pae et al. 2003

Herrera 1988

Feng et al. 1964

Effect Not Demonstrated Activity/Effect Antimalarial Preparation Catalpa longissima; hydroalcoholic bark extract Catalpa longissima; crude extracts of pods, seeds or leaves & organic fractions of pod extracts Design & Model In vivo: mice; subcutaneously administered: 1 g/kg In vitro Results No activity shown No antimicrobial or antitumoral effects shown Reference Sauvain et al. 1990 Munoz-Mingarro et al. 2003

Antimicrobial & cytotoxic

REFERENCES
An SJ, Pae HO, Oh, GS, Choi BM, Jeong S, Jang SI, Oh H, Kwon TO, Song CE, Chung HT. 2002. Inhibition of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 productions and NF-kappa B activation in lipopolysaccharide-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages by catalposide, an iridoid glycoside isolated from Catalpa ovata G. Don (Bignoniaceae). International Immunopharmacology 2(8):1173-81. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Feng PC, Haynes LJ, Magnus KE, Plimmer JR. 1964. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Further pharmacological screening of some West Indian medicinal plants. J Pharm Pharmacol 16:115. Fujiwara A, Mori T, Iida A, Ueda S, Hano Y, Nomura T, Tokuda H, Nishino H. 1998. Antitumor-promoting naphthoquinones from Catalpa ovata. Journal of Natural Products 61(5):629-632. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Herrera J. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Determinacin de actividades biolgicas de vegetales utilizados en medicina tradicional. Trabajo TRAMIL. Dep. de Farmacologa, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe.

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Kim SW, Choi SC, Choi EY, Kim KS, Oh JM, Lee HJ, Oh HM, Kim S, Oh BS, Kimm KC, Lee MH, Seo GS, Kim TH, Oh HC, Woo WH, Kim YS, Pae HO, Park DS, Chung HT, Jun CD. 2004. Catalposide, a compound isolated from catalpa ovata, attenuates induction of intestinal epithelial proinflammatory gene expression and reduces the severity of trinitrobenzene sulfonic Acid-induced colitis in mice. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 10(5):564-72. Munoz-Mingarro D, Acero N, Llinares F, Pozuelo JM, Galan de Mera A, Vicenten JA, Morales L, Alguacil LF, Perez C. 2003. Biological activity of extracts from Catalpa bignonioides Walt. (Bignoniaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87(2-3):163-7. Pae HO, Oh GS, Choi BM, Shin S, Chai KY, Oh H, Kim JM, Kim HJ, Jang SI, Chung HT. 2003. Inhibitory effects of the stem bark of Catalpa ovata G. Don. (Bignoniaceae) on the productions of tumor necrosis factoralpha and nitric oxide by the lipopolisaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 88(2-3):287-91. Sauvain M, Moretti C, Muoz V. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Pruebas in vivo para paludismo realizadas en Bolivia sobre varias plantas TRAMIL. ORSTOM/IRD/IBBA, La Paz, Bolivia. TRAMIL V, Livingston, Guatemala, CONAPLAMED/enda-caribe. Souza Brito A. 1995. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Actividad farmacolgica de Catalpa longissima. Trabajo TRAMIL. Dep. de Fisiologa y Biofsica, Universidad de Campinas ,Campinas, Brasil. TAMIL VII, Isla San Andrs, Colombia, UAG/U.Antioquia/enda-caribe. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Sbila
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Aloe vera (English, Spanish).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. F. Synonyms: Aloe perfoliata L. var. vera L., Aloe barbadensis Mill, Aloe vulgaris Lam. [Liliaceae (Lily Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Boils (nacos) - Common cold - Flu - Fungal infections - HIV/AIDS - Skin abrasions - Sunburn

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Uterine fibroids Wounds

Plant Part Used: Leaves and the gel (la cristal) from inside the leaves. Traditional Preparation: First, the spines are removed from the leaf to prevent injury, then the leaf is cut along the sides and opened to reveal a yellowish-greenish-gel inside. This gel is either placed in water for a period of time and then strained for use in internal preparations or applied topically to the affected area for external applications. Sometimes the entire leaf is cut open and placed directly on to a wound or other injury as a bandage to facilitate healing. Traditional Uses: Sbila is considered by many to be a cure-all, a powerful remedy for everything from minor cuts and abrasions to serious and chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer. For treating skin conditions such as cuts, scrapes, skin abrasions, sunburn, wounds, fungal infections and boils (nacos), the gel (cristal) is applied locally to the affected area. Sbila is also used for the common cold and flu (gripe) and is prepared by combining the clear gel from inside the leaf with any or all of the following additional ingredients: honey (miel), lemon/lime (limn), garlic (ajo), onion (cebolla) and/or shallots (cebolln). This mixture is liquefied in a blender and typically stored covered in a glass container in the refrigerator. As a remedy, this raw syrup preparation is administered orally in small amounts (by the spoonful). Another remedy for symptoms of the common cold (catarro or resfriado) and pulmonary infections is sbila gel added to coffee (caf). Availability: Fresh leaves can sometimes be purchased from grocery stores and supermarkets. Some botnicas also carry the fresh leaves. Aloe vera gel can be found at most pharmacies, drug stores, supermarkets and health food stores.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Sbila (Aloe vera) is a stemless, fleshy herb that typically grows 60-90 cm tall with horizontally creeping root-stems. Leaves are arranged in a dense spiral and are narrowly lance-shaped (30-60 3.5-8 cm), pointed at the tip, pale green in color, covered with a whitish waxy coating, sometimes spotted with irregular white marks. The leaves have a succulent, thick, stiff texture due to the clear watery sap or gel that they contain and are lined with reddish-tipped, spinelike teeth along the edges. Flowers grow in dense, branching clusters and are yellow to orangish in color, tubular in shape and borne atop a long, leafless stalk (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to the Mediterranean and northern Africa, this plant has been naturalized in warm and arid conditions, can be found in disturbed areas throughout Latin America and the Caribbean and is cultivated widely (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a strong purgative, spasmodic gastrointestinal disorders are a common side effect of internal administration of sbila; these complains include abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and perianal irritation and exacerbation of hemorrhoids. Rare cases of the following additional adverse reactions have been reported: arrhythmia, nephropathies, edema and accelerated bone deterioration. Due to the anthraquinone content of aloe latex, internal administration of this plant may stimulate uterine muscle activity or cause abortion (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Prolonged exposure of skin to the fresh gel or preparations made with the gel may result in contact dermatitis, skin irritation and hypersensitivity, so caution is recommended. Animal Toxicity Studies: Toxic effects were shown in animal studies when mice were administered 100mg/kg of an alcohol extract of Aloe vera in water for 3 months (Shah et al. 1989). However, the

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relevance of this study is questionable because this plant is primarily used fresh or as a decoction rather than as an alcohol extract. Contraindications: Not to be used by pregnant or lactating women or by children under 12 years of age. Contraindicated for those with intestinal obstruction, inflammatory intestinal diseases such as Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis, any type of ileus, appendicitis and abdominal pain of unknown origin (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Caution is advised when taken internally for in high doses for prolonged periods of time as this may lead to damage to enteric nervous tissue, pigmentation in the intestinal mucosa (Pseudomelanosis coli), albuminuria, hematuria, electrolyte loss, potassium depletion and hypokalemia (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: Cardiac glycosides and antiarrhythmic drugs: Because chronic use of Aloe can result in potassium loss which intensifies the effects of cardiac glycosides and antiarrhythmic drugs, concomitant use should be avoided and monitored for digoxin toxicity and potassium levels. Thiazide diuretics, loop diuretics, licorice and corticosteroids: due to increased potential for potassium deficiency when Aloe is used in combination with these drugs, avoid concomitant use. Antidiabetic agents: when taken with Aloe, can lead to increased risk of hypoglycemia; if administered concomitantly, monitor blood glucose levels and signs or symptoms of hypoglycemia (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, Aloe vera gel has demonstrated the following effects: anesthetic, antiviral, burn healing and wound healing (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and/or animal studies, it has demonstrated antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antioxidant, antitumor, antiulcer, apoptosis induction, burn healing, circulation stimulant, cytotoxic, enzyme inhibition, phase II enzyme induction, thyroid hormone inhibition and wound healing effects (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). Indications and Usage: Approved by the German Commission E for treatment of constipation (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Preparations of Aloe vera are available for internal use as capsules (250 mg, 470 mg), softgel capsules (1000 mg), powder, aqueous extracts and aqueous alcoholic extracts in powdered or liquid form. Recommended daily dosage is 20-30 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives per day (calculated as anhydrous aloin); this translates as 0.05 g Aloe vera powder, usually taken in the evening. Caution: not to be used over an extended period of time; i.e., for more than 1 to 2 weeks. For external use, fresh gel from the leaf or stabilized gel and cream preparations may be used as needed (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Aloe vera

Activity/Effect Anesthetic Antiviral Burn healing Wound healing Preparation Gel Gel Gel Gel Design & Model Humans Human clinical study Human clinical study Human clinical studies Results Effective insect sting treatment Antiviral against HSV1 and 2 Treatment of hot water burns Active; facilitates wound-healing Reference Coutts 1979 Sydiskia & Owen 1987 Crewe 1939 Cobble 1975, Loveman 1937, Barnes 1947

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Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Aloe vera

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic Preparation Leaf pulp and gel extracts Design & Model In vivo: rats; nondiabetic, type I & type II groups; effectiveness as a hypoglycemic agent compared with glibenclamide Results Leaf pulp showed hypoglycemic activity in type I and type II diabetic rats but was ineffective in lowering blood sugar level of non-diabetic rats; leaf gel extract showed hyperglycemic activity in type II diabetic rats; recommend leaves devoid of gel for treatment of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus Anti-inflammatory Showed inhibition of tumor growth & antimutagenic effects in Salmonella assay Antiulcer Significant effect observed at 10 g/mL; induced apoptosis in cancer cells Active; showed significant inhibition of enzymes ( 50%) Induced phase-II enzyme system; decreased liver dehydrogenase activity & malondialdehyde formation; showed protective effects against prooxidantinduced membrane and cellular damage; detoxified reactive metabolites in other organs (lung, kidney & forestomach) Reference Okyar et al. 2001

Antiinflammatory Antitumor, antimutagenic & cytotoxic Antiulcer Apoptosis induction

Gel Diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) isolated from plant Gel Diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) isolated from plant Crude ethanolic extract of leaves

In vivo: mice In vitro: human & animal cell lines; Salmonella typhimurium strains In vivo: rats In vitro: human leukemic cell lines K562, HL60 and U937 In vitro: against acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase & lipoxygenase enzymes In vivo: mice given extract at doses of 30 L and 60 L/day/mouse for 14 days

Davis et al. 1991 Lee, Kim et al. 2000 Galal et al. 1975 Lee, Hong et al. 2000 Khattak et al. 2005

Enzyme inhibition

Phase II enzyme induction & antioxidant

Fresh leaf pulp extract

Singh et al. 2000

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Activity/Effect Thyroid hormone inhibition

Preparation Leaf extract (125 mg/kg)

Design & Model In vivo: male mice

Wound healing & circulation stimulant

Lyophilized gel

In vivo: 48 rats; 4 groups: control, untreated burnwound, saline-treated burn-wound, & gel treated burn-wound

Results Inhibited serum levels of T(3) and T(4); suggest use in regulation of hyperthyroidism Stimulated microcirculation, showed antiinflammatory activity & promoted woundhealing on induced 2nd degree burn wound

Reference Kar et al. 2002

Somboonwong et al. 2000

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Barnes TC. 1947. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). The healing action of extracts of Aloe vera leaf on abrasions of human skin. Amer. J. Bot. 34:597. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Cobble HH. 1975. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Stabilized Aloe vera gel. Patent-U.S.-3, 892, 853. Coutts BC. 1979. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Stabilized Aloe vera gel. Patent-Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho-79 119, 018. 6 pp. Crewe JE. 1939. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Aloes in the treatment of burns and scalds. Minnesota Med. 22:538-539. Davis RH, Parker WI, Murdoch DP. 1991. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Aloe vera as a biologically active vehicle for hydrocortisone acetate. J. Amer. Pod. Med. Assn. 81(1):1-9. Galal EE, Kandil A, Hegazy R, El-Ghoroury M, Gobran W. 1975. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Aloe vera and gastrogenic ulceration. J. Drug Res. 7(2):73. Kar A, Panda S, Bhart S. 2002. Relative efficacy of three medicinal plant extracts in the alteration of thyroid hormone concentrations in male mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81(2):281-285. Khattak S, Saeed-Ur-Rehman, Shah HY, Khan T, Ahmad M. 2005. In vitro enzyme inhibition of crude ethanolic extracts derived from medicinal plants of Pakistan. Natural Product Research 19(6):567-571. Lee KH, Hong HS, Lee CH, Kim CH. 2000. Induction of apoptosis in human leukaemic cell lines K562, HL60 and U937 by diethylhexylphthalate isolated from Aloe vera Linne. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 52(8):1037-1041.

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Lee KH, Kim JH, Lim DS, Kim CH. 2000. Anti-leukaemic and anti-mutagenic effects of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate isolated from Aloe vera Linne. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 52(5):593-598. Loveman AB. 1937. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Leaf of Aloe vera in treatment of roentgen ray ulcers: Report on two additional cases. Arch. Dermatol. Syphilol. 36:838. Okyar A, Can A, Akev N, Baktir G, Sutlupinar N. 2001. Effect of Aloe vera leaves on blood glucose level in type I and type II diabetic rat models. Phytotherapy Research 15(20:157-161. Samboonwong J, Thanamittramanee S, Jariyapongskul A, Patumraj S. 2000. Therapeutic effects of Aloe vera on cutaneous microcirculation and wound healing in second degree burn model in rats. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 83(4):417-425. Shah AH, Qureshi S, Tariqu M, Ageel AM. 1989. Toxicity studies on six plants used in the traditional Arab system of medicine. Phytother. Res. 3(1):25-29. Singh RP, Dhanalakshmi S, Rao AR. 2000. Chemomodulatory action of Aloe vera on the profiles of enzymes associated with carcinogen metabolism and antioxidant status regulation in mice. Phytomedicine 7(3):209219. Sydiskia RJ, Owen DG. 1987. as cited in Gruenwald et al. (2004). Aloe emodin and other anthraquinones and anthraquinone-like compounds from plants virucidal against Herpes simplex viruses. Patent-U.S.-4, 670, 265. 7 pp. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Tabaco
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Tobacco (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Nicotiana spp. L.; typically Nicotiana tabacum L. [Solanaceae (Tomato Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Boils (naco ciego) - Edema or water retention - Headache - Insect bites - Sinusitis - Skin infections - Wounds

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Plant Part Used: Leaves. Traditional Preparation: For all of these health conditions, the leaf is applied topically to the affected area. Traditional Uses: This plant is described as a bitter herb. For wounds (heridas), peripheral edema or swelling (hinchazn), skin infections, boils (naco ciego) and insect bites, the dried leaves are applied topically with castor oil (aceite de higuereta) as a poultice. Swelling is reported to be reduced almost immediately upon applying this remedy. For headache and sinusitis, the leaf is slightly warmed and then applied topically to the forehead or sinus area to alleviate pain, reduce pressure and clear the sinuses. Tabaco smoke is said to dispel negativity (espanta lo malo) and is used in ritual healing or by spiritual healers to see visions, clear harmful energy and to enter a trance state for spirit mediumship. Availability: Dried leaves of tabaco can be purchased from some botnicas.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Tabaco (Nicotiana tabacum) is a stout, sticky annual or perennial herb that typically grows to 1-3 m. Leaves are alternate and oval-egg-shaped to lance-shaped. Flowers occur in large, branching clusters; petals are greenish-cream to pink or red in color and fused together at the base to form a tubular shape, then spreading at the end into 5-pointed lobes. Fruits are 2-valved capsules containing several tiny seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to tropical America, this cultigen originated in pre-Columbian times and is now widely grown, including in the Caribbean, as the main source of commercial tobacco which is used in the manufacture of cigarettes and cigars (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

Case Reports of Adverse Effects in Humans: One case has been reported of toxic effects in a child due to ingestion of the dried leaf resulting in CNS depression (Borys et al. 1988). The fresh leaf has shown allergenic activity in adult humans and has been reported as inducing dermatitis (Goncalo et al. 1990) and other forms of cutaneous hypersensitivity, as well as blood clotting disorders and fibrinolysis (Becker et al. 1981). Nicotine toxicity (called Green tobacco sickness) has been reported in 47 human adults due to dermal contact with the fresh leaf as a result of occupational exposure; the following toxic effects were observed: nausea, vomiting, weakness and vertigo (Anonymous 1993). Acute poisoning from nicotine has occurred from ingestion of aerosol insecticides containing this compound as an active ingredient or from ingestion of products derived from tabaco. The acute lethal dose for human adults is 60 mg of nicotinebased substances (Taylor 1996). Contraindications: Not recommended for use by pregnant or lactating women or children under the age of 5 years due to lack of information on safety for use by these populations (Germosn-Robineau 2005). Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
This plant has demonstrated acaricidal, antibacterial, antifungal and insecticidal activity in vitro. Plant extracts have shown antiglaucoma activity (Hodges et al. 1991). A related species, Nicotiana glauca, has demonstrated hepatoprotective effects in vivo in carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated rats given an oral dose of 4 mL/kg body weight of the non-boiled aqueous leaf extract (Janakat & Al-Merie 2002). The primary

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active compounds include pyridine alkaloids: nicotine (up to 30-60% of alkaloid content), N-formyl nornicotine, cotinine, myosmine, nicotyrine, anabasine and nicotelline (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: Oral administration of the leaf or herbal preparations of the leaf is not recommended because of potential toxicity. However, the external use of the leaves is indicated for specific health conditions. TRAMIL has classified tabaco as REC meaning that it is recommended for use in treating pediculosis (piojos), according to traditional methods which have been substantially documented. The above contraindications and precautions should be observed. A decoction or infusion of 2-4 dry leaves can be prepared per 1 liter of water; for a decoction, boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered container; for an infusion, combine the boiling water with the dried leaves, cut into small pieces, cover and allow it to cool (Germosn-Robineau 2005).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Nicotiana tabacum

Activity/Effect Acaricidal Antibacterial Antifungal Antifungal Insecticidal Preparation Methanolic leaf extract Methanolic leaf extract (60%) Methanolic extract of the fresh leaf Seed Methanolic leaf extract & alkaloid fractions Design & Model Against Rhipicephalus appendiculatus In vitro; 9 bacterial isolates In vitro In vitro Against larvae of Culex pipiens Results Active at 50 mg/mL Active against 6 out of 9 bacteria at 25 mg/mL Active against Aspergillus fumigatus Active against Puccinia recondita Active; 50% mortality within 48 h Reference Van Puyvelde et al. 1985 Akinpelu & Obuotor 2000 Leifertova & Lisa 1979 Grunweller et al. 1990 Yamaguchi et al. 1950

REFERENCES
Akinpelu DA, Obuotor EM. 2000. Antibacterial activity of Nicotiana tabacum leaves. Fitoterapia 71(2):199-200. Anonymous. 1993. as cited in Germosn-Robineau 2005. Green tobacco sickness in tobacco harvesters - Kentucky, 1992. Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report 42(13):237-240. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Becker C, Van Hamont N, Wagner M. 1981. Tobacco, cocoa, coffee, & ragweed: cross-reacting allergens that activate factor-XII-dependent pathways. Blood 58(5):861-867. Borys DJ, Setzer SC, Ling LJ. 1988. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). CNS depression in an infant after the ingestion of tobacco: a case report. Vet Hum Toxicol 30(1):20-22. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 2005. Farmacopea vegetal caribea, segunda edicin. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 487 pp. Goncalo M, Couto J, Goncalo S. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Allergic contact dermatitis from Nicotiana tabacum. Contact Dermatittis 22(3):188-189. Grunweller S, Schroder E, Kesselmeier J. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Biological activities of furostanol saponins from Nicotiana tabacum. Phytochemistry 29(8):2485-2490.

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Hodges LC, Robinson GW, Green K. 1991. Extract of tobacco callus with antiglaucoma activity. Phytotherapy Research 5(1):15-18. Janakat S, Al-Merie H. 2002. Evaluation of hepatoprotective effect of Pistacia lentiscus, Phillyrea latifolia and Nicotiana glauca. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 83(1-2):135-138. Leifertova I, Lisa M. 1979. The antifungal properties of higher plants affecting some species of the genus Aspergillus. Folia Pharm (Prague) 2:29-54. Taylor P. 1996. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Agents acting at the neuromuscular junction and autonomic ganglia. In: Goodman & Gilman (Eds). The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 9th ed. New York, USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., International Edition. p 193. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Van Puyvelde L, Geysen D, Ayobangira FX, Hakizamungu E, Nshimiyimana A, Kalisa A. 1985. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Screening of medicinal plants from Rwanda for acaricidal activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 13(2):209-215. Yamaguchi K, Suzuki T, Katayama A, Sasa M, Iida S. 1950. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (2005). Insecticidal action of Japanese plants. II. A general method of detecting effective fractions and its application to 24 species of insecticidal plants. Botyu Kagaku 15:62-70. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Tamarindo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Tamarind (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Tamarindus indica L. [Caesalpiniaceae (Senna Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Cleansing the blood - Excess heat - Headache - Hepatitis C - Hormonal imbalance - Insomnia - Kidney disorders - Liver disorders - Menopausal hot flashes - Migraine headache

404

Nightsweats Prostate disorders

Plant Part Used: Ripe fruit pods, leaves and bark. Traditional Preparation: To prepare a refreshing and therapeutic beverage from the fruit, the ripe seed pods are broken open, the stringy veins, seeds and rind are removed and the fruit pulp is squeezed out. This pulp is lightly pounded and allowed to soak in water so that it softens, releases its juices and imparts a tangy flavor to the water. Traditional Uses: The fruit pulp and leaves of this plant are considered cooling (fresca) and blood purifying/cleansing remedies. A beverage made from the fruit-pulp (called refresco de tamarindo or jugo de tamarindo) is a remedy for insomnia, headache, migraines, menopausal hot flashes, nightsweats, hormonal imbalance and conditions associated with excess heat in the body. A decoction of the fruit pulp is used for menopausal hot flashes and is often combined with cornsilk (barba de maz), prepared with the pulp of one tamarind fruit and one small handful of cornsilk (equivalent to the silky tassel of one ear of corn) per 2 cups of water. For treating disorders of the liver, kidney and prostate, the dried leaves, branches or bark can be prepared as a tea or decoction and taken orally. For severe liver disorders or Hepatitis C, this plant may be combined with other medicinal plants such as Caribbean coralfruit (batata de burro) or cockleburr (caudillo de gato). Availability: Seed pods are available at select grocery stores and supermarkets that sell ethnic foods and can also be purchased at botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herb and spiritual shops) along with the dried leaves.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Tamarindo (Tamarindus indica) is a long-lived tree that grows to 10 m. Leaves are pinnately compound such that they are composed of several leaflets arranged in opposite pairs; each leaflet is oblong-oval in shape with a blunt or rounded tip and asymmetric base. Flowers grow in branching clusters; petals are yellow with reddish veins. Fruits are oblong legumes (10-15 cm long) that are leathery when ripe, can be straight or curved in shape and tan to light brown in color; each pod contains several dark brown seeds surrounded by a tart, brown, edible, sticky pulp that has a fruity, sweet aroma (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Native to India, this plant is cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics including the Caribbean, commonly growing in open, dry areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As the fruit of this plant is widely eaten in diverse geographical regions, it is generally considered safe for human consumption. No known negative side effects or health risks have been identified in the scientific literature associated with the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant (Gruenwald et al. 2004). However, the fruits or seed pods of this plant contain an irritating, hypoglycemic alkaloid. Insufficient information is available on the toxicity of the leaves or the bark (Germosn-Robineau 1995). In a mutagenicity study using the fruit, this plant demonstrated positive results against strains of Salmonella thyphimurium TA1535, but not against strains 1537, 1538 or 98 (Sivaswamy et al. 1991). Animal Toxicity Studies: No evidence of acute toxicity was shown when a polyphenolic extract of the seeds was administered to mice at doses of 100-500 mg/kg (Komutarin et al. 2004). Contraindications: None identified in the available literature.

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Drug Interactions: When administered concomitantly with Ibuprofen, tamarind fruit extract significantly increased the bioavailability of the drug, especially if taken with meals (Garba et al. 2003).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In one clinical study, the fruit pulp showed increased bioavailability of ibuprofen (see Clinical Data table below). In laboratory and/or animal studies, this plant has shown the following effects: antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, colon cell proliferation stimulation, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory and nitric oxide inhibition (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). In one animal study, this plant did not show hypocholesterolemic effects (see Effect Not Demonstrated table below). According to secondary references, the fruit pulp and/or dried seeds have demonstrated laxative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory effects and wound-healing (Gruenwald et al. 2004). This plant is officially recognized by the following national or regional pharmacopeias: Oriental Medicine 1969; France, IX Ed; and Indonesia 1965. Also, it is registered in the following directories: Directory of Japanese Drugs 1973; List of the Office of Control of Medications, Berna 1978; and the Pharmaceutical Codex of India 1953 (Penso 1980). Active constituents include fruit acids: tartaric, malic, citric and lactic acids; pectin, pyrazines and thiazols (Gruenwald et al. 2004). The pulp contains significant amounts of vitamin C and iron. Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has categorized this plant as INV meaning that it needs more investigation before a clinical recommendation can be made. In particular, research is needed to support the following popular uses reported in the Caribbean: internal use of the leaf decoction to treat chickenpox and decoctions of various parts of the plant for treating jaundice. Additionally, data on the LD50 and subchronic toxicity of oral preparations of this plant is needed (Germosn-Robineau 1995). Based on results from a Chinese dosification study on medicinal plants, the daily therapeutic dose of the dried fruit is 2 g (Germosn-Robineau 1995). The seed pods are often sold as a raw paste which can be added to hot water or pureed with other laxative ingredients (such as figs) with a daily dosage of 10-50 g of the cleaned paste (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Tamarindus indica

Activity/Effect Ibuprofen bioavailability Preparation Fruit extract, incorporated into meal plus 400 mg Ibuprofen tables Design & Model Clinical study; healthy human volunteers (n=6) Results Increase in plasma levels of Ibuprofen & its metabolites significantly greater when fruit extract was administered with ibuprofen tablets rather than when fasting Reference Garba et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Tamarindus indica

Activity/Effect Antidiabetic Preparation Aqueous seed extract; 80 mg/0.5 mL water/100 g b.w./day by gavage Design & Model In vivo: rats with streptozotocininduced diabetes; duration: 7 & 14 days Results Reduced fasting blood sugar levels; elevated liver & skeletal muscle glycogen content Reference Maiti et al. 2004

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Activity/Effect Antiinflammatory

Preparation Aqueous, ethanol & chloroform plant extract; topical or intraperitoneal administration Plant extract

Antioxidant

Design & Model In vivo: mice with ear edema induced by arachidonic acid & rats with subplantar edema induced by carrageenan In vitro: DPPH radical reduction assay & lipid peroxidation test

Results At least one extract was moderately active

Reference Rimbau et al. 1999

Colonic cell proliferation effects

Fruit pulp

Hepatoprotective Aqueous leaf extract (infused for 15 & antioxidant minutes, followed by maceration for 4 hours) Immunomodulatory Isolated polysaccharide

Nitric oxide inhibition

Seed coat extract (polyphenolic flavonoid)

Active; showed IC50<30 micro g/mL & IC50<32 micro g/mL in lipid peroxidation inhibition test In vivo: mouse with Showed a co-stimulatory subacute dose of Neffect on MNU-induced nitroso N-methyl urea colonic cell proliferation (MNU) rates; may have implications for cancer susceptibility In vitro: rat liver cells Opposed rat liver cell death induced by TBH & experimentally exhibited antioxidant intoxicated with tertactivity against lipid butyl hydroperoxide (TBH); DPPH radical peroxidation scavenging test In vitro Active; showed phagocytic enhancement, leukocyte migration inhibition & inhibition of cell proliferation Active; concentration- & In vivo & in vitro: dose-dependent inhibition murine macrophageof nitric oxide (in vitro as like cell lines & much as 68%); no evidence isolated mouse of acute toxicity peritoneal macrophages

Ramos et la. 2003 Shivshankar & Shyamala Devi 2004

Arvis et al. 1986

Sreelekha et al. 1993

Komutarin et al. 2004

Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Hypocholesterolemic Preparation Seed paste, dietary administration; 5 the normal human intake level Design & Model In vivo: rats, normal & with a hypercholesterolemic inducing diet Results No signs of cholesterollowering effect on serum & liver cholesterol levels Reference Sambaiah & Srinivasan 1991

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press, 724 pp.

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Arvis P, Joyeux M, Fleurentin J, et al. 1986. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Influences dextraits de Cuscuta americana et Tamarindus indicus sur hpatocytes fraichement isols de rats. TRAMIL II. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana, enda-caribe/UASD. Garba M, Yakasai IA, Bakare MT, Munir HY. Effect of Tamarindus indica L on the bioavailability of ibuprofen in healthy human volunteers. European Journal of Drug Metabolism & Pharmacokinetics 28(3):179-184. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Komutarin T, Azadi S, Butterworth L, Keil D, Chitsomboon B, Suttajit M, Meade BJ. 2004. Extract of the seed coat of Tamarindus indica inhibits nitric oxide production by murine macrophages in vitro and in vivo. Food & Chemical Toxicology 42(4):649-658. Penso G. 1980. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Inventory of medicinal plants used in different countries. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Ramos A, Visozo A, Pilot J, Garcia A, Rodriguez CA, Rivero R. 2003. Screening of antimutagenicity via antioxidant activity in Cuban medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87(2-3):241-246. Rimbau V, Cerdan C, Vila R, Iglesias J. 1999. Antiinflammatory activity of some extracts from plants used in the traditional medicine of north-African countries (II). Phytotherapy Research 13(2):128-132. Sambaiah K, Srinivasan K. 1991. Effect of cumin, cinnamon, ginger, mustard and tamarind in induced hypercholesterolemic rats. Nahrung 35(1):47-51. Shivshankar P, Shyamala Devi CS. 2004. Evaluation of co-stimulatory effects of Tamarindus indica L. on MNUinduced colonic cell proliferation. Food & Chemical Toxicology 42(8):1237-1244. Sivaswamy S et al. 1991. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Mutagenic activity of south Indian food items. Indian J Exp Biol 29(8):730-737. Sreelekha TT, Vijayakumar T, Ankanthil R, Vijayan KK, Nair MK. 1993. Immunomodulatory effects of a polysaccharide from Tamarindus indica. Anti-Cancer Drugs 4(2):209-212. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Tilo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
T de tilo (Spanish); linden, lime tree (not citrus), basswood (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Tilia spp. (L.); typically Tilia mandshurica (Rupr. and Maxim.), Tilia platyphyllos (Scop.) and another common commercial species, Tilia cordata (Mill.) which is widely planted as an ornamental street tree [Tiliaceae (Linden Family)].

408

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Anxiety - Insomnia - Menopausal hot flashes - Menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding) - Nervios - Stress - Uterine fibroids - Womens health conditions Plant Part Used: Flowers and attached leaf bracts, usually dried. Traditional Preparation: To prepare a tea, steep a small handful of dried flowers in hot water for 5 minutes and take 1 cup 2-3 times daily, as needed. Traditional Uses: This plant is attributed calming and cooling properties and is a popular remedy for insomnia, stress and nervousness or anxiety (nervios). The flowers are often prepared as a tea for relaxation. It is also a common remedy for womens health conditions, including menorrhagia, uterine fibroids and menopausal hot flashes. Combined with chamomile (manzanilla) flowers, it can be used as a tea for difficulty with falling asleep and is sometimes given to children. Availability: Sold as an herbal tea in some supermarkets and grocery stores, the dried flowers are available for purchase at several botnicas. Some Dominicans have reported collecting tilo flowers from trees growing in New York City parks or tree-lined streets as it is commonly cultivated as an ornamental tree.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Tilo (Tilia mandshurica) is a large, deciduous tree that can grow to 20-30 m tall. Leaves are alternate, dark green, smooth and rounded-oval to heart-shaped (15 cm long) with fine, long-pointed, uneven teeth along the edges; upper surface is sparsely covered with short, soft hairs and the lower surface is thickly covered with grayish- or whitish-wooly hairs without tufts at the intersections of veins (as in other Tilia species). Flowers occur in rounded clusters of 7-10 individuals and have 5 petals that are light yellowish to white and sweetly fragrant (to 2 cm across); each flower stalk is attached for half its length to a long, slender, pale green leaf bract that is rounded at the tip. Fruits are round and nutlike with 5 ribs along the base and containing 1-3 seeds (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to Northeast Asia, this plant is cultivated widely in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere as an ornamental tree, a source of nectar for bees and to furnish fiber from the inner bark and wood. Species within this genus are relatively similar and frequently hybridize to form different varieties (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No health risks or harmful side effects are known associated with the appropriate therapeutic use of this plant (Gruenwald et al. 2004). This plant has been rated as relatively safe as long it is not taken in excessive amounts or for an extended period of time (Griffith 1998). Excessively frequent and repeated use of the tea may be harmful to the heart (Pahlow 1979). Bacterial (Bacillus cereus) and yeast contamination have been detected in commercial supplies of dried flowers (Martins et al. 2001). In an

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acute toxicity test of the inflorescence extracts in mice, the LD50 was 375 mg/kg of the methanol extract and 2900 mg/kg for the hexane extract (Aguirre-Hernndez et al. 2007). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Tilo (Tilia species) has demonstrated the following pharmacological effects in laboratory studies: antigenotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antinociceptive, antioxidant, anxiolytic, GABAa receptor binding, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, iron absorption increase, mucilaginous and sedative (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). In one in vitro study a water extract of T. argentea failed to show antibacterial activity in a disk diffusion assay (Yildirim et al. 2000). Proper storage is important because heat and moisture may decrease the therapeutic action of this plant (List and Hrhammer 1979). In European herbal medicine, this plant has been used since medieval times as a diaphoretic (to promote perspiration) and as both a nervine (tranquilizer) and a stimulant. It has also been used to treat headaches, indigestion, hysteria, diarrhea and epilepsy (Foster and Tyler 1999). Major chemical constituents of the leaf include: flavonoids: tiliroside, kempferol-3,7dirhamnoside, kempferol-3-O-glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside, linarine, quercetin-3,7-di-O-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside; tannins and mucilage. The flower contains: afzelin, astragalin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, kempferitrin, quercitrin, tiliroside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside, kempferol-3-O-rhamnoside, kempferol-3-O-glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside, quercetrin-rhamnoxyloside, rutin; hydroxycoumarins: calycanthoside, aesculin; caffeic acid derivatives: chlorogenic acid; mucilage; tannins; and volatile oil: linalool, germacrene, geraniol, 1,8-cineole, 2-phenyl ethanol, phenyl ethyl benzoate and alkanes (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Indications and Usage: Flowers are approved by the Commission E for the treatment of cough and bronchitis (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Dried flowers are available in crushed or powdered form and administered as a tea. To prepare a tea, infuse 2 g herb (1 heaping teaspoonful) in 1 cup hot water and steep for 5-10 minutes. Recommended daily dosage is 2-4 g of the herb (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Tilia spp.

Activity/Effect Antigenotoxic Preparation Infusion of Tilia cordata Flavonoids from leaves of Tilia argentea Water extract of Tilia argentea Complex fraction of Tilia tomentosa flower extract Design & Model In vitro: hydrogen peroxide used as oxidative genotoxicant In vivo: mice; induced writhing & paw edema models In vitro: thiocyanate method In vivo: mice; administered intraperitoneally Results Active; desmutagenic; detoxified the mutagen hydrogen peroxide, potentially due to phenols Potently active at 50 mg/kg; no acute toxicity or gastric damage Active; statistically significant at 100 g Active; showed anxiolytic effects in elevated plusmaze & holeboard tests Reference RomeroJimenez et al. 2005 Toker et al. 2004 Yildirim et al. 2000 Viola et al. 1994

Antinociceptive & antiinflammatory Antioxidant Anxiolytic

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Activity/Effect Anxiolytic

Anxiolytic & sedative

Preparation Lyophilized aqueous extracts of the flowers of Tilia europea (dosage: 5-100 mg/kg) Inflorescence extracts of Tilia americana var. mexicana (100 mg/kg dosage of various extracts) Aqueous extracts of Tilia europeae

Design & Model In vivo: mice in elevated plus maze, open-field & horizontal wire tests In vivo: mice, tests of sodium pentobarbitalinduced hypnosis potentiation, ambulatory activity, plus-maze & exploratory cylinder In vitro: rat brain assay

Results Showed significant anxiolytic effects; strong sedative effect (doses 10100 mg/kg) Active; methanol & hexane extracts showed significant dose-dependent response; showed central nervous system depression; effects similar to those of diazepam Inhibited (3H) muscimol binding, displaced (3H) flunitrazepam bound to synaptic membranes & stimulated 36Cl- uptake by synaptoneurosomes Active; mechanism involved inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production, protection of liver cells against Dgalactosamine & decreased sensitivity of liver cells to TNF-alpha Showed concentrationdependent cytostatic & cytotoxic effects; stimulated cell proliferation in normal T lymphocytes via interaction with protein kinase C; results suggest potential as an antitumoral agent in cancer treatment Active; promoted absorption of iron Moderately active; support use in treating irritated buccal membranes

Reference Coleta et al. 2001

AguirreHernndez et al. 2007

GABAa receptor binding

Cavadas et al. 1997

Hepatoprotective Methanolic flower extract of Tilia argentea; isolated flavonol glycosides, including tiliroside Scopoletin, a coumarin isolated from Tilia cordata (EC50=251 15 g/mL)

In vivo: mice with experimentallyinduced liver injury (by D-galactosamine or lipopolysaccharide)

Matsuda et al. 2002

Immunomodulatory

In vitro: normal T lymphocytes & hyperproliferative T lymphoma cells

Manuele et al. 2006

Iron absorption increased Mucilaginous

Flower extract Raw polysaccharides of Tilia cordata

Ex vivo: tied-off intestinal segments of rats Ex vivo: epithelial tissue based on porcine buccal membranes

el-Shobaki et al. 1990 Schmidgall et al. 2000

REFERENCES
Aguirre-Hernndez E, Martnez AL, Gonzlez-Trujano ME, Moreno J, Vibrans H, Soto-Hernndez M. 2007. Pharmacological evaluation of the anxiolytic and sedative effects of Tilia americana L. var. mexicana in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109(1):140-5.

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Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Cavadas C, Fontes Ribeiro CA, Santos MS, Cunha AP, Macedo T, Caramona MM, Cotrim MD. 1997. In vitro study of the interaction of Tilia europeae L. aqueous extract with GABAa receptors in rat brain. Phytotherapy Research 11(1):17-21. Coleta M, Campos MG, Cotrim MD, Proenca da Cunha A. 2001. Comparative evaluation of Melissa officinalis L., Tilia europea L., Passiflora edulis Sims. and Hypericum perforatum L. in the elevated plus maze anxiety test. Pharmacopsychiatry 34 Suppl 1:S20-1. el-Shobaki FA, Saleh ZA, Saleh N. 1990. The effect of some beverage extracts on intestinal iron absorption. Zeitschrift fur Ernahrugswissenschaft 29(4):264-9. Foster S, Tyler VE. 1999. Tylers Honest Herbal: A Sensible Guide to the Use of Herbs and Related Remedies, Fourth Edition. New York: Haworth Herbal Press, 442 pp. Griffith HW. 1998. Vitamins, Minerals and Supplements: The Complete Guide. Tucson: Fisher Books, 504 pp. List PH, Hrhammer L. 1979. Hagers Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis, Fourth Edition, Volumbe 6C. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 180-4. Manuele MG, Ferraro G, Barreiro Arcos ML, Lpez P, Cremaschi G, Anesini C. 2006. Comparative immunomodulatory effect of scopoletin on tumoral and normal lymphocytes. Life Sci 79(21):2043-8. Martins HM, Martins ML, Dias MI, Barnardo F. 2001. Evaluation of microbiological quality of medicinal plants used in natural infusions. International Journal of Food Microbiology 68(1-2):149-53. Matsuda H, Ninomiya K, Shimoda H, Yoshikawa M. 2002. Hepatoprotective principles from the flowers of Tilia argentea (linden): structure requirements of tiliroside and mechanisms of action. Bioorg Med Chem 10(3):707-12. Pahlow M. 1979. Das Grosse Buch der Heilpflanzen. Grfe und Unzer GmbH, Munich, Germany, pp. 221-3. Romero-Jimnez M, Campos-Snchez J, Anala M, Muoz-Serrano A, Alonso-Moraga A. 2005. Genotoxicity and anti-genotoxicity of some traditional medicinal herbs. Mutation Research 585(1-2):147-55. Schmidgall J, Schnetz E, Hensel A. 2000. Evidence for bioadhesive effects of polysaccharides and polysaccharidecontaining herbs in an ex vivo bioadhesion assay on buccal membranes. Planta Medica 66(1):48-53. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Toker G, Kupeli E, Memisoglu M, Yesilada E. 2004. Flavonoids with antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities from the leaves of Tilia argentea (silver linden). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 95(2-3):393-7. Viola H, Wolfman C, Levi de Stein M, Wasowski C, Pena C, Medina JH, Paladini AC. 1994. Isolation of pharmacologically active benzodiazepine receptor ligands from Tilia tomentosa (Tiliaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 44(1):47-53.

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Yildirim A, Mavi A, Oktay M, Kara AA, Algur OF, Bilaloglu V. 2000. Comparison of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of tilia (Tilia argentea Desf ex DC), sage (Salvia triloba L.) and black tea (Camellia sinensis) extracts. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 48(10):5030-4. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Timacle
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Bejuco de barraco, bejuco de berraco, quimaque, timaque (Spanish); West Indian snowberry, snowberry (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Chiococca alba (L.) Hitchc. Synonym: Chiococca parvifolia Wullschl. ex. Griseb. [Rubiaceae (Bedstraw or Madder Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Genitourinary infections - Limpiar el sistema - Reproductive disorders - Sexually transmitted infections - Uterine fibroids Plant Part Used: Root, leaf, flower and aerial parts. Traditional Preparation: Timacle root is often added to herbal mixtures or tinctures (botellas) and strong infusions or decoctions (tisanas) in combination with other roots and herbs; these herbal preparations may be used to treat a variety of ailments. Traditional Uses: In the Dominican Republic, this plant is attributed the following therapeutic properties: astringent, diuretic and emetic. The flowers are considered emollient (Liogier 2000). Availability: Timacle can sometimes be purchased from botnicas that specialize in selling Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Timacle (Chiococca alba) is a climbing shrub or vine that grows to 10 m tall with numerous side branches in opposite pairs along the stem. The main stem is twining, furrowed and hairy. Leaves are opposite, smooth-surfaced and narrowly oval in shape. Flowers are yellow and grow in small clusters; petals are fused at the base to form a funnel-like shape, are marked by reddish lines on the outer surface and open at the end into 5 triangular lobes resembling a star. Fruits are fleshy, nearly circular, flattened drupes that turn from green to white when ripe (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996).

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Distribution: Distributed throughout the Caribbean and much of Latin America, this common climbing shrub can be found in open, disturbed, moist areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996) and is commonly used for herbal medicine where it grows.

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No information on the safety of this plant in humans has been identified in the available literature. Animal Toxicity Studies: Toxicity studies in mice using the aqueous decoction of the root (1-5 g/kg) did not result in any fatalities (Saravia 1992). In mice, the ethanolic extract of the root showed hypoactivity but did not cause death when administered as a single oral dose (up to 2000 mg/kg) nor did it show signs of liver monooxygenase activity alteration. Intraperitoneal and subcutaneous administration of ethanolic root extracts showed significantly greater toxicity. In chronic toxicity tests, gavage administration of the ethanolic root extract for 14 days did not result in any deaths. In mutagenicity studies using the Salmonella/microsome assay, the ethanolic extract did not show mutagenic effects. Overall, when administered orally to mice, ethanolic extracts of the root were not mutagenic and presented a low acute and subacute toxicity (Gazda et al. 2006). Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
This plant has exhibited antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity in laboratory studies (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data table below). The following compounds have been identified in the root: alkaloids, methyl salicylate and tannins (Duke 1992). Merilactone (a C-19 metabolite from methanol root extract) is a novel nor-seco-primaraine chemical structure that was recently isolated (Borges-Argaez et al. 2001). Three new iridoid compounds (alboside I, alboside II and alboside III) and a novel secoiridoid (alboside V) have been isolated from this plant (Carbonezi et al. 1999). Indications and Usage: According to TRAMIL, the medicinal use of the aqueous maceration of the root remains classified as Needing more investigation before making a clinical recommendation. This classification is based on its most frequently reported use in the Caribbean as a remedy for the treatment of urethritis and ganglial inflammation of the groin (Germosn-Robineau 1995). This plant has been recognized by the French Pharmacopoea, IX Ed. and is registered in the Directory of Japanese Drugs, 1973 (Penso 1980).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Chiococca alba

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Ethanolic extract of root Ethanolic extract of leaves Ethanolic extract (95%) of the entire dried plant Design & Model In vitro: Bacillus subtilis In vivo In vitro: tumor cell lines Results Demonstrated slight antibacterial activity Demonstrated antiinflammatory activity Extracts demonstrated inhibition of tumor growth: root extract 77.5%, stem 69.6%, leaf 65.9% Reference Le Grand & Wondergem 1986 Schapoval et al. 1983 Nascimento et al. 1990

Antiinflammatory Cytotoxic

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Effect Not Demonstrated

Activity/Effect Antigonorrheal Preparation Ethanolic maceration of the root (10%) Design & Model In vitro: Neisseria gonorrhea Results Not active Reference Caceres et al. 1992

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Borges-Argaez R, Medina-Baizabal L, May-Pat F, Waterman PG, Pena-Rodriguez LM. 2001. Merilactone, an unusual C-19 metabolite from the root extract of Chiococca alba. Journal of Natural Products 64(2):22831. Caceres A, et al. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Antigonorrhoeal activity of plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. TRAMIL VI. Guadeloupe, U.A.G./enda-caribe. Carbonezi CA, Martins D, Young MC, Lopes MN, Furlan M, Rodriguez Filho E, Bolzani Vda S. Iridoid and secoiridoid glycosides from Chiococca alba (Rubiaceae). Phytochemistry 51(6):781-5. Duke J. 1992. Handbook of biologically active phytochemicals and their activities. Boca Ratn: CRS Press. Gazda VE, Gomes-Carneiro MR, Barbi NS, Paumgartten FJ. 2006. Toxicological evaluation of an ethanolic extract from Chiococca alba roots. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 105(1-2):187-95. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Le Grand A, Wondergem P. 1986. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Activits antimicrobiennes et etudes bibliographiques de la toxicologie de dix plantes mdicinales de la carabe. TRAMIL II, Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana. Liogier AH. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola, 2nd Ed. Santo Domingo: Jardn Botnico Nacional. 598 pp. Nascimento S, et al. 1990. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities in plants from Pernambuco, Brazil. Fitoterapia 61(4):353-355. Penso G. 1980. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Inventory of medicinal plants used in different countries. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Saravia A. 1992. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Estudios sobre plantas TRAMIL. TRAMIL VI. Guadeloupe, U.A.G./enda-caribe. Schapoval R, et al. 1983. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Simpsio Nacional De Farmacologia e Qumica de Prod. Natur., 2, Brazil, Joo Pessao, LTF.

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Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Tomillo
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Common thyme, garden thyme, thyme (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Thymus vulgaris L. [Lamiaceae (Mint Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 20022003): - Cough - Digestive and gastrointestinal disorders - Skin disorders - Upper or lower respiratory tract infections Plant Part Used: Leaves and stems. Traditional Preparation: An infusion or decoction of the leaves or aerial parts is used for treating digestive and gastrointestinal disorders, cough and upper or lower respiratory tract infections. Traditional Uses: The leaves are added to baths for skin disorders and spiritual purposes. Availability: As a popular culinary seasoning tomillo herb (usually dried but sometimes fresh) can be found at most grocery stores and supermarkets and is also sold at many botnicas in New York City.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Tomillo (Thymus vulgaris) is a multi-branching small shrub that grows upright to 15-38 cm tall with woody stems that are square in cross section. Leaves are small, dark green and arranged in opposite pairs along stems; they are linear to narrowly oval in shape, covered with glandular dots and slightly hairy on the underside. Flowers occur in dense, rounded clusters with pale lilac to whitish petals. Fruits are four smooth, tiny nuts. This plant is highly aromatic with a sharp, musky-camphor-like odor (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Originally native to the western Mediterranean, this popular culinary herb is cultivated in diverse temperate regions around the world (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

As a popular culinary seasoning, this herb is widely used as a condiment. When administered appropriately, there are no known health hazards or negative side effects associated with its therapeutic use, except for a low potential for allergic reaction (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Few cases of hypersensitivity

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to tomillo have been reported; however, cross-sensitivity to plants belonging to the mint (Lamiaceae) family has been observed in clinical settings and laboratory research (Benito et al. 1996). Animal Toxicity Studies: In an animal study involving rats fed a diet containing 2% or 10% Thymus vulgaris leaves, no evidence of toxicity was observed (Haroun et al. 2002). The essential oil, administered orally to mice as 0.25% of feed ad libitum for two weeks prior to mating resulted in no positive or negative observable effects on embryo growth or development as shown in embryos in the blastocyst stage collected on day four of pregnancy (Domarack et al. 2007). Contraindications: Contraindicated during pregnancy due to demonstrated effects as an emmenagogue. Caution advised in patients with acute inflammation of the urinary tract or gastrointestinal tract due to the potentially irritating effects of this herb on mucosa of the renal, urinary and gastrointestinal tracts. (Brinker 1998). Patients with extensive skin injuries, acute dermatological conditions, high fevers, severe infectious diseases, heart conditions or hypertonia should avoid whole-body baths except when approved by a physician (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, this herb (in combination with other plant extracts) was shown to be an effective treatment for bronchitis and cough, and in preclinical and laboratory studies, the following effects have been demonstrated: acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiplatelet, antiprotozoan, antispasmodic, antiviral (against herpes simplex virus), phase I & II enzyme induction trypanocidal activity (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below.) Primary active compounds include the volatile oil (1.0-2.5%): thymol, p-cymene, carvacrol, gamma-terpinene, borneol and linalool; caffeic acid derivatives: rosmarinic acid; flavonoids: luteolin, apigenin, naringenin and eriodictyol, cirsilineol, salvigenin, cirsimaritin, thymonine and thymusine; and triterpenes: ursolic acid and oleanolic acid (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Dried thyme is a significant source of Vitamin K, iron, manganese and calcium (US Dept. of Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: This herb has been approved by the Commission E for the treatment of cough and bronchitis (Blumenthal et al. 1998). Typical daily dosage is 10 g herb. This herb can be prepared as dried leaves, powdered herb, tea, infusion, bath, tincture, oil or liquid extract. To prepare a tea, add 1 cup (150 mL) boiling water to 1.5-2 g (1 heaping teaspoonful) of herb, steep for 10 minutes, then strain; take 1-3 daily. For an infusion, steep longer; take several times daily. For the powdered herb, take 1-4 g twice daily. For a bath, add 500 g herb to 4 liters boiling water, filter, then add to bath water or add 0.004 g thyme oil to 1 liter water and then add to bath; bath duration: 10-20 minutes (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Clinical Data: Thymus vulgaris

Activity/Effect Bronchitis treatment Preparation Fixed fluid extract combination of thyme & ivy leaves; dosage: 5.4 mL 3 daily; treatment duration: 11 days Design & Model Randomized, doubleblind, placebocontrolled, multicenter study; 361 outpatients with acute bronchitis & 10 coughing fits daily, bronchial mucus production & bronchitis severity score symptoms Results Herbal treatment was superior to placebo; showed mean reduction of coughing fits relative to baseline of 68.7% vs. 47.5% for placebo (on days 7-9 of intervention); treatment group showed 50% reduction in coughing fits from baseline 2 days prior to placebo; improved acute bronchitis symptoms; no serious adverse effects Showed statistically significant decrease on BSS symptom score as compared with baseline; no significant differences between treatment groups were observed; both treatments were well tolerated & showed comparable results in efficacy of symptom relief Improved symptoms scores compared to baseline & treatment was welltolerated; doctors & patients reported good or very good efficacy (86% & 90%); one adverse event was reported but was considered unrelated to treatment Reference Kemmerich et al. 2006

Bronchitis treatment

Cough treatment

Thyme fluid extract & primrose root fluid extract in Bronchicum Elixir (fluid test medication, 6 5 mL daily ) or Bronchicum Tropfen (drops test medication, 5 1 mL daily) Herbal cough syrup with ivy, thyme, aniseed & marshmallow root mucilage (extracted by decoction); mean daily intake: 10 mL syrup; mean duration: 12 days

Randomized, singleblind, bicentric clinical trial: n=189 outpatients (121 women, 68 men) with acute, previously untreated bronchitis with a duration of 48 hours; treatment duration: 7-9 days Open clinical trial: n=62; patients with irritating cough due to common cold (n=29), bronchitis (n=20) or other respiratory tract diseases which cause mucus formation (n=15)

Gruenwald et al. 2006

Bechi et al. 2005

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Thymus vulgaris

Activity/Effect Preparation Acetylcholinesterase Essential oil & select constituents: (AChE) inhibition thymol, carvacrol & derivatives Essential oil Antibacterial Design & Model In vitro Results Active: thymohydroquinone showed strongest inhibitory effect Exhibited significant colicidal & colistatic properties against Escherichia coli Reference Jukic et al. 2007 Burt & Reinders 2003

In vitro: disc diffusion and colorimetric assays

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Activity/Effect Antibacterial

Preparation Organic and aqueous extracts

Antibacterial

Essential oils

Antibacterial

Aqueous & acetone extracts

Design & Model In vitro: Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin resistant/sensitive), Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus fecalis In vitro: clinical, locally pathogenic, antibiotic-resistant bacteria; 189 gramnegative and 135 gram-positive strains In vitro: agar plate and rapid radiometric methods In vitro: Listeria innocua, L. monocytogenes & Staphylococcus aureus; examined by flow cytometry In vitro: against Dermatophilus congolensis In vitro: 25 different genera of bacteria In vitro: 9 gramnegative and 6 grampositive strains; bioimpedance In vitro: Candida albicans In vitro & in vivo: rats experimentally infected with dermatophytes In vitro: against Candida spp. In vitro: murine macrophage cell line In vitro: DPPH radical assay

Results Active against both grampositive and gramnegative bacteria

Reference Essawi & Srour 2000

Active; of 11 essential oils tested, exhibited the highest and broadest antibacterial activity Active; both extracts inhibited growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv at 0.5 mg/mL Active; due to permeabilization of the cytoplasmic membrane

HerschMartinez et al. 2005

Lall & Meyer 1999

Antibacterial

Essential oil

Nguefack et al. 2004

Antibacterial

Essential oil Essential oil Essential oil; plants harvested at four ontogenetic stages Essential oil; 6 chemotypes Essential oil

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Active; more effective than the standard povidone-iodine treatment Active Active; significant bacteriostatic activity; most effective when plant harvested in full flower Active; thymol chemotype most active; potentiates antifungal action of amphotericin B Active; fungicidal and/or fungistatic against various dermatophytes that cause human mycoses Potent activity; warrants future therapeutic trials Active; inhibited net nitric-oxide production Active

Yardley 2004 Dorman & Deans 2000 Marino et al. 1999 Giordani et al. 2004 Ouraini et al. 2005 Pina-Vaz et al. 2004 Vigo et al. 2004 Dapkevicius et al. 2002

Antifungal

Antifungal

Antifungal

Anti-inflammatory Antioxidant

Essential oil of Thymus spp. & major compounds Plant extract Leaf extract; fractionated extract

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant

Antioxidant

Preparation Phenolic compounds isolated from leaves Aqueous infusion & essential oil

Design & Model In vitro: peroxidation assays In vitro: low-density lipoprotein copperinduced oxidation model

Antioxidant

Essential oil; diet supplementation Thymol & isolated compounds from leaves Essential oil & isolated mono- and sesquiterpenes

In vivo: mature rats, liver & heart activity In vitro: platelet aggregation induced by collagen, ADP, arachidonic acid & thrombin In vitro: against Leishmania major, Trypanosoma brucei & human HL-60 cells; Almar Blue assay In vitro: isolated guinea pig tracheae In vitro: strips of circular smooth muscle from guinea pig stomach & portal vein

Antiplatelet

Results Active; protected biological systems from various oxidative stresses Active; showed dosedependent protective effect attributed to phenolic monoterpenes, thymol & carvacrol in essential oil & polyphenols & flavonoids in aqueous extracts Active; increased antioxidant capacity against age-related changes Active; inhibited platelet aggregation

Reference Haraguchi et al. 1996 Kulisi et al. 2007

Youdim & Deans 1999 Okazaki et al. 2002

Antiprotozoan

Antispasmodic Antispasmodic

Plant & ethanol extract Thymol isolated from essential oil

Antispasmodic

Flavonoids isolated from herb

Antiviral Herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1

Essential oil

In vitro: isolated smooth muscles of guinea-pig ileum and trachea and rat vas deferens In vitro: HSV-1 clinical isolates of drug-resistant strain (acyclovir)

Active against T. bruceia: 50-fold to 80-fold more toxic to bloodstream forms of T. brucie than HL-60 cells; Inactive against L. major Active; concentrationdependent & reversible Showed agonistic effect on alpha(1)-, alpha(2)- & beta-adrenergic receptors; spasmolytic activity observed at 10-6 M & inhibited 100% of smooth muscle contraction at 10-4 M; may explain mechanism of analgesis Active; induced relaxation of the carbachol contracted tracheal strip without stimulation of blocked beta 2-receptors Active; showed potent virucidal activity; significantly reduced plaque formation

Mikus et al. 2000

Meister 1999 Beer et al. 2007

Van Den Broucke et al. 1983 Schnitzler et al. 2007

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Activity/Effect Antiviral - Herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 & 2

Preparation Aqueous extracts

Design & Model In vitro: HSV type 1, type 2 & an ancyclovir-resistant strain; RC-37 cells in a plaque reduction assay In vivo: mice fed herb (0.5% or 2.0% diet) or isolated compounds (50-200 mg/kg) Tracheal chains of guinea-pigs, experimentallyinduced contractions In vitro: Trypanosoma cruzi

Phase I & II enzyme Herb & constituents: thymol induction & carvacrol Macerated & aqueous extracts (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 & 1.0 g %) Essential oil

Results Active: showed dosedependent response; mechanism affects virus before adsorption but does not impact intracellular virus replication; results suggest therapeutic topical applications Induced both phase I & phase II xenobioticmetabolizing enzymes of mouse liver Active; showed potent relaxant effect, comparable to those of positive control, theophylline IC50/24 hours=77 g/mL for epimastigotes & 38 g/mL for trypomastigotes; activity may be attributed to thymol

Reference Nolkemper et al. 2006

Sasaki et al. 2005

Relaxant

Boskabady et al. 2006

Trypanocidal

Santoro et al. 2007

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Beer AM, Lukanov J, Sagorchev P. 2007. Effect of Thymol on the spontaneous contractile activity of the smooth muscles. Phytomedicine 14(1):65-9. Benito M, Jorro G, Morales C, Pelaez A, Fernandez A. 1996. Labiatae allergy: systemic reactions due to ingestion of oregano and thyme. Annals of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology 76(5):416-418. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS, eds. 1998. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications, 685 pp. Boskabady MH, Aslani MR, Kiani S. 2006. Relaxant effect of Thymus vulgaris on guinea-pig tracheal chains and its possible mechanism(s). Phytother Res 20(1):28-33. Brinker F. 1998. Herb Contraindications and Drug Interactions, 2nd Ed. Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medica Publications. 263 pp. Bechi S, Vgelin R, von Eiff MM, Ramos M, Melzer J. 2005. Open trial to assess aspects of safety and efficacy of a combined herbal cough syrup with ivy and thyme. Forsh Komplementarmed Klass Naturheilkd 12(6):328-32.

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Burt SA, Reinders RD. 2003. Antibacterial activity of selected plant essential oils against Escherichia coli. Letters in Applied Microbiology 36(3):162-167. Dapkevicius A, van Beek TA, Lelyveld GP, van Veldhuizen A, de Groot A, Linssen JP, Venskutonis R. 2002. Isolation and structure elucidation of radical scavengers from Thymus vulgaris leaves. Journal of Natural Products 65(6):892-896. Domarack M, Rehk P, Juhs S, Koppel J. 2007. Effects of selected plant essential oils on the growth and development of mouse preimplantation embryos in vivo. Physiol Res 56(1):97-104. Dorman HJ, Deans SG. 2000. Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils. Journal of Applied Microbiology 88(2):308-316. Essawi T, Srour M. 2000. Screening of some Palestinian medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70(3):343-349. Giordani R, Regli P, Kaloustian J, Mikail C, Abou L, Portugal H. 2004. Antifungal effect of various essential oils against Candida albicans. Potentiation of antifungal action of amphotericin B by essential oil from Thymus vulgaris. Phytotherapy Research 18(12):990-995. Gruenwald J, Graubaum HJ, Busch R. Evaluation of the non-inferiority of a fixed combination of thyme fluid- and primrose root extract in comparison to a fixed combination of thyme fluid extract and primrose root tincture in patients with acute bronchitis. A single-blind, randomized, bi-centric clinical trial. Arzneimittelforschung 56(8):574-81. Haraguchi H, Saito T, Ishikawa H, Date H, Kataoka S, Tamura Y, Mizutani K. 1996. Antiperoxidative components in Thymus vulgaris. Planta Medica 62(3):217-221. Haround EM, Mahmoud OM, Adam SE. 2002. Effect of feeding Cuminum cyminum fruits, Thymus vulgaris leaves or their mixture to rats. Veterinary & Human Toxicology 44(2):67-69. Hersch-Martinez P, Leanos-Miranda BE, Solorzano-Santos F. 2005. Antibacterial effects of commercial essential oils over locally prevalent pathogenic strains in Mexico. Fitoterapia 76(5):453-457. Jukic M, Politeo O, Maksimovic M, Milos M, Milos M. In vitro acetylcholinesterase inhibitory properties of thymol, carvacrol and their derivatives thymoquinone and thymohydroquinone. Phytother Res 21(3):259-61. Kemmerich B, Eberhardt R, Stammer H. 2006. Efficacy and tolerability of a fluid extract combination of thyme herb and ivy leaves and matched placebo in adults suffering from acute bronchitis with productive cough. A prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Arzneimittelforschung 56(9):652-60. Kulisi T, Krisko A, Dragovi-Uzelac V, Milos M, Pifat G. 2007. The effects of essential oils and aqueous tea infusions of oregano (Origanum vulgare L. var. hirtum), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) and wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum L.) on the copper-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. Int J Food Sci Nutr 58(2):87-93. Lall N, Meyer JJ. 1999. In vitro inhibition of drug-resistant and drug-sensitive strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by ethnobotanically selected South African plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 66(3):347354. Marino M, Bersani C, Comi G. 1999. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oils of Thymus vulgaris L. measured using a bioimpedometric method. Journal of Food Protection 62(9):1017-1023. Meister A, Bernhardt G, Christoffel V, Buschauer A. 1999. Antispasmodic activity of Thymus vulgaris extract on the isolated guinea-pig trachea: discrimination between drug and ethanol effects. Planta Medica 65(6):512516.

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Mikus J, Harkenthal M, Steverding D, Reichling J. 2000. In vitro effects of essential oils and isolated mono- and sesquiterpenes on Leishmania major and Trypanosoma brucei. Planta Medica 66(4):366-368. Nguefack J, Budde BB, Jakobsen M. 2004. Five essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon: their antibacterial activity and ability to permeabilize the cytoplasmic membrane of Listeria innocua examined by flow cytometry. Letters in Applied Microbiology 39(5):395-400. Nolkemper S, Reichling J, Stintzing FC, Carle R, Schnitzler P. 2006. Antiviral effect of aqueous extracts from species of the Lamiaceae family against Herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro. Planta Med 72(15):1378-82. Okazaki K, Kawazoe K, Takaishi Y. 2002. Human platelet aggregation inhibitors from thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) Phytotherapy Research 16(4):398-399. Ouraini D, Agoumi A, Alaoui MI, Alaoui K, Benlemlih M, Alaoui Belabbas M. 2005. Therapeutic approach to dermatophytoses by essential oils of some Moroccan aromatic plants. Phytotherapie 3(1):3-12. Pina-Vaz C, Goncalves Rodrigeus A, Pinto E, Costa-de-Oliveira S, Tavares C, Salgueiro L, Cavaleiro C, Goncalves MJ, Martinez-de-Oliveira J. 2004. Antifungal activity of Thymus oils and their major compounds. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 18(1):73-78. Santoro GF, das Graas Cardoso M, Guimares LG, Salgado AP, Menna-Barreto RF, Soares MJ. 2007. Effect of oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) essential oils on Trypanosoma cruzi (Protozoa: Kinetoplastida) growth and ultrastructure. Parasitol Res 100(4):783-90. Sasaki K, Wada K, Tanaka Y, Yoshimura T, Matuoka K, Anno T. 2005. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) leaves and its constituents increase the activities of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in mouse liver. Journal of Medicinal Food 8(2):184-189. Schnitzler P, Koch C, Reichling J. 2007. Susceptibility of drug-resistant clinical herpes simplex virus type 1 strains to essential oils of ginger, thyme, hyssop and sandalwood. Animicrob Agents Chemother 51(5):1859-62. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Van Den Broucke CO, Lemli JA. 1983. Spasmolytic activity of the flavonoids from Thymus vulgaris. Pharmaceutisch Weekblad Scientific Edition 5(1):9-14. Vigo E, Cepeda A, Gualillo O, Perez-Fernandez R. 2004. In-vitro anti-inflammatory effect of Eucalyptus globulus and Thymus vulgaris: nitric oxide inhibition in J774A.1 murine macrophages. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 56(2):257-263. Yardley A. 2004. A preliminary study investigating the effect of the application of some essential oils on the in vitro proliferation of Dermatophilus congolensis. International Journal of Aromatherapy 14(3):129-135. Youdim KA, Deans SG. 1999. Dietary supplementation of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) essential oil during the lifetime of the rat: its effects on the antioxidant status in liver, kidney and heart tissues. Mechanisms of Ageing & Development 109(3):163-175. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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Toronja
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Grapefruit, pomelo (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Citrus paradisi Macfady or C. grandis (L.) Osbeck. Synonym: C. maxima (Burm. ex Rumph.) Merr. [Rutaceae (Rue Family)]. Note: Citrus paradisi is a hybrid between pomelo (C. maxima) and sweet orange (C. sinensis L. Osbeck), but its properties most closely resemble the former. Although the common name toronja may be used to refer to more than one species (C. paradisi and C. grandis), both species are often used interchangeably for food and medicine because they share similar properties.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this edible food plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Constipation - Diabetes - Gastrointestinal disorders - Indigestion - Obesity (to facilitate weight loss) Plant Part Used: Fruit, juice from fruit. Traditional Preparation: This remedy, which is attributed acidic and sour properties, is typically administered raw as a juice or eaten as a fruit. Traditional Uses: For some digestive disorders, aloe vera (sbila) is also used as a laxative in combination with grapefruit juice. Availability: Citrus paradisi is typically available at grocery stores and fruit stands in the United States, and its closely-related ancestor, Citrus grandis, is also sold but less popular.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Toronja (Citrus paradisi) is a tree that grows 9-15 m tall. Leaves are oval, dark green, thick and leathery with wavy margins, glandular dots, a characteristic pungent odor when crushed and broadlywinged leaf-stems. Flowers are white and grow in clusters of 2-20. Fruits are round and occur in dense clusters, have light yellow to yellow-orange skin and contain numerous seeds and tart, succulent yellow to pink pulp. Fruit color, size, seed-content and sweetness vary between cultivars (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Native to China and southeast Asia, this plant is cultivated in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

424

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

The fruit and fruit juice are widely consumed and generally considered safe except for well-demonstrated drug interactions (see below). Contraindications: None identified except herb-drug interactions (see below). Drug Interactions: Grapefruit juice is known to interact with liver enzymes that metabolize certain drugs; therefore, it should not be taken concomitantly with medications that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP 450) 3A4 enzymes as this may increase the oral bioavailability of these drugs (Neuman 2002, Unger & Frank 2004). The mechanism for this interaction involves furanocoumarin derivatives with geranyloxy side chains, and in vivo and in vitro experiments have shown that these compounds are both competitive and mechanism-based inhibitors of CYP 450 3A4 enzymes (Guo & Yamazoe 2004). Grapefruit juice has been shown to interact with nifedipine in rats (Uesawa & Mohri 2005b). Pomelo juice (Citrus grandis) also contains furanocoumarin derivatives (Uesawa & Mohri 2005a) and has shown drug interactions similar to those of grapefruit juice, affecting CYP 450 3A and Pglycoprotein drug metabolism. Drugs that have been shown to interact with this fruit juice by increasing their bioavailability include: cyclosporine (human clinical trials; Grenier et al. 2006) and tacrolimus (case reports & in vitro, human liver microsomes; Egashira et al. 2004 & Egashira et al. 2003). Swine coadministered a decoction of the fruit pericarps and cyclosporine showed acute toxicity; therefore, blood levels should be monitored in patients concomitantly both these substances (Hou et al. 2000a). Honey coingested with a decoction of the fruit pericarps reduces the naringin and naringenin absorption from this plant and may reduce its potency (Hou et al. 2000b).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Toronja (Citrus paradisi) has demonstrated the following effects in human clinical trials: antiatherosclerotic, antihyperglycemic, antioxidant, body weight and metabolic syndrome improvement, cardiac electrophysiology modulation, coronary artery disease preventive, HIV medication increased bioavailability, hypocholesterolemic, insulin resistance inhibition, periodontitis symptom improvement, weight loss and vitamin C level. In laboratory and preclinical studies, the following activity has been reported: acetylcholinesterase inhibition, antiasthmatic, anticancer, antioxidant, antiplatelet, antitussive, anti-ulcer, chemopreventive, cytoprotective, expectorant, gastroprotective, hypocholesterolemic, inhibition of dihydropyridine oxidation and aflatoxin B1 activation and osteoporosis modulating (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). An epidemiological study has shown an association between consumption of citrus peels (which have a high d-limonene content) and reduced risk of squamous cell skin cancer (Hakim et al. 2000). Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) contains compounds that may interact with CYP450, including the flavonoids naringin and naringenin and the furanocoumarins bergamottin and bergapten. Other flavonoids include neohesperidin, hesperidin, narirutin and quercetin (Ho et al. 2001). Volatile constituents of the essential oil include: ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, ethyl butyrate, limonene, octanal, cis-3-hexenol, cislinalool oxide, trans-linalool oxide, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, alpha-terpineol and nootkatone (Pino et al. 2000). Pomelo (Citrus grandis) has a similar chemical composition and also contains furanocoumarins including bergamottin, bergaptol and 6,7-dihydroxybergamottin (Uesawa & Mohri 2005a) and coumarins xanthyletin, xanthoxyltein and suberosin (Teng et al. 1992). Grapefruit is a significant source of vitamin C, dietary fiber, vitamin A, potassium, folate and vitamin B (US Dept. Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: No dosage information available except for its traditional and nutritional use.

425

Clinical Data: Citrus paradisi unless otherwise specified

Activity/Effect Cardiac electrophysiology Preparation Grapefruit juice, administered orally Design & Model Clinical trial: 10 human volunteers Results Showed significant QTc prolongation; proposed mechanism involves blocking of HERG channels by flavonoids Active; enhanced bioavailability & therefore the effectiveness of oral saquinavir without affecting its clearance; may involve inhibition of intestinal CYP3A4 Decreased plasma cholesterol levels 7.6%, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels 10.8% & LDL:HDL cholesterol levels ratio 9.8% Lowered serum levels of lipids, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol & total glycerides; increased serum, albumin & fibrinogen antioxidant capacities Increased plasma levels of vitamin C (below normal vitamin C levels are associated with periodontitis) & reduced sulcus bleeding index Weight loss per group: fresh grapefruit = 1.6 kg; grapefruit juice = 1.5 kg; grapefruit capsules = 1.1 kg; placebo = 0.3 kg; significant weight loss; grapefruit resulted in reduced 2-hour postglucose insulin levels & improved insulin resistance Reference Zitron et al. 2005

HIV medication increased bioavailability

Fruit juice (400 mL) & saquinavir (protease inhibitor) administered orally (600 mg) or intravenously (12 mg) Grapefruit pectin; supplemented as part of diet; 16 wks duration (no other changes in lifestyle)

Placebo-controlled clinical trial: 8 healthy volunteers, following an overnight fast; blood sampled over a 24 hour period Randomized, doubleblind crossover clinical trial: volunteers with hypercholesterolemia & at risk for coronary heart disease (n=27) Randomized, controlled clinical trial; hypercholesterolemic patients, post bypass surgery (n=72) Randomized, controlled clinical trial: smokers & nonsmokers with & without periodontitis Randomized, controlled clinical trial: 91 obese patients; duration: 12 wks

Kupferschmidt et al. 1998

Hypocholesterolemic & antiatherosclerotic

Cerda et al. 1988

Hypocholesterolemic, Fruit juice hybrid of C. grandis & C. antioxidant & paradisi (100 or antiatherosclerotic 200 mL, orally for 30 days) Fruit (ingested)

Gorinstein et al. 2004

Vitamin C level increase & periodontitis treatment

Staudte et al. 2005

Weight loss, antihyperglycemic & insulin resistance inhibition

Grapefruit juice or half of a fresh grapefruit with placebo capsules or grapefruit capsules w/apple juice, 3 times daily

Fujioka et al. 2006

426

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Citrus paradisi unless otherwise specified

Activity/Effect Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition Antioxidant Preparation Essential oil Fruit juice & freeze-dried products (C. grandis); methanol extracts Isolated coumarins (from C. grandis) Extract (C. grandis var. tomentosa) Design & Model In vitro In vitro: kinetic model using DPPH, superoxide anion & hydrogen peroxide; compared with BHA & vitamin C In vitro: rabbit platelets In vivo: mice & guinea pigs with experimentallyinduced cough & asthma In vivo: female rats with experimentallyinduced mammary tumors; in vitro: human breast carcinoma cell line (MDA-MB-435) In vivo: SpragueDawley rats with experimentallyinduced mammary tumors; in vitro: human breast cancer cell lines Results Active; inhibited activity of acetylcholinesterase Active; showed potent radical scavenging activity; red variety exhibited stronger effects than white variety due to higher phenol content Active; inhibited thromboxane A2 formation & breakdown of phosphoinositides Showed significant effects Reference Miyazawa et al. 2001 Tsai et al. 2007

Antiplatelet

Teng et al. 1992 Li et al. 2006

Antitussive, expectorant & antiasthmatic

Chemopreventive

Citrus juice (double-strength) & flavonoids (hesperetin & naringenin); administered orally Citrus flavonoids & fruit juice

Showed inhibition of cancer cell proliferation & delayed tumor growth

So et al. 1996

Chemopreventive

Chemopreventive & antitumor

Essential oil of fruit given orally or added to diet Isolated flavonoid, naringin

In vivo: mice

Cytoprotective

In vitro: normal hepatocytes with experimentallyinduced cell damage

Hesperetin may be more effective than naringenin in inhibiting mammary tumorigenesis; shows positive synergistic effects with drugs; flavonoids inhibit estrogen receptornegative MDA-MB-435 & estrogen receptorpositive MCF-7 Active; increased glutathione S-transferase activity & inhibited tumor formation Active; prevented DNA fragmentation & cell death; protected normal cells against toxins

Guthrie & Carroll 1998

Wattenberg et al. 1985 Blankson et al. 2000

427

Activity/Effect Dihydropyridine oxidation inhibition & aflatoxin B1 activation Gastroprotective & antiulcer Hypocholesterolemic & antioxidant

Preparation Flavonoid naringin (which is metabolized as naringenin in humans) Seed-extract Citrus juice & isolated polyphenols & ascorbic acid

Design & Model In vitro: human liver microsomes

Osteoporosis prevention & antioxidant

Fruit juice

In vivo: rats with ethanol-induced gastric lesions In vivo: hamster model of atherosclerosis; in vitro: heart disease & low density lipoprotein oxidation models In vivo: male senescent orchidectomized rat model

Results Active; potentially relevant to cancer chemoprevention involving carcinogens activated by CYP450 Active; gastroprotective via increased gastric microcirculation Active; showed cholesterol- & triglyceride-lowering effects; showed antioxidant activity Active; enhanced serum antioxidant status & prevented osteoporosis; reversed orchidectomyinduced antioxidant suppression; restored bone strength & density

Reference Guengerich & Kim 1990

Zayachkivska et al. 2004 Vinson et al. 2002

Deyhim et al. 2006

REFERENCES
Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Blankson H, Grotterod EM, Seglen PO. 2000. Prevention of toxin-induced cytoskeletal disruption and apoptotic liver cell death by the grapefruit flavonoid, naringin. Cell Death & Differentiation 7(8):739-46. Cerda JJ, Robbins FL, Burgin CW, Baumgartner TG, Rice RW. 1988. The effects of grapefruit pectin on patients at risk for coronary heart disease without altering diet or lifestyle. Clin Cardiol 11(9):589-94. Deyhim F, Garcia K, Lopez E, Gonzalez J, Ino S, Garcia M, Patil BS. 2006. Citrus juice modulates bone strength in male senescent rat model of osteoporosis. Nutrition 22(5):559-63. Egashira K, Ohtani H, Itoh S, Koyabu N, Tsujimoto M, Murakami H, Sawada Y. 2004. Inhibitory effects of pomelo on the metabolism of tacrolimus and the activities of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein. Drug Metab Dispos 32(8):828-33. Egashira K, Fukuda E, Onga T, Yogi Y, Matsuya F, Koyabu N, Ohtani H, Sawada Y. 2003. Pomelo-induced increase in the blood level of tacrolimus in a renal transplant patient. Transplantation 75(7):1057. Fujioka K, Greenway F, Sheard J, Ying Y. 2006. The effects of grapefruit on weight and insulin resistance: relationship to the metabolic syndrome. Journal of Medicinal Food 9(1):49-54. Gorinstein S, Caspi A, Libman I, Katrich E, Lerner HT, Trakhtenberg S. 2004. Fresh Israeli jaffa sweetie juice consumption improves lipid metabolism and increases antioxidant capacity in hypercholesterolemic patients suffering from coronary artery disease: studies in vitro and in humans and positive changes in albumin and fibrinogen fractions. J Agric Food Chem 52(16):5215-22.

428

Grenier J, Fradette C, Morelli G, Merritt GJ, Vranderick M, Ducharme MP. 2006. Pomelo juice, but not cranberry juice, affects the pharmacokinetic of cyclosporine in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 79(3):255-62. Guengerich FP, Kim DH. 1990. In vitro inhibition of diydropyridine oxidation and aflatoxin B1 activation in human liver microsomes by naringenin and other flavonoids. Carcinogenesis 11(12):2275-9. Guo L, Yamazoe Y. 2004. Inhibition of cytochrome P450 by furanocoumarins in grapefruit juice and herbal medicines. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 25(2):129-136. Guthrie N, Carroll KK. 1998. Inhibition of mammary cancer by citrus flavonoids. Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 439:227-36. Hakim IA, Harris RB, Ritenbaugh C. 2000. Citrus peel use is associated with reduced risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Nutrition and Cancer 37(2):161-8. Ho P-C, Saville DJ, Wanwimolruk S. 2001. Inhibition of human CYP3A4 activity by grapefruit flavonoids, furanocoumarins and related compounds. J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci 4(3):217-221. Hou YC, Hsiu SL, Tsao CW, Wang YH, Chao PD. 2000a. Acute intoxication of cyclosporine caused by coadministration of decoctions of the fruits of Citrus aurantium and the pericarps of Citrus grandis. Planta Med 66(7):653-5. Hou YC, Hsiu SL, Yen HF, Chen CC, Chao PD. 2000b. Effect of honey on naringin absorption from a decoction of the pericarps of Citrus grandis. Planta Med 66(5):439-43. Kupferschmidt HHT, Fattinger KE, Ha HR, Follath F, Krahenbuhl S. 1998. Grapefruit juice enhances the bioavailability of the HIV protease inhibitor saquinavir in man. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 45(4):355-9. Li PB, Ma Y, Wang YG, Su WW. [Experimental studies on antitussive, expectorant and antiasthmatic effects of extract from Citrus grandis var. tomentosa]. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi 31(16):1350-2. Miyazawa M, Tougo H, Ishihara M. 2001. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity by essential oil from Citrus paradisi. Natural Product Letters 15(3):205-10. Neuman M. 2002. [Metabolic effects and drug interactions provoked by certain vegetables: grapefruit, St. Johns wort and garlic.] [French] Presse Medicale 31(30):1416-22. Pino JA, Rolando M, Chang, L. 2000. Multivariate analysis for classification of commercial grapefruit juice products by volatile constituents. Journal of Food Quality 23(2000):261-9. So FV, Guthrie N, Chambers AF, Moussa M, Carroll KK. Inhibition of human breast cancer cell proliferation and delay of mammary tumorigenesis by flavonoids and citrus juices. Nutrition & Cancer 26(2):167-81. Staudte H, Sigusch BW, Glockmann E. 2005. Grapefruit consumption improves vitamin C status in periodontitis patients. Br Dent J 199(9):585. Teng CM, Li HL, Wu Ts, Huang SC, Huang TF. 1992. Antiplatelet actions of some coumarin compounds isolated from plant sources. Throm Res 66(5):549-57. Tsai HL, Chang SK, Chang SJ. 2007. Antioxidant content and free radical scavenging ability of fresh red pummelo [Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck] juice and freeze-dried products. J Agric Food Chem 55(8):2867-72. Unger M, Frank A. 2004. Simultaneous determination of the inhibitory potency of herbal extracts on the activity of six major cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry and automated online extraction. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 18(19):2273-81.

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U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Uesawa Y, Mohri K. 2005a. [Comprehensive determination of furanocoumarin derivatives in citrus juice by high performance liquid chromatography] [Article in Japanese]. Yakugaku Zasshi 125(11):875-9. Uesawa Y, Mohri K. 2005b. [Effects of sweetie juice on nifedipine pharmacokinetic in rats] [Article in Japanese]. Yakugaku Zasshi 125(11)889-93. Vinson JA, Liang X, Proch J, Hontz BA, Dancel J, Sandone N. 2002. Polyphenol antioxidants in citrus juices: in vitro and in vivo studies relevant to heart disease. Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 505:11322. Wattenberg LW, Hanley AB, Barany G, Sparnins VL, Lam LK, Fenwick GR. 1985. Inhibition of carcinogenesis by some minor dietary constituents. Princess Takamatus Symposia 16:193-203. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Zayachkivska OS, Konturek SJ, Drozdowicz D, Brzozowski T, Gzegotsky MR. 2004. Influence of plant-originated gastroprotective and antiulcer substances on gastric mucosal repair. Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal 50(6):118-27. Zitron E, Scholz E, Owen RW, Luck S, Kiesecker C, Thomas D, Kathofer S, Niroomand F, Kiehn J, Kreye VA, Katus HA, Schoels W, Karle CA. QTc prolongation by grapefruit juice and its potential pharmacological basis: HERG channel blockade by flavonoids. Circulation 111(7):835-8.

Ua de Gato
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Cats claw (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex Roem. and Schult.) D.C. and Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. [Rubiaceae (Madder and Bedstraw Family)]. Note: These two species are used almost interchangeably in commerce although U. tomentosa is particularly sought after because it is reputed to be a more potent medicine. In the Dominican Republic, the common name ua de gato may refer to several unrelated species (other than Uncaria spp.); however, most of these plants are not commonly used medicinally (Liogier 2000).

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Arthritis - Cancer - Diabetes - Kidney disorders

430

Leukemia Menstrual disorders Uterine fibroids

Plant Part Used: Inner bark, branch, root. (The root is less-frequently sold in commerce because its harvest is particularly destructive to already vulnerable plant populations). Traditional Preparation: The inner bark, branches and/or root are typically prepared as a tea by decoction. This plant is sometimes added to preparations of herbal mixtures or tinctures (botellas). Availability: This herb may be sold at particular botnicas (Latino/Afro-Caribbean herbal and spiritual shops) and some health food, nutritional supplement and drug stores. As this plant has become a widely used herbal supplement, its popularity has led to over-exploitation such that wild plant populations are dwindling.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Ua de gato (Uncaria tomentosa) is a climbing vine or liana that grows to 10 m tall with branches that are square in cross section and somewhat hairy, especially at the nodes. Sharp, curved thorns, resembling cats claws, protrude from the leaf nodes. Leaves grow in opposite pairs and are ovate to elliptical-oblong (8-12 5-7 cm) in shape, blunt or abruptly pointed at the tip, rounded at the base, shiny smooth on the upper surface and hairy along the veins below. Flowers are numerous and occur in dense, spherical clusters arranged in groups of 3-5; each flower has yellowish-green petals. Fruits are 2-celled capsules containing numerous winged seeds (Williams & Cheesman 1928). Distribution: Native to Central and South America, this plant grows in the Caribbean (Williams & Cheesman 1928). Note: Uncaria guianensis has a very similar appearance to the above description, and the inner bark of both species is golden-brown in color; however, U. tomentosa has yellow to white flowers and curved but straight spines whereas U. guianensis has reddish-orange flowers and sharply curved spines that each resemble a hook.

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

In a human clinical trial involving 4 healthy male volunteers taking 5 mg/kg C-MED-100 for 6 consecutive weeks, no toxicity was observed (Sheng et al. 2000). No toxicity or negative side effects were observed in a human clinical trial involving 12 healthy adults given 250 and 350 mg/day of C-Med-100 supplement when clinical symptoms, serum clinical chemistry, whole blood analysis and leukocyte differential accounts were assessed (Sheng et al. 2001). Animal Toxicity Studies: Median lethal dose (LD50) and maximum tolerated dose (MTD) in rats was determined to be greater than 8g/kg of the aqueous bark extract (C-MED-100) as a single oral dose, and in a long-term study in which rats were treated daily with 10-80 mg/kg of extract for 8 weeks or 160 mg/kg for 4 weeks, no signs or symptoms of acute or chronic toxicity were observed. Aqueous extracts of the bark did not demonstrate any toxicity when evaluated in vitro for the presence of toxic compounds in Chinese hamster ovary cells and bacterial cells (Photobacterium phosphoreum) using four tests (Santa Maria et al. 1997). Contraindications: Autoimmune disorders & patients taking immunosuppressants patients with autoimmune conditions or taking immunosuppressants to prevent rejection of implanted organs should avoid use of cats claw due to its immune stimulating properties (Reinhard 1999). Not to be used during

431

pregnancy or while breastfeeding (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Oral ingestion of the herb may interfere with nuclear medical examination (resulting in misdiagnosis) and has shown potential for interaction with radiopharmaceuticals based on a preclinical study in rats in which administration of this herb affected the uptake and biodistribution of sodium pertechnetate, a radiobiocomplex (Moreno et al. 2007). Drug Interactions: Concomitant use of cats claw with the following medications may increase the risk of bleeding (due to this herbs rhynochophylline content which may inhibit platelet aggregation) and should be avoided: anticoagulants, antiplatelet and thrombolytic agents and low molecular weight heparins. As cats claw has been shown to inhibit cytochrome P450 3A4 (in vitro), concomitant use with drugs metabolized by this enzyme should be administered with caution (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Clinical studies have demonstrated the following therapeutic activities of this plant: anti-arthritic, DNA repair enhancement, immune enhancement and immunostimulant. Laboratory and preclinical studies have shown the following biological activities: amyloid protein-binding, anti-allergic, anti-amnesic, anticancer, anti-genotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, antineoplastic, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antiproliferative, apoptotic, anti-tumor, antiviral, chemopreventive, chondroprotective, cytoprotective, desmutagen, DNA repair enhancement, immune enhancement, immunomodulatory and stimulation of leukemic cell viability (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Primary bioactive constituents of Uncaria tomentosa include: alkaloids: 5-alphacarboxystrictosidine, alloisopteropodine, allopteropodine, isopteropodine, isomitraphylline, mitraphylline, pteropodine, isopteropodine, rhynchophylline, isorhynchophylline, speciophylline (uncarine D), uncarine F; organic acids: oleanolic acid, ursolic acid; quinovic acid glycosides; triterpenes; procyanidins: (-)epicatechin, cinchonain; sterols: beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, capesterol (Gruenwald et al. 2004; Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 2007). Two different chemotypes of this species have been identified, each with unique alkaloid constituents in their roots; one contains pentacyclic oxindoles (which mainly act on the immune system on the cellular level) and the other has tetracyclic indoles (which primarily affect central nervous system function). Because tetracyclic alkaloids have shown antagonistic effects on the immunomodulating activity of pentacyclic alkaloids, these two chemotypes should not be mixed together or administered concomitantly (Reinhard 1999). The following compounds have been identified in Uncaria guianensis: quinovic acid glycosides (Ypez et al. 1991) and indole alkaloids uncarine C and uncarine E (Lee 1999). Indications and Usage: Available for use in powdered, capsule or liquid extract forms for internal administration. To prepare a decoction, simmer 30 g powder in 800 mL water for 45 minutes (until reduced to 500 mL remaining water), strain and refrigerate after cool. Take 60 mL once daily in the morning on an empty stomach (Schauss 1998). Daily dosage is 350-1000 mg daily (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

432

Clinical Data: Uncaria tomentosa

Activity/Effect Arthritis treatment Preparation Sierrasil (mineral supplement) combined with cats claw extract vincaria (Uncaria guianensis) Design & Model Double-blinded, randomized clinical trial: patients with osteoarthritis of the knee (n=107); treatment duration = 8 wks Randomized double blind placebocontrolled trial: 40 active rheumatoid arthritis patients; 52 wks, 2 phases Human clinical trial: 12 healthy adults; DNA damage induced by hydrogen peroxide Human intervention study: 23 valent pneumococcal vaccine response Human clinical trial: 4 healthy male volunteers Results Improved joint health & function (within 1-2 wks); group taking herb & mineral supplements showed lower use of rescue medication (2823%); significant benefits were not sustained Active; reduced number of painful joints & only minor side effects were observed Active; significant decrease in DNA damage & increase in DNA repair in supplement groups Active; elevated lymphocyte/neutrophil ratios of peripheral blood & reduced decay in 12 serotype antibody titer; showed atoxicity Active; white blood cell levels significantly elevated Reference Miller et al. 2005

Arthritis treatment

Extract from the pentacyclic alkaloidchemotype Water extract (CMed-100); 250 mg & 350 mg tablet for 8 wks Bark extract: CMed-100 (350 mg 2 daily for 2 mo)

Mur et al. 2002

DNA repair induction

Sheng et al. 2001

Immunostimulant

Lamm et al. 2001

Immunostimulant

Aqueous extract CMed-100; 5 mg/kg for 6 wks

Sheng et al. 2000

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Uncaria tomentosa

Activity/Effect Antiamnesic Preparation Total alkaloid (1020 mg/kg i.p.) & oxindole alkaloid components (10-40 mg/kg i.p.) Mitraphylline, an isolated oxindole alkaloid Design & Model In vivo: passive avoidance test of impairment of retention performance by amnesic drugs Results Active; reduced memory impairment induced by dysfunction of cholinergic brain systems; possibly involve glutamatergic systems In vitro: beta-amyloid Active; amyloid protein binding constant: K = 1-40 protein using 9.95 105 M-1; results the capillary electrophoresis may have implications method for research on Alzheimers disease therapies Reference Mohamed et al. 2000

Antiamyloidogenic

Frackowiak et al. 2006

433

Activity/Effect Antigenotoxic & desmutagen

Preparation Aqueous extract (infusion)

Design & Model In vitro: using oxidative genotoxicant hydrogen peroxide In vivo: carrageenaninduced paw edema model in mice In vivo: carrageenaninduced rat paw edema In vivo: mice with respiratory inflammation due to ozone exposure In vitro: epithelial & macrophage cell lines in response to peroxynitrite (300 M) In vivo: administered orally as a pretreatment; in vitro: murine peritoneal macrophages & spleen cells In vitro & in vivo

Anti-inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory

Spray-dried hydroalcoholic extract vs. aqueous freeze-dried extract Plant extracts Plant extract; administered for 8 days Bark extract

Anti-inflammatory

Results Active; showed desmutagen effects by detoxifying mutagen; mechanism may involve radical scavenging effects of phenols Active; hydroalcoholic extract significantly higher; little inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 Active; isolated active principles: new quinovic acid glycoside 7 Active; prevented ozoneinduced respiratory inflammation Active; protected against oxidative stress and negated activation of NF-kappaB; describes mechanism Active; inhibited experimentally-induced edema & pleural exudation; lowered leukocyte, neutrophil & eosinophil recruitment to pleural cavity Activity independent of alkaloid content; U. guianensis shown to be more potent Showed effects on cytokine expression: inhibited MAP kinase signaling pathway; increased LPS-dependent expression of IL-1beta (2.4-fold); inhibited LPS-dependent expression of TNF-alpha (5.5-fold) 3% concentration of herb inhibited: 8% Enterobacteriaceae, 52% of S. mutans & 96% of Staphylococcus spp.

Reference Romero-Jimnez et al. 2005

Aguilar et al. 2002 Aquino et al. 1991 Cisneros et al. 2005 SandovalChacon et al. 1998 Carvalho et al. 2006

Anti-inflammatory

Anti-inflammatory & antiallergenic

Ethanolic leaf extract (Uncaria guianensis)

Anti-inflammatory & antioxidant

Plant extracts (U. tomentosa & U. guianensis) Plant extracts

Sandoval et al. 2002 Allen-Hall et al. 2007

Anti-inflammatory (mechanism)

In vitro: THP-1 monocyte-like cells; ELISA assays

Antimicrobial

Micropulverized plant material

In vitro: clinical isolates of oral Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus spp. & Enterobacteriaceae

CcahuanaVasquez et al. 2007

434

Activity/Effect Antimicrobial

Antimutagenic

Preparation Oxindole alkaloid, isopteropodine (0.3%) Bark extract and chromatographic fractions

Design & Model In vitro: Gram positive bacteria In vitro & in vivo: Salmonella typhimurium strains; human smoker, decoction ingested daily for 15 days In vitro: human breast cancer cell lines (MCF7)

Results Active Showed no mutagenic effect in vitro against S. typhimurium, but exhibited protective antimutagenic effect; decreased mutagenicity of S. typhimurium in subjects urine Active; exhibited antimutagenic & antiproliferative activity; active fractions showed 90% inhibition at 100 mg/mL concentration Active; alkaloids pteropodien & uncarine F strongly inhibited proliferation & induced apoptosis Active; showed dosedependent effects; mechanism involves interaction with 5-HT2 receptors Active; exhibited antioxidant activity and prevented free radicalmediated DNA-sugar damage Showed potent radical scavenging activity & protection from lipid peroxidation Active; ethanolic preparations showed more potent activity but may have undesirable gastric effects due to high tannin content

Reference Garca et al. 2005 Rizzi et al. 1993

Antimutagenic & antiproliferative

Bark & leaf extracts and chromatographic fractions Isolated oxindole alkaloids

Riva et al. 2001

Antineoplastic, antiproliferative & apoptotic

In vitro: human lymphoblastic leukemia T cell lines In vivo: mice, chemical & thermal models of nociception In vitro: rat liver homogenates

Bacher et al. 2006

Antinociceptive

Antioxidant

Industrial fraction containing 95% oxindole alkaloids, administered intraperitoneally Bark & root methanolic extracts

Jrgensen et al. 2005

Desmarchelier et al. 1997

Antioxidant

Bark decoction (aqueous extract) Aqueous & ethanolic bark extracts

Antioxidant

Antioxidant & antiinflammatory

Plant extract (Uncaria guianensis)

In vitro: reaction with superoxide anion, peroxyl & hydroxyl radicals In vitro: trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, peroxyl radicaltrapping capacity & superoxide radical scavenging capacity In vitro: DPPH radicals, TNFalpha & PGE2 production

Gonalves et al. 2005 Pilarski et al. 2006

Active; quenched DPPH Piscoya et al. 2001 radicals, antiinflammatory effects may involve inhibition of TNFalpha & PGE2 production

435

Activity/Effect Antiproliferative

Preparation Mitraphylline (pentacyclic oxindole alkaloid) isolated from inner bark Hot water extract (C-Med 100) Water extract (CMed-100) Bark extract & isolated glycosides Quinic acid, isolated from aqueous extract (CMed 100) Plant extract; 4 different solvents: n-hexane, ethyl acetate, n-butanol & methanol Vincaria (Uncaria guianensis extract), alone & in combination with Lepidium meyenii (RNI 249) Decoction of powdered bark (freeze-dried vs. non-freeze dried) Aqueous extract (with very little oxindole alkaloids): C-Med100

Antitumor

Design & Model In vitro: human glioma GAMG & neuroblastoma SKNBE(2) cell lines; controls were cyclophosphamide & vincristine In vitro: normal mouse T & B lymphocytes In vitro: human leukemic & EBVtransformed B lymphoma cell lines In vitro In vivo (mice) & in vitro

Results Active; showed dosedependent cytotoxicity & inhibition of cancer cell growth (IC50=12.3 M at 30 hrs & 20 M at 48 h, respectively) Active; inhibited proliferation, possibly due to retarded cell cycle progression Active; strong antiproliferative effects via selective induction of apoptosis Active Showed significant increase in number of spleen cells; inhibited transcriptional regulator NF-kappaB activity Induced DNA fragmentation & cell death in a timedependent manner; showed anti-cancer potential Active; increased IGF-1 mRNA levels & production; protected IGF-1 when exposed to IL-1beta; reduced nitric oxide production Active; fully protective against DPPH and UV irradiation-induced cytotoxicity; suppressed TNFalpha synthesis Active; decreased death of skin cells due to UV exposure; showed potential as a sunscreen

Reference Garca Prado et al. 2007

Akesson, Lindgren, et al. 2003 Sheng et al. 1998

Antitumor

Antiviral Biological effects

Aquino et al. 1989 Akesson et al. 2005

Chemopreventive

In vitro: human premyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cell lines In vitro: human chondrocytes from cartilage samples from surgical specimens In vitro: murine macrophages in response to DPPH & UV light In vitro: human skin organ cultures irradiated with 0-100 mJ/cm2 UVB

Cheng et al. 2007

Chondroprotective

Miller et al. 2006

Cytoprotective

Sandoval et al. 2000

DNA repair enhancement

Mammone et al. 2006

436

Activity/Effect DNA repair enhancement

Immunomodulatory

Preparation Water extract (CMed-100); low alkaloid content (<0.05%); water soluble active compound identified as quinic acid esters Ethanolic plant extract (stem bark)

Design & Model In vitro

Immunomodulatory

Plant extract: administered prophylactically at 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg/kg for 7 days

In vitro: assays: complement cascade inhibition & ADPinduced platelet aggregation inhibition In vivo: mice with lethal dose of Listeria monocytogenes

Results Active; showed inhibition of cell growth but no cell death; conducive to DNA repair & immune enhancement, anti-inflammatory & chemopreventive properties Active; impaired both complement pathways

Reference Sheng et al. 2005

Deharo et al. 2004

Immunomodulatory

Standardized extract

In vitro

Immunomodulatory

Ethanol & HCl extracts; mixtures of tetracyclic & pentacyclic oxindole alkaloids

In vitro: isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells; stimulated with mitogens

Immunomodulatory & prolonged lymphocyte survival; antileukopenic

Hot water extract (C-Med 100)

In vivo: mice, administered in drinking water

Active; dose-dependent stimulation of myelopoeisis; increased serum colonystimulating activity; prevented myelosuppression & splenomegaly; increased granulocyte-macrophage progenitors (CFU-GM) in bone marrow; increased IL-1 & IL-6 levels Active; stimulated macrophage phagocytosis (up to 4.7fold) which the authors suggest is the primary mechanism of immunomodulatory activity of this herb Inhibited mitogeninduced neopterin production & tryptophan degradation; immunomodulatory mechanism involves interferongamma induced pathways Prolonged cell survival, was reversible, no side effects; potential agent for treating leukopenia

Eberlin et al. 2005

Groom et al. 2007

Winkler et al. 2004

Akesson, Pero, et al. 2003

437

Activity/Effect Immunostimulant

Preparation Aqueous extract: C-Med-100 Aqueous extract (C-Med-100); doses of 0, 5, 10, 20, 40 & 80 mg/kg for 8 wks by gavage Plant extracts (Vilcacora purchased from the Andean Center)

Immunostimulant & DNA repair enhancement

Stimulation of leukemic cell viability

Design & Model In vivo: rat model with doxorubicininduced leukopenia In vivo: female rats with phytohemagglutinin stimulated lymphocyte proliferation & 12 Gy irradiation Ex vivo: leukemic cells (clinical samples) & cell lines; MTT assay, cellcycle analysis & annexin-V binding assay

Results Active; more rapid recovery & increased white blood cells Active; elevated white blood cell levels; improved repair of DNA single & double strand breaks Leukemic cells showed high resistance; stimulated survival of leukemic cells in 96% of cases; showed no effect on normal lymphocytes

Reference Sheng, Pero & Wagner 2000 Sheng et al. 2000

Styczynski & Wysocki 2006

REFERENCES
Aguilar JL, Rojas P, Marcelo A, Plaza A, Bauer R, Reninger E, Klaas CA, Merfort I. 2002. Anti-inflammatory activity of two different extracts of Uncaria tomentosa (Rubiaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81(2):271-276. Akesson C, Lindgren H, Pero RW, Leanderson T, Ivars F. 2005. Quinic acid is a biologically active component of the Uncaria tomentosa extract C-Med 100. Int Immunopharmacol 5(1):219-29. Akesson C, Lindgren H, Pero RW, Leanderson T, Ivars F. 2003. An extract of Uncaria tomentosa inhibiting cell division and NF-kappa B activity without inducing cell death. International Immunopharmacology 3(1314):1889-1900. Akesson C, Pero RW, Ivars F. 2003. C-Med 100, a hot water extract of Uncaria tomentosa, prolongs lymphocyte survival in vivo. Phytomedicine 10(1):23-33. Allen-Hall L, Cano P, Arnason JT, Rojas R, Lock O, Lafrenie RM. 2007. Treatment of THP-1cells with Uncaria tomentosa extracts differentially regulates the expression of IL-1beta and TNF-alpha. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 109(2)312-7. Aquino R, De Feo V, De Simone F, Pizza C, Cirino G. 1991. Plant metabolites. New compounds and antiinflammatory activity of Uncaria tomentosa. Journal of Natural Products 54(2):453-459. Aquino R, De Simone F, Pizza C, Conti C, Stein ML. 1989. Plant metabolites. Structure and in vitro antiviral activity of quinovic acid glycosides from Uncaria tomentosa and Guettarda platypoda. Journal of Natural Products 52(4):679-685. Bacher N, Tiefenthaler M, Sturm S, Stuppner H, Ausserlechner MJ, Kofler R, Konwalinka G. 2006. Oxindole alkaloids from Uncaria tomentosa induce apoptosis in proliferation, G0/G1-arrested and bcl-2-expressing acute lymphoblastic leukaemia cells. Br J Haematol 132(5):615-22. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57.

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Carvalho MV, Penido C, Siani AC, Valente LM, Henriques MG. 2006. Investigations of the anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities of the leaves of Uncaria guianensis (Aublet) J.F. Gmelin. Inflammopharmacology 14(1-2):48-56. Ccahuana-Vasquez RA, Santos SS, Koga-Ito CY, Jorge AO. 2007. Antimicrobial activity of Uncaria tomentosa against oral human pathogens. Braz Oral Res 21(1):46-50. Cheng AC, Jian CB, Huang YT, Lai CS, Hsu PC, Pan MH. 2007. Induction of apoptosis by Uncaria tomentosa through reactive oxygen species production, cytochrome C release and caspases activation in human leukemia cells. Food Chem Toxicol [Epub ahead of print Medline abstract]. Cisneros FJ, Jayo M, Niedziela L. 2005. An Uncaria tomentosa (cats claw) extract protects mice against ozoneinduced lung inflammation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 96(3):355-364. Deharo E, Baelmans R, Gimenez A, Quenevo C, Bourdy G. 2004. In vitro immunomodulatory activity of plants used by the Tacana ethnic group in Bolivia. Phytomedicine 11(6):516-22. Desmarchelier C, Mongelli E, Coussio J, Ciccia G. 1997. Evaluation of the in vitro antioxidant activity in extracts of Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC. Phytotherapy Research 11(3):254-6. Duke JA, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM. 1998. Dr. Dukes Phytochemical Database, USDA ARS NGRL (eds.), Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ (accessed July 20, 2007). Eberlin S, dos Santos LM, Queiroz ML. 2005. Uncaria tomentosa extract increases the number of myeloid progenitor cells in the bone marrow of mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes. International Immunopharmacology 5(7-8):1235-46. Frackowiak T, Baczek T, Roman K, Zbikowska B, Glensk M, Fecka I, Cisowski W. 2006. Binding of an oxindole alkaloid from Uncaria tomentosa to amyloid protein (Abetal-40). Z Naturforsch 61(11-12):821-6. Garca Prado E, Garca Gimenez MD, De la Puerta Vsquez R, Espartero Snchez JL, Senz Rodrguez MT. 2007. Antiproliferative effects of mitraphylline, a pentacyclic oxindole alkaloid of Uncaria tomentosa on human glioma and neuroblastoma cell lines. Phytomedicine 14(4):280-4. Garca R, Cayunao C, Bocic R, Backhouse N, Delporte C, Zaldivar M, Erazo S. 2005. Antimicrobial activity of isopteropodine. Z Naturforsch 60(5-6):385-8. Gonalves C, Dinis T, Batista MT. 2005. Antioxidant properties of proanthocyanidins of Uncaria tomentosa bark decoction: a mechanism for anti-inflammatory activity. Phytochemistry 66(1):89-98. Groom SN, Johns T, Oldfield PR. 2007. The potency of immunomodulatory herbs may be primarily dependent upon macrophage activation. J Med Food 10(1):73-9. Jrgensen S, Dalb S, Angers P, Santos AR, Ribeiro-do-Valle RM. 2005. Involvement of 5-HT2 receptors in the antinociceptive effect of Uncaria tomentosa. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior 81(3):466-477. Lee KK, Zhou BN, Kingston DG, Vaisberg AJ, Hammond GB. 1999. Bioactive indole alkaloids from the bark of Uncaria guianensis. Planta Med 65(8):759-60. Lamm S, Sheng Y, Pero RW. 2001. Persistent response to pneumococcal vaccine in individuals supplemented with a novel water soluble extract of Uncaria tomentosa, C-Med-100. Phytomedicine 8(4):267-274. Liogier AH. 2000. Diccionario Botnico de Nombres Vulgares de la Espaola, 2nd Ed. Santo Domingo: Jardn Botnico Nacional. 598 pp.

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Mammone T, Akesson C, Gan D, Giampapa V, Pero RW. 2006. A water soluble extract from Uncaria tomentosa (Cats Claw) is a potent enhancer of DNA repair in primary organ cultures of human skin. Phytother Res 20(3):178-83. Miller MJ, Ahmed S, Bobrowski P, Haqqi TM. 2006. The chondroprotective actions of a natural product are associated with the activation of IGF-1 production by human chondrocytes despite the presence of IL1beta. BMC Complement Altern Med 6(2006):13. Miller MJ, Mehta K, Kunte S, Raut V, Gala J, Dhumale R, Shukla A, Tupalli H, Parikh H, Bobraowski P, Chaudhary J. 2005. Early relief of osteoarthritis symptoms with a natural mineral supplement and a herbomineral combination: a randomized controlled trial. J Inflamm (Lond) 2(2005):11. Mohamed AF, Matsumoto K, Tabata K, Takayama H, Kitajima M, Watanabe H. 2000. Effects of Uncaria tomentosa total alkaloid and its components on experimental amnesia in mice: elucidation using the passive avoidance test. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacology 52(12):1553-1561. Moreno SR, Silva AL, Dir G, Honeycut H, Carvalho JJ, Nascimento AL, Pereira M, Rocha EK, Oliveira-Timteo M, Arnobio A, Olej B, Bernardo-Filho M, Caldas LQ. 2007. Effect of oral ingestion of an extract of the herb Uncaria tomentosa on the biodistribution of sodium pertechnetate in rats. Braz J Med Biol Res 40(1):77-80. Mur E, Hartig F, Eibl G, Schirmer M. 2002. Randomized double blind trial of an extract from the pentacyclic alkaloid-chemotype of Uncaria tomentosa for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 29(4):678-681. Pilarski R, Zieliski H, Ciesioka D, Gulewicz K. 2006. Antioxidant activity of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104(1-2):18-23. Piscoya J, Rodriguez Z, Bustamante SA, Okuhama NN, Miller MJ, Sandoval M. 2001. Efficacy and safety of freeze-dried cats claw in osteoarthritis of the knee: mechanisms of action of the species Uncaria guianensis. Inflammation Research 50(9):442-448. Reinhard KH. 1999. Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC: Cats claw, ua de gato or savntaro. J Altern Complement Med 5(2):143-51. Riva L, Coradini D, Di Fronzo G, De Feo V, De Tommasi N, De Simone F, Pizza C. 2001. The antiproliferative effects of Uncaria tomentosa extracts and fractions on the growth of breast cancer cell lines. Anticancer Research 21(4A):2457-2461. Rizzi R, Re F, Bianchi A, De Feo V, de Simone F, Bianchi L, Stivala LA. 1993. Mutagenic and antimutagenic activities of Uncaria tomentosa and its extracts. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 38(1):63-77. Romero-Jimnez M, Campos-Snchez J, Analla M, Muoz-Serrano A, Alonso-Moraga A. 2005. Genotoxicity and anti-genotoxicity of some traditional medicinal herbs. Mutat Res 585(1-2):147-55. Sandoval M, Charbonnet RM, Okuhama NN, Roberts J, Krenova Z, Trentacosti AM, Miller MJ. 2000. Cats claw inhibits TNFalpha production and scavenges free radicals: role in cytoprotection. Free Radical Biology & Medicine 29(1):71-78. Sandoval M, Okuhama NN, Zhang XJ, Condezo LA, Lao J, Angeles FM, Musah RA, Bobrowski P, Miller MJ. 2002. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of cats claw (Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria guianensis) are independent of their alkaloid content. Phytomedicine 9(4):325-337.

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Sandoval-Chacon M, Thompson JH, Zhang XJ, Liu X, Mannick EE, Sadowska-Krowicka H, Charbonnet RM, Clark DA, Miller MJ. 1998. Antiinflammatory actions of cats claw: the role of NF-kappaB. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 12(12):1279-1289. Santa Maria A, Lopez A, Diaz MM, Alban J, Galan de Mera A, Vicente Orellana JA, Pozuelo JM. 1997. Evaluation of the toxicity of Uncaria tomentosa by bioassays in vitro. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 57(3):183-187. Sheng Y, Pero RW, Amiri A, Bryngelsson C. 1998. Induction of apoptosis and inhibition of proliferation in human tumor cells treated with extracts of Uncaria tomentosa. Anticancer Research 18(5A):3363-3368. Sheng Y, Bryngelsson C, Pero RW. 2000. Enhanced DNA repair, immune function and reduced toxicity of C-MED100, a novel aqueous extract form Uncaria tomentosa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 69(2):115-126. Sheng Y, Pero RW, Wagner H. 2000. Treatment of chemotherapy-induced leukopenia in a rat model with aqueous extract from Uncaria tomentosa. Phytomedicine 7(2):137-143. Sheng Y, Li L, Holmgren K, Pero RW. 2001. DNA repair enhancement of aqueous extracts of Uncaria tomentosa in a human volunteer study. Phytomedicine 8(4):275-282. Sheng Y, Akesson C, Holmgren K, Bryngelsson C, Giamapa V, Pero RW. 2005. An active ingredient of Cats Claw water extracts identification and efficacy of quinic acid. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 96(3):577-84. Styczynski J, Wysocki M. 2006. Alternative medicine remedies might stimulate viability of leukemic cells. Pediatr Blood Cancer 46(1):94-8. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. Williams RO, Cheesman EE. 1928. Rubiales. Flora of Trinidad and Tobago, Vol. II, Part. I. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad: Government Printing Office, pp. 1-48. Winkler C, Wirleitner B, Schroecksnadel K, Schennach H, Mur E, Fuchs D. 2004. In vitro effects of two extracts and two pure alkaloid preparations of Uncaria tomentosa on peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Planta Med 70(3):205-10. Ypez AM, de Ugaz OL, Alvarez CM, De Feo V, Aquino R, De Simone F, Pizza C. 1991. Quinovic acid glycosides from Uncaria guianensis. Phytochemistry 30(5):1635-7. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Verbena
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Verbena azul, verbena mansa, verbena morada (Spanish); porterweed (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. Synonyms: Verbena jamaicensis L., Valerianoides jamaicense (L.) Kuntze. Stachytarpheta cayennensis (L. C. Rich.) Vahl. [Verbenaceae (Verbena Family)].

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Note: These two species are often used interchangeably as they are similar in appearance; however, S. jamaicensis appears to be more commonly used medicinally.

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this plant as a remedy for the following health conditions or effects (Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anxiety - Diarrhea - Gastrointestinal disorders - Flatulence and intestinal gas - Limpiar la sangre - Mala sangre - Menopausal symptoms - Nervios - Stress Plant Part Used: Leaves and stems. Traditional Preparation: Typically prepared as a tea of the leaves and/or aerial parts. Traditional Uses: For intestinal gas or flatulence, a tea is prepared with the aerial parts of this plant and sweetened with molasses (melaza). The leaves are also used for treating diarrhea and other stomach disorders, prepared as an infusion and taken orally. To relax and relieve nervousness, stress, anxiety and tension, a calming tea is prepared with the leaves as an infusion. This remedy is also used for treating menopausal symptoms including hot flashes and to cleanse the blood for conditions associated with bad blood (mala sangre). This herb is attributed bitter and astringent qualities. Availability: Dried leaves and stems are sometimes sold at botnicas that specialize in Caribbean medicinal plants.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Verbena (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis) is an upright herb or small shrub that grows to 30-40 cm tall with stems that are bluntly 4-angled and smooth or with a few slender hairs. Leaves are oblong to oval in shape (2-10 1.3-4.2 cm) and have coarsely-toothed margins. Flowers are densely clustered on long, curving terminal spikes and have light violet, lavender or bluish-purple petals that are fused at the base to form a trumpet-like shape with 5 rounded lobes at the end. Fruits are dry, woody and nearly cylindrical with 2 fused chambers, each containing a seed (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Distribution: Range extends from southern United States to northern South America, including the Caribbean; this plant has been introduced and naturalized in other tropical regions and grows in disturbed, open areas (Acevedo-Rodrguez 1996). Note: The morphology of Stachytarpheta cayennensis is similar to the above description; however, this species has pale blue-purple to white flowers as compared with the darker, deeper blue or indigo colored petals of its close relative, S. jamaicensis.

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SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

TRAMIL describes the herb (aerial parts: leaf and stem, excluding the flowers) as relatively atoxic (Germosn-Robineau 1995). No data on safety or toxicity in humans has been identified in the available literature. Animal Toxicity Studies: In vivo studies have shown the LD50 of the plant extract to be 700 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally (Rojas et al. 1989). The LD50 in mice administered intraperitoneally is 100 mg/kg (Feng et al. 1964). Acute toxicity of the leaf extract administered orally and intraperitoneally to male and female Swiss albino mice (n=40) and observed for 14 days resulted in an LD50 of 25 g/kg given orally and 11.18 0.56 g/kg intraperitoneally (Herrera 1992). When freeze-dried aqueous extracts of S. cayennensis were orally administered to mice at doses of up to 2 g/kg body weight, no signs of toxicity were observed (Mesia-Vela 2004). Contraindications: Insufficient information available in the literature. Drug Interactions: Insufficient information available in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
Research studies have shown the following biological activity for Stachytarpheta jamaicensis: analgesic, anthelmintic, antioxidant, antispasmodic, bioactivity multiple effects (motor, nervous system and thermoregulatory), hypotensive, insecticidal (against mosquito), nematocidal and spasmogenic. S. cayennensis has demonstrated analgesic, antacid, antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antisecretory, antiulcer and laxative effects (see Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Compounds isolated from extracts of S. jamaicensis include the iridoid ipolamiide and the phenylpropanoid glycoside verbascoside (Melita Rodrguez & Castro 1996); apigenol-7-glucuronide, 6hydroxyluteolol-7-glucuronide, chlorogenic acid, dopamine, luteolol-7-glucuronide, stachytarphine and tarphetalin (Duke 1992). Identified constituents of S. cayennensis include: citral, essential oil, geraniol and salicylic acid (Duke 1992). Indications and Usage: TRAMIL has provisionally designated the internal use this herb (except its flowers) as Recommended for the following applications: treatment of diarrhea, intestinal parasites, poor quality of blood, nervios and susto (emotional shock). This recommendation is based on the herbs relative atoxicity and recent data confirming its spasmolytic, antidiarrheal, nematicidal, antiseptic, coleretic, hepatoprotective and tranquilizing activities (Germosn-Robineau 1995). However, preparations of the flowers of this herb are categorized as Needing more investigation before a clinical recommendation can be offered pending data from toxicity studies on the internal use of the flowers. Also, the internal administration of a decoction of leaves and branches for hypertension is also designated as Needing more investigation due to contradictory data on its therapeutic effects (Germosn-Robineau 1995).

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Stachytarpheta jamaicensis

Activity/Effect Analgesic Preparation Extract given intraperitoneally & subcutaneously Design & Model In vivo: rats Results Active; also showed depressive, sedative and hypothermic effects Reference Rojas et al. 1989

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Activity/Effect Antioxidant

Preparation Ethyl acetate & nhexane extracts of dried leaves

Antispasmodic

Leaf decoction (1:1)

Bioactivity multiple effects: motor, nervous system & thermoregulatory

Aqueous extract of leaves; intraperitoneal administration

Design & Model In vitro & in vivo: rat peritoneal macrophages stimulated to produce reactive oxygen species In vitro: isolated rat ileum; contractions induced by acetylcholine In vivo: rats; dosages increased incrementally until death of the animals

Results Ethyl acetate extract active; showed significant oxygen radical scavenging activity at concentrations of 0.4-40 g/mL Active; inhibited contraction at 0.014 mg/mL concentration Showed multiple effects: decrease in motor activity & inhibited alarm reaction; ataxia, sedation, analgesia, anesthesia, piloerection, head tremors & lowered body temperature Active; at doses of 0.55 g/kg, showed hypotensive effects; however, at 1.85 g/kg was hypertensive Active; showed toxicity towards mosquito Active; time of inactivation of 50% larvae = 81.5 hours; potential treatment for parasitic intestinal helminth Active

Reference Alvarez et al. 2004

Herrera 1992

Melita Rodrguez & Castro 1996

Hypotensive & hypertensive

Aqueous extract of dry plant (leaf and stem) Plant extract Aqueous methanolic extracts of fresh leaves

In vivo: rats; administered intravenously In vitro: bioassays for Aedes aegypti mosquito In vitro: larvae of Strongyloides stercoralis

Vallete 1990

Insecticidal (mosquito) Nematocidal & anthelmintic

Chariandy et al. 1999 Robinson et al. 1990

Spasmogenic

Aqueous extract

In vitro: guinea pig ileum tissue

Feng 1964

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Stachytarpheta cayennensis

Activity/Effect Analgesic, antisecretory & laxative Preparation Freeze-dried aqueous extracts (0.1-1 g/kg body weight, orally) Design & Model In vivo: rodent model Results Active; showed mild laxative effects & strong inhibition of gastric secretion; showed potent analgesic effects in abdominal writhing model (ED50=700 mg/kg p.o.) Reference Mesia-Vela et al. 2004

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Activity/Effect Antidiarrheal

Preparation Leaf: crude aqueous extract

Design & Model In vivo: rats & mice

Antiinflammatory & antinociceptive

Antiinflammatory & antiulcer

Dried leaves; alcoholic & nbutanolic extracts & isolated fractions; 100-300 mg/kg, intraperitoneally & orally Ethanolic extracts; 100 mg/kg, orally

In vivo & in vitro: rats & isolated guinea pig ileum

Results Active; reduced gastrointestinal propulsion in mice but did not increase water absorption in rats Inhibited experimentallyinduced contractions of guinea-pig ileum; showed antinociceptive activity in hot plate test Inhibited edema & leukocyte accumulation; protected against experimentally-induced gastric ulcer formation Increased intestinal motility; protected against experimentally-induced ulcer formation; inhibited secretion of gastric acid by cholinergic & histaminergic pathways

Reference Almeida et al. 1995

Schapoval et al. 1998

In vivo: Swiss mice

Penido et al. 2006

Antiulcer, antacid & laxative

Whole plant; freezedried aqueous extracts; 0.5-2 g/kg, orally

In vivo: mice

Vela et al. 1997

REFERENCES
Acevedo-Rodrguez, P. 1996. Flora of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of The New York Botanical Garden, Volume 78. Bronx, NY: NYBG Press. Almeida CE, Karnikowski MG, Foleto R, Baldisserotto B. 1995. Analysis of antidiarrhoeic effect of plants used in popular medicine. Revista de Saude Publica 29(6):428-33. Alvarez E, Leiro JM, Rodriguez M, Orallo F. 2004. Inhibitory effects of leaf extracts of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Verbenaceae) on the respiratory burst of rat macrophages. Phytother Res 18(6):457-62. Chariandy CM, Seaforth CE, Phelps RH, Pollard GV, Khambay BP. 1999. Screening of medicinal plants from Trinidad and Tobago for antimicrobial and insecticidal properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 64(3):265-70. Duke JA. 1992. Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Feng P, et al. 1964. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Pharmacological screening of some West Indian medicinal plants. J Pharm Pharmacol 16:115-. Germosn-Robineau L, ed. 1995. Hacia una Farmacopea Caribea, edicin TRAMIL 7. Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana: enda-caribe, 696 pp. Herrera J. 1992. Determinacin de parmetros farmacolgicos usados en Medicina Tradicional Popular en la Cuenca del Caribe. TRAMIL VI, Guadeloupe, U.A.G./enda-caribe.

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Melita Rodrguez S, Castro O. 1996. [Pharmacological and chemical evaluation of Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Verbenaceae)]. [ Spanish] Rev Biol Trop 44(2A):353-9. Mesia-Vela S, Souccar C, Lima-Landman MT, Lapa AJ. 2004. Pharmacological study of Stachytarpheta cayennensis Vahl in rodents. Phytomedicine 11(7-8):616-24. Penido C, Costa KA, Futuro DO, Paiva SR, Kaplan MA, Figuerido MR, Henriques MG. 2006. Anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcerogenic properties of Stachytarpheta cayennensis (L.C. Rich) Vahl. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104(1-2):225-33. Robinson RD, Williams LA, Lindo JF, Terry SI, Mansingh A. 1990. Inactivation of Strongyloides stercoralis filariform larvae in vitro by six Jamaican plant extracts & three commercial anthelmintics. West Indian Med J 39(4):213-7. Rojas J, et al. 1989. as cited in Germosn-Robineau (1995). Estudio farmacolgico del extracto de la planta verbena azul Stachitarpheta jamaicensis. XVIII Cong. de Ciencias Farmaceuticas, Dept. de Farmacologa de la Univ. de Panam. Schapoval EE, Vargas MR, Chaves CG, Bridi R, Zuanazzi JA, Henriques AT. 1998. Antiinflammatory and antinociceptive activities of extracts and isolated compounds from Stachytarpheta cayennensis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 60(1):53-9. Valette C. 1990. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl.: Verbenaceae Medicinale. Thse pour le Diplme dEtat de Docteur en Pharmacie., Toulouse, N90/TOUR 3/2057. Vela SM, Souccar C, Lima-Landman MT, Lapa AJ. 1997. Inhibition of gastric acid secretion by the aqueous extract and purified extracts of Stachytarpheta cayennensis. Planta Medica 63(1):36-9. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

Zanahoria
OTHER COMMON NAMES
Carrot (English).

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Daucus carota L. var. sativus Hoffm. [Apiaceae (Carrot Family)].

DOMINICAN MEDICINAL USES

In ethnobotanical studies conducted in New York City, Dominican interview participants reported using or knowing about the use of this food plant as a remedy or preventive agent for the following health conditions (Balick et al. 2000, Yukes et al. 2002-2003): - Anemia - Cancer - Diabetes - Diarrhea - Gastrointestinal disorders - Immune system support

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Liver disorders Menopausal hot flashes Stomach disorders Tumors Uterine fibroids Vision and eye problems

Plant Part Used: Root. Traditional Preparation: Typically the fresh root is taken as a raw juice or vegetable, and it may also be eaten cooked. Traditional Uses: The root of zanahoria is used medicinally for its refreshing or cooling properties (fresca) and may be indicated for illnesses associated with excess heat in the body. For treating diabetes, the fresh root is grated with onion (cebolla) to make a juice (zumito) and taken in the amount of 1 cup, 3 times per day. For anemia, including severe and chronic anemia (sangre dbil) and possibly also sickle cell anemia, the fresh root of zanahoria is combined with beet (remolacha) root. Variations on this recipe for fortifying the blood include alternating every other day between adding the following to this mixture: fresh sweet orange (naranja) fruit juice one day and milk (leche) the next to make a drink that is taken as needed. Another remedy for chronic anemia includes the raw vegetable juice of zanahoria, beet (remolacha) and watercress (berro). The fresh juice or cooked vegetable is also taken for vision problems and to improve eyesight. As a remedy for cancer (in its early stages), tumors and uterine fibroids, a fresh juice is prepared of zanahoria root, agave (maguey) leaf, beet (remolacha) root and shark cartilage (cartlago de tiburn). For nourishment and to strengthen and fortify the immune system (para subir la defensa), carrot is prepared with raw beet (remolacha) root, annatto (bija) seeds and honey (miel) and may be supplemented with iron (hierro) and calcium (calcio). This remedy may be administered to both children and adults and is prepared by grating (or blending) these raw vegetables, straining them well and taking 1-2 ounces of the juice daily. However, herbalists advise that this remedy should not be administered first thing in the morning as it can cause nausea when taken on an empty stomach. Availability: As a widely consumed vegetable, zanahoria fresh roots are commonly available at grocery stores and supermarkets.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Zanahoria (Daucus carota) is an annual or biennial branching, herbaceous plant that grows to 1 m tall with thick, fleshy, orange roots. Leaves are feather-like and finely divided into numerous narrow segments. Flowers are arranged in umbrella-like clusters with numerous small flowers subtended by down-curved bracts; each flower has 5 white petals. Fruits are small, oblong, dry, striated seeds covered with bristly hairs (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: Although this plant is a horticultural variety that is widely cultivated for its nutritious roots, its wild relative (Daucus carota var. carota) is native to Eurasia and is now cosmopolitan in range (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976).

SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS

No negative side effects or health hazards are known associated with the proper therapeutic use of this plant, except for a low risk for allergic reaction due to frequent or prolonged skin contact (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

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Contraindications: None identified in the literature. Drug Interactions: None identified in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE
In clinical studies, this plant has shown the following effects: antioxidant, bioavailability of lutein and beta-carotene, colonic motility effects, dental caries susceptibility, hypocholesterolemic and immunomodulatory. In laboratory and preclinical studies, this plant has shown antibacterial, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antitumor, beta-carotene bioavailability, hepatoprotective, hormone modulation and hypocholesterolemic effects (see Clinical Data and Laboratory and Preclinical Data tables below). Secondary references describe the following pharmacological effects associated with this plant: anthelmintic, antimicrobial, vermifuge (essential oil), blood pressure lowering, constipating (due to high pectin content), mild diuretic and vision enhancement, especially for visual acuity in dim light (Gruenwald et al. 2004). Major chemical constituents (compounds present in significant amounts) include beta-carotene, caryophyllene, gamma-terpinene, linalool, linoleic-acid, lithium and sabinene (Duke 1992). The root is high in vitamin A and a significant source of vitamins K, C, B1, B3 and B6, dietary fiber, potassium, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, magnesium and folate (US Dept. Agriculture 2006). Indications and Usage: The root can be administered as a vegetable (cooked or raw) or as a juice made from the fresh, grated root (Gruenwald et al. 2004).

Clinical Data: Daucus carota

Activity/Effect Antioxidant Preparation Carrot juice (16 mg beta carotene) w/orange juice (145 mg vitamin C), orally; diet high in polyunsaturated fat Yellow carrot (genetically selected variety containing lutein); 1.7 mg lutein/day, administered orally for 7 days Root fiber; diet supplementation for 3-wk periods Root juice given to children in nursing bottles Design & Model Human clinical trial: male cigarette smokers (n=15) who were not taking other supplements; duration: 3 wks Double-blind, randomized, crossover study (n=9): negative control = white carrot; positive control = lutein supplement Human clinical trial: healthy male volunteers Clinical case report Results Decreased oxidation of low-density lipoprotein as evidenced by analysis of oxidation products before & after vitamin supplementation Showed significant increase in serum concentrations of lutein & beta-carotene; lutein from yellow carrots may support healthy vision & prevent macular degeneration Active; more diffuse colonic postprandial motor response; no sideeffects observed Sugar content of carrot juice (6.9-14.3 g/100 mL) associated with child dental caries of primary teeth (age > 1 yr) Reference Abbey et al. 1995

Beta-carotene & lutein bioavailability

Molldrem et al. 2004

Colonic motility

Guedon et al. 1996 Wetzel et al. 1989

Dental caries susceptibility

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Activity/Effect Preparation Hypocholesterolemic Raw root, 200 g eaten daily

Design & Model Human clinical trial: 3 wks

Immunomodulatory

330 mL/day of carrot juice (27.1 mg beta-carotene & 13.1 mg alphacarotene) vs. tomato juice (37.0 mg lycopene) with a low-carotenoid diet

Randomized, blinded, crossover study; healthy men; 2 wks treatment duration followed by a 2 wks depletion period

Results Significantly reduced serum cholesterol (11%), increased fecal bile acid & fat excretion (50%) Showed modulation of immune system function: increased natural killer cell proliferation & lytic activity (as evidenced by cytokine secretion) in a time-delayed manner

Reference Robertson et al. 1979

Watzl et al. 2003

Laboratory and Preclinical Data: Daucus carota

Activity/Effect Antibacterial Preparation Seeds, methanol extract Water-soluble anthocyanin from callus cultures Nitrogen containing tertiary base from seeds Seeds, petroleum ether extract; administered intraperitoneally Root; dietary Design & Model In vitro: 11 pathogenic bacterial species In vitro: linoleic acid auto-oxidation system In vitro: animal ileum, uterus, blood vessels & trachea In vivo: mice with Ehrlich ascites tumor in mice In vitro: digestion method Results Active against one bacterial species Active; exhibited stronger activity than alpha-tocopherol Active; exhibited papaverine-like nonspecific smooth muscle relaxant and spasmolytic activity Active; exhibited antitumor effects at doses of 3 mg/kg body weight/day for 7 days Cooking carrot pulp with oil released the highest amount of betacarotene (39% vs. raw pieces 3%) Active; normalized serum enzyme, cholesterol & antioxidant levels Active; pretreatment lowered serum enzyme levels in a doseresponsive manner Reference Kumarasamy et al. 2002 Ravindra & Narayan 2003 Gambhir et al. 1979

Antioxidant

Antispasmodic

Antitumor

Majumder & Gupta 1998 Hedren et al. 2002

Beta-carotene bioavailability

Hepatoprotective

Root extract, administered orally for 30 days Root extract

In vivo: rats with lindane-induced hepatotoxicity In vivo: mouse liver with carbon tetrachlorideinduced acute liver damage

Balasubramaniam et al. 1998 Bishayee et al. 1995

Hepatoprotective

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Activity/Effect Hormone modulation

Preparation Root, acute feeding; vs. retinoic acid (a metabolite of carrot)

Design & Model In vitro: isolated rabbit ovarian perfusion system

Hypocholesterolemic Root; dietary & antioxidant

In vivo: rats; duration: 3 wks

Results Reference Keenan et al. 1998 Carrot significantly decreased progesterone secretion & human chorionic gonadotropin-induced P secretion; retinoic acid stimulated progesterone secretion Nicolle et al. 2003 Active; lowered liver cholesterol levels; increased fecal steroid excretion; improved antioxidant status; suggest potential cardiovascular protective effects

REFERENCES
Abbey M, Noakes, M, Nestel PJ. 1995. Dietary supplementation with orange and carrot juice in cigarette smokers lowers oxidation products in copper-oxidized low-density lipoproteins. J Am Diet Assoc 95(5):671-5. Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Balasubramaniam P, Pari L, Menon VP. 1998. Protective effect of carrot (Daucus carota L.) against lindaneinduced hepatotoxicity in rats. Phytotherapy Research 12(6):434-436. Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Ososki AL, Reiff M, Fugh-Berman A, OConnor B, Roble M, Lohr P, Atha D. 2000. Medicinal Plants used by Latino healers for womens health conditions in New York City. Economic Botany 54: 344-57. Bishayee A, Sarker A, Chatterjee M. 1995. Hepatoprotective activity of carrot (Daucus carota L.) against carbon tetrachloride intoxication in mouse liver. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 47(2):69-74. Duke J. 1992. Handbook of biologically active phytochemicals and their activities. Boca Ratn: CRS Press. Gambhir SS, Sen SP, Sanyal AK, Das PK. 1979. Antispasmodic activity of the tertiary base of Daucus carota, Linn. seeds. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology 23(3):225-228. Guedon C, Ducrotte P, Antoine JM, Denis P, Colin R, Lerebours E. 1996. Does chronic supplementation of the diet with dietary fiber extracted from pea or carrot affect colonic motility in man? British Journal of Nutrition 76(1):51-61. Hedren E, Diaz V, Svanberg U. 2002. Estimation of carotenoid accessibility from carrots determined by an in vitro digestion method. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 56(5):425-430. Keenan DL, Dharmarajan AM, Zacur HA. 1998. Dietary carrot results in diminished ovarian progesterone secretion, whereas a metabolite, retinoic acid, stimulates progesterone secretion in the in vitro perfused rabbit ovary. Fertil Steril 69(4):789-790.

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Kumarasamy Y, Cox PJ, Jaspars M, Nahar L, Sarker SD. 2002. Screening seeds of Scottish plants for antibacterial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 83(1-2):73-77. Majumder PK, Gupta M. 1998. Effect of the seed extract of carrot (Daucus carota Linn.) on the growth of Ehrlich ascites tumour in mice. Phytotherapy Research 12(8):584-585. Molldrem KL, Li J, Simon PW, Tanumihardjo SA. 2004. Lutein and beta-carotene from lutein-containing yellow carrots are bioavailable in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 80(1):131-6. Nicolle C, Cardinault N, Aprikian O, Busserolles J, Grolier P, Rock E, Demigne C, Mazur A, Scalbert A, Amouroux P, Remesy C. 2003. Effect of carrot intake on cholesterol metabolism and on antioxidant status in cholesterol-fed rat. European Journal of Nutrition 42(5):254-261. Ravindra PV, Narayan MS. 2003. Antioxidant activity of the anthocyanin from carrot (Daucus carota) callus culture. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 54(5):349-355. Robertson J, Byrdon WG, Tadesse K, Wenham P, Walls A, Eastwood MA. 1979. The effect of raw carrot on serum lipids and colon function. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 32(9):1889-1892. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, eds. 2004. Physicians Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988 pp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2006. USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 19. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/nutrientdata. Watzl B, Bub A, Briviba K, Rechkemmer G. 2003. Supplementation of a low-carotenoid diet with tomato or carrot juice modulates immune functions in healthy men. Ann Nutr Metab 47(6):255-61. Wetzel WE, Lehn W, Grieb A. 1989. [Carotene jaundice in infants with sugar nursing bottle syndrome]. [Article in German]. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 137(10):659-661. Yukes JE, Balick MJ, Kronenberg F, Reiff M, Johnson K. 2002-2003. Urban Ethnobotany Project, Phase III Dominican herbal remedies for women's health. Unpublished field notes. Manuscript on file, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY.

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APPENDIX A: KEY TO SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

& % < = > b.w. btw cm cm2 d DPPH EC50 ED50 et al. ex vivo g g/kg gram gram + hrs i.p. IC50 in vitro in vivo K kg L LD50 m M M-1 mg MIC min(s) registered trademark and percent prime plus or minus times or hybrid cross less than equals greater than almost equal to or approximately equal to less than or equal to greater than or equal to body weight between centimeter(s) square centimeter(s) day(s) 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; used in pharmacology studies to determine antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity half maximal effective concentration; 50% effective concentration effective dose; median effective dose abbreviation of Latin phrase et alia, which means and others Latin phrase meaning out of the living; refers to a laboratory technique or medical procedure which entails removing cells, tissue or an organ from a living organism into an artificial environment gram(s) gram(s) per kilogram body weight gram negative (bacteria) gram positive (bacteria) hours intraperitoneal (as a mode of administration) half maximal inhibitory concentration Latin phrase meaning in glass; refers to laboratory techniques in which biological or chemical experiments are performed in a test tube, petri dish or other artificial environment rather than in the living system within the living organism amyloid protein binding constant: K kilogram(s) liter(s) median lethal dose meter(s) mole per mole milligram(s) minimum inhibitory concentration minute(s)

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mL mm mM mo n oz p p.o. pH pp. ppm pv. RAW spp. v/v var. vs. w/ w/o w/w wk(s) wt yr(s) g L m M

milliliter(s) millimeter(s) millimoles or millimolar month(s) number (sample size) ounce(s) p-value in statistical hypothesis testing; used to determine statistical significance by mouth; oral administration route (literally per os) minus the decimal logarithm of hydrogen ion activity in aqueous solution; a measure of acidity pages parts per million pathovar; a pathogenic strain or variant of a nonpathogenic bacterial species mouse leukaemic monocyte-macrophage cell lines species volume to volume ratio variety versus with without weight to weight ratio week(s) weight year(s) microgram(s) microliter(s) micrometer(s) micromole(s) or micromolar

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APPENDIX B: GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS

This list of botanical and horticultural terms is provided to aid in understanding the plant descriptions found in the text. These definitions are excerpted from a glossary produced by Michael J. Balick (coauthor of this volume) and collaborators for a book he published on poisonous plants, Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants, Second Edition (Lewis S. Nelson, M.D., Richard D. Shih, M.D. and Michael J. Balick 2007). The content for this list was based primarily on two standard references, Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition by Henry A. Gleason and Arthur Cronquist (1991) and Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada by Liberty Hyde Bailey and Ethel Zoe Bailey, Revised and Expanded by The Staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey (1976). Some definitions have been modified from the original for ease of use and understanding by the non-botanist, and the reader is urged to consult a botanical textbook if greater detail is required. Alternate: Arranged singly at different heights and on different sides of the stemas in alternate leaves. Annual: Yearly; a plant that germinates, flowers and sets seed during a single growing season. Aril: A specialized, usually fleshy outgrowth that is attached to the mature seed; more loosely, any appendage or thickening of the seed-coat. Bark: Outer surface of the trunk of a tree or woody shrub. Berry: The most generalized type of fleshy fruit, derived from a single pistil, fleshy throughout and containing usually several or many seeds; more loosely, any pulpy or juicy fruit. Biennial: Living two years only and blooming the second year. Blade: The expanded, terminal portion of a flat organ such as a leaf, petal or sepal, in contrast to the narrowed basal portion. Bract: Any more or less reduced or modified leaf associated with a flower or an inflorescence that is not part of the flower itself. Bulb: A short vertical, underground shoot that has modified leaves or thickened leaf-bases prominently developed as food-storage organs. Capsule: A dry, dehiscent fruit composed of more than one carpel. Climbing: Growing more or less erect without fully supporting its own weight, instead leaning, scrambling, twining or attaching onto some other structure such as a tree or wall. Coarse: Rough, as in the texture of a leaf. Compound leaf: A leaf with two or more distinct leaflets. Cone: A cluster of sporophylls or ovuliferous scales on an axis; a strobilus, as in pine or cycad cones. Creeping: Growing along (or beneath) the surface of the ground and rooting at intervals, usually at the nodes. Cultivar: A horticultural variety originating from a cultivated plant, possessing interesting or important characters such as color, smell, taste, disease resistance, etc. that make it worthy of distinction through naming. Deciduous: Falling after completion of the normal function. A deciduous tree is one that normally loses its leaves at the approach of winter or the dormant season.

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Divided: Cut into distinct parts, as a leaf that is cut to the midrib or the base. Drupe: A fleshy fruit with a firm endocarp (pit or stone) that permanently encloses the usually solitary seed or with a portion of the endocarp separately enclosing each of two or more seeds. Elliptic: With approximately the shape of a geometrical ellipse (applied only to flat bodies). Erect: Upright. Escaped: As in an introduced plant species that has escaped from cultivation into the wild. Evergreen: Remaining green throughout the winter, as in a tree that keeps its leaves throughout the year. Feathery: Feather shaped in outline, as in leaves. Female flowers: Referring to flowers that are pistillate, having pistils but no stamens. Filament: The stalk of stamen, i.e., the part that supports the anther. Finely toothed leaves: Leaves with small serrations on the edges. Fleshy: Thick and juicy; succulent. Flower: An axis bearing one or more pistils or one or more stamens or both. Fruit: A ripened ovary along with any other structures that may ripen with it and form a unit with it. Fruit pulp: Fleshy material inside of a fruit, often the part that is eaten by humans or animals. Furrowed (stems): Having longitudinal channels or grooves along the stem. Glossy: Shiny.

Head: A cluster of flowers crowded closely together at the tip of a floral stem. Herb: A plant, either annual, biennial or perennial, with the stems dying back to the ground at the end of the growing season and without woody stems. Herbaceous: Adjectival form of herb; also, leaflike in color or texture or not woody. Horticultural varieties: As in cultivars. Hybrid: A plant that results from a cross between two parent species that are genetically different. Indehiscent: Remaining closed at maturity. Inflorescence: A flower-cluster of a plant; the arrangement of the flowers on the axis. Lance-shaped: As in leaves that are several times longer than broad and widest below the middle, tapering with convex sides upward to the tip. Latex: A colorless, white, yellow or reddish liquid, produced by some plants, characterized by the presence of colloidal particles of terpenes dispersed in water. Leaflet: An ultimate unit of a compound leaf. Leathery: Thick and leather-like in texture, as in a leaf. Lobe: A projecting segment of an organ, too large to be called a tooth but with the adjoining sinuses usually extending less than half-way to the base or mid-line. Mature fruit: A fruit that has ripened; and often assumed a different color from when it was young. Midrib: The main rib or longitudinal vein (an externally visible vascular bundle) of a leaf or leaflet. Milky latex: White colored sap of a plant.

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Native: Having its origins in a particular geographic area, as in a plant native to the Western United States. Naturalized: Thoroughly established in a particular geographic region, but originally coming from another geographic area. New World: Pertaining to North and South America, as in a plant native to that region. Nut: A relatively large, dry, indehiscent fruit with a hard wall, usually containing only one seed. Oblong: Shaped more or less like a geometrical rectangle (other than a square). Old World: Pertaining to Europe, Asia and Africa, as in a plant native to that region. Opposite: Situated directly across from each other at the same node or level, as the leaves or leaflets of some plants; situated directly in front of (on the same radius as) another organ, as stamens opposite the petals. Ovate: Shaped like a long-section through a hens egg, with the larger end toward the base. Palmately Compound: As in a leaf with three or more lobes arising from a common point. Pantropical: Found throughout the tropical regions. Perennial: A plant living more than two years. Petal: A member of the inner set of floral leaves, usually colored or white and serving to attract pollinators. Pistil: The female organ of a flower, ordinarily differentiated into an ovary, style and stigma. Pit: Hardened covering enclosing seed or seeds in a fruit, as in a peach. Pod: Any kind of dry, dehiscent fruit.

Prickle: A sharp outgrowth from the epidermis or bark. Resinous: Containing resin. Rhizome: A creeping underground stem. Rosette: A cluster of leaves or other organs arranged in a circle or disk, often in a basal position. Runner A long, slender, prostrate stem rooting at the nodes and tip. Sap: Liquid contained within the stem. Seed coat: Outside coating of a seed. Seed pods: As in a fruit or pod containing seeds. Serrate: Toothed along the margin with sharp, forward-pointing teeth. Serrated Leaf: Saw toothed, with teeth pointing forward towards the tip of the leaf. Shrub: A woody plant that remains low and produces shoots or trunks from its base. Silky: A covering of fine, soft hairs. Simple leaf: A leaf with the blade all in one piece (although it may be deeply cleft), not compound. Spear-shaped: As in a leaf shaped like the head of a spear. Spike: A more or less elongate inflorescence, with sessile (lacking a stalk) flowers attached directly by their base. Spikelet: A small spike. Spine: A firm, slender sharp-pointed structure, representing a modified leaf or stipule; more loosely, a structure having the appearance of a true spine. Sporophyll: A modified leaf that bears or subtends the spore bearing cases in certain plants

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such as ferns and cycads Stamen: The male organ of a flower, consisting of an anther usually on a filament. Strobilus: A cluster of sporophylls or ovule bearing scales on an axis, such as in a cone. Tendril: A slender, coiling or twining organ (representing a modified stem or leaf or part thereof) by which a climbing plant grasps its support. Terminal clusters: As in flowers clustered at the end or tip of a branch. Thorn: A stiff, woody, modified stem with a sharp point. Tooth: Serration, as on the edge of a leaf (plural, teeth) Tuberous: Thickened like a tuber, as in roots. Variegated: Multiply colored, as in a leaf. Velvety: With erect, straight moderately firm hairs, such as on a stem or leaf. Warty: Covered with wart-like structures. Weed: A plant that aggressively colonizes disturbed habitats or places where it is not wanted. Winged seed: A thin, flat extension or projection from the side or tip of a seed.

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REFERENCES
Bailey LH, Bailey EZ, Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium Staff. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1290 pp. Gleason H, Cronquist A. 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Second Edition. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden Press, 910 pp. Nelson LS, Shih RD, Balick MJ. 2007. Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants, Second Edition. New York: Springer and The New York Botanical Garden Press, 340 pp.

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