Understanding French Grammar I Introduction to French

French is a musical, romantic language, and its sounds need practice and a fair amount of attention. Although you can make yourself understood in French despite your own regional accent, use this chapter to help you sound as much like a native as possible. Four areas need your undivided attention: accents, vowels, nasal sounds, and consonants, combined with the techniques of liaison and elision. The sounds of French vowels and nasals are quite different from the sounds you may be accustomed to in English; for that reason, vowels and nasals require some practice to obtain good results. Unlike English, French has accent marks that may or may not effect a change in pronunciation. In addition, many French consonants have the same pronunciation as those in English only a few require additional concentration. Keep in mind that each syllable in a French word has about equal stress, so by putting about the same emphasis on each syllable, you get the best results possible. Slightly stronger emphasis is placed on the last syllable of a group of words. In addition, consider the following tips for better pronunciation:

Speak slowly and clearly. Combine sounds and words for a more natural flow. Practice reading aloud authentic French materials. Listen to tapes and records to get a better feel for the sounds of the language. Don't be afraid to ham it up; that is, trying your best to sound like a native French speaker. Pay attention to accents and nasal sounds.

Liaison and Elision

Liaison refers to the linking of the final consonant of one word with the beginning vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or vowel sound (generally, h and y) to the following word, as in the following example: vous imitez (voo zee-mee-tay). Note how pronunciation of the final s of vous takes on the sound of z and combines with the pronunciation of the beginning i of imitez. Elision usually occurs when two vowel sounds are pronounced: one at the end of a word and the other at the beginning of the next word. Drop the final vowel of the first word and replace it with an apostrophe. The two words then simply slide together: je + imite = j'imite (zhee-meet). Note how the final e (uh) sound of je (zhuh) is dropped.

Accents
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An accent mark may change the sound of a letter, the meaning of a word, replace a letter that existed in old French, or have no perceivable effect at all. Accents are used only on vowels and under the letter c.

An accent aigu ( ) is only used on an e () and produces the sound ay, as in day. It may also replace an s from old French. When you see this letter, replace the with an imaginary s to see if its meaning becomes more evident. tranger = stranger

An accent grave (`) may be used on an or where it causes no sound change, or on an , producing the sound of eh as in the e in get. An accent circonflexe ( ) may be placed on any vowel but causes no perceptible sound change. It, too, often replaces a s from old French, which may give a clue to the meaning of the word. fort = forest

A cdille ( ) is placed under a c (), to create a soft (s) sound before the letters a, o, or u. a (sah)

A trma ( ) is placed on the second of two consecutive vowels to indicate that each vowel is pronounced independently. Nol (noh- ehl)

Vowels
Some vowels in French have multiple pronunciations determined by specific linguistic rules, letter combinations, and/or accent marks, as shown in Table 1 . You can always find exceptions, however, so when in doubt, consult a dictionary. In addition, expect sounds that are unfamiliar when vowels appear in combinations. TABLE 1 Vowels and their Sounds Vowel a, , e, final er and ez, es in some one-syllable words, some ai and et combinations e in one syllable words or in the middle of a word followed by one consonant , , and e (plus two consonants or a final pronounced consonant), et, ei, ai i, , y, ui 2 ah as in m a ay as in d ay uh as in th e eh as in g et i as in magaz ine Sound

ill or il when preceded by a vowel o (last pronounced sound of word) , au, eau o when followed by a pronounced consonant other than s ou, o, o oy, oi u, ,

y as in you o (before se) o as in g o oh as in l ove oo as in b oot wah as in watch no English equivalent try saying ew with lips rounded.

Nasal Sounds
French nasal sounds occur when a vowel is followed by a single n or m in the same syllable, as shown in Table 1 . You must use your nose (which should vibrate a bit) and your mouth to make these sounds. TABLE 1 Nasal Sounds Nasal Sound an, en (am, em) like on with minor emphasis on n in, ain (im, aim) like an with minor emphasis on n ien oin on (om) un (um) like yan in yankee with minor emphasis on n like wa in wag like on in wr ong like un in uncle

Keep in mind that the following combinations do not require nasalized vowel sounds:

vowel + nn or mm: bonne (pronounced like bun in English) vowel + n or vowel + m: mine (pronounced like mean in English)

Consonants
The French consonants in Table 1 are pronounced the same as they are in English: b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v, z. Most final French consonants remain unpronounced except for c, r, f, and l (think of the word ca re fu l). When in doubt, consult a good dictionary. TABLE 1 Consonant Sounds Consonant c + a, o, u c as in car Sound

ch g + a, o, u; gu + e, i, y g + e, I; ge + a, o gn j h q and qu r s between two vowels and the s in - sion t in - tion th x (before vowel)

sh as in ma chine g as in go zh as in mea sure ny as in u nion zh as in mea sure always silent k as in kind no equivalent the sound is gutteral and pronounced at the back of the throat as if gargling z as in zero s as in sea t as in tea eg as in l eg

Getting Ready for the Basics

Proper greetings, salutations, and goodbyes are extremely important when you meet a francophone (a French-speaking person). In addition, expressing numbers and being able to tell or ask about the time are essential tools in many circumstances. And being able to express the day, the month, the date, the season, or the weather is beneficial in many social conversations, especially when you're making plans. Cognates are words that are the same or similar in both French and English. If you know your cognates, simply turn on your French accent and voil you're speaking French! False friends, on the other hand, are words whose meanings are deceptive, so you don't want to misuse them and make mistakes.

Greetings and Salutations

In France, a formal approach is de rigueur (mandatory) if you want to converse with a person whom you don't know at all or very well. Don't commit a faux pas (mistake) by addressing someone informally before you have established a strong friendship or relationship. Start and end your conversations correctly by consulting Tables 1 and 2 . TABLE 1 Formal Greetings and Goodbyes Greeting/Goodbye in English Hello. Good evening. Bonjour. Bonsoir. 4 French Translation

Mr. Mrs. Miss (Ms.) What's your name? My name is I'm happy to meet you. I'd like you to meet How are you? Very well. Not bad. So so. Goodbye. Good night.

monsieur madame mademoiselle Comment vous appelez-vous? Je m'appelle Je suis heureux(se) de faire votre connaissance. Je vous prsente Comment allez-vous? Trs bien. Pas mal. Comme ci comme a. Au revoir. Bonne nuit. TABLE 2 Informal Greetings and Goodbyes Greeting/Goodbye in English Hi. What's your name? My name is Pleased to meet you. I'd like you to meet Bye. How are you? Fine. How's it going? Fine. What's new? Nothing. See you soon. See you later. See you tomorrow. French Translation Salut. Tu t'appelles comment? Je m'appelle Enchant(e). Je te prsente Salut. a va? a va. a marche? a marche. Quoi de neuf? Rien. ` bientt. ` tout ` l'heure. ` demain.

Note that vous expresses you in formal conversation, whereas tu expresses you in informal conversation. 5

As a sign of respect, older French women are generally referred to and addressed as madame, despite their marital status. Because mademoiselle is reserved for younger women, use madame when in doubt. After sunset, bonsoir is used as a greeting. Use bonne nuit if you are about to retire for the night.

Numbers
The French write two numbers differently than Anericans do: the number 1 has a little hook on top, which makes it look like a 7. So, to distinguish a 1 from a 7, a line is put through the 7, to look like this: . In numerals and decimals, the French use commas where Americans use periods, and vice versa: English French 4,000 .95 $16.75 4.000 0,95 $16, 5

Cardinal numbers
Consult Table 1 for a list of French cardinal numbers, the numbers we use for counting: 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. TABLE 1 Cardinal Numbers Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 French Translation zro un deux trois quatre cinq six sept huit neuf dix onze 6

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 30 40 50 60 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 90 91 92 100

douze treize quatorze quinze seize dix-sept dix-huit dix-neuf vingt vingt et un vingt-deux trente quarante cinquante soixante soixante-dix soixante et onze soixante-douze soixante-treize soixante-quatorze soixante-quinze soixante-seize soixante-dix-sept soixante-dix-huit soixante-dix-neuf quatre-vingts quatre-vingt-un quatre-vingt-deux quatre-vingt-dix quatre-vingt-onze quatre-vingt-douze cent 7

101 200 201 1000 2000 1,000,000 2,000,000

cent un deux cents deux cent un mille deux mille un million deux millions

1,000,000,000 un milliard 2,000,000,000 deux milliards Note the following about cardinal numbers:

The conjunction et (and) is used only for the numbers 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, and 71 . In all other compound numbers through 99, et is dropped, and a hyphen is used. Before a feminine noun un becomes une. o vingt et un hommes (21 men) o vingt et une femmes (21 women) To form 70 to 79, use soixante plus 10, 11, 12, and so on. To form 90 to 99, use quatre-vingt plus 10, 11, 12, and so on. For quatre-vingts (80) and the plural of cent (100) for any number above 199, drop the s before another number, but not before a noun . o quatre-vingt-quinze euros (95 euros) o quatre-vingts euros (80 euros) o deux cent cinquante dollars (250 dollars) o deux cents dollars (200 dollars) Un is not used before cent (100) and mille (1000). o cent hommes (100 men) o mille femmes (1, 000 women) Mille doesn't take s in the plural . o deux mille dollars (2, 000 dollars) Mille becomes mil in dates . o J'ai mille neuf cent dollars. (I have 1, 900 dollars.) o Je suis n en mil neuf cents dix. (I was born in 1910.) To express numbers between 1000 and 9999, where it is more convenient, you can avoid using mille and simply use cent. o mille cent or onze cents (1, 100) o mille neuf cents or dix-neuf cents (1, 900) The following words are used to express common arithmetic functions. o + (plus) is et o (minus) is moins o (times) is fois o (divided by) is divis par o = (equals) is font

Nouns of number
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Some numbers are used as collective nouns to express a round number, and some are followed by de (d') before another noun, as shown in Table 2 . TABLE 2 Nouns of Number French Nouns of Number English Translation une dizaine une douzaine une quinzaine une vingtaine une cinquaintaine une centaine un millier un million un milliard une centaine de femmes deux douzaines * d'ufs des milliers * de jouets un million de dollars deux millions * de dollars sept milliards * d'hommes about ten a dozen about fifteen about twenty about fifty about a hundred about a thousand a million a billion about 100 women two dozen eggs thousands of toys a million dollars two million dollars seven billion men

deux centaines * de femmes about 200 women

Ordinal numbers
Ordinal numbers allow you to express the floors in a building or numbers in a series. Most ordinal numbers are formed by adding i-me to the cardinal number, as shown in Table 3 . TABLE 3 Ordinal Numbers Ordinal French Translation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th premier or premire deuxime or second(e) troisime quatrime cinquime

7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 20th 21st 72nd

septime huitime neuvime dixime onzime douzime vingtime vingt et un(e)ime soixante-douzime

Note the following about ordinal numbers:

Premier and premire are abbreviated as follows: er o premier: 1 re o premire: 1 All others ordinals get a superscript, e, as follows: e o dixime: 10 e o centime: 100 Except for premier and second, ordinal numbers are formed by adding - ime to the cardinal number. The silent e is dropped before - ime: quatrime, onzime, and so on. o la quatrime fois (the fourth time) A u is added in cinquime, and a v replaces the f in neuvime. o le cinquime chapitre (the fifth chapter) Ordinal numbers agree in number and gender with the nouns they descibe. Premier (premire) and second (seconde) and numbers using unime (uneime) are the only ordinal numbers that have a feminine form. o le premier garon (the first boy) o la premire fille (the first girl) o les premires annes (the first years) o les vingt et unimes anniversaires (21st birthdays) Premier is used only for the first in a series. For 21 to 71, unime is added after the conjunction et to express first, and it must agree in number and gender with the noun it modifies. o le cinquante et unime match (the 51st match) o la quarante et uneime anne (the 41st year) Second(e) is generally used in a series that goes no higher than two. Use le or la before huit/ huitime and onze/ onzime. No elision is necessary. o le huitime jour (the 8th day) o le onze juillet (July 11th) In French, cardinal numbers precede ordinal numbers. o les quatre premires personnes (the first four people)

Days and Dates

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In order to express the date, you first much know the days of the week and the months of the year in French. All months, days of the week, and seasons in French are masculine and are not capitalized unless they are used at the beginning of a sentence.

Days and months

French calendars start with Monday as the first day of the week. Keep this in mind when making appointments. Tables 1 and 2 give you the days of the week and the months of the year, respectively. TABLE 1 Days of the Week Day in English French Translation Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday lundi mardi mercredi jeudi vendredi samedi dimanche

TABLE 2 Months of the Year Month in English French Translation January February March April May June July August September October November December janvier fvrier mars avril mai juin juillet aot septembre octobre novembre dcembre

Dates
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Dates in French may be expressed in several ways, as follows. Notice that le is optional or may be used in one of two places: (le) + day + (le) cardinal number + month + year. July 11, 2001 may expressed in any of the following ways:

lundi onze juillet 2001 lundi le onze juillet 2001 le lundi onze juillet 2001

Note the following when expressing a date:

The first of each month is expressed by premier, but premier is the only ordinal number used . Cardinal numbers are used for all other days. o le premier avril (April 1st) o le deux mars (March 2nd) o le neuf juin (June 9th) Years are usually expressed in hundreds, just like in English. o dix-neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (1999) o mil neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (1999) o deux mille (2000) When writing the date in numbers, the French follow the sequence, day + month + year, just as they do in speaking. o le 3 mai 2001 (May 3, 2001) which is expressed as 3/5/01 (5/3/01) The word for year, an, is used with ordinal numbers (1, 2, 3, and so on) unless an adjective is used to describe the word year, in which case the word anne is used to express year. Sometimes, either word is acceptable . o un an (a year) o une anne (a year) o six bonnes annes (six good years) o quelques annes (some years) o l'an dernier (last year) o l'anne dernire (last year) To express on a certain day, the French use the definite article le, explained in more detail in Chapter 3. o Le lundi je vais en ville. (On Monday[s], I go downtown.) The English words on and of are not expressed in French dates. o Il arrive le quatorze septembre. (He's arriving on September 14th). o Nous partons le quinze avril. (We're leaving on the 15th of April.) Use the preposition en to express in with months . o Je voyage en juillet. (I travel in July.) Use the following questions to receive or give information pertaining to today's day or date. You can also use the same questions to receive or give information about the day or date of an event by changing aujourd'hui (today) to the day, date, or event in question. o Quel jour est-ce aujourd'hui? What day is today? C'est aujourd'hui (Today is ) o Quel jour sommes-nous aujourd'hui? (What day is today?) Nous sommes aujourd'hui (Today is ) o Quelle est la date d'aujourd'hui? (What's today's date?) C'est aujourd'hui (Today is ) 12

The words and expressions in Table 3 may prove invaluable to you when you need information about a period of time. TABLE 3 Periods of Time Time Period in English a day a week a month a year a year in ago per during next last last eve day before yesterday yesterday today tomorrow day after tomorrow next day from a week from today French Translation un jour une semaine un mois un an une anne dans/en il y a par pendant prochain(e) dernier (dernire) pass(e) la veille avant-hier hier aujourd'hui demain aprs-demain le lendemain ds d'aujourd'hui en huit

two weeks from tomorrow de demain en quinze

Time
Consider the following questions and answers you'll need to be on top of the time

Quelle heure est-il? (What time is it?) Il est (It is ) quelle heure ? (At what time ?) (At )

Consult Table 9 to tell time correctly in French. TABLE 9 Telling Time 13

Time 1:00 2:05 3:10 4:15 5:20 6:25 7:30 7:35 8:40 9:45 10:50 11:55 noon

French Spelling une heure deux heures cinq trois heures dix quatre heures et quart cinq heures vingt six heures vingt-cinq sept heures et demie huit heures moins vingt-cinq neuf heures moins vingt dix heures moins le quart onze heures moins dix midi moins cinq

midnight minuit midi

To express and understand time properly remember the following:

To express time after the hour, the number of minutes is added. Et (and) is used only with quart (quarter) and demi(e) (half). Moins (less, minus) is used to express time before the hour. Moins le is used before quart to express 15 minutes after the hour. Because midi (noon) and minuit (midnight) are masculine, to say half past, use et demi, as in the following: J'arrive ` midi et demi. (I'm arriving at half past noon.) In public announcements, such as timetables, the official twenty-four-hour system is commonly used, with midnight as the zero hour: o 16 h is 4:00 p.m. o 21 h 45 is 9:45 p.m.

Seasons
At times, you may want to discuss what you do in the seasons.

l't (summer) l'automne (fall, autumn) l'hiver (winter) le printemps (spring)

To inquire and receive information about the season, use the following: Quelle saison est-ce? (What's the season?) C'est (It's ) 14

The preposition en is used to express in with all the seasons, except with printemps, when the contraction au ( + le) is used:

en t (in the summer) en automne (in the fall) en hiver (in the winter) au printemps (in the spring)

Weather
As you watch television, listen to the radio, or read the newspaper, you may see la mto (the forecast). Consult Table 1 for common weather expressions. TABLE 1 Weather Conditions French Translation Quel temps fait-il? Il fait beau. Il fait chaud. Il fait du soleil. Il fait mauvais. Il fait froid. Il fait frais. Il fait du vent. Il fait des clairs. Il fait du tonnerre. English Phrase What's the weather? It's beautiful. It's hot. It's sunny. It's nasty (bad). It's cold. It's cool. It's windy. It's lightning. It's thundering. It's humid. It's cloudy. It's overcast. It's raining. It's pouring. It's snowing. There are gusts of wind. There's hail. There are sudden showers.

Il fait du brouillard. Il y a du brouillard. It's foggy. Il fait humide. Il y a de l'humidit. Il y a des nuages. Le ciel est nuageux. Le ciel est couvert. Il pleut. Il pleut ` verse. Il neige. Il y a des rafales. Il y a de la grle. Il y a des giboules.

The following additional terms in Table 2 will help you interpret forecasts as you hear or see them. 15

TABLE 2 Terms Used in Forecasts French Forecast English Translation averses bruines brumeux ciel clair faible fort fracheur modr orages tempte verglas showers (heavy rain) drizzle hazy, foggy clear sky weak strong chilly moderate storms/rain storm/snow sleet

Keep in mind that the Centigrade (Celsius) thermometer is used in French-speaking countries.

To convert Fahrenheit to Centigrade, subract 32 from the Fahrenheit temperature and multiply the remaining number by 5/9;. This will give you the temperature in degrees Centigrade. To convert Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multiply the Centigurade temperature by 9/5; and add 32. This will give you the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

Use the thermometer in Figure 1 as a quick weather reference guide. To ask and receive answers about the temperature, use the phrases in Table 3 .

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Figure 1Centigrade and Fahrenheit.

TABLE 3 Phrases Regarding Temperature English Phrase It's 5 below. It's zero. It's 70 degrees. French What's the temperature? Quelle est la temprature? or Quelle temprature fait-il? Il fait moins cinq. Il fait zro. Il fait soixante-dix.

Cognates
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A cognate is a word whose meaning is blatanly obvious because it exactly, or very closely, resembles an equivalent English word. The only difference between the two words lies in their pronunciation. In many instances, you can immediately recognize French words because Enlgish language has appropriated them. Here, for example, are some high frequency words you should find quite useful: Words that are exactly the same:

adorable boutique bureau certain chef client content date minute (time) note permanent photo possible route (road) sandwich service soda variable

Similar words are as follows:

adresse amricain banque bleu cinma confortable dictionnaire difficile docteur famille ncessaire occup papier personne pharmacie supermarch tlphone tlvision

False Friends
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False friends are words that are spelled the same or almost the same in both French and English but have entirely different meanings and can be different parts of speech. The most common ones to watch out for are in Table 1 . TABLE 1 False Friends French English attendre to wait for comment how figure face librairie bookstore occasion opportunity pain rester sale travail bread to remain dirty work

Understanding Articles
Articles are small words that are generally classified as adjectives. They indicate that a noun or noun substitute will follow. French articles are singular or plural, depending upon whether the noun that follows is singular or plural. French singular articles may vary depending upon whether the following noun is masculine or feminine, or whether it starts with a vowel or consonant. Four French definite articles express the English word the; three French indefinite articles express a, an, and one; five partitive articles express some or any; and four demonstrative adjectives express this, that, these, and those.

Definite Articles
The definite article, which expresses the English word the, indicates a specific person or thing: the family, for example. The masculine, feminine, singular, and plural forms are shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 Definite Articles Masculine Singular le or l' le garon (the boy) l'homme (the man) 19 la or l' la fille (the girl) l'actrice (the actress) Feminine

Plural

les

les

les garons (the boys) les filles (the girls) les hommes (the men) les actrices (the actresses) For words beginning with a vowel or vowel sound (y and unaspirated h; that is, no puff of air is emitted when pronouncing the word aspirated h is generally indicated in dictionaries by an * or other symbol), the singular definite articles le and la become l'. The masculine or feminine gender of the noun, so easily recognizable when le (masculine) or la (feminine) is used, becomes a problem when the noun that follows requires the use of l', which represents either gender noun before a vowel. All plural nouns require the one plural definite article (les), so you cannot determine the gender of the noun by the article. Use the definite article as follows:

With nouns in a general or abstract sense o J'adore les chiens. (I love dogs.) With names of languages, except directly after parler, en, and de o Le franais est facile. (French is easy.) o J'adore le franais. (I love French.) But: Je parle franais. (I speak French.) C'est en franais. (It's in French.) une classe de franais (a French class) With parts of the body when the possessor is clear o Ouvre les yeux. (Open your eyes.) With titles of rank or profession, except when addressing the person o le docteur Jean (Dr. John)
o o o

But:
o Bonjour, docteur Jean. (Hello, Dr. John.) With days of the week in a plural sense o Le lundi je travaille. (On Mondays, I work.) With season and colors, except after au or en o Tu aimes l'hiver? (Do you like the winter?) o Il prfre le bleu. (He prefers blue.)

But: Au printemps il pleut. (It rains in the spring.) Je peins la maison en blanc. (I'm painting the house white.) With dates o C'est le dix aot. (It's August 10.) With most geographical names of countries and continents
o o

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La France est super. (France is super.) To express a, an, or per with weights and measures o Il paie six dollars la douzaine. (He pays $6 per dozen.) With common expressions of time or place o le soir (in the evening) o la semaine prochaine (next week) o la maison (at home)
o

Indefinite Articles
Indefinite articles, shown in Table 1 , refer to persons and objects not specifically identified: a girl, an apple, or some boys. Use different indefinate articles based on whether the noun that follows is masculine, feminine, singular, or plural. TABLE 1 Indefinite Articles Masculine Singular un un garon (a boy) un ami (a friend) Plural des des garons (boys or some boys) une une fille (a girl) une amie (a friend) des des filles (girls or some girls) Feminine

des amis (friends or some friends) des amies (friends or some friends) The e from the indefinite article une is never dropped. This final e does, however, change the sound of the word un, which is nasalized, to une, which is not nasalized. Omit the indefinite article in the following cases:

After the verb tre (to be) and devenir (to become) that come before the names of professions, except after c'est or when the noun is modified by an adjective o Anne est docteur. (Anne is a doctor.) o Luc devient avocat. (Luc is becoming a lawyer.) But: C'est une actrice. (She's an actress.) C'est un dentiste. (He's a dentist.) M. Leconte est un patron populaire. (Mr. Leconte is a popular boss.) After the exclamatory adjective quel (quelle, quels, quelles) o Quel garon curieux! (What a curious boy!) o Quelles maisons luxueuses! (What luxurious houses!) Before the numbers cent (100) and mille (1,000) o cent enfants (one hundred children) o mille dollars (one thousand dollars)
o o o

21

Partitive Articles
Use the partitive article, which expresses that you want part of a whole (some or any), to ask for an indefinite quantity (something that is not being counted). Before a noun, the partitive is generally expressed by de + the definite article. Note that de + le contract to become du and de + les contract to become des, as shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 Partitive Articles Article du de la de l' des Used Before feminine singular nouns beginning with a consonant any singular noun beginning with a vowel any plural noun Example de la glace (some ice cream) de l'argent (some money) des gens (some people) masculine singular nouns beginning with a consonant du temps (some time)

Note the following about the use of the partitive article:

Although the partitive some or any may be omitted in English, it may not be omitted in French and must be repeated before each noun . o Il prend des crales et du lait. (He's having cereal and milk.) In a negative sentence, the partitive some or any is expressed by de or d' without the article . o Je ne mange jamais de fruits. (I never eat any fruits.) o Je n'ai pas d'amis. (I don't have any friends.) Before a singular adjective preceding a singular noun, the partitive is expressed with or without the article. o C'est de (du) bon gteau. (That's good cake.) Before a plural adjective preceding a plural noun, the partitive is expressed by de alone . o Ce sont de bons lves. (They are good students.) Certain nouns and adverbs of quantity are followed by the partitive article de ( d' before a vowel) . Nouns un bote de (a box, can of) un bol de (a bowl of) une tasse de (a cup of) un verre de (a glass of) Adverbs assez de (enough) beaucoup de (many, much, a lot of) peu de (few, a little) trop de (too many, much) (He has a lot of friends.)

Donnez-moi une tasse de caf. Give me a cup of coffee.) Il a beaucoup d'amis.

The following nouns and adverbs of quantity are followed by de + definite article: o la plupart (most) 22

bien (a good many) la majorit (the majority) la plus grande partie (the majority) La plupart des gens aiment ce film. (Most people like this movie.) The adjectives plusieurs (several) and quelques (some) modify the noun directly . o J'adore plusieurs lgumes. (I like several vegetables.) o Il achte quelques livres. (He is buying some books.) The partitive is not used with sans (without) and ne ni ni (neither nor) . o Elle prendra du th sans citron. (She'll take tea without lemon.) o Il ne boit ni caf ni th. (He doesn't drink coffee or tea.)
o o o o

Definite versus Partitive

Although the definite article (le, la, l', les) is used with nouns in a general sense, the partitive is used to express some or part of something:

J'adore le chocolat. (I love chocolate.) Donne-moi du chocolat. (Give me some chocolate.)

Although you use un or une when speaking about one portion or serving, you use an adverb or noun of quantity or the partitive to express amounts:

Un chocolat chaud, s'il vous plat. (A hot chocolate, please.) Un bol de chocolat chaud, s'il vous plat. (A bowl of hot chocolate, please.) Du chocolat chaud, s'il vous plat. (Some hot chocolate, please.)

Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives, shown in Table 1 , precede and agree in number (singular or plural) and gender (masculine or feminine) with the nouns they modify. Demonstrative adjectives indicate or point out the person, place, or thing referred to. Singular demonstrative adjectives can mean either this or that. Plural demonstrative adjectives can mean either these or those. TABLE 1 Demonstrative Adjectives Masculine Singular ce (cet) J'adore ce livre. (I love this book.) Plural ces J'achte ces livres. cette Cette robe est belle. (That dress is beautiful.) ces Ces filles sont amies. Feminine

(I'm buying these books.) (Those girls are friends.) Note the following about demonstrative adjectives: 23

The masculine singular demonstrative adjective cet is used before a masculine singular noun that begins with a vowel or vowel sound to prevent a clash of vowel sounds . When speaking, link the final t of cet with the vowel that follows. o cet hotel (this/that hotel) But:

cette actrice (this/that actress) Repeat the demonstrative adjective before each noun. o cet appartement et cette maison (this appartment and that house) o ces hommes et ces femmes (these men and women or these men and those women) If you must distinguish between this and that or these and those, for clarity, emphasis, comparison, or contrast, add the tags ci (from the word ici, which means here) to mean this and these, and l (from the word l which means there) to mean that and those, to the nouns being compared. They are attached with a hyphen, as follows: o cette fille-ci et ce garon-l (this girl and that boy)
o

The Gender of Nouns

A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing, idea, or quality. In a bilingual dictionary, nouns may be designated by an n. (noun) or an s. (substantive, a word that stands for noun). Bilingual dictionaries also use m. for masculine and f. for feminine. If you see m./f., the noun may be either gender depending upon the person or thing to which you are referring. Like English, all French nouns have a number: singular (one), as in la famille (the family), or plural (more than one), as in les enfants (the children). Unlike English, however, all French nouns also have a gender: masculine or feminine. In some instances, the gender of the noun is apparent: un garon (a boy) is masculine, whereas une fille (a girl) is feminine. In other cases, the gender of a noun is not at all obvious and defies all rules of common sense or logic: une chemise (a man-tailored shirt) is feminine, while un jupon (a slip) is masculine. No explanations exist as to why French nouns have a gender or how the gender of any noun was originally determined, so you cannot rely on a rule to guide you; however, certain endings do generally indicate a feminine or masculine noun. For the most part, though, the gender of nouns must be memorized through repetition, you can likely commit them to memory.

Obvious masculine and feminine nouns

Nouns that refer to males are always masculine and their female counterparts are always feminine, as shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 Obvious Masculine or Feminine Nouns Obvious Masculine Nouns Obvious Feminine Nouns fils (son) garon (boy) 24 fille (daughter) fille (girl)

grand-pre (grandfather) homme (man) neveu (nephew) oncle (uncle) pre (father) prince (prince) roi (king)

grand-mre (grandmother) femme (woman) nice (niece) tante (aunt) mre (mother) princesse (princess) reine (queen)

Nouns that give you a hint

In some cases, the gender of a noun can be determined by its ending, as shown in Table 2 . Exceptions are the feminine words page (page of a book) and plage ( beach) that end in - age and the feminine words eau (water) and peau (skin) that end in - eau. TABLE 2 Endings that Determine Gender Masculine Ending - acle - age - al - eau - et - ier - isme - ment Example village (village) journal (newspaper) bureau (office) cabinet (office) papier (paper) cyclisme (cycling) Feminine Ending - ale - ance - ence - ette - ie - ique - sion - tion - ure Example orangeade (orangeade) capitale (capital) chance (chance, luck) agence (agency) raquette (racket) magie (magic) musique (music) victoire (victory) version (version) nation (nation) coiffure (hair style) spectacle (spectacle) - ade

changement (change) - oire

Nouns that change gender

Consider the following nouns that can be either masculine or feminine, depending upon whom you are referring. Make sure to use the proper article ( le, l', un for masculine) or ( la, l', une for feminine) before the noun.

artiste (artist) camarade (friend) collgue (colleague) concierge (superintendent) lve (student) 25

enfant (child) malade (patient) secrtaire (secretary) touriste (tourist)

Some nouns can be easily changed from one gender to another by adding an e to the masculine form to get the feminine form, as shown in Table 3 . Keep in mind that adding an e to a final vowel does not change the sound of the word. Adding an e to a final consonant, however, necessitates pronouncing that final consonant sound. TABLE 3 Changing Genders Masculine Ending Feminine Ending English Translation ami avocat client cousin employ tudiant Franais voisin amie avocate cliente cousine employe tudiante Franaise voisine friend lawyer client cousin employee student French person neighbor

Some masculine noun endings (usually referring to professions) have a corresponding feminine ending, as indicated in Table 4 , that is used when the professional is female. The masculine an, -ien, and - on endings are nasalized when pronounced, whereas the feminine counterparts are not. TABLE 4 Special Feminine Endings Masculine Ending Feminine Ending - an - el - er - eur - ien - on - teur - anne - elle - re - euse - ienne - onne - trice Example paysan(ne) contractuel(le) English Translation peasant meter reader

boucher (bouchre) butcher vendeur (vendeuse) sales clerk musicien(ne) patron(ne) acteur (actrice) musician boss actor

Some nouns have differenct meanings depending upon whether they are used in a masculine or feminine sense. Consult Table 5 to use these words correctly.

26

TABLE 5 Meanings Determined by Gender Masculine Words le critique (critic) le livre (book) le mode (method) le poste (job) le tour (tour) le vase (vase) Feminine Words la critique (criticism) la livre (pound) la mode (fashion) la poste (post office) la tour (tower) la vase (mud)

le mmoire (report) la mmoire (memory)

Nouns with gender that must be memorized

Some high-frequency words are always masculine or feminine, despite the gender of the person referred to. Don't be tempted to select the article you use based on the gender of the person about whom you are speaking:

un agent de police (a police officer) un bb (a baby) un chef (a chef, a leader, a head) un dentiste (a dentist) un docteur (a doctor) un crivain (a writer) un ingnieur (an engineer) un libraire (a bookstore clerk) un mannequin (a model) un mdecin (a doctor) un peintre (a painter) un pompier (a fire fighter) un professeur (a teacher) une connaissance (an acquaintance) une personne (a person) une star (a star) une vedette (a star) une victime (a victim)

The Plural of Nouns

Just like in English, when a French noun refers to more than one person, place, thing, idea, or quality, it must be made plural. Keep in mind that when changing the noun to the plural, its respective article must also change to the plural. Using a plural article before a noun does not enable you to determine the gender of any noun. The only information provided by plural articles is that the speaker is referring to more than one noun. You can only learn noun genders by studying each noun with its singular article. 27

Most nouns in French are made plural by simply adding an unpronounced s to the singular form:

la famille becomes les familles un lve becomes des lves

The letters s, x, and z are all used to make plurals in French. If a singular noun ends in any of these letters, its plural form remains unchanged:

The plural of le corps (body) is les corps (bodies) The plural of le prix (price) is les prix (prices) The plural of le nez (nose) is les nez (noses)

Common words that end in s and x are:

l'ananas m. (pineapple) le bus (bus) le bas (stocking) le bras (arm) le colis (package) la fois (time) le hros (hero) le palais (palace) le pardessus (overcoat) le pays (country) le repas (meal) le tapis (rug) la voix (voice) la croix (cross)

Other plurals are formed as follows:

Nouns ending in eau add x to form the plural: o le bateau (boat) becomes les bateaux (boats) o le bureau (office, desk) becomes les bureaux (offices, desks) o le cadeau (gift) becomes les cadeaux (gifts) o le chapeau (hat) becomes les chapeaux (hats) o le chteau (castle) becomes les chteaux (castles) o le couteau (knife) becomes les couteaux (knives) o le gateau (cake) becomes les gateaux (cakes) o le manteau (coat) becomes les manteaux (coats) o le morceau (piece) becomes les morceaux (pieces) o l'oiseau (bird) becomes les oiseaux (birds) o le rideau (curtain) becomes les rideaux (curtains) Nouns ending in eu add x to form the plural, except that le pneu (tire) becomes les pneus (tires): o le cheveu (a single hair) becomes les cheveux (many hairs) o le jeu (game) becomes les jeux (games) o le lieu (place) becomes les lieux (places) o le neveu (nephew) becomes les neveux (nephews) 28

Nouns ending in al change al to aux , except for le bal (ball), which become les bals (balls) and le festival (the festival), which becomes les festivals (the festivals): o l'animal (animal) becomes les animaux (animals) o le cheval (horse) becomes les chevaux (horses) o l'hpital (hospital) becomes les hpitaux (hospitals) o le journal (newspaper) becomes les journaux (newspapers) Some nouns ending in ou add x to form the plural: o le bijou (jewel) becomes les bijoux (jewels) o le genou (knee) becomes les genoux (knees) o le joujou (toy) becomes les joujoux (toys)

Useful irregular plurals include the following:

l'il m. (eye) becomes les yeux (eyes) le travail (work) becomes les travaux (works) madame (Mrs.) becomes mesdames mademoiselle (Miss) becomes mesdemoiselles monsieur (Mr.) becomes messieurs

Most compound nouns (nouns made up of two nouns that are usually joined by a hyphen) do not change in the plural. Remember, however, to change their respective articles:

l'aprs-midi (afternoon) becomes les aprs-midi (afternoons) le gratte-ciel (skyscraper) becomes les gratte-ciel (skyscrapers) le hors-d'uvre (appetizer) becomes les hors-d'uvre (appetizers) le rendez-vous (meeting) becomes les rendez-vous (meetings)

But:

le grand-pre (grandfather) becomes les grands-pres (grandfathers) la grand-mre (grandmother) becomes les grands-mres (grandmothers) le grand-parent (grandparent) becomes les grands-parents (grandparents)

Just as in English, some words in French are always plural:

les ciseaux m. (scissors) les gens m. (people) les lunettes f. (eyeglasses) les mathmatiques f. (mathematics) les vacances f. (vacation)

Some nouns are singular but refer to a group of people. Make sure to use a singular verb that agrees with these subjects:

le public (audience) la foule (crowd) tout le monde (everybody) la famille (family) le groupe (group) la police (police) 29

In French, last names do not add an s in the plural as they do in English:

Les Renard (the Renards) Les Lescaut (the Lescauts)

Regular Verbs
All regular - er, - ir, and - re verbs follow the same rules in every tense and mood for verb conjugation. Use these sample charts as a guide for all verbs that are classified as regular.

- er verbs

TABLE 1 Parler (to speak); Past Participle, parl Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils parl e parl es parl e parl ais parl ais parl ait Future parler ai parler as parler a Conditional Subjunctive parler ais parler ais parler ait parl e parl es parl e parl ions parl iez

parl ons parl ions parl ez parl ent parl iez

parler ons parler ions parler ez parler iez

parl aient parler ont parler aient parl ent

- ir verbs

TABLE 2 Finir (to finish); Past participle, fini Subject je tu il nous vous ils Present fin is fin is fin it Imperfect finiss ais finiss ais finiss ait Future Conditional Subjunctive finir ai finir as finir a finir ais finir ais finir ait finiss e finiss es finiss e finiss ions finiss iez finiss ent

fin issons finiss ions fin issez fin issent finiss iez

finir ons finir ions finir ez finir iez

finiss aient finir ont finir aient

- re verbs
30

TABLE 3 Vendre (to sell); Past Participle, vendu Subject Present je tu il nous vous ils vend s vend s vend Imperfect vend ais vend ais vend ait Future vendr ai vendr as vendr a Conditional Subjunctive vendr ais vendr ais vendr ait vend e vend es vend e vend ions vend iez vend ent

vend ons vend ions vend ez vend ent vend iez

vendr ons vendr ions vendr ez vendr iez

vend aient vendr ont vendr aient

- er verbs with spelling changes and - cer verbs

TABLE 4 Placer (to place); Past Participle, plac Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils plac e plac es plac e pla ais pla ais pla ait Future placer ai placer as placer a Conditional Subjunctive placer ais placer ais placer ait plac e plac es plac e plac ions plac iez

pla ons plac ions plac ez plac ent plac iez

placer ons placer ions placer ez placer iez

pla aient placer ont placer aient plac ent

- ger verbs

TABLE 5 Manger (to eat); Past participle, mang Subject je tu il nous vous ils Present mang e mang es mang e Imperfect mang eais mang eais mang eait Future manger ai manger as manger a Conditional Subjunctive manger ais manger ais manger ait mang e mang es mang e mang ions mang iez

mang eons mangions mang ez mang ent mangiez

manger ons manger ions manger ez manger iez

mang eaient manger ont manger aient mang ent

- yer verbs
31

TABLE 6 Employer (to use); Past participle, employ Subject j' tu il nous vous ils Present emploi e emploi es emploi e Imperfect employ ais employ ais employ ait Future emploier ai emploier as emploier a Conditional emploier ais emploier ais emploier ait Subjunctive emploi e emploi es emploi e employ ions employ iez

employ ons employ ions employ ez emploi ent employ iez

emploier ons emploier ions emploier ez emploier iez

employ aient emploier ont emploier aient emploi ent

- e + consonant + - er verbs

TABLE 7 Acheter (to speak); Past participle, achet Subject j' tu il nous vous ils Present ach te ach tes ach te Imperfect achet ais achet ais achet ait Future achter ai achter as achter a Conditional Subjunctive ach terais ach terais ach terait ach te ach tes ach te achet ions achet iez

achet ons achet ions achet ez ach tent achet iez

achter ons ach terions achter ez ach teriez

achet aient achter ont ach teraient ach tent

- er verbs with double consonants

TABLE 8 Appeler (to speak); Past participle, appel Subject j' tu il nous vous ils Present appell e appell es appell e Imperfect appel ais appel ais appel ait Future appeller ai appeller as appeller a Conditional appeller ais appeller ais appeller ait Subjunctive appell e appell es appell e appel ions appel iez

appel ons appel ions appel ez appel iez

appeller ons appeller ions appeller ez appeller iez

appell ent appel aient appeller ont appeller aient appell ent 32

TABLE 9 Jeter (to throw); Past participle, jet Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils jett e jett es jett e jet ons jet ez jett ent jet ais jet ais jet ait jet ions jet iez jet aient Future jetter ai jetter as jetter a Conditional Subjunctive jetter ais jetter ais jetter ait jett e jett es jett e jet ions jet iez jett ent

jetter ons jetter ions jetter ez jetter iez

jetter ont jetter aient

- + consonant + - er verbs

TABLE 10 Rpter (to repeat); Past participle, rpt Subject je tu il nous vous ils Present rpt e rpt es rpt e Imperfect rpt ais rpt ais rpt ait Future rpter ai rpter as rpter a Conditional Subjunctive rpter ais rpter ais rpter ait rpt e rpt es rpt e rpt ons rpt ez

rpt ons rpt ions rpt ez rpt ent rpt iez

rpter ons rpter ions rpter ez rpter iez

rpt aient rpter ont rpter aient rpt ent

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs follow no specific rules for verb conjugation, so you must memorize each one. Use the following tables as a reference for the irregular verbs you need the most. (Note that verbs conjugated with tre in the past tense are indicated by an asterisk [*].) TABLE 1 Aller* (to go)l Past participle, all Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je tu il nous vais vas va allons all ais all ais all ait all ions ir ai ir as ir a ir ons ir ais ir ais ir ait ir ions aille ailles aille allions

33

ils

vont

all aient

ir ont

ir aient

aillent

TABLE 2 Avoir (to have); Past participle, eu Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive j' tu il nous vous ils ai as a avons avez ont av ais av ais av ait av ions av iez av aient aur ai aur as aur a aur ais aur ais aur ait aie aies ait ayons ayez aient

aur ons aur ions aur ez aur iez

aur ont aur aient

TABLE 3 Boire (to drink); Past participle, bu Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je tu il nous vous ils bois bois boit buvons buvez buv ais buv ais buv ait buv ions buv iez boir ai boir as boir a boir ais boir ais boir ait boive boives boive buvions buviez boivent

boir ons boir ions boir ez boir iez

boivent buv aient

boir ont boir aient

TABLE 4 Connaitre (to know); Past participle, connu Subject je tu il nous vous ils Present connais connais connat Imperfect connaiss ais connaiss ais connaiss ait Future connatr ai connatr as connatr a Conditional connatr ais connatr ais connatr ait Subjunctive connaisse connaisses connaisse connaissions connaissiez

connaissons connaiss ions connaissez conaissent connaiss iez

connatr ons connatr ions connatr ez connatr iez

connaiss aient connatr ont connatr aient connaissent

TABLE 5 Devoir (to have to); Past participle, d Subject Present Imperfect je tu il dois dois doit dev ais dev ais dev ait Future devr ai devr as devr a 34 Conditional Subjunctive devr ais devr ais devr ait doive doives doive

nous vous ils

devons devez

dev ions dev iez

devr ons devr ions devr ez devr iez

devions deviez doivent

doivent dev aient

devr ont devr aient

TABLE 6 Dire (to say, tell); Past participle, dit Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je tu il nous vous ils dis dis dit disons dites disent dis ais dis ais dis ait dis ions dis iez dis aient dir ai dir as dir a dir ais dir ais dir ait dise dises dise disions disiez disent

dir ons dir ions dir ez dir iez

dir ont dir aient

TABLE 7 Dormir (to sleep); Past participle, dormi Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils dors dors dort dorm ais dorm ais dorm ait Future dormir ai dormir as dormir a Conditional Subjunctive dormir ais dormir ais dormir ait dorme dormes dorme dormions dormiez

dormons dorm ions dormez dorm iez

dormir ons dormir ions dormir ez dormir iez

dorment dorm aient dormir ont dormir aient dorment TABLE 8 crire (to write); Past participle, crit

Subject Present Imperfect j tu il nous vous ils cris cris crit criv ais criv ais criv ait

Future crir ai crir as crir a

Conditional Subjunctive crir ais crir ais crir ait crive crives crive crivions criviez crivent

crivons criv ions crivez criv iez

crir ons crir ions crir ez crir iez

crivent criv aient crir ont crir aient TABLE 9 tre (to be); Past participle, t

Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je suis t ais ser ai 35 ser ais sois

tu il nous vous ils

es est

t ais t ait

ser as ser a

ser ais ser ait

sois soit soyons soyez soient

sommes t ions tes sont t iez t aient

ser ons ser ions ser ez ser iez

ser ont ser aient

TABLE 10 Faire (to make, do); Past participle, fait Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je tu il nous vous ils fais fais fait faisons faites font fais ais fais ais fais ait fais ions fais iez fais aient fer ai fer as fer a fer ais fer ais fer ait fasse fasses fasse fassions fassiez fassent

fer ons fer ions fer ez fer iez

fer ont fer aient

TABLE 11 Lire (to read); Past participle, lu Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je tu il nous vous ils lis lis lit lisons lisez lisent lis ais lis ais lis ait lis ions lis iez lis aient lir ai lir as lir a lir ais lir ais lir ait lise lises lise lisions lisiez lisent

lir ons lir ions lir ez lir ont lir iez lir aient

TABLE 12 Mettre (to put); Past participle, mis Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils mets mets met mett ais mett ais mett ait Future mettr ai mettr as mettr a Conditional Subjunctive mettr ais mettr ais mettr ait mette mettes mette mettions mettiez mettent

mettons mett ions mettez mett iez

mettr ons mettr ions mettr ez mettr iez

mettent mett aient mettr ont mettr aient

TABLE 13 Ouvrir (to open); Past participle, ouvert 36

Subject Present Imperfect j tu il nous vous ils ouvr e ouvr es ouvr e ouvr ais ouvr ais ouvr ait

Future ouvrir ai ouvrir as ouvrir a

Conditional Subjunctive ouvrir ais ouvrir ais ouvrir ait ouvre ouvres ouvre ouvrions ouvriez

ouvr ons ouvr ions ouvr ez ouvr ent ouvr iez

ouvrir ons ouvrir ions ouvrir ez ouvrir iez

ouvr aient ouvrir ont ouvrir aient ouvrent

TABLE 14 Partir* (to leave); Past Participle, parti Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils pars pars part part ais part ais part ait Future partir ai partir as partir a Conditional Subjunctive partir ais partir ais partir ait parte partes parte partions partiez partent

partons part ions partez partiez

partir ons partir ions partir ez partir iez

partent part aient partir ont partir aient

TABLE 15 Pouvoir (to be able to, can); Past participle, pu Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils peux peux peut pouv ais pouv ais pouv ait Future pourr ai pourr as pourr a Conditional Subjunctive pourr ais pourr ais pourr ait puisse puisses puisse puissions puissiez puissent

pouvons pouv ions pouvez pouv iez

pourr ons pourr ions pourr ez pourr iez

peuvent pouv aient pourr ont pourr aient

TABLE 16 Prendre (to take); Past participle, pris Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous prends prends prend pren ais pren ais pren ait Future prendr ai prendr as prendr a Conditional Subjunctive prendr ais prendr ais prendr ait prenne prennes prenne prenions

prenons pren ions

prendr ons prendr ions

37

ils

prennent pren aient prendr ont prendr aient prennent TABLE 17 Recevoir (to receive); Past participle, reu

Subject Present je tu il nous vous ils reois reois reoit

Imperfect recev ais recev ais recev ait

Future recevr ai recevr as recevr a

Conditional Subjunctive recevr ais recevr ais recevr ait reoive reoives reoive recevions receviez

recevons recev ions recevez recev iez

recevr ons recevr ions recevr ez recevr iez

reoivent recev aient recevr ont recevr aient reoivent TABLE 18 Savoir (to know); Past participle, su

Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils sais sais sait savons savez savent sav ais sav ais sav ait sav ions sav iez sav aient

Future saur ai saur as saur a

Conditional Subjunctive saur ais saur ais saur ait sache saches sache sachions sachiez sachent

saur ons saur ions saur ez saur iez

saur ont saur aient

TABLE 19 Sentir (to feel, smell); Past participle, senti Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils sens sens sent sent ais sent ais sent ait Future sentir ai sentir as sentir a Conditional Subjunctive sentir ais sentir ais sentir ait sente sentes sente sentions sentiez sentent

sentons sent ions sentez sentent sent iez

sentir ons sentir ions sentir ez sentir iez

sent aient sentir ont sentir aient

TABLE 20 Servir (to serve); Past participle, servi Subject Present Imperfect je tu il sers sers sert serv ais serv ais serv ait Future servir ai servir as servir a 38 Conditional Subjunctive servir ais servir ais servir ait serve serves serve

nous vous ils

servons serv ions servez serv iez

servir ons servir ions servir ez servir iez

servions serviez servent

servent serv aient servir ont servir aient

TABLE 21 Sortir* (to go out); Past participle, sorti Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils sors sors sort sort ais sort ais sort ait Future sortir ai sortir as sortir a Conditional Subjunctive sortir ais sortir ais sortir ait sorte sortes sorte sortions sortiez sortent

sortons sort ions sortez sortent sort iez

sortir ons sortir ions sortir ez sortir iez

sort aient sortir ont sortir aient

TABLE 22 Venir* (to come); Past participle, venu Subject Present Imperfect je tu il nous vous ils viens viens vient venons venez ven ais ven ais ven ait ven ions ven iez Future viendr ai viendr as viendr a Conditional Subjunctive viendr ais viendr ais viendr ait vienne viennes vienne venions veniez

viendr ons viendr ions viendr ez viendr iez

viennent ven aient

viendr ont viendr aient viennent

TABLE 23 Voir (to see); Past participle, vu Subject Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive je tu il nous vous ils vois vois voit voyons voyez voient voy ais voy ais voy ait voy ions voy iez voy aient verr ai verr as verr a verr ais verr ais verr ait voie voies voie voyions voyiez voient

verr ons verr ions verr ez verr iez

verr ont verr aient

TABLE 24 Vouloir (to want); Past participle, voulu Subject Present Imperfect je veux voul ais Future voudr ai 39 Conditional Subjunctive voudr ais veuille

tu il nous vous ils

veux veut

voul ais voul ait

voudr as voudr a

voudr ais voudr ait

veuilles veuille voulions vouliez veuillent

voulons voul ions voulez voul iez

voudr ons voudr ions voudr ez voudr iez

veulent voul aient voudr ont voudr aient

Interogation
Questions, Asking Yes or No
You can get a yes or no answer to a question in four ways, covered in each of the following sections.

Intonation
Questions are often asked by a noticeable change in intonation (modulation of the voice), typified by a rising inflection (change in the voice) at the end of the statement. This is the simplest and most colloquial way to ask a question: Tu veux sortir? (Do you want to go out?) To make the question negative, put ne pas around the conjugated verb:

Tu ne veux pas sortir? (Don't you want to go out?) Tu n'es pas sorti? (Didn't you go out?)

N'est-ce pas
The tag n'est-ce pas has various meanings:

isn't that so? right? isn't (doesn't) he/she? aren't (don't) they? aren't (don't) we? aren't (don't) you?

N'est-ce pas is a negative expression, so use n'est-ce pas at the end of an affirmative statement only when the expected answer is yes: Tu veux sortir, n'est-ce pas? (You want to go out, don't you?) To answer yes to a negative question, use si instead of oui: Si, je veux sortir. (Yes, I want to go out.)

Est-ce que

40

Turn a statement into a question by beginning with the expression est-ce que, which is not translated literally, but indicates that a question will follow. This is a common conversational way to ask a question. Est-ce que tu veux sortir? (Do you want to go out?) To make the question negative, place ne pas around the conjugated verb:

Est-ce que tu ne veux pas sortir? (Don't you want to go out?) Est-ce que tu n'es pas sorti? (Didn't you go out?)

Inversion
Inversion is the reversal of the word order of the subject pronoun and the conjugated verb in order to form a question: You simply join the verb to its subject pronoun with a hyphen. Inversion is the most formal way to ask a question and is generally used more frequently in writing than in conversation. The rules for inversion are as follows:

Avoid inverting with je, which is awkward and rarely used except for the following: o ai-je ? (do I have ?) o suis-je ? (am I ?) o dois-je ? (must I ? o puis-je ? (may I ?[permission]) Inversion occurs in all tenses but only with subject pronouns and conjugated verbs: o Sors-tu? (Are you going out?) o Veux-tu sortir? (Do you want to go out?) o Es-tu sorti? (Did you go out?) o Sortais-tu? (Were you going out?) o Sortirais-tu? (Would you go out?) o Se lvent-ils? (Are they getting up?) o Se sont-ils levs? (Did they get up?) The preceding questions can be made negative by putting the first part of the negative phrase before the reflexive pronoun or conjugated verb, and the second part of the negative after the subject pronoun: Ne sors-tu jamais? (Don't you ever go out?) Ne veux-tu pas sortir? (Don't you want to go out?) Ne se sont-ils pas levs? (Didn't they get up?) When the third person singular of the verb ( il, elle, on) ends in a vowel, a - t- is inserted between the verb and the subject pronoun to prevent having two vowels sounds together: o Travaille-t-il? (Is he working?) o A-t-elle fini? (Did she finish?)
o o o

But, consider the following:

o

Obit-elle? (Does she obey?) 41

S'est-il lav? (Did he wash himself?) With a noun subject, a double-subject construction is used: noun + verb-third person pronoun, for example: La fille est- elle (xxx). The third person pronoun agrees in number and gender with the corresponding subject noun: o Jean est-il blond? (Is John blond?) o Les films sont-ils bons? (Are the films good?) o Cette machine marche-t-elle? (Is that machine working?) o Les filles se sont-elles maquilles? (Did the girls put on make up?)
o

Follow the preceding rules to make these sentences negative:

o o o o

Jean n'est-il pas blond? (Isn't John bolnd?) Les films ne sont-ils pas bons? (Aren't the films good?) Cette machine ne marche-t-elle pas? (Isn't this machine working?) Les filles ne se sont-elles pas maquilles? (Didn;t the girls put on makeup?)

Asking for Information

Use interrogative adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns to ask for information.

Interrogative adjectives
The interrogative adjective quel (which?, what?), shown in Table 1 , agrees in number and gender with the noun it modifies. TABLE 1 Interrogative Adjectives Number Masculine Feminine Singular quel Plural quels quelle quelles

Quel may be followed by est-ce que or inversion:

Quelle chemise est-ce que tu prfres? (Which shirt do you prefer?) Quelle chemise prfres-tu? (Which shirt do you prefer?)

In colloquial French, quel + a noun may be placed at the end of the phrase to form the question: Tu prfres quelle chemise? (Which shirt do you prefer?) Quel may also be preceded by a preposition:

De quelle chemise est-ce que tu parles? (Which shirt are you talking about?) De quelle chemise parles-tu? (Which shirt are you talking about?)

tre is the only verb that may separate quel from its noun:

Quel est ton nom? (What's your name?) Quelle est la date? (What's the date?) 42

Interrogative adverbs
The following interrogative adverbs can be used with est-ce que or inversion to ask questions.

comment (how?) combien (how much/many?) quand (when?) o (where?) d'o (from where?) pourquoi (why?)

In colloquial spoken French, they are often placed after the verb, as follows:

Tu t'appelles comment? (What's your name?) Les invits arrivent quand? (When are the guests arriving?)

With combien, comment, o, d'o, and quand (but not with pourquoi), a question may be formed by inverting a noun subject with a verb that has no object:

O habite cette famille? (Where does that family live?) Combien cote ce CD? (How much does this CD cost?)

Invariable interrogative pronouns

Invariable interrogative pronouns (which do not change), illustrated in Table 2 , have only one form. No agreement is necessary. TABLE 2 Invariable Interrogative Pronouns Part of Speech Subject qui Direct object whom? qui Object of the preposition who? qui People who? what? que (quoi) what? quoi Things what?

qui est-ce qui qu'est-ce qui

qui est-ce que qu'est-ce que

qui est-ce que Note that the i from qui is never dropped, whereas que becomes qu' before a vowel or vowel sound: Invariable interrogative pronouns are used in the following ways: 43

As subjects, followed by verbs in the third person singular o Qui (Qui est-ce qui) est tomb? (Who fell?) o Qu'est-ce qui est tomb? (What fell?) ( Qui is the short form and qu'est-ce qui is the long form. Either is acceptable.)

As objects of the verb o Qui est-ce que tu cherches? (Whom are you looking for?) o Qui cherches-tu? (Whom are you looking for?) o Tu cherches qui? (Whom are you looking for?) o Qu'est-ce que tu cherches? (What are you looking for?) o Que cherches-tu? (What are you looking for?) o Tu cherches quoi? (What are you looking for?) Note that que becomes quoi after a verb. With que, when the subject is a noun, inversion is not performed: Que cherche Sylvie? (What is Sylvia looking for?)

As objects of a preposition Use a preposition + qui for people; use a preposition + quoi for things.
o o o o o o

qui est-ce que tu parles? (To whom are you speaking?) qui parles-tu? (To whom are you speaking?) Tu parles qui? (To whom are you speaking?) De quoi est-ce que tu parles? (What are you talking about?) De quoi parles-tu? (What are you talking about?) Tu parles de quoi? (What are you talking about?) qui shows possession: qui est ce livre? (Whose book is this?) De qui shows relationship: De qui es-tu le frre? (Whose brother are you?)

Variable interrogative pronouns

Variable interrogative pronouns agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace. Select the singular form of the interrogative pronoun to express which one and the plural to express which ones.

Laquelle de ces voitures aimes-tu? (Which one of these cars do you like?) Lesquels de ces films as-tu vus? (Which ones of these films have you seen?) laquelle de tes amies cris-tu? (To which one of your friends are you writing?) Desquels de ces papiers avez-vous besoin? (Which ones of these papers do you need?)

Use contractions with the prepositions (to) and de (of, from) as shown in Table 3 : TABLE 3 Variable Interrogative Pronouns Number Masculine Feminine Singular lequel 44 laquelle

 de Plural de

auquel duquel lesquels desquels auxquels

laquelle de laquelle lesquelles de laquelle desquelles

Il y a
Il y a (there is/are or is/are there?) can ask or answer a question, as follows:

Il y a un bal ce soir? (Is there a party this evening?) Est-ce qu'il y a un bal ce soir? (Is there a party this evening?) Y a-t-il un bal ce soir? (Is there a party this evening?) Il n'y a pas de bal ce soir? (Isn't there a party this evening?) Est-ce qu'il n'y a pas de bal ce soir? (Isn't there a party this evening?) N'y a-t-il pas de bal ce soir? (Isn't there a party this evening?) Non, il n'y a pas de bal ce soir. (No, there isn't a party this evening.)

French Possession
Using de
The preposition de (of) is used to express relationship and possession. If the sentence has two or more nouns, de (or d' before a vowel) is repeated before each noun: Ce sont les parents de Roger et de Luc. (They are Roger and Luke's parents./They are the parents of Roger and of Luke.) With masculine singular and plural nouns, de contracts with the definite article le to become du or contracts with les to become des in order to express of the:

Ce sont les parents du garon. (They are the boy's parents./They are the parents of the boy.) Ce sont les parents des garons. (They are the boys' parents./They are the parents of the boys.)

Using tre
The idiom tre (to belong to) is usually used to show possession of a thing. Conjugate tre to agree with the subject, and if the sentence contains two or more nouns, repeat the preposition before each noun: Ces CDs sont Mathieu et Bernard. (These CDs belong to Mathew and Bernard.) Note how tre is used in questions, as follows:

qui est ce stylo? (Whose pen is this?) qui sont ces magazines? (Whose magazines are these?) 45

Possessive Adjectives
Like all French adjectives, possessive adjectives, listed in Table 1 , agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify (the person or item that is possessed) and not with the subject (the person possessing them). TABLE 1 Possessive Adjectives Singular Masculine Singular Feminine Plural mon ton son notre votre leur ma ta sa notre votre leur mes tes ses nos vos leurs English my your his, her, its our your their

When using possessive adjectives, note the following:

Possessive adjectives agree with and are repeated before each noun. o J'aime mon pre, ma mre, et mes surs. (I love my father, my mother, and my sisters.) o Donne-moi leurs CDs et ta stro. (Give me their CDs and your stereo.) Son and sa can mean either his or her because the possessive adjective agrees with the noun it modifies and not with the possessor . Sa mre, therefore, could mean either his or her mother, because sa agrees with the word mother, which is feminine. Similarly, son pre can mean either his or her father because son agrees with the word pre, which is masculine. The true meaning of the word can be determined only by the context of the conversation. The forms mon, ton, and son are used instead of ma, ta, and sa before a feminine singular noun beginning with a vowel or vowel sound . This allows the words to flow smoothly. o mon adresse (my address) o ton htesse (your hostess) o son amie (his/her friend) When referring to parts of the body, the possessive adjective is generally replaced with the definite article if the possessor is clear. o Je me brosse les cheveux. (I brush my hair.) o Elle lve la main. (She raises her hand.) There is no elision with possessive adjectives: The final - a from ma, ta, and sa may never be dropped. o Qui est ton artiste favorite? (Who is your favorite artist?)

Some French expressions of relationship include the following:

une de mes amies (a [girl]friend of mine/one of my [girl]friends) un de ses enfants (a child of his/one of his children) un de leurs voisins (a neighbor of theirs/one of their neighbors) 46

Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used to replace a noun (a person, place, thing, idea, or quality). Pronouns allow for fluidity by eliminating the need to constantly repeat the same noun in a sentence. A subject pronoun replaces a subject noun (the noun performing the action of the verb). Just as in English, French subject pronouns are given a person and a number (singular or plural), as shown in Table 1 : TABLE 1 Subject Pronouns Person 1st 2nd 3rd je (l) tu (you) il (he, it) elle (she, it) on (one, you, we, they) Singular Plural nous (we) vous (you) ils (they) elles (they)

Je
Unlike the English pronoun I, the pronoun je is capitalized only when it begins a sentence. Je becomes j' before a vowel or vowel sound ( y and unaspirated h meaning that no puff of air is emitted when producing the h sound):

J'adore le franais. (I love French.) Voil o j'habite. (There's where I live.)

Tu
Tu is used to address one friend, relative, child, or pet and is referred to as the familiar form of you. The u from tu is never dropped for purposes of elision: Tu es mon meilleur ami. (You are my best friend.)

Vous
Vous is used in the singular to show respect to an older person or when speaking to a stranger or someone you do not know very well. Vous is the polite or formal form of you: Vous tes un patron trs respect. (You are a very respected boss.) In addition, vous is always used when speaking to more than one person, regardless of the degree of familiarity.

47

Il and elle
Il (he) and elle (she) may refer to a person or to a thing (it):

L'homme arrive. (The man arrives.) Il arrive. (He arrives.) Le colis arrive. (The package arrives.) Il arrive. (It arrives.) La dame arrive. (The lady arrives.) Elle arrive. (She arrives.) La lettre arrive. (The letter arrives.) Elle arrive. (It arrives.)

On
On refers to an indefinite person: you, we, they, or people in general. On is often used in place of nous, such as in the following: on part (we're leaving).

Ils and elles

Ils refers to more than one male or to a combined group of males and females, despite the number of each gender present. Elles refers only to a group of females.

Anne et Luc partent. (Ann and Luke leave.) Ils partent. (They leave.) Anne et Marie partent. (Ann and Marie leave.) Elles partent. (They leave.)

Ce
The pronoun ce (it, he, she, this, that, these, those), spelled c' before a vowel, is most frequently used with the verb tre (to be): c'est (it is) or ce sont (they are). Ce replaces il, elle, ils, and elles as the subject of the sentence in the following constructions:

Before a modified noun: C'est un bon avocat. (He's a good lawyer.) But, when unmodified, the following is correct: Il est avocat. (He's a lawyer.)

Before a name: C'est Jean. (It's John.) Before a pronoun: C'est moi. (It is me.) Before a superlative: C'est le plus grand. (It's the biggest.) In dates: C'est le dix mars.(It's March 10th.) Before a masculine singular adjective that refers to a previously mentioned idea or action: Il est important. (He is important.) C'est vident. (That's obvious). Before an adjective + + infinitive (the form of any verb before it is conjugated): C'est bon savoir. (That's good to know.)

Use il in the following constructions:

To express the hour of the day: Il est deux heures. (It's 2 o'clock.) With an adjective + de + infinitive: Il est bon de manger. (It's good to eat.) With an adjective before que: Il est important que je travaille. (It is important that I work.)

Using Object Pronouns

48

Object pronouns are used so that an object noun doesn't have to be continuously repeated. This allows for a more free-flowing conversational tone. When using object pronouns, make sure your conjugated verb agrees with the subject and not the object pronoun. Table 1 lists direct and indirect object pronouns: TABLE 1 Direct/Indirect Object Pronouns Direct me [m'] (me) te [t'] (you) le [l'] (he, it) la [l'] (her, it) nous (us) vous (you) les (them) Indirect me [m'] (to me) te [t'] (to you) lui (to him) lui (to her) nous (to us) vous (to you) leur (to them)

se [s'] (themselves) se [s'] (to themselves) The forms me, te, se, nous, and vous are both direct, indirect object, and reflexive pronouns.

Direct object pronouns

Direct objects (which can be nouns or pronouns) answer the question as to whom or what the subject is acting upon. It may refer to people, places, things, or ideas. A direct object pronoun replaces a direct object noun and, unlike in English, is usually placed before the conjugated verb.

Tu regardes le film. (You watch the movie.): Tu le regardes. (You watch it.) Je t'aime. (I love you.) Tu m'aimes. (You love me.)

Indirect object pronouns

Indirect objects (which can be nouns or pronouns) answer the question of to or for whom the subject is doing something. They refer only to people. An indirect object pronoun replaces an indirect object noun, and, unlike in English, is usually placed before the conjugated verb. As a clue, look for the preposition (to, for), which may be in the form of au (the contraction of + le) , l', la, or aux (the contraction of + les), followed by the name or reference to a person.

Elle crit Jean. (She writes to John.): Elle lui crit. (She writes to him.) Tu m'offres un sac main. (You offer me a purse.) Je t'offre un sac main. (I offer you a purse.)

Verbs that take an indirect object in English do not necessarily take an indirect object in French. The following verbs take a direct object in French: 49

attendre (to wait for) chercher (to look for) couter (to listen to) esprer (to hope for/to) faire venir (to call for) payer (to pay)

Verbs that take a direct object in English do not necessarily take a direct object in French. The following verbs take an indirect object in French because they are followed by :

convenir (to suit) dsobir (to disobey) faire honte (to shame) faire mal (to hurt) faire peur (to frighten) obir (to obey) plaire (to please) rpondre (to answer) ressembler (to resemble) tlphoner (to call)

The expression penser (to think about) is followed by a stress pronoun; for example, Je pense lui/elle. (I think about him/her). The following verbs require an indirect object because they are followed by . Note the correct preposition to use before the infinitive of the verb.

apprendre (teach) quelqu'un + infinitive enseigner (teach) quelqu'un + infinitive conseiller (advise) quelqu'un de + infinitive dfendre (forbid) quelqu'un de + infinitive demander (ask) quelqu'un de + infinitive ordonner (order) quelqu'un de + infinitive pardonner (forgive) quelqu'un de + infinitive permettre (permit) quelqu'un de + infinitive promettre (promise) quelqu'un de + infinitive rappeler (remind) quelqu'un de + infinitive reprocher (reproach) quelqu'un de + infinitive

With the French verbs plaire (to please), falloir (to be necessary), and manquer (to miss), the French indirect object is the subject in the English sentence:

Ce cadeau me plat. (I like this gift. This gift is pleasing to me.) Il me faut un stylo. (I need a pen. A pen is necessary for me.) Tu me manques. (I miss you. I am missing to you.)

The adverbial pronoun (y)

The adverbial pronoun y (pronounced ee) means there when the place has already been mentioned. Y can also mean it, them, in it/them, to it/them, or on it/them. Y usually 50

replaces the preposition + the noun object of the preposition, but it may also replace other prepositions of location or position, such as chez (at the house/business of) , dans (in) , en (in), sous (under), or sur (on) + noun:

Je vais Paris. (I'm going to Paris.) J'y vais. (I'm going there.) Il rpond la note. (He answers the note.) Il y rpond. (He answers it.) Tu restes dans ton lit. (You stay in the hotel.) Tu y restes. (You stay in it.)

Y is used to replace de + noun only when de is part of a prepositional phrase showing location: L'htel est prs de l'aroport. (The hotel is near the airport.) L'htel y est. (The hotel is there.) Never use y to replace + a person. Indirect object pronouns are used for this purpose: Je parle Luc. (I speak to Luke.) Je lui parle. (I speak to him.) Sometimes y is used in French but is not translated into English: Il va au cinma? (Is he going to the movies?) Oui, il y va. (Yes, he is.)

The adverbial pronoun (en)

The pronoun en refers to previously mentioned things or places. En usually replaces de + noun and may mean some or any, of it/them, about it/them, from it/them, or from there:

Je veux de la glace. (I want some ice cream.) J'en veux. (I want some [of it]). Tu ne bois pas de lait. (You don't drink any milk.) Tu n'en bois pas. (You don't drink any.) Il parle de l'examen. (He speaks about the test.) Il en parle. (He speaks about it.) Vous sortez du caf. (You leave the cafe.) Vous en sortez. (You leave [from] it.)

En is always expressed in French even though it may have no Engish equivalent or is not expressed in English: As-tu du temps? (Do you have any time?) Oui, j'en ai. (Yes, I do.) Note the following rules governing the use of en:

En is used with idiomatic expressions requiring de. o J'ai besoin de film. (I need film.) J'en ai besoin. (I need some.) En is used to replace a noun (de + noun) after a number or a noun or adverb of quantity. o Je prpare six gteaux. (I'm preparing six cakes.) J'en prpare six. (I'm preparing six [of them].)
o

Tu bois une tasse de th. (You drink a cup of tea.) Tu en bois. (You drink a cup [of it].)

En only refers to people when de means some. In all other cases (when de + a noun mean of or about a person), a stress pronoun is used. o I have a lot of sons. (J'ai beaucoup de fils.) I have a lot of them. (J'en ai beaucoup.) 51

The position of object pronouns

An object pronoun is placed before the verb to which its meaning is tied, usually before the conjugated verb. When a sentence contains two verbs, the object pronoun is placed before the infinitive:

Je le demande. (I ask for it.) Je ne le demande pas. (I don't ask for it.) Il va en boire. (He is going to drink some of it.) Il ne va pas en boire. (He isn't going to drink some of it.)

In an affirmative command, an object pronoun is placed immediately after the verb and is joined to it by a hyphen. The familiar command forms of - er verbs (regular and irregular retain their final s before y and en to prevent the clash of two vowel sounds together. Put a liaison (linking) between the final consonant and y or en: Restes-y! (Stay there!) But: N'y reste pas! (Don't stay there!) In compound tenses, the object pronoun is placed before the conjugated helping verb: J'ai parl Nancy. (I spoke to Nancy.) Je lui ai parl. (I spoke to her.)

Double object pronouns

The term double object pronouns refers to using more than one pronoun in a sentence at a time, as follows:

52

The following examples show how double object pronouns are used before the conjugated verb, before the infinitive when there are two verbs, in the past tense, and in a negative command. Note the different order of the pronouns in the affirmative command:

Before the conjugated verb: Elle me la donne. (She gives it to me.) Before the infinitive with two verbs: Vas-tu m'en offrir? (Are you going to offer me any?) In the past tense: Tu le lui as crit. (You wrote it to her.) In a negative command: Ne me le montrez pas. (Don't show it to me.)

But note the difference in an affirmative command: Montrez-le-moi, s'il vous plat. (Please show it to me.) In an affirmative command, m oi + en and toi + en become m'en and t'en respectively:

Donne-m'en, s'il te plat. (Please give me some.) Va t'en. (Go away.)

Independent (Stress) Pronouns

Independent pronouns, listed in Table 1 , may stand alone or follow a verb or a preposition. They are used to emphasize a fact and to highlight or replace nouns or pronouns. TABLE 1 Independent Pronouns Singular moi (I, me) toi (you) lui (he, him) soi (oneself) Independent pronouns are used as follows:

Plural nous (we, us) vous (you) eux (they, them)

elle (she, her) elles (they, them)

To stress the subject: Moi, je suis vraiment indpendant. (Me, I'm really independent.) When the pronoun has no verb: Qui veut partir? (Who wants to leave?) Moi. (Me.) After prepositions to refer to a person or persons: Allons chez elle. (Let's go to her house.)

After c'est: C'est moi qui pars. (I'm leaving.) After the following verbs: o avoir affaire (to have dealings with) o tre (to belong to) o faire attention (to pay attention to) o penser (to think about [of)]) o se fier (to trust) 53

s'intresser (to be interested in) Ceci est moi. (This belongs to me.) In compound subjects: o Lui et moi allons au restaurant. (He and I are going to the restaurant.) o Sylvie et toi dnez chez Marie. (Sylvia and you are dining at Marie's.)
o o

If moi is one of the stress pronouns in a compound subject, the subject pronoun nous is used in summary (someone + me = we) and the conjugated verb must agree with nous. If toi is one of the stress pronouns in a compound subject, the subject prounoun vous is used in summary (someone + you [singular] = you [plural]) and the conjugated verb must agree with the vous. Neither nous nor vous has to appear in the sentence.

With - mme(s) to reinforce the subject: Je suis all au concert moi-mme. (I went to the concert by myself.)

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun (who, which, or that) joins a main clause to a dependent clause. This pronoun introduces the dependent clause that describes someone or something mentioned in the main clause. The person or thing the pronoun refers to is called the antecedent. A relative clause may serve as a subject, a direct object, or an object of a preposition.

Qui (subject) and que (direct object)

Qui (who, which, that) is the subject of a relative clause (which means that it will be followed by a verb in the dependent clause). Qui may refer to people, things, or places and follows the format antecedent + subject + verb: C'est la femme qui a gagn. (She's the woman who won.) The verb of a relative clause introduced by qui is conjugated to agree with its antecedent: C'est moi qui choisis les bons cafs. (I am the one who chooses the good cafs.) Que (whom, which, or that) is the direct object of a relative clause (which means that it will be followed by a noun or pronoun). Although frequently omitted in English, the relative pronoun is always expressed in French. Que may refer to people or things and follows the format antecedent + direct object + pronoun: C'est l'homme que j' adore. (He's the man [that] I love.)

Qui and lequel (objects of a preposition)

Qui (meaning whom) is used as the object of a preposition referring to a person.

Anne est la femme avec qui je travaille. (Anne is the woman with whom I am working.)

Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles (which or whom) are used as the object of a preposition referring primarily to things. The form of lequel must agree with the antecedent. Select the proper form of lequel after consulting Table 1 , for example, Voil la piscine dans laquelle je nage. (There is the pool in which I swim.) 54

TABLE 1 Forms of Lequel Singular Masculine lequel Feminine laquelle Plural lesquels lesquelles

Lequel and its forms contract with the prepositions and de, as shown in Table 2 : TABLE 2 Lequel with Prepositions Singular Masculine Feminine auquel duquel laquelle Plural Masculine Feminine auxquels auxquelles desquelles

de laquelle desquels

Some examples include the following:

Ce sont les hommes auxquels elle pense. (Those are the men she is thinking about.) C'est la classe de laquelle je parlais. (That's the class I was talking about.)

Ce qui and ce que

The relative pronouns ce qui and ce que are used when no antecedent noun or pronoun is present:

Ce quimeans what or that which and is the subject of a verb: Je me demande ce qui se passe. (I wonder what is happening.) Ce que means what (that which) and is the object of a verb: Tu sais ce que a veut dire. (You know what that means.)

French Present Tenses

The Infinitive Form A verb expresses an action or state of being and is generally shown in its infinitive, which is the basic to form, as in to to be. An infinitive is the form of the verb before it has been conjugated. Table 1 shows an example of the irregular verb to be conjugated in English. TABLE 1 Conjuctation of To Be in English Singular 1st person I am 2nd person You are 55 Plural We are You are

3rd person He is She is

They are They are

Even in English, each subject has its own matching verb form that never changes and can't be mixed and matched with other verb forms.

Regular Verbs
In French, regular verbs are grouped into three main families - er, -ir, and - re because these are their endings in the infinitive form. Each regular verb within its respective family then follows the same rules of conjugation. If you memorize the pattern for one family, you know the pattern for all the verbs within the family. To form the present tense of - er, - ir, and - re verbs, drop the infinitive ending (the final - er, the final - ir, or the final - re) and add the endings for the subject pronouns indicated, as shown in Tables 1 , 2 , and 3 . TABLE 1 Verb Rules of Conjugation Using Parler (to Speak) je -e tu - es il, elle -e nous - ons vous ils, elles - ez - ent

parle parles parle

parlons parlez parlent

TABLE 2 - ir Verb Rules of Conjugation Using Finir (to Finish) je - is tu - is il, elle - it nous - issons vous - issez ils, elles - issent

finis finis finit

finissons finissez finissent

TABLE 3 - re Verb Rules of Conjugation Using Vendre (to Sell) je -s tu -s il, elle nous - ons vous - ez ils, elles - ent

vends vends vend

vendons vendez vendent

Three exceptions to the - re verb rule include rompre (to break), corrompre (to corrupt), and interrompre (to interrupt) they end in - t in the third person singular: il rompt, il corrompt, and il interrompt. The present tense verb form expresses action: I play, I do play (do + verb), or I am playing (to be + verb). The verbs to do and to be are used only when they stand alone.

Regular Verbs with Spelling Changes

Verbs with certain spelling changes and irregularities are referred to as shoe verbs (spellingchange verbs) because changes and irregularities occur for pronouns located either within or 56

ouside the imaginary shoe. The nous and vous forms of the verb are usually, but not always, those that resemble the infinitive.

Figure 1 -The shoe verbs. The following groups of verbs are considered shoe verbs. Observe the special changes that each requires. Note that sometimes, changes occur outside the shoe in the nous or the nous and vous forms; at other times, the changes occur within the shoe.

For verbs ending in - cer, change c to before a or o to keep the soft c (s) sound: o avancer (to advance): j'avance, tu avances, il avance, nous avanons, vous avancez, ils avancent o Other - cer verbs include annoncer (to announce), commencer (to begin), menacer (to threaten), placer, remplacer (to replace), and renoncer (to renounce) For verbs ending in - ger, insert a silent e between g and a and between g and o to keep the soft g (zh) sound: o manger (to eat): je mange, tu manges, il mange, nous mangeons, vous mangez, ils mangent o Other - ger verbs include arranger (to arrange), changer (to change), corriger (to correct), dranger (to disturb), diriger (to direct), nager (to swim), obliger, partager (to share), and ranger (to tidy). In - yer verbs, the y is kept in the nous and vous forms except for - ayer verbs, where the change is optional. An i is used instead of y within the shoe. Verbs ending in ayer include payer and essayer [de] (to try [to]) . o employer (to use, employ): j'emploie, tu emploies, il emploie, nous employons, vous employez, ils emploient o Other -yer verbs include ennuyer (to bother), envoyer (to send), and nettoyer (to clean). For silent e + consonant + - er verbs, change the silent e to for all forms in the shoe . The addition of an accent grave () to the silent e gives it an eh sound and the verb ending remains silent. This avoids having two consecutive silent vowels, which would make the verb virtually impossible to pronounce. o acheter (to buy): j'achte, tu achtes, il achte, nous achetons, vous achetez, ils achtent 57

Other verbs in this category include achever (to finish), amener (to bring, lead to), emmener (to take, lead away), enlever (to take off, remove), peser (to weigh); promener (to walk). For appeler (to call) and jeter (to throw), double the consonant that comes before the - er ending instead of adding an accent grave: o j'appelle, tu appelles, il appelle, nous appelons, vous appelez, ils appellent o je jette, tu jettes, il jette, nous jetons, vous jetez, ils jettent For + consonant + - er verbs, change to within the shoe only: o rpter (to repeat): je rpte, tu rptes, il rpte, nous rptons, vous rptez, ils rptent o Other verbs in this form include clbrer (to celebrate), esprer (to hope), possder (to possess), prfrer (to prefer), and protger (to protect).
o

Irregular Verbs
Many high-frequency French verbs are irregular, which means that they follow no specific rules of conjugation and must be memorized. The most common irregular verbs are as follows:

aller (to go): je vais, tu vas, il va, nous allons, vous allez, ils vont avoir (to have): j'ai, tu as, il a, nous avons, vous avez, ils ont boire (to drink): je bois, tu bois, il boit, nous buvons, vous buvez, ils boivent conduire (to drive): je conduis, tu conduis, il conduit, nous conduisons, vous conduisez, ils conduisent connatre (to know, be acquainted with): je connais, tu connais, il connat, nous connaissons, vous connaissez, ils connaissent croire (to believe): je crois, tu crois, il croit, nous croyons, vous croyez, ils croient devoir (to have to, to owe): je dois, tu dois, il doit, nous devons, vous devez, ils doivent dire (to say, tell): je dis, tu dis, il dit, nous disons, vous dites, ils disent dormir (to sleep): je dors, tu dors, il dort, nous dormons, vous dormez, ils dorment. Verbs like dormir keep the consonant before the - ir ending in all plural forms: mentir to lie, partir to go away, sentir to feel, smell, servir, sortir to go out: vous servez crire (to write): j'ecris, tu cris, il crit, nous crivons, vous crivez, ils crivent tre (to be): je suis, tu es, il est, nous sommes, vous tes, ils sont faire (to make, do): je fais, tu fais, il fait, nous faisons, vous faites, ils font lire (to read): je lis, tu lis, il lit, nous lisons, vous lisez, ils lisent mettre: (to put [on]) je mets, tu mets, il met, nous mettons, vous mettez, ils mettent. Verbs like mettre include commettre (to commit), permettre (to permit), promettre (to promise), and remettre (to put back). offrir (to offer): j'offre, tu offres, il offre, nous offrons, vous offrez, ils offrent ouvrir (to open): j'ouvre, tu ouvres, il ouvre, nous ouvrons, vous ouvrez, ils ouvrent pouvoir (to be able to): je peux, tu peux, il peut, nous pouvons, vous pouvez, ils peuvent prendre (to take): je prends, tu prends, il prend, nous prenons, vous prenez, ils prennent. Verbs like prendre include apprendre (to learn) and comprendre (to understand). recevoir (to receive): je reois, tu reois, il reoit, nous recevons, vous recevez, ils reoivent savoir (to know a fact): je sais, tu sais, il sait, nous savons, vous savez, ils savent venir (to come): je viens, tu viens, il vient, nous venons, vous venez, ils viennent. Verbs ike venir include devenir (to become) and revenir (to come back). voir (to see): je vois, tu vois, il voit, nous voyons, vous voyez, ils voient 58

vouloir (to wish, want): je veux, tu veux, il veut, nous voulons, vous voulez, ils veulent

Idiomatic Expressions
An idiom is a particular word or expression whose meaning cannot be readily understood by either its grammar or the words used. Idiomatic expressions cannot be translated word for word without causing confusion. For example, when combined with an adverb that describes feeling or health, aller (to go) is used to describe a person's health: Je vais bien. (I feel fine. I'm fine.) Although the verb to be is used in English to refer to certain physical conditions, in French you express the same thought by combining the verb avoir (to have) with a noun:

avoir ans (to be years old) avoir l'air (to appear) avoir besoin de (to need) avoir chaud (to be hot) avoir de la chance (to be lucky) avoir froid (to be cold) avoir envie de (to feel like, to want) avoir faim (to be hungry) avoir soif (to be thirsty) avoir lieu (to take place) avoir mal (to have an ache) avoir peur [de] (to be afraid of) avoir raison (to be right) avoir tort (to be wrong) avoir sommeil (to be sleepy)

Three important idioms using tre (to be) are as follows:

tre (to belong to) tre en train de (to be in the act [middle] of) tre sur le point de (to be on the verge of)

Some idioms with faire (to do or make) include the following:

faire attention () (to pay attention to) faire la connaissance de (to meet or make the acquaintance of someone) faire un voyage (to take a trip).

Faire is also used idiomatically to describe the weather and sports, as follows:

Quel temps fait-il? (What's the weather?) Il fait beau. (It's beautiful.) Luc fait du ski. (Luke goes skiing.)

Combining venir de (to [have] just) with an infinitive shows that the subject has just done something: Je viens de manger. (I just ate.) Keep in mind that when two verbs are used in succession, the first verb is conjugated and the second verb remains in the infinitive: Je veux sortir. (I want to go out.) 59

Finally, use the present tense idiomatically as follows:

Use it instead of the future to ask for instructions or to discuss an action that will happen in the near future: o Je sors? (Shall I go out?) o Il part tout l'heure. (He's leaving soon.) To express an event that began in the past and is continuing in the present, use the following formula: present tense + depuis + expression of time o Je souffre depuis hier. (I've been suffering since yesterday.) The construction il y a + expression of time + que + present tense also expresses an action begun in the past and continuing in the present: o Il y a six ans qu'elle danse. (She's been dancing for six years.)

Commands
You is the understood subject of a command and is, therefore, omitted. ( Tu and vous are the two ways to say you in French.) Use tu, the familiar command, when speaking to one friend or family member. Use vous, the polite command, when speaking formally or when directing the command to more than one person. To form a command, simply drop the subject pronoun and use the proper verb form that would match the pronoun you are dropping:

Regarde le panneau! (Look at the sign!) Descendez du train! (Get off the train!)

Note that the tu command of - er verbs drops the final s from the conjugated verb in both regular and irregular verbs except when followed by the adverbial pronouns y (there) and en (some, of, about, from, it or them).

Vas-y. (Go there.) Manges-en. (Eat some of it.)

Three common irregular verb commands are shown in Table 1 . The nous form of the verb (without the subject) may be used to suggest let's: Allons au cinema. (Let's go to the movies.) TABLE 1 Irregular Verb Commands avoir tu aie tre sois savoir sache

nous ayons soyons sachons vous ayez soyez sachez

French Negation
Common Negative Words and Phrases
Negatives express not, never, neither nor, no longer, no more, no one, nobody, only, and nothing. 60

Like English, double negatives are not used in French; however, in French, a negative is generally made up of two parts, which must be placed properly. Forming the negative may or may not include the word non (no). In addition, certain negative expressions are used colloquially and idiomatically and are necessary parts of everyday conversation. Of the most commonly used negatives, listed in Table 1 , ne pas is the most frequently used. Consider the following examples: TABLE 1 Common Negatives Negative ne jamais ne ni ni ne pas never neither nor not no more, no longer only nothing English Translation

ne personne no one, nobody, anyone, anybody ne plus ne que ne rien

Je ne fume pas. (I don't smoke.) Elle ne conduit jamais. (She never drives.)

Some words used in questions produce a logical negative response, as in the following examples. Table 2 contains more logical negative responses. TABLE 2 Logical Negative Responses Question Words quelquefois (sometimes) quelque chose (something) toujours (always) toujours (still)

Negative Response ne jamais (never) ne rien (nothing) ne jamais (never) ne plus (no more, no longer)

quelqu'un (someone, somebody) ne personne (no one, nobody, anyone, anybody)

Tu cherches quelqu'un? (Are you looking for someone?) Je ne cherche personne. (I'm not looking for anyone.)

Some high frequency negative expressions include the following:

a ne fait rien (it doesn't matter) o Tu es en retard. (You're late.) a ne fait rien. (It doesn't matter.) 61

de rien (you're welcome) and il n'y a pas de quoi (you're welcome) o Merci beaucoup. (Thanks a lot.) De rien. [Il n'y a pas de quoi.] (You're welcome.) jamais de la vie! (never! out of the question! not on your life!) o Tu veux piloter un avion? (Do you want to pilot an airplane?) Jamais de la vie! (Not on your life!) pas du tout (not at all) o a vous nerve? (Does that bother you?) Pas du tout. (Not at all.) pas encore (not yet) o Tu veux manger? (Do you want to eat?) Pas encore. (Not yet.) pas maintenant (not now) o On sort? (Shall we go out?) Pas maintenant. (Not yet.)

Forming the Negative

In simple tenses (present, imperfect, future, conditional) and in the compound past tense ( le pass compos), ne precedes the conjugated verb (the conjugated form of avoir or tre in the pass compos), and any pronouns, including reflexive pronouns. The second part of the negative follows the conjugated verb (or follows the subject pronoun in an inverted question). Table 1 illustrates how this is done. TABLE 1 Positioning the Negative Tense Present tense Present tense with two verbs Command in the present tense Reflexives Imperfect Future Conditional Pass compos Reflexive pass compos French Negation Je ne fume pas. Ne fumes-tu pas? Je ne vais jamais fumer. Ne fume pas! Il ne se rase jamais. Je ne fumais rien. Je ne fumerai plus. Je ne fumerais que des cigarettes. Je n'ai jamais fum. Il ne s'est pas ras. English Translation I don't smoke. Don't you smoke? I'm never going to smoke. Don't smoke! He never shaves. I wasn't smoking anything. I will no longer smoke. I would smoke only cigarettes. I never smoked. He didn't shave.

Consider the following rules regarding the formation of negatives:

Ne + the negative goes around the conjugated verb when it is followed by an infinitive . o Elle ne veut plus jouer. (She doesn't want to play anymore.) o Il ne peut pas sortir. (He can't go out.) Personne follows the past participle and the infinitive: 62

Il n'a vu personne. (He didn't see anyone.) Je ne veux voir personne. (I don't want to see anyone.) Que precedes the word or words stressed . o Il ne mange que deux fois par jour. (He eats only two times a day.) o Elle n'a achet qu'une robe. (She bought only one dress.) o Je ne vais le faire qu'une fois. (I'm going to do it only once.) Each part of the ne ni ni construction precedes the word or words stressed. o Nous ne mangeons ni viande ni poisson. (We eat neither meat nor fish.) o Le cours n'tait ni bon ni mauvais. (The course was neither good nor bad.) o Il n'a ni tudi ni fait ses devoirs. (He neither studied nor did his homework.) Rien and personne may be used as subjects of a verb, but ne remains before the conjugated verb . o Rien n'est arriv. (Nothing happened.) o Personne n'est arriv. (Nobody arrived.) Ne is always used with a verb. The second part of the negative, however, may be used alone (without ne), but pas and plus must be modified . o Qu'est-ce que tu manges? (What are you eating?) Rien. (Nothing.) o Qui chante? (Who's singing?) Personne. (No one.) o Tu aimes le film? (Do you like the film?) Pas beaucoup. Not much. o Plus de gteau pour toi. (No more cake for you.) Ne jamais used with a verb and jamais used alone without a verb mean never. Jamais with only a verb means ever. o Je n'ai jamais vu ce film. (I never saw that film.) Non, jamais! (No, never!) o Es-tu jamais all au Canada? (Have you ever been to Canada?)
o o

Adjectives
Changing Masculine to Singular Feminine
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. All French adjectives agree in number (singular or plural) and gender (masculine or feminine) with the nouns they describe. In fact, in French, all words in a sentence must agree with each other: If, for example, the noun or pronoun is singular, its verb and any adjectives describing it must also be singular. If the noun is feminine, the adjective describing it must also be feminine. Unlike English, most French adjectives are placed after the nouns they modify. A few adjectives, however, precede the noun. In addition, when you use more than one adjective to describe a noun, you must follow placement rules. Most adjectives add e to the masculine singular form to get the feminine singular. Be careful when you see masculine adjectives ending in - e, -eux, -f, and - er, because for those, you do not simply add e. (Note that adding this e to a previously silent consonant causes that consonant to be pronounced. No pronunication changes, however, occur when adding e to a vowel.) See Table 1 for a list of common adjectives in their masculine or feminine form. TABLE 1 Forming Feminine Adjectives Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective 63

amricain (American) amusant (fun) bleu (blue) brun (brunette) blond (blonde) charmant (charming) content (happy) court (short) lgant (elegant) fort (strong) franais (French) grand (big) haut (tall, big) intelligent (intelligent) intressant (interesting) joli (pretty) lourd (heavy) ouvert (open) parfait (perfect) petit (small) poli (polite) prochain (next) vrai (true)

amricaine amusante bleue brune blonde charmante contente courte lgante forte franaise grande haute intelligente intressante jolie lourde ouverte parfaite petite polie prochaine vraie

Masculine adjectives that end in a silent e

Singular adjectives that end in a silent e do not change in the feminine. Masculine and feminine forms are spelled and pronounced in the same manner, as follows:

aimable (kind, pleasant) clbre (famous) comique (comical) confortable (comfortable) drle (funny) facile (easy) faible (weak) formidable (great) 64

honnte (honest) magnifique (magnificent) maigre (thin) malade (sick) mince (thin) moderne (modern) pauvre (poor) proper (clean) sale (dirty) sincre (sincere) splendide (splendid) sympathique (nice) triste (sad) vide (empty)

Masculine adjectives that end in

Form the singular feminine of singular masculine adjectives ending in by adding - e, as shown in Table 2 . TABLE 2 Forming Feminine Adjectives of Words Ending in Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective g (old, aged) dvou (devoted) fatigu (tired) occup (busy) situ (situated) ge dvoue fatigue occupe situe

Masculine adjectives that end in eux

Masculine singular adjectives ending in eux form the feminine by changing - x to - se, as shown in Table 3 . TABLE 3 Forming Feminine Adjectives of Words Ending in eux Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective affectueux (affectionate) ambitieux (ambitious) chanceux (lucky) consciencieux (conscientious) courageux (courageous) curieux (curious) 65 affectueuse ambitieuse chanceuse consciencieuse courageuse curieuse

dangereux (dangerous) dlicieux (delicious) furieux (furious) gnreux (generous) heureux (happy) malheureux (unhappy) paresseux (lazy) peureux (fearful) srieux (serious)

dangereuse dlicieuse furieuse gnreuse heureuse malheureuse paresseuse peureuse srieuse

Masculine adjectives that end in f

Form the feminine singular of masculine singular adjectives ending in f by changing - f to - ve. See Table 4 . TABLE 4 Forming Feminine Adjectives of Words Ending in f Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective actif (active) attentif (attentive) imaginatif (imaginative) impulsif (impulsive) intuitif (intuitive) naf (naive) neuf (new) sportif (sporty, athletic) vif (active) active attentive imaginative impulsive intuitive nave neuve sportive vive

Masculine adjectives that end in er

Masculine singular adjectives ending in - er form the feminine by changing - er to - re, as shown in Table 5 . TABLE 5 Forming Feminine Adjectives of Words Ending in er Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective cher (dear, expensive) dernier (last) 66 chre dernire

entier (entire) tranger (foreign) fier (proud) lger (light) premier (first)

entire trangre fire lgre premire

Masculine adjectives that end in consonants

Some masculine singular adjectives form the feminine by doubling the final consonant before the - e ending. See Table 6 . TABLE 6 Forming Feminine Adjectives of Some Words Ending in Consonants Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective ancien (ancient, old) bas (low) bon (good) cruel (cruel) europen (European) gentil (nice, kind) gros (fat, big) ancienne basse bonne cruelle europenne gentille grosse

Masculine irregular adjectives

The irregular adjectives shown in Table 7 have no rules and must be memorized. TABLE 7 Irregular Adjectives Masculine Singular Adjective Feminine Singular Adjective beau (beautiful) blanc (white) complet (complete) doux (sweet, gentle) faux (false) favori (favorite) frais (fresh) franc (frank) 67 belle blanche complte douce fausse favorite frache franche

inquiet (worried) long (long) nouveau (new) public (public) sec (dry) secret (secret) vieux (old)

inquite longue nouvelle publique sche secrte vieille

The French use special forms of beau (bel), nouveau (nouvel), and vieux (vieil) before masculine nouns beginning with a vowel or vowel sound. If, however, the adjective comes after the noun, the regular masculine form is used:

un bel arbre (a beautiful tree); L'arbre est beau . (The tree is beautiful.) un nouvel appartement (a new apartment); L'appartement est nouveau . (The apartment is new.) un vieil avion (an old airplane); L'avion est vieux . (The airplane is old.)

Forming Plural from Singular Adjectives

The plural of most adjectives is formed by adding s to the singular of the masculine or feminine adjective, as shown in Table 1 (feminine form in parentheses). TABLE 1 Forming Plural Adjectives Singular Adjective sincre (sincere) g(e) (old) fort(e) (strong) bon(ne) (good) long(ue) (long) Plural Adjective sincres g(e)s fort(e)s

cher(chre) (dear, expensive) cher(chre)s bon(ne)s long(ue)s

An adjective modifying two or more nouns of different genders uses the masculine plural: L'homme et sa femme sont gnreux. (The man and his wife are generous.)

Masculine singular adjectives that end in s or x

If a masculine singular adjective ends in s or x, the singular and plural are identical, as shown in Table 2 . TABLE 2 Forming Plural Adjectives of Words Ending in s or x 68

Singular Adjective Plural Adjective frais (fresh) bas (low) heureux (happy) frais bas heureux

TABLE 3 Forming Plural Adjectives of Words Ending in al Singular Adjective Plural Adjective spcial (special) social (social) national (national) spciaux sociaux nationaux

Masculine singular adjectives that end in al

For most masculine adjectives ending in - al, change - al to - aux in the plural:

Masculine irregular singular adjectives

Both masculine singular forms of beau (bel), nouveau (nouvel), and vieux (vieil) have one and the same plural form. (Note that des becomes de before the adjective). See the Masculine irregular adjectives article for a better understanding of using bel, nouvel, and vieil. The adjective tout (all) is irregular in the masculine plural:

Singular: tout Plural: tous

Adjective Placement within Sentences

Most adjectives in French follow the noun they modify, for example, la maison blanche (the white house). A few short, descriptive adjectives, usually expressing beauty, age, goodness, and size (you can remember this with the acronym BAGS), generally precede the nouns they modify:

Beauty: beau (beautiful, handsome), joli (pretty) Age: nouveau (new), vieux (old), jeune (young) Goodness (or lack of it): bon (good), gentil (nice), mauvais (bad) Size: grand (large, big), petit (small, little), court (short), long (long), gros (fat)

Other common adjectives that precede the noun but do not fall into the BAGS categories include the following:

autre (other) chaque (each, every) 69

dernier (last) plusieurs (several) quelques (a few) tel (such) tout (all, whole, every)

Consider the following examples:

un gros livre (a thick book) une jolie robe (a pretty dress) une autre histoire (another story) plusieurs ides (several ideas) une telle aventure (such an adventure)

In addition, tout precedes both the noun and the definite article ( le, la, l', les)

tous les homes (all the men) toutes les femmes (all the women)

To use more than one adjective in a description, place each adjective according to whether it precedes or follows the noun. Two adjectives in the same position are joined by et (and).

une femme forte et athltique (a strong, athletic woman) un grand et mauvais loup (a big, bad wolf) une petite voiture rouge (a small, red car)

Note that you may use past participles as adjectives, and they must agree with the nouns they modify:

C'tait un plaisir inattendu. (It was an unexpected pleasure.) Cette table est rserve. (This table is reserved.)

TABLE 1 Forming Irregular Plural Adjectives Singular Adjective un bel arbre (a beautiful tree) un nouveau livre (a new book) un nouvel htel (a new hotel) un vieux chapeau (an old hat) un vieil artiste (an old artist) Plural Adjective un beau garon (a handsome boy) de beaux garons de beaux arbres de nouveaux livres de nouveaux htels de vieux chapeaux de vieux artistes

Adverbs
70

Forming Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It often expresses how the subject performs an action. In French, many adverbs are formed by adding an ending to the masculine or feminine form of the related adjective. Other adverbs are totally distinct in nature and must be memorized. Adverbs in French tend to have the same position in a sentence as they do in English. Many English adverbs are generally recognized by their -ly ending. The equivalent French ending is - ment. Unlike the required agreement of French adjectives, adverbs in French do not agree with anything because they modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs and not nouns or pronouns. To form an adverb, following two rules:

Add - ment to the masculine singular form of an adjective that ends with a vowel, as shown in the following table . Adjective facile (easy) rapide (rapid) poli (polite) Adverb facilement (easily) rapidement (rapidly) poliment (politely)

sincre (sincere) sincrement (sincerely)

If the masculine singular form ends in a consonant, add - ment to the feminine singular form of the adjective, as shown in the following table . Two exceptions include gentil (nice), which is gentille in its feminine adjective form and gentiment (nicely) as an adverb, and bref (brief), which is brve in its feminine adjective form and brivement (briefly) as an adverb. Masculine Adjective Feminine Adjective Adverb attentif (attentive) cruel (cruel) doux (gentle) entier (entire) faux (falsse) franc (frank) srieux (serious) seul (only) attentive cruelle douce entire fausse franche srieuse seule attentivement (attentively) cruellement (cruelly) doucement (gently) entirement (entirely) faussement (falsely) franchement (frankly) srieusement (seriously) seulement (only)

Exceptions to the rules for forming adverbs include the following: 71

For a few adjectives with a silent e ending, add before - ment, as shown in the following table . Adjective aveugle (blind) intense (intense) prcis (precise) Adverb aveuglment (blindly) intensment (intensely) prcisment (precisely)

norme (enormous) normment (enormously)

profond (profound) profondment (profoundly)

Adjectives with -ant and -ent endings have adverbs ending in -amment and emment , respectively. An exception is lent (slow), which becomes lentement (slowly) in its adverbial form. See the following table for examples. Adjective Adverb

constant (constant) constamment (constantly) courant (common) couramment (fluently) diffrent (different) diffremment (differently) vident (evident) rcent (recent)

videmment (evidently) rcemment (recently)

Some adverbs have forms that are distinct from adjectives and must be memorized. Adjective bon (good) mauvais (bad) meilleur (better) Adverb bien (well) mal (badly) mieux (better)

petit (little, small) peu (little)

Some adverbs are not formed from adjectives, as follows: o alors (then) o aprs (afterward) o assez (enough) o aujourd'hui (today) o aussi (also, too) o beaucoup (much) o bientt (soon) o comme (as) o dedans (inside) o dehors (outside) 72

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

dj (already) demain (tomorrow) encore (still, yet, again) enfin (finally, at last) ensemble (together) ensuite (then, afterward) environ (about) hier (yesterday) ici (here) l (there) loin (far) longtemps (a long time) maintenant (now) mme (even) parfois (sometimes) partout (everywhere) peut-tre (perhaps, maybe) plus (more) prs de (near) presque (almost) puis (then) quelquefois (sometimes) si (so) souvent (often) surtout (especially) tard (late) tt (soon, early) toujours (always, still) tout (quite, entirely) trs (very) trop (too much) vite (quickly)

Adverbial Expressions
Some adverbial expression are formed by combining prepositions with nouns (or noun phrases), adjectives (adjective + a noun), adverbs, or a series of words. Note how this is done in the following examples:

Preposition + noun (noun phrase): D'habitude il arrive en retard. (Generally, he arrives late.) o droite (to the right) o gauche (to the left) o l'heure (on time) o present (now) o de temps en temps (from time to time) o d'habitude (generally) o en retard (late [in arriving]) o sans doute (without a doubt) 73

Preposition + adjective: En gnral elle est trs heureuse. (Generally, she is very happy.) o d'ordinaire (ordinarily) o de nouveau (again) o en gnral (generally) Preposition + adjective + noun: Il fait le travail de bon cur. (He does the work willingly.) o tout prix (at any price) o de bon cur (willingly) o de bonne heure (early) o en mme temps (at the same time) Preposition + adverb: Il a fait au moins deux erreurs. (He made at least two mistakes.) o jamais (forever) o au moins (at least) o du moins (in any case) Preposition + several words: Peu peu ils font du progrs. (Little by little, they make progress.) o encore une fois (again) o peu peu (little by little) o peut-tre (perhaps, maybe) o tant pis (too bad) o tout l'heure (soon)

Certain adverbs used to express quantity are followed by de or d' (before a vowel). Remember that no article is used before a noun: Elle a beaucoup d'enfants. (She has a lot of children.)

assez de (enough of) autant de (as much, many) beaucoup de (much, many) combien de (how much, many) moins de (less, fewer) peu de (little, few) plus de (more) tant de (so much, many) trop de (too much, many)

Placing Adverbs within Sentences

In simple tenses and moods (present, imperfect, future, conditional, subjunctive), adverbs are generally placed directly after the verbs they modify.

Il parle franais couramment. (He speaks French fluently.) Je partirai immdiatement. (I'll leave immediately.) Vous avez travaill rapidement. (You worked quickly.)

Some longer adverbs are placed at the beginning of the sentence: D'habitude il court trs vite. (Generally, he runs very quickly.) A general rule is to place these longer adverbs in the same position in a French sentence as you would place them in an English sentence.

74

In the pass compos, adverbs generally follow the past participle. Some of the more common adverbs bien, mal, souvent, toujours, dj, and encore, and adverbs of quantity usually precede the past participle, as in the following examples:

Il est sorti rapidement. (He went out quickly.) J'ai dj vu ce film. (I already saw that movie.) Elle a achet beaucoup de livres. (She bought a lot of books.)

Comparisons
Expressing Comparisons of Inequality
Comparisons are common in everyday conversations. When making comparisons of inequality, you judge that one thing is more or less superior than another; when making comparisons of equality, you express that both things are equal. Comparisons are made using adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. Comparative and superlative (expressing the extreme degree) expressions allow for colloquial (informal) usage of the language. Many of them may be used to express more or less. Comparisons of inequality use adjectives, adverbs, and nouns to show that two things are not equal. In English, comparisons take three forms:

The positive states the fact: o Adjective: She is honest. o Adverb: He speaks fluently. o Noun: They do work. The comparative states more or less. In English, a comparative may end in -er: o Adjective: I am taller than Mary. o Adverb: He runs slower than Tom. o Noun: I eat more/less quickly than Bob. The superlative states the most or the least the extreme degree. In English a superlative may end in -est: o Adjective: John is the most/least honest. o Adverb: Beth runs the most/least quickly. o Noun: You do the most/least work of all.

Positive
The positive states a fact using an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.

Adjective: Ma mre est jeune. (My mother is young.) Adverb: Il parle poliment. (He speaks politely.) Noun: Je mange des lgumes. (I eat vegetables.)

Comparative
In the comparative, the second element is introduced by que: 75

plus + adjective (or adverb or noun) + que = more than moins + adjective (or adverb or noun) + que = less than

The second element of the comparative may be a noun, a stress pronoun, or a clause (a group of words). Keep in mind that adjectives must agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify.

Noun: Ma mre est plus/moins ge que mon pre. (My mother is older/younger than my father.) o Je mange plus rapidement que mon ami. (I eat more quickly than my friend.) o Je mange plus de lgumes que de fruits. (I eat more vegetables than fruits.) Stress pronoun: o Ils sont plus intelligents que lui. (They are smarter than he.) o Elle travaille plus srieusement qu'eux. (She works more seriously than they.) o J'ai plus de travail que toi. (I have more work than you.) Clause: o Ce cours est plus facile qu'il croyait. (This course is easier than he believed.) o Tu parles plus couramment que je pensais. (You speak more fluently than I thought.) o Il a plus d'argent qu'il pensait. (He has more money than he thought.)
o

In addition, when using an adjective to make the comparions, the second element of the comparison may be an adjective: Elles sont plus nerves que fches. (They are more annoyed than angry.) Finally, when using either an adjective or an adverb to make the comparion, the second element of the comparion may be an adverb.

Elles sont plus fches qu'avant. (They are angrier than before.) Elle crit plus vite que correctement. (She writes more quickly than correctly.)

Superlative
In the superlative, in or of is expressed by de + definite article:

le (la, les) plus + adjective (or adverb or noun) + de = the most in (of) le (la, les) moins + adjective (or adverb or noun) + de = the least in (of)

Using adjectives
Definite articles and adjectives agree in number and gender with the nouns they modify. If an adjective generally precedes the noun, it retains that position in the superlative:

Ma mre est la plus jolie de ses surs. (My mother is the prettiest of her sisters.) Ma mre est la plus jolie sur. (My mother is the prettiest sister.)

The adjective may follow the noun, in which case the article is repeated: Mon pre est le frre le plus sage. (My father is the wisest brother.) 76

Table 1 shows adjectives with irregular comparatives and superlatives: TABLE 1 Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives-Adjectives Positive bon(ne)(s) (good) Comparative meilleur(e)(s) (better) pire(s) (worse) Superlative le/la/les meilleur(e)(s) ([the] best) le/la/les pire(s) ([the] worst)

mauvais(e)(s) (bad) plus mauvais(e)(s) (worse) le/la/les plus mauvais(e)(s) ([the] worst)

Irregular comparisons and superlatives are used as follows:

Tu es ma meilleure amie. (You are my best friend.) Mon problme est encore pire. (My problem is even worse.)

Expressions using bon require special attention:

La table verte est bon march. (The green table is cheap.) La table blanche est meilleur march. (The white table is cheaper.)

Using adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs so they require no agreement: le is always the article: Il apprend le plus vite de tout le monde. (He learns the most quickly of everyone.) Adverbs with irregular comparatives and superlatives are shown in Table 2 : TABLE 2 Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives-Adverbs Positive bien (well) mal (badly) mal (badly) peu (little) Comparative mieux (better) pis (worse) moins (less) Superlative le mieux ([the] best) le pis ([the] worst) le plus ([the] most) le moins ([the] least)

plus mal (worse) le plus mal ([the] worst)

beaucoup (much) plus (more)

The expressions plus mal and le plus mal are generally preferred to pis and le pis.

Tu parles franais mieux que moi. (You speak French better than I.) Elle se sent plus mal. (She feels worse.) Je fais le plus de tous les lves. (I do the most of all the students.)

Using nouns
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Plus and moins are adverbs and are, therefore, always preceded by le, despite the number and gender of the noun being compared: Elle chante le plus de toutes les filles. (She sings the most of all the girls.)

Comparisons of Equality
Comparisons of equality show that two things are the same. The following formula works for adjectives and adverbs: aussi + adjective or adverb + que (as as)

Elle est aussi jolie que sa sur. (She is as pretty as her sister.) Il travaille aussi dur que toi. (He works as hard as you.)

Si usually replaces aussi in the negative: Elles ne sont pas si malheureuse que a. (They aren't all that unhappy.) Use these formulas when the second element is a noun:

autant de + noun + que + noun/pronoun (as much/many as) Il a autant d'argent que moi. (He has as much money as I.) autant que + noun/pronoun (as much/many as) Elle mange autant que son amie. (She eats as much as her friend.)

Comparative and Superlative Expressions

Use comparative and superlative expressions to speak more idiomatically:

faire de son mieux (to do one's best) o Je fais de mon mieux. (I do my best.) le plus/moins possible (as much/little as possible) o Tu fais le plus/moins possible. (You do the most/least possible.) le plus/le moins possible (as as possible) o Je marche le plus/le moins vite possible. (I walk as quickly/slowly as possible.) de plus en plus (more and more) o Il devient de plus en plus nerveux. (He becomes more and more nervous.) de moins en moins (less and less) o Nous nous inquitons de moins en moins. (We worry less and less.) de mieux en mieux (better and better) o Il lit de mieux en mieux. (He reads better and better.) tant mieux/tant pis (so much the better/worse) o Tu pars lundi. (You're leaving Monday.) Tant mieux. (So much the better.) o Il a rat son avion. (He missed his plane.) Tant pis. (Too bad.)

Prepositions
Using Prepositions
Prepositions are used to relate elements in a sentence: noun to noun, verb to verb, or verb to noun/pronoun. Prepositions may contract with articles. 78

Prepositions may be used as modifiers and may be used before and after nouns and verbs. Certain verbs are always followed by a preposition. In addition, prepositions are used before the names of geographical locations to refer to travel and location. Prepositions are used to relate two elements of a sentence:

Noun to noun: Il est le fils de M. Legrand. (He's Mr. Legrand's son.) Verb to verb: Il commence pleuvoir. (It's beginning to rain.) Verb to noun: Elle travaille avec son ami. (She works with her friend.) Verb to pronoun: Elles habitent prs de moi. (They live near me.)

Some prepositions consist of only one word, as follows:

(to) aprs (after) avant (before) avec (with) chez (at the house of) contre (against) dans, en (in) de (about, from, of) depuis (since) derrire (behind) devant (in front of) entre (between) malgr (despite) par (by, through) parmi (among) pendant (during) pour (for) sans (without) sauf (except) selon (according to) sous (under) sur (on) vers (toward)

Expressing In
Three words may be used in French to express in: dans, , and en.

Dans means inside or within an enclosed or specific place and is often used with an indefinite article ( un, une, des): o Mon portefeuille est dans mon sac. (My wallet is inside my purse.) o Il habite dans une maison. (He lives in a house.) + definite article refers to a general location with no specific boundaries and is usually used with a definite article ( le, la, l', les): o Allons au grand magasin. (Let's go to the department store.) En is used in the following idiomatic expressions: en ville (downtown/in the city), en prison (in jail). 79

Notre famille dne en ville. (Our family is eating in the city.)

The following list shows other prepositions that are formed by using more than one word:

cause de (because of) ct de (next to) droite (to the right) gauche (to the left) partir de (beginning with) peu prs (nearly) propos de (about, concerning) travers (across, through) afin de (in order to) au (en) bas de (at the bottom of) au bout de (at the end of) au dessous de (below, beneath) au lieu de (instead of) au milieu de (in the middle of) au sujet de (about, concerning) au-dessus de (above, over) autour de (around) en face de (opposite) loin de (far from) prs de (near)

Contractions of Two Prepositions

Two prepositions, and de, contract with the definite articles le and les to form new words, as shown in Table 1 : TABLE 1 Contractions Prepositon le la de Contractions are used as follows:

l' l'

les aux

au la

du de la de l' des

Il va au cinma. (He goes to the movies.) Il mange des bonbons. (He eats candy.)

Prepositions with Geographical Locations

Consult Table 1 for prepositions that indicate to, from, or in a city, province, country, or continent. Note that most geographical names that end with an e are feminine. The exceptions include le Mexique (Mexico) , le Cambodge (Cambodia), and le Zare (Zaire). TABLE 1 Prepositions Showing Location 80

Geographical Location Cities Feminine countries, continents, provinces, islands and masculine countries that begin with a vowel All other masculine countries All plurals

In en au

To From en au de (d') de (d') du

aux aux des

Prepositional Modifiers
Prepositional modifies, which describe things, adhere to the following rules:

A preposition + a noun modifying another noun is equivalent to an adjective: o une brosse cheveux (a hair brush) o une voiture de sport (a sports car) o une bague en or (a gold ring) The preposition + noun is used to express the use, function, or characteristic of an object or person: o du vernis ongles (nail polish) o une bote aux lettres (a mailbox) o la fille aux yeux bleus (the girl with blue eyes) The preposition + verb may be used to describe the purpose of a noun: o une machine crire (a typewriter) The preposition de + noun (and less frequently, en + noun) expresses the source or the content of an object: o une robe de soie (a silk dress) o des mouchoirs en papier (tissues) The de + noun combination also expresses possession: o C'est l'ami d'Anne. (It's Anne's friend.) A preposition + a noun modifying a verb is equivalent to an adverb: o Ils travaillent avec soin. (They work carefully.)

Verbs Requiring Indirect Objects

Verbs requiring indirect objects must use a preposition before the object. Although often omitted in English, the preposition is obligatory in French and accompanies the verbs that follow:

appartenir (belong to) apprendre (teach) donner (give) enseigner (teach) obir (obey) pardonner (forgive) penser (think about) rpondre (answer) 81

ressembler (resemble)

Consider the following examples:

Les lves obissent au professeur. (The students obey the teacher) Les lves lui obissent. (The students obey him.)

Prepositions Before Infinitives

In French, when a verb follows a preposition, the verb is normally in its infinitive form. The following sections show verbs requiring , de, other prepositions, and + quelqu'un + de, respectively. The final two sections discuss nouns and adjectives that are followed by de before an infinitive and verbs that require no preposition before the infinitive.

Verbs requiring
The following verbs are followed by the preposition :

aider (help) s'amuser (have fun) apprendre (learn to) commencer (begin) consister (consist) continuer (continue) se dcider (decide) encourager (encourage) enseigner (teach to) s'habituer (get used to) se mettre (begin) persister (persist) renoncer (renounce) russir (succeed) servir (serve) songer (think about)

These verbs are used as follows:

Il commence comprendre. (He is beginning to understand.) Je russis le faire. (I succeed in doing it.)

Verbs requiring de
The following verbs are followed by the preposition de:

s'arrter (stop) dcider (decide) se dpcher (hurry) empcher (prevent) 82

essayer (try to) mriter (deserve) s'occuper (take care of) oublier (forget to) parler (speak about) persuader (persuade) promettre (promise) refuser (refuse) regretter (regret) rver (dream) se souvenir (remember) venir (have just)

The preceding verbs are used as follows:

Je m'occuperai de cela. (I'll take care of that.) Ils viennent d'arriver. (They [have] just arrived.)

Verbs requiring other prepositions

The following prepositions are commonly used before the infinitive of a verb:

afin de (in order to) au lieu de (instead of) avant de (before) pour (for, in order to) sans (without)

Note how these prepositions are used in sentences:

Il fait de son mieux afin de russir. (He does his best in order to succeed.) Il dort au lieu de travailler. (He sleeps instead of working.)

Verbs requiring quelqu'un de

The following verbs require quelqu'un de before an infinitive:

commander (order) conseiller (advise) dfendre (forbid) demander (ask) dire (tell) interdire (forbid) ordonner (order) permettre (permit) promettre (promise)

Note how the preceding verbs are used: 83

M. Aube dfend son enfant de sortir. (Mr. Aube forbids his child to leave.) Je lui ai demand de me tlphoner. (I asked him to call me.)

Nouns and adjectives followed by de before an infinitive

Many nouns and adjectives are followed by de before an infinitive:

C'est une bonne ide de vous prparer. (It's a good idea to prepare yourself.) Je suis heureuse de le faire. (I'm happy to do it.)

Verbs requiring no preposition

The following verbs do not require a preposition before an infinitive that follows:

aimer (like) aimer mieux (prefer) aller (go) compter (intend) dsirer (desire, want) dtester (hate) devoir (have to) esprer (hope) falloir (be necessary) pouvoir (be able) prfrer (prefer) savoir (know how) venir (come) vouloir (want)

The preceding verbs are used as follows. Note that an adverb may separate the conjugated verb from the infinitive that follows it.

Il sait bien cuisiner. (He know hows to cook well.) Je compte revenir. (I intend to return.)

The Pass Compos Introduction to the Pass Compos

The compound past tense (past indefinite), more commonly known as the pass compos, refers to an action or event completed in the past. In English, it may be expressed by using the past participle (the -ed form of the verb) or by using the helping verbs have or did with the past participle: He has finished studying. The word compound in this tense is important because it tells you that this tense is made up of more than one part: Two elements are needed to form the pass compos: a helping verb (often called an auxiliary verb) and a past participle. 84

Although the overwhelming majority of French verbs use avoir (to have) as their helping verb, a few verbs use tre (to be), and even fewer may use either of these two helping verbs, depending on the meaning the speaker wishes to impart.

The Pass Compos with Avoir

Using avoir as the helping verb is a logical choice in a tense that expresses an action that has occurred. Although English usage often omits the use of have when it is implied (You may say, I lost my keys and not, I have lost my keys), in French, you must always use the helping verb: J'ai perdu mes clefs. To form the pass compos of verbs using avoir, conjugate avoir in the present tense (j'ai, tu as, il a, nous avons, vous avez, ils ont) and add the past participle of the verb expressing the action. Put the words together this way: subject + helping verb (usually avoir) + past participle. The pass compos, a compound past tense, is formed by combining two elements: when (the action has taken place and, therefore, requires the helping verb avoir) and what (the action that has happened and, therefore, requires the past participle of the regular or irregular verb showing the particular action). See Figure 1 .

Figure 1Forming the pass compos. Here are some examples of the pass compos.

Elle a expliqu son problme. (She explained her problem.) Ils ont russi. (They succeeded.) J'ai entendu les nouvelles. (I heard the news.)

Forming the negative in the pass compos with avoir

In a negative sentence in the pass compos, ne precedes the helping verb, and the negative word ( pas, rien, jamais, and so on follows it: 85

Je n'ai rien prpar. (I didn't prepare anything.) Nous n'avons pas fini le travail. (We didn't finish the work.) Il n'a jamais rpondu la lettre. (He never answered the letter.)

Questions in the pass compos with avoir

To form a question in the pass compos using inversion, invert the conjugated helping verb with the subject pronoun and add a hyphen. Then place the negative around the hyphenated helping verb and subject pronoun:

As-tu mang? (Did you eat?) N'as-tu rien mang? (Didn't you eat anything?) A-t-il attendu les autres? (Did he wait for the others?) N'a-t-il pas attendu? (Didn't he wait for the others?)

Regular verbs follow a prescribed set of rules for the formation of the past participle, whereas irregular verbs (discussed in the following section) must be memorized. Past participles of verbs conjugated with avoir agree in gender (masculine or feminine add e) and number (singular or plural add s) with a preceding direct object noun or pronoun:

Le(s) film(s)? (The film[s]?) Je l'(les)ai aim(s). (I liked it [them].) Quelle(s) robe(s) a-t-elle choisie(s)? (Which dress[es] did she choose?) Il nous a vus. (He saw us.)

Past Participles of Regular Verbs

The past participles of regular verbs are formed by dropping the infinitive endings, as shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 Regular Past Participles Verb Ending Infinitive Past Participle Example -er Verbs - parl er parl J'ai parl Anne. (I spoke to Ann.) -ir Verbs -i fin r fini -re Verbs -u rpond re rpondu

Nous avons fini. (We have Ils ont rpondu. (They finished.) answered.)

The past participles of shoe verbs require no spelling change within their stems (forms to which endings are added):

voyager (to travel) Vous avez voyag. (You traveled.) avancer (to advance) L'auto a avanc. (The car advanced.) payer (to pay) Ils ont pay. (They paid.) acheter (to buy) J'ai achet un pantalon. (I bought pants.) appeler (to call) A-t-elle appel? (Did she call?) 86

clbrer (to celebrate) Il a clbr son anniversaire. (He celebrated his birthday.)

Past Participles of Irregular Verbs

In many cases, irregular verbs have irregular past participles and can be grouped according to their endings, as shown in Tables 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 . TABLE 1 Past Participles Ending in - u: Irregular Verb Past Participle English Translation avoir boire connatre croire devoir lire pleuvoir pouvoir recevoir savoir voir vouloir eu bu connu cru d lu plu pu reu su vu voulu had drank known, knew believed had to, owed read rained was able to received knew seen, saw wanted

TABLE 2 Past Participles Ending in - is: Irregular Verb Past Participle English Translation mettre prendre mis pris put (on) took

TABLE 3 Past Participles Ending in - it: Irregular Verb Past Participle English Translation conduire dire crire conduit dit crit driven, drove said, told written, wrote

TABLE 4 Other Irregular Past Participles Irregular Verb Past Participle English Translation tre t 87 been, was

faire offrir ouvrir

fait offert ouvert

made, done, did offered opened

Irregular verbs that are contained within a larger verb are used as the basis of the past participle:

mettre (put) and mis (put); permettre (permit) and permis (permitted) ouvrir (open) and ouvert (opened); couvrir (cover) and couvert (covered)

The Pass Compos with tre

The pass compos of 17 verbs is formed by combining the present tense of tre (je suis, tu es, il est, nous sommes, vous tes, ils sont) and then adding the past participle of the verb showing the action. Most of these verbs express motion or a change of place, state, or condition (that is, going up, going down, going in, going out, or remaining). Dr. and Mrs. Vandertrampp live in the house in Figure 1 , as illustrated in Table 1 . Their name may help you memorize the 17 verbs using tre. An asterisk (*) in Table 6 denotes an irregular past participle.

Figure 1Verbs using tre in the pass compos.

TABLE 1 Verbs Using tre Verb D devenir (to become) M mourir (to die) R retourner (to return) S sortir (to go out) V venir (to come) A arriver (to arrive) N natre (to be born) E entrer (to enter) 88 Past Participle devenu*

R revenir (to come back) revenu* mort* retourn sorti venu* arriv n*

D descendre (to descend) descendu entr

R rentrer (to return) T tomber (to fall) R rester (to remain) A aller (to go) M monter (to go up) P partir (to leave) P passer (to pass by)

rentr tomb rest all mont parti pass

Verbs whose helping verb is tre must show agreement of their past participles in gender (masculine or feminine add e) and number (singular or plural add s) with the subject noun or pronoun, as shown in Table 2 : TABLE 2 Agreement with tre Masculine Subjects Feminine Subjects je suis all tu es parti il est venu je suis alle tu es partie elle est venue

nous sommes arrivs nous sommes arrives vous tes sorti(s) ils sont morts vous tes sortie(s) elles sont mortes

Remember the following rules when using tre as a helping verb in the pass compos:

Vous can be a singular or plural subject for both masculine and feminine subjects . Singular Plural

Vous tes entr. (You entered.) Vous tes entrs. (You entered.) Vous tes entre. (You entered.) Vous tes entres. (You entered.)

For a mixed group, always use the masculine form. o Roger et Bernard sont revenus. (Roger and Bernard came back.) o Louise et Mireille sont revenues. (Louise and Mireille came back.) o Roger et Louise sont revenus. (Roger and Louise came back.) If the masculine past participle ends in an unpronounced consonant, pronounce the consonant for the feminine singular and plural forms: o Il est mort. (He died.) Ils sont morts. (They died.) o Elle est morte. (She died.) Elles sont mortes. (They died.)

Forming the negative in the pass compos with tre

89

In the negative, put ne before the conjugated form of tre and the negative word after it:

Il n'est pas sorti. (He didn't go out.) Elles ne sont pas encore arrives. (They didn't arrive yet.)

Questions in the pass compos with tre

To form a question using inversion, invert the conjugated form of tre with the subject pronoun and add a hyphen. The negatives surround the hyphenated verb and pronoun:

Sont-ils partis? (Did they leave?) Ne sont-ils pas partis? (Didn't they leave?)

Special Verbs that Use tre and Avoir

Generally, the verbs descendre, monter, passer, rentrer, retourner, and sortir use tre as their helping verb. They may, however, take avoir as their helping verb when they are used with a direct object. The meaning of these verbs differs according to the helping verb that is used:

descendre: with tre, got off, went down; with avoir, took down o Tu es descendu(e) du train. (You got off the train.) o J'ai descendu l'escalier. (I went downstairs.) o Il a descendu sa valise. (He took down his suitcase.) monter: with tre, went down; with avoir, took up o Elles sont montes. (They went upstairs.) o Nous avons mont nos affaires. (We took [brought] up our things.) passer: with tre, passed by; with avoir, spent o Je suis pass(e) par la ptisserie. (I passed by the pastry shop.) o Il a pass un mois au Canada. (He spent a month in Canada.) rentrer: with tre, came in; with avoir, brought in o Vous tes rentr(e)(s) tt. (You came home early.) o Elle a rentr le chat. (She brought in the cat.) retourner: with tre, returned; with avoir, turned over o Il est retourn Paris. (He returned to Paris.) o Ils ont retourn la chaise. (They turned over the table.) sortir: with tre, went out; with avoir, took out o Elles sont sorties. (They went out.) o Il a sorti son portefeuille. (He took out his wallet.)

The imperfect
Introduction to the Imperfect
The imperfect is a past tense that has different applications than the pass compos. In certain circumstances, depending upon the meaning you wish to convey, you have the choice of using either the imperfect or the pass compos. Particular words, phrases, and expressions generally indicate which of these two tenses to use in a given circumstance.

90

The imperfect (or l'imparfait) expresses or describes continued, repeated, habitual actual or incomplete actions, situations, or events in the past. In other words, the imperfect describes what was going on at an indefinite time in the past or what used to happen:

Le ciel tait bleu. (The sky was blue.) L'enfant jouait. (The child was playing.) Il chantait toujours. (He always used to sing.)

The imperfect is unlike the pass compos in that it does not use a helping (auxiliary) verb and only requires the addition of specific endings to the stem (forms to which endings are added) of the verb. Very few irregularities exist in the imperfect tense.

Imperfect Tense and Regular Verbs

The imperfect is formed by dropping the -ons ending of the nous form of the present tense of regular verbs and all irregular verbs except tre, as illustrated in Table 1 : TABLE 1 Forming the Imperfect (Examples: jouer, finir, rendre) je Nous ending of the present tense Infinitive ending -ais jouais -ais jouais -ait jouait tu il, elle nous jou ons finiss ons rend ons -ions jouions -iez jouiez -aient jouaient vous ils, elles

finissais finissais finissait finissions rendais rendais rendait rendions The endings that must be added are as follows:

finissiez finissaient rendiez rendaient

Verbs already ending in -ions in the present tense have an additional i before the -ions and the iez imperfect endings:

Nous riions. (We were laughing.) Vous tudiiez. (You were studying.) Nous vrifiions le moteur. (We were checking the motor.)

To form the negative, place ne before the conjugated imperfect form of the verb and place the negative word after it, as follows:

Je ne parlais pas. (I wasn't speaking.) Nous ne regardions rien. (We weren't looking at anything.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb: Elle ne vous regardait pas. (She wasn't looking at you.)

Imperfect Verbs with Spelling Changes

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Only two categories of verbs with spelling changes need a closer look in the imperfect:

For verbs ending in -cer, change c to before the a to keep the soft c (s) sound. This change occurs only inside the shoe. o j'avanais o tu avanais o il/elle avanait o nous avancions o vous avanciez o ils avanaient For verbs ending in -ger, insert a silent e between g and a to keep the soft g (zh) sound. This change occurs only inside the shoe. o je nageais o tu nageais o il/elle nageait o nous nagions o vous nagiez o ils nageaient

Imperfect Tense and Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs follow the same imperfect formation rules as do regular verbs. Drop the -ons from the nous form and add the imperfect endings. Consider the following examples:

Tous les ans ils allaient la plage. (They used to go to the beach every year.) Je faisais mes devoirs. (I was doing my homework.)

The following is a list of the most common irregular present tense verbs whose imperfect forms follow the general rules:

aller (to go): nous allons avoir (to have): nous avons boire (to drink): nous buvons conduire (to drive): nous conduisons connatre (to know): nous connaissons croire (to believe): nous croyons devoir (to have to): nous devons dire (to say, tell): nous disons dormir (to sleep): nous dormons crire (to write): nous crivons faire (to make, do): nous faisons lire (to read): nous lisons mettre (to put): nous mettons offrir (to offer): nous offrons ouvrir (to open): nous ouvrons pouvoir (to be able to): nous pouvons prendre (to take): nous prenons recevoir (to receive): nous recevons savoir (to know): nous savons venir (to come): nous venons 92

voir (to see): nous voyons vouloir (to wish, want): nous voulons

Falloir (to be necessary) and pleuvoir (to rain) are used only in the third person singular form in the imperfect: il fallait (it was necessary) and il pleuvait (it was raining). The only verb that does not follow the rule for the formation of the imperfect is tre: j'tais; tu tais; il, elle, on tait; nous tions; vous tiez; ils, elles taient.

Imperfect Versus Pass Compos With that in mind, the following words, phrases, and expressions often require the use of the pass compos because they specify a definite past time:

l'anne passe (last year) avant-hier (the day before yesterday) d'abord (at first) enfin (finally) ensuite (then, next) l't/l'hiver pass (last summer/winter) finalement (finally) une fois (one time) hier (yesterday) hier soir (last night) l'autre jour (the other day) ce jour-l (that day) un jour (one day) le mois pass (dernier) (last month) la semaine passe (dernire) (last week) soudain (suddenly) tout coup (suddenly)

The imperfect, on the other hand, expresses an action that continued in the past over an indefinite, undetermined period of time and could have been captured by a video camera. The imperfect also describes what was going on in the past when another action or event took place in the pass compos: Il sortait quand je suis arriv() (He was going out when I arrived.) When would means used to, use the imperfect: Quand j'tais jeune je lisais beaucoup. (When I was young, I would read a lot.) The following expressions generally imply repetitious or habitual past actions and, therefore, require the imperfect:

autrefois (formerly) chaque jour (semaine, mois, anne) (each [every] day, week, month, year) de temps autre (from time to time) de temps en temps (from time to time) d'habitude (usually) d'ordinaire (usually, generally) en ce temps-l (at that time) en gnral (generally) 93

frquemment (frequently) gnralement (generally) habituellement (habitually) parfois (sometimes) quelquefois (sometimes) souvent (often) toujours (always) tous les jours (mois) (every day, month) tout le temps (all the time)

Verbs that indicate a state of mind in the past are generally used in the imperfect.

aimer (to like, love) croire (to believe) dsirer (to desire) esprer (to hope) tre (to be) penser (to think) pouvoir (to be able to) prfrer (to prefer) regretter (to regret, be sorry) savoir (to know [how]) vouloir (to want)

When, however, the state of mind occurred at a specific time in the past, the pass compos is used:

Je ne pouvais pas l'aider. (I couldn't help him.) Je n'ai pas pu l'aider hier. (I couldn't help him yesterday.)

Differences in the use of the pass compos and the imperfect are summarized in Table 1 . TABLE 1 Comparing the Pass Compos and the Imperfect Pass Compos Expresses specific actions or events that were started and completed at a definite time in the past (even if the time isn't mentioned). Je suis sorti. (I went out.) Imperfect Describes continuous and ongoing actions or events in the past (which may or may not have been completed). Il parlait vite. (He was speaking quickly.)

Expresses a specific action or event that occurred Describes habitual or repeated actions in at a specific point in past time the past. Elle est arrive hier. (She arrived yesterday.) Expresses a specific action or event that was repeated for a stated number of times. Luc a chant deux fois. (Luke sang twice.) 94 D'habitude il jouait bien. (Usually, he played well.) Describes a person, place, thing, or state of mind. J'tais ravi. (I was delighted.)

Future Tense
The future tense expresses what the subject will do or is going to do in the future. It also describes what action will or is going to take place at a future time. Although the future tense is usually used for events taking place in the future, the present tense in French may be used to refer to an action that will take place very soon or to ask for future instructions.

Il part tt. (He will be leaving early.) Je prends le bus? (Shall I take the bus?)

In addition, you can express an imminent action in the near future by conjugating the verb aller (to go) in the present tense and adding the infinitive of the action the speaker will perform. Keep in mind that the irregular present tense of aller is je vais, tu vas, il va, nous allons, vous allez, and ils vont.

Il va aller loin. (He's going to go far.) Ils vont jouer. (They are going to play.)

Otherwise, use the future tense in the following cases:

To express what will happen: Je russirai. (I will succeed.) After quand (when), lorsque (when), ds que (as soon as), and aussitt que (as soon as), when referring to a future action, even if the present tense is used in English: Quand (Lorsque, Ds que, Aussitt que) nous aurons beaucoup d'argent, nous irons en France. (When [As soon as] we have a lot of money, we will go to France.)

Future tense of regular verbs

Form the future tense of regular verbs, as shown in Table 1 , by adding the following endings (often referred to as avoir endings because they resemble the present conjugation of avoir) to the verb infinitive. TABLE 1 The Future of Regular Verbs Subject Ending -er verbs -ir verbs -re verbs je tu il nous vous ils -ai -as -a -ons -ez -ont laverai laveras lavera punirai puniras punira vendrai vendras vendra

laverons punirons vendrons laverez punirez vendrez

laveront puniront vendront 95

Note the following about forming the future tense of regular verbs:

-re verbs drop the final e before adding the appropriate future ending: vendre (to sell) becomes nous vendrons (we will sell) The e of the er infinitive stem of the future is not pronounced.

Future tense and verbs with spelling changes

All verbs that require spelling changes form the future in the same way as regular verbs: infinitive + future ending (except the following):

For verbs ending in -yer (except envoyer, which is irregular), change y to i in all forms of the future tense. Verbs ending in - ayer may or may not make this change: o j'emplo i erai, nous emplo i erons (I will use, we will use) o je pa i erai or je pa y erai (I will pay) For verbs ending in e + consonant + er (but not + consonant + er), change the silent e before the infinitive ending to in all forms of the future tense. o tu ach teras, vous ach terez (you will buy) With appeler and jeter, double the consonant in the future tense. o nous appellerons (we will call) o nous jetterons (we will throw)

Future tense of irregular verbs

Irregular verbs in the future have future stems ending in -r or -rr. Add the future endings to these stems to get the correct future form, as shown in Table 2 . TABLE 2 Forming the Future Tense with Irregular Verbs Infinitive aller (to go) avoir (to have) devoir (to have to) tre (to be) envoyer (to send) faire (to make, do) pouvoir (to be able to) savoir (to know) venir (to come) voir (to see) Stem iraurdevrserExamples J'irai en France. (I will go to France.) Vous aurez un bon voyage. (You will have a good trip.) Il devra partir bientt. (He will have to leave soon.) Nous serons contents. (We will be happy.) Tu feras de ton mieux. (You will do your best.)

enverr- Elles t'enverront une lettre. (They will send you a letter.) ferpourr- Ils pourront sortir ce soir. (They will be able to go out this evening.) saurIl ne saura pas la rponse correcte. (He will not know the correct answer.) Nous verrons ce film. (We will see that film.) 96

recevoir (to receive) recevr- Tu recevras une surprise. (You will receive a surprise.)

viendr- Je viendrai lundi. (I will come on Monday.) verr-

vouloir (to wish, want)

voudr- Ils voudront vous aider. (They will want to help you.)

Negating in the future tense

To negate a sentence in the future, simply put ne and the negative word around the conjugated verb:

Elles ne sortiront pas ce soir. (They will not go out this evening.) Il ne fumera jamais. (He will never smoke.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb: Je ne te tlphonerai pas. (I will not call you.)

Questions in the future tense

To form a question using inversion, reverse the order of the subject pronoun and the verb and join them with a hyphen:

Irez-vous en France cet t? (Will you go to France this summer?) Jouera-t-elle du piano? (Will she play the piano.)

The Conditional
The conditional is not a tense because it does not refer to a time period. Instead, the conditional is a mood that expresses what a subject would do under certain circumstances. Use the conditional in the following situations:

To express what would happen under certain conditions: Si j'avais le temps je voyagerais. (If I had the time, I would travel.) When could has the sense of should be able to, in which case you use the conditional of pouvoir: Il pourrait faire ceci. (He could [should be able to] do this.) To politely make a request or a demand: Je voudrais l'acheter. (I would like to buy it.)

The conditional uses the same stem as the future tense, but you then add the conditional endings, which are exactly the same as the imperfect endings, as shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 The Conditional of Regular Verbs Subject Ending -er verbs je tu il nous vous -ais -ais -ait -ions -iez laverais laverais laverait -ir verbs punirais punirais punirait -re verbs vendrais vendrais vendrait

laverions punirions vendrions laveriez 97 puniriez vendriez

ils

-aient

laveraient puniraient vendraient

For irregular verbs and verbs with spelling changes, you simply add conditional endings to the stems used for the future.

acheter: nous achterions (xxx) aller: j'irais (xxx) appeler: vous appelleriez (xxx) avoir: tu aurais (xxx) devoir: il devrait (xxx) envoyer: j'enverrais (xxx) essayer: j'essaierais or j'essayerai (xxx) tre: nous serions (xxx) faire: vous feriez (xxx) jeter: elle jetterait (xxx) pouvoir: ils pourraient (xxx) recevoir: je recevrais (xxx) savoir: on saurait (xxx) venir: nous viendrions (xxx) voir: vous verriez (xxx) vouloir: ils voudraient (xxx)

Irregularities in the future and conditional also occur in related verbs:

nous mettrions (we would put); nous permettrions (we would permit) j'enverrais (I would send); je renverrais (I would send back)

Negating in the conditional

To negate a sentence in the conditional, simply put ne and the negative word around the conjugated verb:

Elle ne rirait pas. (She wouldn't laugh.) Je ne pleurerais pas. (I wouldn't cry.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb: Il ne vous punirait pas. (He wouldn't punish you.)

Questions in the conditional

To form a question using inversion, reverse the order of the subject pronoun and the verb and join them with a hyphen:

Voudriez-vous aller en France? (Would you like to go to France?) J'aimerais partir. (I would like to leave.)

Reflexive Verbs
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A reflexive verb infinitive is identified by its reflexive pronoun se, which is placed before the infinitive and that serves as a direct or indirect object pronoun. A reflexive verb shows that the subject is performing the action upon itself and, therefore, the subject and the reflexive pronoun refer to the same person or thing, as in je m' appelle (I call myself), which is translated to My name is. Some verbs must always be reflexive, whereas other verbs may be made reflexive by adding the correct object pronoun. The meaning of some verbs varies depending upon whether or not the verb is used reflexively. Reflexive verbs are always conjugated with the reflexive pronoun that agrees with the subject: me (myself), te (yourself), se (himself, herself, itself, themselves), nous (ourselves), and vous (yourself, yourselves). These pronouns generally precede the verb. Follow the rules for conjugating regular verbs, verbs with spelling changes, and irregular verbs, depending on of the tense, as shown in Table 1 : TABLE 1 Reflexive Verb Conjugation Present Tense Subject je tu Pronoun Verb me (m') te (t') lve rases lave dpchons rveillez couchent

il/elle/on se (s') nous vous ils/elles nous vous se (s')

Reflexive constructions have the following translations:

Present tense: Je me lave. (I wash myself.) Imperfect tense:: Je me lavais. (I was washing [used to] myself.) Future tense: Je me laverai. (I will wash myself.) Conditional: Je me laverais. (I would wash myself.)

Consider the following most commonly used reflexive verbs. Those marked with asterisks have shoe verb spelling change within the infinitive.

s'approcher de (approach) s'arrter de (stop) se baigner (bathe, swim) se blesser (hurt oneself) se bronzer (tan) se brosser (brush) se brler (burn oneself) se casser (break) se coiffer (do one's hair) se coucher (go to bed) se couper (cut oneself) 99

se demander (wonder) se dpcher (hurry) se dshabiller (undress) se dtendre (relax) s'endormir (go to sleep) se fcher (get angry) s'habiller (dress) s'impatienter (become impatient) s'inquiter de* (worry about) se laver (wash) se lever* (get up) se maquiller (apply make-up) se mettre (begin) s'occuper de (take care of) se peigner (comb) se prsenter (introduce oneself) se promener* (take a walk) se rappeler* (recall) se raser (shave) se reposer (rest) se runir (meet) se rveiller (wake up) se servir de (use) se tromper (make a mistake)

In addition, some French verbs are always reflexive despite the fact that in English they are not:

s'crier (exclaim, cry out) s'en aller (leave, go away) se fier (trust) se mfier de (distrust) se moquer de (make fun of) se soucier de (care about) se souvenir de (remember)

When a subject is followed by two verbs (and keep in mind that when the first one is conjugated, the second must be in the infinitive, the reflexive pronoun precedes the infinitive, because its meaning is tied to that verb:

Je vais me dpcher. (I'm going to hurry.) Il ne va pas se raser. (He's not going to shave.)

Reflexive or Non Reflexive?

The meaning of certain verbs allows the use of the verb either as reflexive or non-reflexive, depending upon whom the action is performed. Me, te, se, nous, and vous are also used as direct and indirect object pronouns when not used reflexively. Be sure, therefore, to pay attention to the meaning you wish to convey.

Je me lave. (I wash myself.) 100

Je lave la voiture. (I wash the car.) Je la lave. (I wash it.) Il se rveille. (He wakes [himself] up.) Il me rveille. (He wakes me up.)

Some verbs in French have different meanings when used reflexively, as shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 Different Meanings for Reflexive Verbs Basic Meaning attendre (wait for) battre (beat) demander (ask) occuper (occupy) Reflexive Meaning s'attendre (expect) se battre (fight) se demander (wonder) s'occuper de (take care of)

passer (spend time) se passer de (do without) servir (serve) tromper (deceive) se servir de (use) se tromper (make a mistake)

Even verbs that are not generally used as reflexive verbs may be made reflexive by adding the reflexive pronoun:

Je prpare le dner. (I prepare dinner.) Je me prpare. (I prepare myself.)

Reflexive verbs may be used in the plural to express reciprocal action meaning each other or one another:

Nous nous parlons. (We speak to each other.) Vous vous regardez. (You look at one another.)

Idiomatic Reflexive Verbs

Some idiomatic reflexive verbs are as follows:

se brosser les dents (brush one's teeth) se casser la jambe (break one's leg) s'en aller (go away) se faire des amis (make friends) se mettre en colre (get angry) se rendre compte de (realize) Elle s'en va. (She's going away.) Il se met en colre. (He's getting angry.)

Reflexive Verbs and Commands

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In a negative command, the reflexive pronoun directly precedes the verb: Ne te lve pas! (Don't get up!) In an affirmative command, the reflexive pronoun follows the verb and is attached to it by a hyphen. In familiar commands, te becomes toi after the verb: Lve-toi! Levez-vous! (Get up!)

Reflexive Verbs and Compound Tenses

In compound tenses like the pass compos, reflexive verbs use tre as their helping (auxiliary) verb. The reflexive pronoun remains before the conjugated helping form of tre, as follows:

Je me suis lav(e). (I washed myself.) Tu t'es prpar(e). (You didn't get ready.) Il s'est ras. (He shaved.) Elle s'est couche. (Didn't she go to bed?) Nous nous sommes peign(e)s. (We combed our hair.) Vous vous tes coiff(e)(s). (You didn't do your hair.) Ils se sont impatients. (They became impatient.) Elles se sont maquilles. (They put on their makeup.)

When the reflexive pronoun is used as a direct object, as in Whom did they wash? Themselves! the past participle agrees with the reflexive pronoun: Ils se sont lavs. (They washed themselves.) When the reflexive pronoun is used as an indirect object (To/for whom did they wash something? For themselves!), the past participle shows no agreement: Ils se sont lav la figure. (They washed their faces.)

The subjunctive

Uses of the Subjunctive

The subjunctive is a mood that reflects the subject's attitude: wishing, wanting, emotions, doubt, denial, and disbelief. Although the subjunctive is used far more frequently in French than in English, you can avoid using it. The subjunctive is not a tense (which indicates time) but can be put into a time frame. The present subjunctive is the most prevalent and expresses both present and future time. The present subjunctive refers to actions in the present or the future: Il est possible que je parte demain. (It's possible that I will leave tomorrow.) The subjunctive is needed when all of the following conditions are met:

The sentence must contain two different clauses with two different subjects. The clauses must be joined by que (that) or, in special instances, by qui. One of the clauses must show wishing, wanting, need, necessity, emotion, doubt, or denial. 102

A French sentence using the subjunctive may have a differing English syntax that often omits the word that and uses an infinitive instead: Il est ncessaire que tu arrives tt. (You have to arrive early. It is necessary that you arrive early.)

Forms of the Subjunctive

The present subjunctive of regular verbs and of many irregular verbs is formed by droping the ent from the third person plural (ils/elles) form of the present tense and adding the following endings, as shown in Table 1 . TABLE 1 The Present Subjunctive of Regular Verbs Subject Ending -er verbs -ir verbs aim ent je tu il nous vous ils -e -es -e -ons -ez -ent aim e aim es aim e agiss ent agiss e agiss es agiss e -re verbs rend ent rend e rend es rend e

aim ions agiss ions rend ions aim iez aim ent agiss iez agiss ent rend iez rend ent

Some irregular verbs and some verbs with spelling changes use two different stems (the verb forms to which endings are added) to form the present subjunctive, as shown in Table 2 . TABLE 2 Different Stems for the Present Subjunctive Verb boire croire devoir Ils Stem Nous Stem boivcroidoivbuvcroydevprenrecevvenvoy-

prendre prennrecevoir reoivvenir voir viennvoi-

manger mange- mangenvoyer envoiacheter achtappeler appellprfrer prfr103 envoyachetappelprfr-

The ils stem of the present tense for je, tu, il/elle/on, ils/elles The nous form of the present tense for nous and vous

Some verbs are completely irregular and must be memorized.

aller: j'aille, tu ailles, il aille, nous allions, vous alliez, il aillent vouloir: je veuille, tu veuilles, il veuille, nous voulions, vous vouliez, ils veuillent faire: je fasse, tu fasses, il fasse, nous fassions, vous fassiez, ils fassent pouvoir: je puisse, tu puisses, il puisse, nous puissions, vous puissiez, ils puissent savoir: je sache, tu saches, il sache, nous sachions, vous sachiez, ils sachent avoir: j'aie, tu aies, il ait, nous ayons, vous ayez, ils aient tre: je sois, tu sois, il soit, nous soyons, vous soyez, ils soient

Remember that the subjunctive form of the verb must be joined to another clause by que.

After impersonal expressions

The subjunctive is used in the clause introduced by que after impersonal expressions that show opinion, doubt, need, or emotion: Il est important que vous tudiiez. (It is important that you study.)

il est absurd (it is absurd) il est amusant (it is amusing) il est bon (it is good) il est curieux (it is curious) il est dommage (it is a pity) il est douteux (it is doubtful) il est essentiel (it is essential) il est tonnant (it is amazing) il est trange (it is strange) il est gentil (it is nice) il est impratif (it is imperative) il est important (it is important) il est impossible (it is impossible) il est injuste (it is unfair) il est intressant (it is interesting) il est ironique (it is ironic) il est juste (it is fair) il est naturel (it is natural) il est ncessaire (it is necessary) il est normal (it is normal) il est possible (it is possible) il est prfrable (it is preferable) il est rare (it is rare) il est regrettable (it is regrettable) il est surprenant (it is surprising) il est temps (it is time) il est urgent (it is urgent) il est utile (it is useful) il convient (it is fitting) 104

il faut (it is necessary) il semble (it seems) il suffit (it is enough) il vaut mieux (it is better)

For many impersonal expressions, c'est may be used in place of il est: C'est trange qu'il ne vienne pas. (It's strange that he isn't coming.)

After verbs and expressions of doubt, denial, and disbelief

The subjunctive is used after verbs and expressions of doubt, denial, and disbelief. The indicative tenses, which state facts (present, pass compos, imperfect, and future) are used after verbs and expressions of certainty and probability. When these verbs and expressions, shown in Table 3 , are used in the negative or the interrogative, they imply uncertainty or doubt and require the subjunctive. On the contrary, when doubt is negated, certainty or probability exists and the indicative is used:

Subjunctive: Il doute que je fasse de mon mieux. (He doubts that I'll do my best.) Future: Il ne doute pas que je ferai de mon mieux. (He doesn't doubt that I'll do my best.)

TABLE 3 The Subjunctive after Impersonal Expressions Indicative (Certainty) je sais (I know) je suis sr(e) (I'm sure) je suis certain(e) (I am certain) il est certain (it is certain) il est clair (it's clear) il est vident (it is evident) il est exact (it is exact) il parat (it appears) il est vrai (it's true) il est sr (it is sure) il est probable (it is probable) Subjunctive (Uncertainty) je doute (I doubt) je ne sais pas (I don't know) je ne suis pas sr(e) (I'm not sure) je ne suis pas certain(e) (I am not certain) il n'est pas certain (it isn't certain) il est douteux (it's doubtful) il n'est pas clair (it isn't clear) il n'est pas vident (it isn't evident) il n'est pas exact (it isn't exact) il semble (it seems) il n'est pas vrai (it isn't true) il n'est pas sr (it isn't sure) il est possible (it is possible) il se peut (it is possible)

il est improbable (it is improbable) il est impossible (it is impossible)

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The subjunctive expresses an action viewed as potential and whose realization is doubted or uncertain. The desired purpose or end may never be met. You can sense a distinct difference in mental outlook between the indicative il est probable (it is probable) and the subjunctive il est possible (it is possible).

Il est probable que tu russiras. (It is probable that you will succeed.) Il est possible que tu russisses. (It is possible that you will succeed.)

That same difference exists between the indicative il parat (it appears) and the subjunctive il semble (it seems). After verbs of opinion or knowledge, such as penser (to think), croire (to believe), and esprer (to hope), the indicative or the subjunctive is chosen depending upon the meaning of certainty or uncertainty that the speaker wishes to convey. Used affirmatively, these verbs usually require the indicative because they show belief, conviction, or knowledge on the part of the speaker: Je crois que tu gagneras le match. (I believe you'll win the match.) Used negatively or interrogatively, these verbs usually (but not always) take the subjunctive because they convey doubt or uncertainty:

The speaker has no doubt: Crois-tu qu'elle dit la vrit? (Do you believe she is telling the truth?) The speaker has doubts: Crois-tu qu'elle dise la vrit? (Do you believe she is telling the truth?)

After a wish or a command

The subjunctive is used in the clause following verbs expressing a wish, request, command, permission, prohibition, preference, or desire:

aimer mieux (prefer) commander (order) conseiller (advise) consentir (consent) demander (ask) dfender (forbid) dsirer (desire) empcher (prevent) exiger (demand) insister (insist) ordonner (order) permettre (permit) prfrer (prefer) souhaiter (wish) suggrer (suggest) vouloir (want)

Consider the following examples of using the subjunctive after a wish or command:

Il prfre que nous restions ici. (He prefers us to stay here.) Elle insiste que vous fassiez le travail. (She insists that you do the work.) 106

After verbs and expressions of emotion and feeling

The subjunctive is used after verbs and expressions of emotion and feeling, as in the following:

content(e) (content) dsol(e) (sorry) embarrass (embarrassed) ennuy(e) (annoyed) enchant(e), ravi(e) (delighted) tonn(e) (astonished) fch(e) (angry) fier (fire) (proud) flatt(e) (flattered) furieux(euse) (furious) gn(e) (bothered) heureux(euse) (happy) irrit(e), nerv(e) (irritated) malheureux(euse) (unhappy) mcontent(e) (displeased) surpris(e) (surprised) triste (sad)

Do the following to properly express emotions:

Use the subject pronoun + tre (conjugated) + adjective + que + : Je suis triste qu'il soit malade. (I'm sad that he's sick.) Use avoir instead of tre with peur (fear) and honte (shame): Il a honte que vous pleuriez. (He is ashamed that you are crying.)

After certain conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that connect and relate vocabulary words and pronouns and that connect two clauses in a sentence. They are invariable; that is, their spelling never changes. The subjunctive is used after conjunctions that express the following:

Time: jusqu' ce que (until), avant que (before) J'attendrai jusqu' ce qu'il vienne. (I'll wait until he comes.)

Purpose: pour que (in order that) Je partirai afin qu'il puisse dormir. (I'll leave so that he can sleep.)

Concession: bien que (although) Il ira bien qu'il soit malade. (He'll go, although he's sick.)

Negation: sans que (without) 107

Il est arriv sans qu'elle le sache. (He arrived without her knowing it.) The following conjunctions take the indicative:

aprs que (after) aussitt que (as soon as) ds que (as soon as) parce que (because) pendant que (while) peut-tre que (perhaps) puisque (since) tandis que (while, whereas)

Subjunctive versus Infinitive

If the subjects are exactly the same in meaning in both clauses of a sentence, que is omitted and the subjunctive is replaced by the infinitive: Je voudrais jouer au tennis. (I want to play tennis.) However, you say the following: Je voudrais que nous jouions au tennis. (I want us to play tennis.)

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