qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqw ertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert yuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopa Universal Design for Learning in Assessment in Grade 8 sdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdf Social Studies ghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghj klzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklz

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12/19/2011 Jacquelyn Wiens

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING IN ASSESSMENT

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an emerging philosophy in the field of pedagogy. It extols universal accessibility for all students, regardless of exceptionalities that traditionally may hold them back. Unlike other attempts to reach students who are somehow out of the average range, UDL does not place an extra burden of work on the classroom teacher. Through working with the curriculum and the use of technology, the three principles of UDL can be used to effectively reach all the students in a classroom through a differentiated approach. Assessment in Social Studies 8 classes can be made more effective through the use of UDL. Specifically, this means allowing flexibility in presentation, engagement, expression and strategic supports. By using UDL, in combination with a specific focus on Principle II of Universal Design, which provides multiple means of action and expression, assessment in grade 8 Social Studies can yield greater student success. Universal Design for Learning did not begin in education; rather UDL emerged out of Universal Design, which developed out of North Carolina State Universitys Center for Universal Design by architect Ron Mace in the 1980s. Mace states that Universal Design is the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design. (The History and Philosophy of UDL, n.d.) Since then, Universal Design has evolved into UDL in the field of education by looking beyond physical access to include cognitive and intellectual access as well. The Center for Applied Technology (CAST) describes UDL as a research-based framework for designing curricula. According to the CAST Universal Design for Learning Guidelines (2008), Universal Design for Learning is an approach that addresses and redresses the primary barrier to making expert learners of all students: inflexible, one-size-fits-all curricula that raise unintentional barriers to learning. Decoste (2004) describes UDL as the practice of
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embedding flexible strategies into curriculum during the planning process so that all students can access a variety of learning solutions (p. 5). UDL can be expanded to not only apply directly to the content in classrooms, but also to specific instructional materials, facilities, and strategies (Burgstahler, as quoted in The History and Philosophy of UDL, n.d). Pisha and Meyer (1998, as cited in Pisha and Coyne, 2001) suggest that the teacher should take the needs of the learners in the class into account and design curricula, materials, methods, and environments that support and challenge each learner as appropriately and consistently as possible (p. 198). UDL is grounded on a foundation of traditional educational philosophy, as well as current brain research and neuroscience: a mixture of old and new. UDL draws on the ideas of Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky accounted for individual differences in students through scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)(CAST, 2008). Vygotsky (1978) himself defined the ZPD as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers (p. 85). More recent research on brain networks also supports Universal Design for Learning. The research and UDL both focus on the use of three primary brain networks. First is recognition networks, which is how a student gathers and categorizes information that is inputted to them. Second is strategic networks, which is how ideas are organized and expressed. Lastly, there are affective networks, or engagement and motivation toward learning. Together, these three networks work in the individual to make each student in our classrooms unique (CAST, 2008). While educators certainly need not have a degree in neuroscience, it is helpful to understand

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these underlying fundamentals of how students learn in our classrooms. The fundamental nature of the recognition, strategic, and affective networks form a framework we can use to analyze our students individual strengths and weaknesses and understand their individual differences (Rose and Meyer, 2008, p. 37). Simply gathering students into categories of normal and exceptional is not an effective foundation for classroom teaching. Teaching toward the average is not a good practice because an average is imagined, and not reality ( CAST, 2008). Using this information, Universal Design for Learning promises all students fair opportunities to access information and learn, without extraneous or undue burden on the educator. UDL is a combination of existing best practices and correlates strongly with modern theories of pedagogy (The History and Philosophy of UDL, n.d). UDL is the intersection where all our initiatives integrated units, multi-sensory teaching, multiple intelligences, differentiated instruction, use of computers in schools, performance based assessment, and others come together (Palley, as quoted in Rose and Meyer, 2008, p.7). Furthermore, Universal Design for Learning does not focus simply on assisting students in managing classroom content or new ideas; it prepares students for a lifetime of learning through mastery of the learning process, creating expert learners; learners who want to learn, who know how to learn strategically (CAST, 2008). With these ideas in mind, and using the three brain networks, UDL has been formed into three basic principles: I. Provide Multiple Means of Representation. This first principle is linked with the recognition networks in the brain. In this approach, the teacher provides options for how students

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING IN ASSESSMENT

receive information - that is, options for perception, options for language, mathematical expressions, and symbols, and options for comprehension. All of this culminates in the goal of creating resourceful, knowledgeable learners (CAST, 2008). II. Provide Multiple Means of Action and Expression. This principle of UDL is the focus of this paper. Supported by the strategic networks of the brain, this principle enables students to show what they know in various ways. The teacher must provide options for physical action and expression and communication. They also provide options for executive functions that is, support with goal setting and monitoring progress (CAST, 2008). III. Provide Multiple Means of Engagement. The affective networks in the brain are involved with principle III. This principle provides options for recruiting interest, sustaining effort and persistence, and self-regulation (CAST, 2008). By motiving students to want to learn, their performance will increase because the emotional valence of an academic task is critical in determining how well a student will succeed at it or even how much effort her or she will invest (Rose and Meyer, 2008, p. 152). While in practice the principles cannot be separated and isolated from each other, this paper will specifically focus on principle II and performance task assessment in grade 8 Social Studies. According to Rose and Meyer (2008), there are four barriers to accurate assessment in traditional models: individual learning differences, media constraints, lack of appropriate supports, and lack of integration with the curriculum. However, through the use of UDL, this can be remedied in conjunction with the use of technology. They state that digital tools and media make it possible to design ongoing assessments that support individual differences in recognition, strategic, and affective networks, giving us a more accurate measure of students

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING IN ASSESSMENT

achievement in relation to the learning goal (p. 137). The integrated use of technology is what sets UDL apart from Tomlinsons differentiated instruction. UDL is in many ways an extension of differentiated instruction, using technology as the extender. The technology allows the teacher to develop a new generation of flexible curricula and materials that accommodate each students idiosyncratic pattern of strengths, weaknesses, styles, interests, and background knowledge (Bart & Pisha, 2001, p. 199). Decoste is also a proponent of the use of digital technology because it often offers the flexibility needed to adjust for learner differences (DeCoste, 2004, p. 2). The use of technology during assessment enables educators to measure a wider range of skills and processes. The CAST UDL Checkpoints for principle II call for multiple media for communication and the use of multiple tools for construction and composition (CAST, 2008). The last checkpoint encourages students to develop a variety of fluencies.[with] multiple scaffolds to assist them. It goes on to urge that students should be given the ability to build fluency through performance in assessment. Performance helps learners because it allows them to synthesize their learning in personally relevant ways (CAST, 2008). With this research framework in mind, I have used three UDL-based assessments in my Social Studies 8 classroom, in the Renaissance Unit. These performance based assessments had been developed by my mentor teacher and used in her own UDL research as well. In the study a focus was placed on five gifted students in a Humanities 8 class. Cholach (2011) postulated that exposure to and completion of UDL based assignments would allow the gifted students to not only meet objectives, but also pursue and attain enrichment opportunities (p.1). While I currently do not have any gifted students in the classroom, Cholachs research mirrors my own and will be considered equal to first hand research done in my classroom.
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Although UDL has three principals, the branch involving assessment will be focussed on. In Social Studies 8, three major projects were developed based on Universal Design for Learning. The first assignment was completed after chapter one, and focussed on the worldview elements of a member of society in Medieval Europe under Feudalism. Students were asked to create a piece of writing, as well as a visual representation. While the piece of writing was done individually, the visual component could be done in groups. Students could choose to do their writing project on a peasant, knight/squire, noble, king (or queen), priest, nun, bishop, or pope, etc. Students were tasked to give an example of each worldview element that had been studied in class (geography, time, beliefs, society, values, economy, and knowledge) in relation to the role they chose. Beyond this, students could create whatever they liked, depending on what their strengths were. Secondly, students had to create a visual representation which accompanied their written piece of work. It could be a poster, film, photo essay, etc. Again, students were encouraged to create to their strengths and express their creativity. The complete assignment sheet and rubric can be found in Appendix A. Students were given full access to MacBook laptops and a week of class time. This assignment directly ties in with the goals and principals of UDL in various ways. Through this project students were offered an opportunity to directly show what they learned using their strengths. Strong writers created diary entries in which the worldview elements were subtly included into the creative framework of the story they were telling. Weaker writers created a PowerPoint presentation in which each slide was a worldview element. In both instances, students demonstrated their understanding of the curricular target, but both were met at their individual strengths and weaknesses. The student weaker in writing would have been
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overwhelmed by the idea of weaving worldview elements through subtext, even though his or her understanding of the material could be as solid as the strong writer. Examples of the written portion of this assignment can be found in Appendix B. Another student created a comic book using the program ComicLife on the MacBooks. His final product was an exceptional example of not only UDL, but also inclusion, as he involved a fellow student with autism as one of his characters in his comic book. Due to the fact that both students are pictured frequently in the assignment, I am unable to include it, which is a great misfortune. The comic book was the best written assignment I received from the class. Students struggled more with the visual elements of the assignment. There were a few examples that were exceptional but on the whole, students often repeated what they had done in the written portion, or worked together in groups which were ineffective. For the next UDL assignment the students worked on I placed a cap on how many members a group could have, and many of those issues went away. I completed a statistical analysis of marks on the first assignment comparing assignment marks to the same chapters test marks, shown on the following page. Figure 1 shows the UDL assignment marks and Figure 2 shows the breakdown of the chapter 1 Test marks. The test I used had been used frequently in the past by my mentor teacher so, for the purposes of this analysis, I will assume that it is both valid and reliable. The aggregate means and medians of both assignments are very similar, within four and one percent of each other respectively.

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING IN ASSESSMENT

Chapter One Assignment Marks

Total Mean Total Median Total Std. Dev. Male Mean Male Median Male Std. Dev.

Including Zeros 65.77 70.00 26.68 70.25 69.00 17.45

No Zeros 72.81 71.88 16.10

Female Mean 62.53 75.03 Female Median 71.88 78.75 Female Std. Dev. 31.86 15.07 Figure 1 UDL Assignment 1 Marks. The first column includes the raw marks, the second has been adjusted to remove the marks of the assignments not handed in (which resulted in a zero).

Chapter One Test Marks

Including Zeros Total Mean Total Median Total Std. Dev. Male Mean Male Median Male Std. Dev. Female Mean Female Median Female Std. Dev. 66.29 67.74 20.53 66.25 64.52 24.52 66.31 69.35 17.88 70.54 70.97 14.47 No Zeros 68.55 70.97 19.51

Figure 2 Chapter 1 Test Marks. The first column includes the raw marks, the second has been adjusted to remove the marks of those who did not hand in the UDL assignment, for an accurate comparison.

The statistical comparison shows that the UDL assignment resulted in higher marks. I broke the marks down further into male and female categories to determine if there was a
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difference between how the students responded to the assignment, and to more traditional testing methods. On the whole, females performed better on both the assignment and the test. When broken into two groups, the means of both assessments are within five percent of each other, and again the UDL assignment is the higher mark The second assignment that used UDL was done after chapter 3, the chapter on Humanism. This assignment was more guided, as students were given discrete options as opposed to a completely open ended choice. The rubric used was very comprehensive students had to show creativity, neatness, and clear attainment of the curricular goal, which was: 8.2.4 Students will examine, critically, the factors that shaped the worldview evolving in western Europe during the Renaissance by exploring and reflecting upon the following questions and issues: In what ways did thinkers and philosophers influence society in the development of a humanist worldview during the Renaissance. The full assignment sheet and rubric can be found in Appendix C. Many students chose to re-create a piece of Renaissance art, along with a short written piece about the painter of the piece and its significance. Below are some samples of the art created. For this assignment I only allowed students to work in pairs. Smaller groups enabled faster decision making and less off-task behaviour. While the students were working, I was impressed by the level of engagement displayed. For most assignments I would have a completion rate between 60% and 90%, but for this assignment, only one student failed to hand in the assignment, and all were received within 2 days of the due date.

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Figure 3 On the left is a picture of the original Creation of Man by Michelangelo. On the right is a student created replica, using computers to achieve the desired effect.

As they were working, students were very excited about re-creating the art and using technology to achieve the desired effects. Others drew or painted their replicas, using online tutorials to guide their efforts.

Figure 4 Student replicas of The Mona Lisa. There were also two students who requested if they could make a movie, and others who made PowerPoint presentations about important Renaissance art. One pair of students made a Lego replica of the Parthenon (pictured below), showing an example of the classical thought and influence that re-emerged through the philosophy of Humanism.

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Figure 5 Lego Model of the Parthenon, created for a Humanism project. The last assignment the students completed was the chapter 4 culminating activity. Students were to show how the era of the Renaissance resulted in changes or advancements in astronomy, art, science, math, politics, religion, and the spread of ideas (the printing press). As this chapter dealt with new technologies, I challenged the students to use a new technology for this assignment and gave them some suggestions. The full assignment sheet and rubric can be found in appendix D. Students again produced creative and unique results. One group created a bubbl.us mind map (Figure 6) and another created an interactive PowerPoint game based on the popular TV show Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader? At first, some students were not pleased with being required to use a new technology, and there were admittedly some issues with the technology during this project, as at times the school network was not working properly causing some moments of frustration for both teacher and students. In the end, most students created a final product using a new technology, and did very well.

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Figure 6 Mind map sheet made on the website bubbl.us, showing each of the categories required, important people, and an example of an advancement or change.

When surveyed about the assignments done in Social Studies 8, many students had positive things to say about the choices available in UDL assignments and the new approach to projects. Comments included, different from other projects Ive done, I like the way we are doing things differently than years before. It has been a good change with many more people doing new things (because they are more interesting), and an awesome way to do a project because you had so many choices. Even students who did not enjoy Social Studies expressed positive feedback, saying It [Social Studies] was sort of boring, but we had lots of different ways to choose from on how to do [assignments]. Overall, all students expressed positive feedback about the multiple means of action and expression embedded within the assignments. Cholach also reported a positive result through using UDL in 2009 with her students. Cholach conducted her research with five gifted students, using the same or substantially similar assignments as I did. Cholach (2011) summarized the use of UDL as follows: Consistent

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use of Universal Design for Learning strategies [] produced strong results. All five gifted students involved in this study were engaged in the curriculum and demonstrated an increase in learning of the clear targets through a variety of representational means. Moreover, they expressed their learning in creative ways that demonstrated the personal strengths and talents of each student(p. 5). This result is similar to what was observed in my grade 8 Social Studies classroom. The use of Universal Design for Learning was also extended to other parts of assessment, such as how the students could submit their assignments. For each assignment, students could hand in a paper hard copy, e-mail their assignment to me, or bring in their USB stick to transfer the file to me. I also began using an online service called DropBox, in conjunction with a partner web service called DropItToMe, which allowed students to simply go to the website www.dropitto.me/jwiens, enter the password, and proceed to upload their assignments into a digital drop box, which then synced with my computer. Thus, their assignment appeared in a folder on my computer, saving time and effort. Similar services are also offered through Moodle. This service allowed students to upload assignments straight from the computer they were working on and therefore cut down on time spent submitting assignments. As a result, student responsibility for their learning increased as there was no excuse for not handing in assignments. Updating more traditional means of summative assessment, such as chapter tests, is another example of incorporating technology into assessment. After doing a few tests the traditional way, I realized some of the limitations that is, readers were required, cheating occasionally occurred, and some students refused help outlined in their Individualize Program
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Plan (IPP) or were self-conscious about completing modified material. Completing the tests on the Moodle addressed many of these issues. Firstly, students could use programs on the computer to read to them thus the students could use headphones instead of requiring direct one-on-one assistance. Also, students with weak writing skills could use spell-checking software to assist them in writing. Secondly, by using the groupings function on Moodle, I was able to place my students in two groups one who would write the grade level test, and one who would write the modified test. Through this, students would only see one test on their screen, and because they are formatted in the same style, all computer screens will look the same, removing any potential stigma. Lastly, the Moodle tests address cheating. The teacher can create a bank of questions for each test, and then use a function which can shuffle the order of the questions themselves, the order of the choices in a multiple choice question, or both. All students will then be writing the same test, but most likely not the same question. If a student were to look at a neighbours computer screen for an answer, they would then have to search for and locate that question on their test screen, and also locate the same option. Students could also turn down the brightness on their computer screens, making it more difficult for a neighbour to see the screen. The possibility of cheating between students is still present; however, it is very much diminished. The main drawback of online testing is the possibly that a student will use internet search engines to find an answer. The teacher could then only use the Moodle for formative assessment, or they could change the layout of the testing room to make all screens facing
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them. While online testing is not foolproof, no method is. However, the drawbacks of using UDL in testing are far less than the positives for students. Research done by Salend (2009) supports the validity of online testing: Integrating the principles of UDL into technology based testing allows for the development and administration of testing materials that are accessible to students who have a wide range of ability levels and testing preferences by providing multiple ways to (a) create accessible testing materials that promote readability, speed, clarity, understanding, and motivation; (b) present test directions and items to the students; (c) allow students to respond to test items; and (d) minimize students test taking errors. (p. 41) There are some caveats to its use, however. Because testing conditions should parallel instructional conditions, the technology used by students during testing should be introduced to and used regularly by students in daily classroom instruction (Salend, 2009). This was not a problem in my classroom, as students frequently used the MacBooks and accessed Moodle for resources, both in the classroom, and for some homework assignments. After the first Moodle test was completed, I reminded the students of the Unit Final Exam that was occurring in the following week. I presented them with two options regarding the medium which they could write the test online or paper. I had anticipated that at least 5 or 6 of the 30 students would choose to write the test on paper; however, all of them elected to write the test on Moodle.

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When anonymously surveyed, 93% of the 29 students chose online testing when asked which they preferred. Their reasons ranged from the humorous (My brain works easier), to the eco-friendly (dont waste any paper), to the practical (I donthave to worry about a broken pencil). Many students stated that writing tests on the computer resulted in a more relaxed environment and were easier to do. As one student responded, I felt like I get it better on the computer. Students also enjoyed the instant feedback. While I had to manually mark the written response, students could instantly see their results from the majority of the test. Overall, I am very pleased with how Universal Design for Learning was implemented as part of assessment in Social Studies 8, and I will continue to use its principles in the future. The technology was fun and engaging for the students, particularly when they were introduced to something they had not seen before. I found that management issues were diminished, especially when I placed a cap on the maximum number of group members who could work on a project together. When the students were working on their projects some went to the hallway or different parts of the school, and I found that work was always being done when I went to check on their progress. I feel that students, through UDL, were successfully able to display their abilities and knowledge in ways that best suited their individual style and creativity. The use of Universal Design for Learning in assessment has many implications for policy and practice. Firstly, because UDL is so heavily integrated with the use of technology, teachers wishing to implement UDL must have ample technological resources at their disposal. The school at which I completed my practicum met this criteria. The school had a PC computer lab,

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a Mac computer lab, a classroom set of iPods, and five mobile MacBook laptop carts. Carts were usually readily available, and there was an efficient online system used for bookings. Also required for UDL is reliable internet access. At times in my school, the network was either unbearably slow, causing the students to get frustrated or lose focus, or it was not working at all. Secondly, teachers using UDL must be comfortable with the technology they are using. Many times students ran into (or created) problems with the hardware and software. Usually these issues are quick fixes that could be easily remedied by my computer knowledge. However, if one is not comfortable with computers, these issues could prove to be a great source of consternation, as well as a use of valuable class time. The students themselves were also well versed with the technology so not a lot of instructional time was spent teaching the students how to use it. Students would often know how to use the programs t, or were able to use their skills to intuitively discover how to use it, with minimal guidance from the teacher. Another potential issue when using UDL in the classroom is that some assignments can be time intensive. Technology offers students many options and tools; however, the possibility exists that they could get lost in the details or attempt to do too much. Students needed to be adequately supported with goal setting strategies and time management. Other issues that presented themselves during my time implementing UDL are ones that are more general, and fall under classroom management. This included ensuring students working in groups stayed focussed and chasing after students to hand in assignments. Surprisingly, inappropriate use of technology was not a significant issue, especially as the year
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went on. Students were also eager to use the computers, citing that they found it easier to do their assignments using this medium; a violation of proper use of the computers resulted in the technology being removed, and they would be required to complete their assignment using a pen and paper and books from the library. This clear consequence ensured that students stayed on task. The use of Universal Design for Learning, while presenting some challenges, both those known to teachers, and new ones, is a useful tool for assessment in Social Studies 8. With its roots in Vygotsky and traditional education theory, Universal Design for Learning has evolved to meet the needs and abilities of every 21st Century learner that comes into the door of my classroom. Regardless of the exceptionalities and other unique challenges or traits students bring to the table, UDL has the ability to meet them at their level to help them achieve curricular goals in the way that best suits them. With the use of technology, barriers are broken down, allowing the students the best opportunity for success. While more traditional means of assessment also have value, UDL has the ability to engage learners and add variety to assessment, and can greatly improve the assessment in a Social Studies 8 classroom, without placing undue or extraneous burdens on the classroom teacher.

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APPENDIX A Chapter One Assignment Sheet and Rubric

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APPENDIX B Writing Sample

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APPENDIX C Chapter 3 Assignment Sheet and Rubric

Chapter 3 Creative Activity

Choose ONE of the following activities to complete: (may be done in pairs)
A) Choose and artist, sculptor, architect, musician, or writer of the Renaissance o Research his/her life and work o Determine how this person illustrated the Renaissance worldview (humanism) through their work o Determine how the Renaissance worldview affected Western (our) worldview o Conduct a first person interview with that artist you will submit your typed script and bibliography. B) Build or paint a replica of a Renaissance painting, sculpture, or piece of architecture o Provide a written explanation of why you chose the piece of art you did (why its an important piece of art/architecture), who the original artist was, how the worldview of the Renaissance (humanism) is reflected in that piece, and how the Renaissance worldview affected Western (our) worldview. Include a bibliography. o Your piece may be a miniature of the real work. C) Design a comic book that illustrates the importance of the arts (music, painting, sculpting, architecture, or literature) in the Renaissance, and how the Renaissance has affected the Western (our) worldview. o Your comic must include how art in the Renaissance reflected the society of that time (humanism) o Remember, comic books include a plot (a series of events that introduce and resolve a conflict) and yours should too. o Your comic book may be a fictional account, or a true series of events involving a real artist from the Renaissance. D) Create a photo essay of ten works of art by various Renaissance Artists. o Describe each work of art/document can be paintings, frescos, sculptures, pictures of architectural works, works of literature, or music o Include the title of the work and a bibliography o Write a brief biography of the artist who created it o Include a rationale for including that piece of art (what makes it important), how the worldview of the Renaissance (humanism) is reflected in it. E) Write a proposal for a project of your choice to demonstrate your understanding or the importance of the arts in the Renaissance worldview (humanism), and how the Renaissance has affect the Western (our) Worldview. o Subject to teacher approval You will have 3 classes to work on this project. It will be due on Wednesday, Nov 16.

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APPENDIX D Chapter 4 Assignment and Rubric

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REFERENCES CAST. (2011). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines Cersion 2.0. Wakefield, MA. Retrieved November 15, 2011, from http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/udlguidelines.

Cholach, J. (2011). Universal Design for Learning and Gifted Students in the 21stCentury Classroom. University of Lethbridge Faculty of Education AISI Journal, 1(1). Retrieved November 3, 2011, from http://www.uleth.ca/education/sites/education/files/ AISI%20V1%201%206%20Fall%202011.pdf.

DeCoste, D. (2004). A handbook on universal design for learning and accessible technology: Proactive and accommodative instructional strategies for todays teachers. Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, MD 20850.

Pisha, B., & Coyne, P. (2001). Smart from the Start: The Promise of Universal Design for Learning. Remedial and Special Education, 22(4), 197-203. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Rose, D.H., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal design for learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Salend, S. (2009). Using Technology to Create and Administer Accessible Tests. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 41(3), 40-51.

The History and Philosophy of UDL - The ACCESS Project - Colorado State University. (n.d.). The ACCESS Project - Colorado State University. Retrieved November 3, 2011, from http://accessproject.colostate.edu/udl/documents/philosophy.cfm.

Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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