16th Century Counted Blackwork

Introduction
What is it? Fashionable from the reign of Henry VIII through the early 17th century, blackwork is the monochrome embroidery of black silk on white linen, likely originating in Moorish textile patterns of the mid- to late-15th century. Its popularity during the era is originally attributed to Henrys wife Katherine of Aragon, who was said to have encouraged its use among the English middle and upper classes1. Because of the association with Katherine of Aragon, blackwork is also sometimes called Spanishe Worke. During the 16th and early 17th century, blackwork was used to decorate items as widely varied as the visible portions of both mens and womens undergarments (e.g., shirts, smocks, coifs, caps, & partlets), household textiles (e.g., pillows, wall-hangings, & sheets), and ladies exterior garments or portions of exterior garments (e.g., sleeves, stomachers, & jackets). This type of embroidery was often completed by domestic embroiderers (either the lady of a household or a servant employed for the task), who created their own patterns or used designs printed in model books of the era.

Fig. 1. Hans Holbein. Portrait of Mrs. Pemberton, 1535

Extant garments and portraiture reveal two distinct styles of blackwork in usage during the 16th century: free-form blackwork and counted blackwork.

Please note, however, that despite being strongly associated with Tudor and Elizabethan England, blackwork embroidery was also quite fashionable in other European countries during this time, including France, Italy, Spain, and Germany, and is thus appropriate for 16th century personas of many different nationalities.
1

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Styles of Blackwork
Free-Form Blackwork
Fig. 2. Elizabeth With Fan. Elaborate free-form blackwork on sleeves

This style of blackwork is characterized by elaborate freeform designs involving spiraling outlines of stems, leaves, and flowers, which are sometimes diapered with geometric fillwork and created using a variety of different stitches (e.g., stem, chain, braid, couching). This type of blackwork was typically used to decorate larger household items, such as pillow covers, as well as elements of clothing such as large Elizabethan sleeves (particularly in the late 16th century), linen headcoverings (e.g., coifs), and smocks/chemises.

Counted Blackwork The second style of blackwork, often seen on the edges of masculine and feminine undergarments (e.g., cuffs, collars, chemises, ruffles and ruffs), is characterized by counted, repeatable, geometric designs which are often fully reversible (i.e., look the same on both front and back) and are created using a single or double running stitch (i.e., a Holbein stitch).

Fig. 3. Hans Holbein. Jane Seymour, 1537.

Fig. 4. A closer look at the Seymour cuffs.

The remainder of this handout will be devoted to a discussion of counted blackwork.

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Counted Blackwork: Materials and Techniques

Materials 16th century blackwork was typically done using black silk thread on white linen. However, other colors of silk thread were sometimes used, including blue and red (scarlet work). Linen - Linen undergarments worn by the upper class during this time period were lightweight, nearly transparent, and finely woven, often containing more than 100 threads to the inch. It is quite difficult to obtain modern linen woven with thread counts this high; an acceptable substitute is handkerchief weight linen, which typically has a thread count above 60. Many fabric stores do not sell linen of the quality required for blackwork, especially during the winter months. Below are some online sources for good linen fabric: http://www.barjaveldesign.com/ http://www.fabrics-store.com/ http://www.fabric.com/ Silk Thread An excellent modern equivalent for silk thread is YLI silk embroidery floss. This floss comes in a six strand skein in a variety of colors (1 strand is sufficient for 60+ count linen), is relatively inexpensive, and is quite color-fast and sturdy. This floss can also be difficult to obtain in-store, and generally must be ordered online: www.amazon.com http://www.elegantstitches.com/SilkFloss.htm http://www.shiboridragonknits.com/YLI-Floss.htm http://www.sews.com/notions/threads/yli/yli%20silk%20floss/silkfloss.html If you are unable to obtain silk floss, DMC embroidery floss can also be an acceptable modern substitute (again, you will generally only need to use one strand). Other Materials An embroidery hoop can be very useful for holding your linen taut as you work. This will help ensure that your stitching is completed with a uniform tension across the piece, and result in a smooth, even product. Another option for working long strips of material like those that will eventually form collars or cuffs are rectangular scroll needlework frames that use rollers to achieve tension. You will also need a sharp, fine embroidery needle. Smaller needles will mar your fabric less.

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Technique

Double-Running Stitch

To create a fully reversible counted blackwork pattern on linen, the embroiderer must use a technique called a double-running stitch. This stitch is also sometimes called a Holbein Stitch2. Although this technique can seem a bit complicated at first, once mastered it is faster and creates a more attractive finished product than, for example, a traditional backstitch. In general, it will only be necessary to use one strand of silk floss to create the pattern. Using more than one strand will make it difficult to achieve the delicate, lacy look of period blackwork. Basic Double-Running Stitch Your pattern is a basic straight line. Work the stitch in two journeys. On the first journey, work every other stitch.

Turn

1 Start

10

Fig. 5

On the return journey, fill in the stitches you skipped, and end where you began.

Bring needle up here Turn

19 End

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

Fig. 6

Hans Holbein, court painter to Henry VIII, painted a number of Tudor-era portraits which show what appears to be repeatable, counted blackwork on the cuffs, collars, and sleeves of mens and womens linen shirts and smocks.

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Complex Patterns & Double-Running Stitch When working more complex blackwork patterns, it is important to first start by analyzing your pattern to determine the path you will follow as you are stitching your design. In general, most patterns will contain one main element and a number of different side elements along the way. Each side element should be worked as a discrete journey of its own, completing the element before returning to the main journey. For example, the pattern below contains one main element (the straight line) and one side element (the diamond).Working one of the side elements in this pattern should happen as follows:

Pattern

Work diamond this direction 8

7 5

Needle comes back up here to complete stitch 6 and the rest of the diamond

3 9 1 Start 2

10

11

12

Fig. 7

After completing the diamond, continue on with the main element (10-12)

Here is a somewhat more complicated pattern. How would you go about creating this element reversibly, using a double-running (Holbein) stitch?

Fig.8

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Technique y

Other Notes Thread tails and securing thread As with most modern needlework, you should never knot your thread behind your piece. Not only will this mar your reversibility, it will create unsightly lumps and bumps underneath the finished product. Instead, when you thread the needle through your piece to begin your first stitch, leave a tail of 2-3 inches at the back of the fabric, and secure it with your fingers until you make enough stitches that the thread is in no danger of pulling out. Also make sure to leave a tail of 2-3 inches at the end when you finish a thread. After you finish a thread, go back, and thread each tail through your needle. Discreetly weave the tail through a row of stitches several times, then clip the tail as close to the fabric as possible. This will preserve the reversibility and neatness of your pattern. Fabric choices - Although it can be a good idea to practice a complicated pattern on Aida or other low-thread count modern embroidery fabrics before trying it on your expensive fine linen, it is not appropriate to use Aida or similar fabrics as part of garments which are intended to be historically accurate. Fabrics used as ground for 16th century blackwork (i.e., linens) were much finer and more delicate than any modern needleworking fabric. Working with high thread count fabric It can be a good idea to look at a number of portraits containing blackwork before planning out your project, just to get a gestalt sense of the visual density which was considered aesthetically appropriate in period. This matters because when you are working on high thread count linen, you will typically be working one stitch (or unit) of blackwork over multiple threads of the fabric (unlike needlework on modern Aida, which is typically worked at a 1:1 stitch:thread ratio). The greater the ratio of blackwork unit to thread count, the less dense (and larger) your pattern will be. If you want your piece to have a very authentic look, it is important to pick a stitch:thread ratio which is appropriate for the particular pattern you are using. Heraldry and Pattern Design In the 16th century, blackwork was often used to display heraldic elements, particularly fruits and flowers, but also occasionally animals and geometric shapes (e.g., stars). It can be fun and creative to create new blackwork patterns which combine both 16th century and SCA heraldic elements (see for example the Escarbuncle pattern in the appendices of this document).

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Other Resources
A site with a wide variety of useful links related to blackwork embroidery: http://www.prettyimpressivestuff.com/blackwork.htm Blackwork Embroidery Archives (many patterns)- http://www.blackworkarchives.com/ Period Fill Patterns (could be used as borders) http://aeg.atlantia.sca.org/projects/howto/blackwork/index.htm A few charted designs from 16th century samplers: http://www.dragonbear.com/sample1.html A free-ware needlework program, great for use in creating your own charted blackwork designs: http://www.iktsoft.net/kgchart-en/kgchart/ Victoria & Albert Museum - http://www.vam.ac.uk/ Pictures of Blackworked Coifs (free-form Blackwork)http://www.elizabethancostume.net/headwear/coifpics.html Pictures, neat historical patterns for sale, commentary about 16th century blackwork: http://practicalblackwork.com/index.html Blackwork Gallery: an extensive collection of links to portraiture showing blackwork: http://www.larsdatter.com/blackwork.htm

Bibliography
Arnold, J. (1985). Patterns of Fashion : The cut and construction of clothes for men and women, c. 15601620. Hollywood, CA: Quite Specific Media Group, Ltd. Arnold, J. (2008). Patterns of Fashion 4: The cut and construction of linen shirts, smocks, neckwear, headwear and accessories for men and women, c. 1540-1660. Hollywood, CA: Quite Specific Media Group, Ltd. dAveroigne, I./Salazar, K. B. (1995). The new Carolingian modelbook: Counted embroidery patterns from before 1600. Albuquerque, NM: Outlaw Press. Digby, G. W. (1963). Elizabethan embroidery. London, UK: Russell Square. Geddes, E., & McNeill, M. (1976). Blackwork Embroidery. NY, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. Gostelow, M. (1976). Blackwork. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. Holbein portrait drawings. (1985). NY, NY: Dover Publications, Inc.

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Appendix A: Portraiture

Fig. 9. Holbein. Simon George of Quocote, 1535 Fig. 10. Bess of Hardwick., 1550

Fig. 11. Holbein. A Young Merchant, 1541. Fig. 12. Catherine Howard, 1541

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