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$

  
 

    

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5 of 229

4 (Hardware)
(Software)

2.1



(Computer Hardware)

( .. 2525)

3 (Input Data)
(Data Processing) (Output Result) 2.1

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(Processing)

(Input)

(Output)

(Memory)

2.2


5 (Central Processing Unit) (CPU)
(Input Unit) (Output Unit) (Main Memory)
(Secondary Memory)
(Case)

(Monitor)

(Keyboard)

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(Central Processing: CPU)

(Case)

(Control Unit)




(Microprocessor)

(Intel)

Intel-Compatible Processor
(AMD) (Cyrix)

workstation

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(port)
(Input Devices)


(Keyboard) (Mouse)
(Scanner) (Digital Camera)

(Keyboard)



101 105
(Alphanumeric key) (Numeric key)
(Function key) F1 F12
Esc,
PrintScreen

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1. A Z, a z, Shift, Ctr, Alt

2. 0 9 +, -, *, /
3. F1 F12
4. , , ,
5. Esc, PrintScreen, Scrool Lock, Pause

Window
key Window
Start
(gaming
keyboard)

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(Serial Port) PS/2
USB (Wireless keyboard)

(Mouse)

GUI


(mouse pointer)

(Click)

(Dragging)

2 3 PS/2,
USB

(Output Unit)

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(Text)

(Graphics)
(Audio)
(Video)

(Output Devices)

(Monitor)
(soft copy)
(Monochrome)

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
(flat panel
display) (LCD)

LCD

LCD

(resolution), (size),
(dot pitch)

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1600 x 1200
1600 1200

Aspect

SVGA
XGA
SXGA
WXGA

Super Video Graphics Array

Extended Graphics Array
Super XGA
Wide XGA

UXGA
WSXGA
WUXGA
WQXGA

Ultra XGA
Wide Super XGA
Wide Ultra XGA
Wide Quad XGA

800 x 600
1024 x 768
1280 x 1024
1280 x 800 or
1366 x 768
1600 x 1200
1680 x 1050
1920 x 1200
2560 x 1600

Ratio
4:3
4:3
5:4
16 : 10 or
16 : 9
4:3
16 : 10
16 : 10
16 : 10

WXGA
1280 x 1024
19 21
(dit pitch) pixel pitch
0.28 mm

(hard copy)

Dot-Matrix
(Laser Printer)
(Inkjet Printer)

(Speaker)

(Sound Card)

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(Main Memory)

(Integrated circuit) (RAM) (ROM)

(RAM) Random Access Memory)

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2.

(ROM) (Read Only Memory)

()

ROM BIOS

(Byte) (kilobyte)
(Megabyte) (Gigabyte) (Terabyte)

kB
MB
GB
TB

1,024
1,048,576
1,073,741,825
1,099,511,627,776

(Secondary Memory)

(Harddisk), CD, DVD,
(Flash Memory)

1.44 MB

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Kilobyte (kB)
Megabyte(MB)
Gigabyte (GB)
Terabyte(TB)
Petabyte(PB)
Exabyte(EB)
Zettabyte(ZB)
Yottabyte(YB)

1
1
1
1
1000
1
1000
1

2 1,024
220 1,048,576
230
240
250
260
270
280
10

2.3


(Personal Computer)

PCCompatible IBM Apple
PC Windows
Apple Macintosh Mac OS

PC Windows

Apple

Mac OS

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(Notebook Computer)

Mobile Computer
PC
PC

Notebook
(Handheld Computer)

(Stylus)
mail
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
Pocket PC

Hand-held Stylus

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Server
PC

(Mainframe Computer)

(Supercomputer)

PC

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(Embedded Computer)

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1
. 1.
..2.
..3.
. 4. BIOS

. 5.
. 6.
. 7.
. 8.
. 9.
. 10.
2
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
. Flash Memory
.
3.
. (chip)
.
.
.
4.
. MiniComputer
. MicroComputer
. Embedded Computer
. Microprocessor
5.
.
.
.
.
6. Apple
. Mac OS
. Windows
. DOS
.
7.
.
.
.
.

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8.

.
.
9.
.
.
10.
. mobile computer
. notebook computer
. desktop personal computer
.

28/04/2010

.
.
.
.

21 of 229

(Machine Language)

(mnemonic)

(Assembly Language)
(High-level Language)

(Low-level Language)

2.1

0 1
(Machine Language)



5
(Machine Language)
.. 1952


61H (61 )
AL x86/IA-32

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10110000 01100001
(Assembly Language)
.. 1952
(Assembly Language)
(Mnemonic code)

x86/IA-32 61H
AL
1011000 01100001

MOV

AL , 61H

(Assembler)
MOV AL , 61H

(High-level Language)
.. 1960
(Third-generation Language)

BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN C


C Test

#include <stdio.h>
main() {
printf( Test );
}

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(Very high-level Language)
4 (Fourth-generation Language)
4GLs
(Procedural Language)





SELECT First Name, Last Name
FROM Employees
WHERE City = Bangkok

COBOL

(Query Language)


SQL (Structured Query Language)
(Natural Language)
5 (Fifth generation Language)
5GLs

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(Knowledge base system)
SQL

SELECT First Name , Last Name
FROM Employees
WHERE City = BANGKON

TELL ME THE NAMES OF EMPLOYEES IN BANGKOK

(Source Program) (Source Code)

(Executable
Program)

(Assembler) 2.1

2.1


(Interpreter)

(Compiler)

2.2
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Interpreter

Compiler

2.2

2.2

(BASIC)

.. 1963 Dartmouth College

.. 1980 Basic Beginners Allpurpose
Symbolic Instruction Code

10 PRINT HELLO WIKIPEDIA!
20 GOTO 10

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(FORTRAN)

.. 1950 FORTRAN FORmular TRANslator

program HelloWorld
write (*,*) Hello, world!
end program HelloWorld

:

:

(COBOL)

.. 1960 Business Oriented Language
(Structure Program)

IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
Program-Id. Hello-World.
*
ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
*
DATA DIVISION.
*
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
Para1.
DISPLAY Hello, world..
*
Stop Run

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:

(OOP)
:

(PASCAL)

1970
Blaise Pascal
(Turbo Pascal)

Program HelloWorld(output);
Begin
Writeln(Hello, World!)
End.
:

(Bell Laboratory) .. 1970

(Unix)


#include stdio.h
int main(void)
{
printf(Hello, world\n);
return 0;
}

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:

:

(C++)

Class
(Object-oriented programming)

#include <iostream>
int main()
{
std::cout << Hello World! << std::endl;
return 0;
}
:

:

(VISUAL BASIC)

BASIC

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: GUI Windows

:

(JAVA)

.. 1990 Sun Microsystem

(Bytecode) Java Virtual
Machine

// Hello.java
public class Hello {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(Hello, world!);
}
}
:

:

JAVA JAVA


JAVA
JAVA

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COBOL

Microsoft Access
Access
Visual Basic JAVA Visual Basic
Access



PDA

2.3

1.
2.
3.
4.

(Problem Definition and Problem Analysis)

(Pseudocoding)
(Programming)
(Program Testing and Debugging)

5. (Program Documentation and Maintenance)

28/04/2010

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1.


2. (Input/Output Specification)

3. (Process Specification)

2.1 3

1.
1.1
1.2 0
2.
2.1
2.2 3
2.3
3.
3.1
3.2


2.3

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1
2
3

2.3

(Algorithm)


(Pseudo-code) (Flowchart)

(syntax)

(Bug)
(debug)

28/04/2010

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1. Syntax Error
Coding Error
2. Logic Error

1. User Document User guide
2. Program Document Technical Reference

(Maintainance)

1
1.
. .
.
.
2.
. Basic
.
.
.
3.
. Basic
.
.
.
4.
.
. Window
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.
.
5.
.
.
. .
6.
. .OBJ
. .BAS
. .C
. .CPP
7.
.
.
.
.
8.
.
.
.
.
9.
.
.
.
.
10.

. bug
. syntax error
. logic error
. coding error
2

.1. 80486
.2.
.3.
.4. Windows
.5.
3
1.

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.
2.
.
.
3. (Assembler)
..
..
4.
..
...
5. (Source Code)
..
..
6.
..
..
7.
..
...
8.

28/04/2010

36 of 229

 3
 
 




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4'&O334( 4'&O3!4(#!6#/ $& (".4'&O3i)O
$76)

#3#

".4'&O334()3.$ 2% max_temp
4'&O3!4()3.$ 2% min_temp
#3+ 4 ".4'O3i)O ()$2 2% avg_temp
10
1. 
".4'&O344( 4'&O3.4(
2. &".i)()() avg_temp = (max_temp + min_temp)/2
3. (". avg_temp O
5#)/((
Find_average_temperature
1. READ max_temp , min_temp
2. avg_temp = (max_temp + min_temp) / 2
3. Output avg_temp to the screen
END
28/04/2010

44 of 229

3.3 $7
&
10 # 0 %$&/(0 1+3

 ()$2#3!#

 . G /(!&(/  ##10# )3.
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28/04/2010

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   " &
%



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51
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2. 5"!')(&( 2. )((%# 4" 6!&( &
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3)+$
  2. sum = 0
3. '#3!# (Input Data) &%# )# 5#$2 ')//.

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 13000 " 20000 /%) G I"."&.##/..
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9000

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28/04/2010

1
5

2
10

3
15

4
20

46 of 229

5
25

6
30

7
35

#3 '(.$21!&( $&" ..

". ##3 
#6  
#) $&!&(". 2. n =1  number = 5 
!&( 
#3#.# 1 &%# 2 %/(!&( 
#3  #
./"%0   +0 1+
4. $#) 
#3) !&(4(
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.#3&(&%) ()$21(

#34() &%$21 !&( !&


(Loop)
 %$&
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(
(
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1. %  #3!# $(&".//./((
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 (0 1+$ .
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'#) ()O 
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)
+


-
(

10 INPUT X
20 IF X < 0 THEN GOTO 60


".# F  + 6
/$  X " 1 ".
5#$  X ".(
$&!"!$
( 60 .5
/.$2.$&!"!$
( 30 ./
30 Y = X + 200
!".)3.$  X #'

200 6
$  Y
40 PRINT X , Y
(".)3.$  X   Y
50 GOTO 10
)
/!"!$
( 10 "% 
".# F  +
$&. 6
/$  X (".(53 ()".$&.)
60 PRINT pGOOD BYEq
5".
# F  + ".
6!"!$
( 60 
"% ("!. GOOD BYE
&
70 END
$&&)4(!
). O 
 "!$
( 20 $2!&
(
.#3#&(&%) ()
(
.5&#3 #".
&)".#3#"
 &(   ((/)
(
 60  %  +"!. pGOOD BYEq I
  !&
)../ & 
2%. LC  (

28/04/2010

47 of 229

)
+
10 INPUT X , LC
20 Y = X + 200
30 PRINT X , Y
40 IF LC = 1 THEN
GOTO 10
ELSE
GOTO 50
50 PRINT pGOOD BYEq
60 END


-
(

".##6
$  X  LC 5&".$ LC  1
(.#3)/.&(
!".$  X

200 6
/$  Y
(0 1+". X  Y O
5&".)3.$  LC  1 $&/!"!
 ( 10 .5
/.$2. $&/!"!
( 50 /

("!. pGOOD BYEq O


 

).% !$&$.".#". ()". ".#36

/$  X .
".#3(
6
$  LC ()5&".$  LC ". 1 &)".)/.$2.#3
4() % !5
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( 10  %
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6!+,89$7
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(
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#!/().53 

$ .#"# (!$ .##
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28/04/2010

48 of 229

(%
6 3.6 
#1$ ,-&#)+$). 3.4
$76)
). 3.4 0(
Add_three_number
1. Read number1 , number2 , number3
2. total = number1 + number2 + number3
3. Printf total
END


#1!/((
1. #(
 4#24( ()$&24( ". 10,20  30 #24(
". 40,41  42

8;!
8;!6+
number1
10
40
number2
20
41
number3
30
42
2. "("!
#0()

8;!
Total
60

8;!6+
123

3. # (! .#()$& (".# 

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  G
-
(8)
!,
number1
number2
number3
Total
24( 1
1
10
20
30
2
60
3
Print
24( 2
1
40
41
42
2
123
3
Print

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4. 
0 1+## 2 # 3 (60  123) ./(0 1+
&%/.()(3  Total
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6 3.7 5&  $&
#3#!6 F  +! 9  $&


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$76)
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8


#3# F  +
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28/04/2010

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!&
10 5&$# 6 ("!. p5 X ".3)+q / "!
6/(.(
%5&0.# 4  5 /(6 (.#".3)+)3.  !&

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num_p
num_n
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(8)
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num_p

num_n

num_z

1
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
2
3

13
13
13
7
7
7
-4
-4
-4
-4
0
0
0
0
0
-5
-5
-5
-5
2
2
2
6
6

0
0
0
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
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2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

28/04/2010

51 of 229

-
(8)
!,

8 (X)

num_p

num_n

num_z

4
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
2
7

6
-2
-2
-2
-2
35
35
35
-

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5

2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
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1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
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1

4. 
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#153(!#)   

#)#6
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q (Bug) !&
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Code) /.
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28/04/2010

52 of 229


  %&#0( ((. !# (
1. 
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28/04/2010

53 of 229

(3 ).)

 &

..

..

..
CALL
SUBPRO_A

SUBPRO_A

RETU
RN

3 &)(3 ).)

3&6. & &%(3&)(3 ).) %!(3
 ).)
  
! &./ )(3 ).) 5
)$2/(&) G " !&
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)(3
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. ).)
 

(3 ).)

 &

(3 ).)

sun_B

..

..

..
CALL
SUBPRO_A

SUBPRO_A

CALL
sub_B

3 (3 ).)5)(3 ).)%

28/04/2010

54 of 229

8( $; (Object-Oriented Programming)
#)  $&.!. G 54 &%6 ()
.
6"%/ $2!/ % $2 65!6$2/( 
#(/(
)/( $#) !6. G  %!&
)$2$O)&

28/04/2010

55 of 229

,,^_ -!6
(,6
6 1 %"!
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28/04/2010

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6. (
"53##
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28/04/2010

57 of 229

6 3 
"!5./
1. 
"&)#"&+,-&
...................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
2. 
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##3 4 + 4

...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
3. 5& "!'"#)"()/(!/ 20% O  7%
"&+,-& #)10# G
..............................................................................................................................................
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4. "&+,-&#"!')".#4'&O3&.)II)(Celsius)
&.){/+(Fahrenheit) ()5"!'/(3
F = (C x 9)/5 + 32
() F "%4'&O3$&.){/+
C "%4'&O3$&.)I2)
(
!##1

28/04/2010

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(Algorithm)

(Flowchart) 4
(Psudocodes)

5.1

(Algorithm)





(pseudo
code)



(Reserve Word)

Algorithm < >

1. .
2. .

END
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Algorithm
1. = 0
2. = 0
3. ()
4. 0

= +
3
5
5. =
6.
7.

Algorithm Avarage_Sum
1. count = 0
2. sum = 0
3. INPUT (value)
4. IF value > 0 THEN
count = count +1
sum = sum + value
GOTO 3
ELSE GOTO 5
5. avarage = sum / count
6. OUTPUT (avarage)
7. END
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1. X
2. Y
3. ARRAY = (X * Y)/2
4.

START

END

1.
2.
3.
4.

READ X
READ Y
Compute ARRAY = (X * Y)/2
Print ARRAY

5.2

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X = 4
4 X
X=Y+Z
Y Z
X
X = X+1
X 1

2 + 3 x 4 14 2 x 3 + 4
10

+
*
/
** ^

3
3
2
2
1

(Boolean)

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=
<
>
<=
>=
<>

5.1 1
A > 0 ( )
1
( )
2

A>0

A <> 0 ( )
2
( )
1

A <> 0

2
(True) (False)

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1 A
2 B
2

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

(A) AND (B)

T
F
F
F

(A) OR (B)
T
T
T
F

NOT (A)
F
F
T
T

AND



OR


NOT
5.2 2 AND
(X > 10) AND (X <= 15) ( )

1
( )
2

1
2 X 10
15
5.3 2 OR
(X > 50) OR (X <= 60) ( )
1
( )
2

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X 50 60

5.3

READ GET INPUT

(,) PRINT WRITE

READ VAR1, VAR2,..

INPUT VAR1, VAR2,

1,2, VAR Variable

READ X,Y

; X Y

Read student_name
Get system_date
Read number_1, number_2

; student_name
; system_date
; number_1,number_2

PRINT VAR1, VAR2,.

WRITE VAR1, VAR2,.
1,2,

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WRITE DATA1
PRINT A, B

; DATA1
; A B

Compute Calculate

Compute
ARRAT = (X * Y)/2
ARRAT X Y
Compute
Profit = Price Cost

INIT SET

INIT A, B : INTEGER
; A B
INIT Y
:REAL
; Y
SET A = 8
; A 8
5.4 7%
ComputeTotal
init total, price, vat : real
init vat = 0.07
read price
compute total = price + (price x 0.07)
print price, total
end

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\** total, price, vat

\** vat 0.07
\**
\** vat
\**
\**

5.4

IF IF-THEN-ELSE ENDIF
(Statement)

IF
THEN
;
1
;
ELSE
2
;
ENDIF
;

5.5 number 0
0

IF number > 0 THEN

PRINT POSITIVE NUMBER
ELSE
PRINT NEGATIVE NUMBER
ENDIF
number 0 POSITIVE
NUMBER NEGATIVE NUMBER
CASE , OF ENDCASE
CASE

CASE num OF
1 : PRINT 11111
2 : PRINT 22222
3 : PRINT 33333
ENDCASE
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10

num 1 11111 num 2

22222

5.5

1.
FOR , DO ENDFOR IN STEPS OF
IN STEPS OF

FOR
Statement
ENDFOR
2. REPEAT UNTIL
REPEAT
Statement_1
.
UNTIL (Condition)
3. WHILE - ENDWHILE

WHILE (Condition)
Statement_1
.
ENDWHILE
5.6 1 10 repeat-until
Print number 1 to 10
init num : integer
/** num
init num = 1
/** num 1
repeat
/** ( num = 10)
print num
/** num 1 - 10
increase num (num+1) /** num 1
until num > 10
/** num 10

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11

5.7 1 10 while
Print number 1 to 10
init num : integer
/** num
init num = 1
/** num 1
while (num <= 10)
/** num 10
print num
/** num 1 10
increase num (num + 1) /** num 1
endwhile
/**
5.8 1 + 2 + 3 + .+100
while 1
100

Sum_number_1_100
init i, sum : integer
/** i sum
init i = 0
/** i 0
init sum = 0
while (i <= 100)
/** i 100
compute sum = sum + i
/** i sum sum
compute i = i + 1
/** i
endwhile
print sum
/** sum

5.9 1 10 for
Number 1-10
init num : integer
/** num
for num = 1 to 10 do
/** num = 1 10
print num
/** num 1 - 10
endfor
/**

5.6

CALL

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12

CALL
LABEL
GOTO
START :

AB1:

Statement_1
..
.

GOTO AB1

END

1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
.
.
3.
. READ
. FOR
. MEM
. CALL
4.

NUMBER

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13

INIT NUM : INTEGER

INIT NUM = 1
WHILE (NUM <= 100)
PRINT NUM
INCRAESE NUM
ENDWHILE

. 1 100
. 1 100
. 100
.
5. 5 INCRAESE NUM
. NUM
. NUM
. NUM NUM
.

2
1.

.
.
2.

.
.
..
.
3.

.
.
4. 10

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C++ C#

6.1

.c




(Integrated Development
Environment : IDE) DEV C++

C++

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DEV C++
1.


2. Editor Screen

File
New Source File Editor Screen
Untitled1
2. Source File
3.

1. File -> New

Editor Screen

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6.2

(C/C++)
5
1. (Preprocessor directives)
2. (Global declarations)
3. (The main() function)
4. (Uses-defined function)
5. (Program comments)

(Preprocessor directives)


(directive) #
(Header Part) Directive

#include
#include
#include stdio.h
#include Pro1.c

stdio.h
Pro1.c

#include <>

include main()

#define

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#define NAME VALUE

#define END 20
END 20
#define A 5*6+3
A 5*6+3

74 of 229

(Global declarations)

(main() function)

(Semi colon ;)
main() { }
main()

(Uses defined functions)

{ }

#include stdio.h
main()
{
function();
/* */
}
function()
/* function
{
return ;
/*
}

(Program comments)


/* */ //

C

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#include stdio.h
main()
{

}

1.


2. (Statement)
{ }
main

printf()

#include stdio.h
main()
{
printf(COMPUTER);
}

COMPUTER
printf() (string)
stdio
( standard input output) stdio.h
#include (directive) stdio.h (header file)
(comments)
/* */
/* PROGRAM BY TEERAWAT PRAKOBPHON */

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Dev-C++
1. File -> New ->Source File
2.

3. (Save) File -> Save

pro1 Save
2.

3.

1. File -> Save

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4. Save

4. pro1.cpp ( C++
cpp)

5. Execute ->Compile & Run

*/

1.

2.
1

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getch() conio.h
conio.h

6. printf
COMPUTER getch()

include

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6.3



stdio.h
#include

printf()
printf()
print format

printf()
printf( ,)
printf(control string,variable list,..);

variable list control string

6.1
/* PROGRAM BY TEERAWAT PRAKOBPHON */
#include stdio.h
main()
{
printf(COMPUTER\n);
\n
printf(\n\nCOMPUTER);
\n
printf(%d\n,20);
}
RUN
n (\n)
\n COMPUTER
(backslash)

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tab 8
hh

Backslash

\n
\t
\xhh
\a
\\

6.1 printf() 3 %d
(format code) % format specification

%d
%u
%f
%e
%c
%s
%%
%o
%x

(Char)
(string)
%

printf
printf(%s %d %f %c \n,Sam,14,-8.76,X);

variable list
variable list control
string
Sam 14 -8.760000 X
8.76
printf %
f

printf(%f %.3f %.2f %.1f,4.5678,4.5678,4.5678,4.5678);

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4.567800 4.568 4.57 4.6

scanf()
printf() ASCII
controlstring

scanf(control string,&variable list,..);

scanf(,&);

&
control string
int num;
/* num */

scanf(%d,&num);
Enter
num control string %d control string
printf()

int i,j;
/* i j */

scanf(%o %x,&i,&j);
printf(%o %x,i,j);
2
%o

char str[80];
printf(Enter a string : );
scanf(%s,str);
/* & */
printf(Here s your string: %s,str);

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str 80
str

RAM






ASCII Unicode


#include stdio.h
int
feet ,inches;
main()
{
feet = 6;
inches = feet * 12;
printf(Height in inches is %d ,inches)
}

Height in inches is 72

int feet inches
Integer () main()
feet 6
feet 12 inches printf
printf
(Comma)
%d

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63 63
1 ,
(,)

Data Type

, ..;
Variable Name, . ;

int

feet , inches;

Integer
-32767 +32767 ( )

A Z 0 9



(Reserved Word)
=

variable = expression;
expression
assignment (=)
(+) (-)
* div /

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int x;
x = 5;

/* x */
/* 5 x */

int x, y;
y = 3;
x = y + 5;

/* x y */
/* y 3 */
/* y 5 x */

printf
%

x = 7;
printf(%d,x);
printf(%d,x + 9);

7
16

yards = 8;
feet = yards * 3;
printf(%d yards is , yeads);
printf(%d feet , feet);

yards = 8;
feet = yards * 3;
printf(%d yards is \n,yeads);
printf(%d feet \n, feet);

8 yards is24 feet

8 yards is
24 feet

printf(Yes \n);
printf(No \n);

printf(Yes \n);
printf(\n);
printf(No \n);

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printf(Yes);
printf(No);

Yes
No

Yes

YesNo

No

#include stdio.h
int
nickels,dimes,TotCenter;
main()
{
nickels = 3;
dimes = 7;
TotCenter = (nickels * 5) + (dimes * 10);
printf(%d nickels and %d dimes \n,nickels,dimes);
printf(= %d cents \n,TotCenter);
}

3 nickels and 7 dimes

= 85 cents

4
- (simple type)
- (string type)
- (structure type)
- (pointer type)

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(ordinal type) (Real
Data Type)

(Integer Data Type)

8 1
0 255

char
unsigned char
signed char
int
unsigned int

-128 127
0 255
-128 .. 127
-2,147,483,648 .. 2,147,483,647
0 .. 4,294,967,296

1
1
1
4
4

int Turbo-C 2 -32768
+32767 DEV-C 4

127
char

(Character Data Type)

ASCII

ASCII
A,B,C
\n

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\t
\a

1 tab
Beep

(Boolean Data Type)

(True) (False)

1 1 0

(Real Data Type)

float
double
long double

3.4 x 10-38 3.4 x 1038

1.7 x 10-308.. 1.7 x 10+308

3.4 x 10-4032 .. 1.1 x 104032

8
10

(string type)


255
NULL (\0) COMPUTER 9

O M P

U T

\0

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nickels
3

Dimes
7

TotCentr
85

#include stdio.h
int
x;
main()
{
x = 6;
x = 8;
printf(X is %d,x);
}

x
6
8

x 6 8 x
x 8 printf 8

(=)
num1 =
5;

num2 =
14;
14
num1 =
num2;
printf(%d,num1);
14
printf(%d,num2);
num1 5 num2 14
num1 num2 num1
14


.
count = count +1 { count }
.
sum = sum + x { sum x x }
.
num = 3 * num { num 3 }

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6.4


int y;
/* y */
y = 5 * 3 + 2*2;
/* y */
printf(Output = %d ,y);
Output = 19

5 3 2 2
y

+
*
/
%
++
--

(Addition)
(Subtraction)
(Multiplication)
(Division)
(Modulus)
(Increment)
(Decrement)

6.2
#include stdio.h
#include conio.h
main()
{
int x,y;
x = 3;
y = 2;
printf(x + y = %d\n,x+y);
printf(x * y = %d\n,x*y);
printf(%d + %d = %d\n,x,y,x+y);
printf(5 + 3 = %d\n,5 + 3);
getch();
}

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y = x + 5;
y = x 2;
y = x * 3;
y = x / 2;
y = 5 % 3;
y++;
y--;

x y
x 3 y 2 printf()
%d printf()
DEV-C

1
2
3
4
5

()

++ , -
*, / , %

+,
=

y = 7+8*2
8 2 16 7 y 23

y = 5%2 + 14/3 6

1. 5 % 2 = 1
2. 14/3 = 4.66
3. 1 + 4.66 = 5.66

4. 5.66 6 = -0.33
y -0.33
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6.5




1. (Single Selection)
2. (Double Selection)

.
.



2 (true) (false)

( )
1 2

(Relation Operators)

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==
!=
<=
>=
>
<

(Equal)
(Not Equal)
(Less Than or Equal)
(Greater Than or Equal)
(Greater Than)
(Less Than)

6 == 3
6 != 3
6 <= 3
6 >= 3
6>3
6<3

(Logical Operator)

&&
||
!

(AND)
(OR)
(NOT)

(5 == 4 + 1) && (18 <= 6 * 4)

if

if()
{

}

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if (x >= 10) printf(A\n);
printf(B);
x

x = 12
A
B

x=8

x = 15
A
B

sc 80
100 A if

if((sc > 80) && (sc <= 100))

printf(A);
if-else if
else

if()
{
1;
}
else
{
2;
}
25
25
x

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1. x
2. x 25
2.1
3.

X > 25

X<0

X>0

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4 3


1.
2. X
3. X > 0
3.1

3.2 X < 0
3.2.1

3.2.1
4.

1
1. (7%2) + (8%5) % 10
. 3
. 4
. 5
. 6
2.
. >
. =
. >=
. !=
3. if
. m = 4.5
. x = = 8
. A > B
. C > D
4. x 20 30
. if((x >= 20) && (x <= 30))
. if((x >= 20) || (x <= 30))
. if(20 < x < 30)
. if((x <= 10) && (x >=20))
5.
.
.
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.
.
6. if else
.
.
.
.
7.
. do..while
. do..while for
. for
. for while

2
1.

2. if

3. +, -, *
%

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7

(Sequential Connection)

8.1

1. (Single Selection)
2. (Double Selection)

if()

else

if()
{
}

8.1


2 (true) (false)

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( )
1 2

3
,

8.1

Y
X > 10

READ A, B

X=X+5

X=A*B

WRITE X

8.1

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1. X > 10
1.1 A B
1.2 X A B

1.3 X X 5
1.4 X
2.

8.2

IF IF-THEN-ELSE ENDIF
IF THEN
ELST ENDIF
8.1

1. X > 10
1.1 A B
1.2 X A B

1.3 X X 5
1.4 X
2.

IF X > 10 THEN
READ A, B
X=A*B
ELSE
X = X + 5;
WRITE X
ENDIF

8.1

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IF X > 10 THEN
READ A, B
X=A*B
ELSE
X = X + 5;
WRITE X
ENDIF

#include stdio.h
#include conio.h
main()
{
int A, B, X;
printf(X = );
scanf(%d, &X);
if (X > 10)
{
scanf(%d,&A);
scanf*%d,&B);
X = A+B;
}
else
{
X = X+5;
printf(%d,X);
}
getch();
}

X 5
X 5 X X 10
X 12 IF
A B

8.1

0
-1

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8.2

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int x;
printf(INPUT X : );
scanf(%d,&x);
if (x < 0)
x = x * -1;
printf(%d,x);
getch();
}

X<0

X = X * (-1)

8.2
8.2

A B

A B
A > B
A

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8.3

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int A, B;
printf(INPUT A : );
scanf(%d,&A);
printf(INPUT B : );
scanf(%d,&B);
if (A > B)
printf( %d is larger, A);
else
printf(%d is larger , B);
getch();
}
8.3
8.3

80
A
70
B
60
C
50
D
50 F

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8.4

X >= 80

X >= 60

X >= 50

X >= 70

Grade = A

Grade = B

Grade = C

Grade = D
Grade = F

Grade

8.4


80
A
70 80
B
C
60 70
50 60
D
50
F
8.5

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#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int x;
char Grade;
printf(Input Score );
scanf(%d,&x);
if (x >= 80)
Grade = 'A';
if ((x >= 70)&&(X < 80))
Grade = 'B';
if ((x >= 60)&&(x < 70))
Grade = 'C';
if ((x >= 50)&&(X < 60))
Grade = 'D';
if (X < 50)
Grade = 'F';
printf(Grade = %c,Grade);
getch();
}

X >= 70
X<80

Grade = B

X >= 60
X<70

Grade = C

X >= 50
X<60

Grade = F

Grade

8.5

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Grade = A

X >= 80

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Grade = D

8.3

IF

IF <Condition> THEN
< >
T
ELSE
< >
F
ENDIF

8.6
8.6 IF
ELSE

IF
8.2

40 1.5

(PayType), (Hours)

1.
2. 40
3. 40
= 40 + 1.5
4. 40
5.

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10

IF Hours > 40 THEN

Pay = Rate * (40 +1.5 *(Hours - 40))
ELSE
Pay = Rate * Hours

T
F

T
IF
Hours > 40

Pay = Rate *
(40 + 1.5 *
(Hours 40))

Pay =
Rate * Hours

8.7

IF
T

PayType = Hourly THEN

IF
Hours > 40 THEN
Pay = Rate * (40 + 1.5 * (Hours 40))
ELSE
Pay = Rate * Hours
ENDIF

ELSE
F

Pay = Salary
ENDIF

IF..THEN..ELSE
IF
8.8

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11

8.8

9.6
8.3

Age < 16
Age >= 16 Age <65
Age >= 65

Charge (%)
7
10
5

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12
A

IF
Age < 16

Charge = 7

IF Age < 16 THEN

Charge = 7
ENDIF
IF Age >= 16 AND Age < 65 THEN
Charge = 10
ENDIF
IF Age >= 65 THEN
Charge = 5
ENDIF

IF
Age >= 16
AND
Age < 65

Charge = 10

T
IF
Age >= 65
Charge = 5

8.9

IF
T

Age < 16 THEN

Charge = 7

ELSE
T
F
F

IF Age < 65 THEN

Charge = 10
ELSE
Charge = 5
ENDIF

ENDIF

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13

IF
8.10

8.10
8.3 65
3 3
2
8.3

1000

30
30

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600
400
200
800

60
40
20
80

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14

30 1000

1000

Sex = F

400

age > 30

1400

1000

age > 30

200

sex = F

1200

X Y
X Y

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15

IF-THEN-ELSE-ENDIF
X 14 Y 20

Y X
X Y

14
20
20

20
20
20

20

X Y
Y X

14
14
14

20
14
14

TEMP

X TEMP
Y X
TEMP Y

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TEMP

14
14
20
20

20
20
20
14

14
14
14

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16

X
swap
IF X < Y THEN
MOVE X TO TEMP
MOVE Y TO X
MOVE TEMP TO Y
ENDIF

8.4

(char_1, char_2, char_3)

swap (temp)

temp char_1
char_1 = char_2
char_2 = temp

1.
READ char_1, char_2, char_3
2.
IF char_1 > char_2 THEN
temp = char_1
char_1 = char_2
char_2 = temp
ENDIF
3.
IF char_2 > char_3 THEN
temp = char_2
char_2 = char_3
char_3 = temp
ENDIF

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17
4.

IF char_1 > char_2 THEN

temp = char_1
char_1 = char_2
char_2 = temp
ENDIF
5.
PRINT To The screen char_1, char_2, char_3

1.

char_1
char_2
char_3

K
B
G
2.

char_1
char_2
char_3

z
s
a

B
G
K

a
s
z

3.

1
2
3
4
5

1
2
3
4
5

char_1

char_2

char_3

k
b

B
K
G

z
s

S
Z
A
S

4. 3 2
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Temp

k
k

z
z

18

8.5 2

1. 5%
2. 2%

(Price), (choice),

1 5%
2

(Month) x (Price) x 2%

1.
2. (Price)
3. (Choice)
4. Choice = 1
4.1 = Price (Price *(5/100))

4.2 (Month)
4.3 = Price x Month x (2/100)
4.4 = (Price + ) / Month
5.
6.

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19

Price

Choice

Choice = 1

= Price (Price x (5/100) )

Month

= Price x (2/100) x Month

= (Price + )/Month

8.11 8.5

8.4
IF..THEN..ELSE
IF
CASE, OF ENDCASE 8.12

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20

NO case
CASE = ?
Case 1

Case3

Case 2

Case 4

8.12

(CASE) CASE CASE
CASE CASE

8.6

H
P
C
S

Commission

Rate
Sales Commission
Salary

CASE
1.

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CASE code
H
P

OF
:
:

Pay = Rate * Hours

Pay = Rate * Pieces

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21
C
S
ENDCASE
2. EXIT

:
:

Pay = Commission
Pay = Salary

code
8.13

code

CASE of
code
= H

Pay = Rate *
Hours

= P

Pay = Rate *
Pieces

= C

Pay = Commission
* Sales

= S

Pay = Salary

8.13


switch .. case
switch (variable)
{
case constant_1 :
case constant_2 :
case constant_3 :
.
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statement;
break;
statement;
break;
statement;
break;
.
118 of 229

22

case constant_n : statement;

break;
default : statement;
}
switch variable case
statement switch break
statement default
case case
case int char

NOTE
switch 4
1. switch if switch
if
2. switch
3. switch
4. default

switch (year)
{
case 1 :
case

2:

case

3:

case

4:

default :

printf(Fershman\n);
break;
printf(Sophomore\n);
break;
printf(Junior \n);
break;
printf(Senior\n);
break;
printf(Nonmatriculated\n);

}
year 1 Freshman
3 Junior 1,2,3,4 Nonmatriculated
switch selector
default

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23

switch
case
case

selector = const 1

selector = const 2

selector = const 3

selector = const n

default

8.14 switch..case

num case switch
switch(num)
{
case 4
: ; break;
/* */
case 2.5
: ; break;
/* */
/* */
case m
: ; break;
case 2
: ; break;
/* */
default
:
}

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24

8.5

8.4

0
-1

8.15

#include stdio.h
#include conio.h
main()
{
printf(INPUT X : );
scanf(%d,&x);
if (x < 0)
x = x * -1;
printf(%d\n,x);
getch();
}

X<0

X = X * (-1)

8.15

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25

8.5
A B

A B
A > B
A

B

8.16

#include stdio.h
#include conio.h
main()
{
int A, B;
printf(INPUT A : );
scanf(%d,&A);
printf(INPUT B : );
scanf(%d,&B);
if (A > B)
printf(A, is larger)
else
printf(B, is larger);
getch();
}

8.16

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26

8.6

80
A
70
B
60
C
50
D
50 F

8.17

X >= 80

X >= 60

X >= 50

X >= 70

Grade = A

Grade = B

Grade = C

Grade = D
Grade = F

Grade

8.17

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27

80
A
70 80
B
60 70
C
50 60
D
50
F
8.18

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int x;
char Grade;
printf(Input Score );
scanf(%d,&x);
if (x >= 80)
Grade = 'A';
if ((x >= 70)&&(X < 80))
Grade = 'B';
if ((x >= 60)&&(x < 70))
Grade = 'C';
if ((x >= 50)&&(X < 60))
Grade = 'D';
if (X < 50)
Grade = 'F';
printf(Grade = %c,Grade);
getch();
}

X >= 70
X<80

Grade = B

X >= 60
X<70

Grade = C

X >= 50
X<60

Grade = F

Grade

8.18
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Grade = A

X >= 80

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Grade = D

28

1
1.
.
.
.
.
2.
.
.
.
.
3. IF ELSE
.
.
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
5. IF

.
.
.
.
6.
. IF ,THEN,ELSE
. CASE
. IF,THEN
.

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29

7 10
START

READ A, B

N
A >= B

A=A+B

B=A*B

PRINT B

END

7.
.
.
.
.
8.
. B A B
. A A B
. B
.
9. A 3 B 2
.
. A 5
. 2
.

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30

10. 9
. 2
. 2
. 6
.

2
. 1.
. 2.
. 3.
. 4.
. 5.

3
1.

.
2.

X
Y
Y X
M X Y

M X Y
M

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31

3. 2 X 7 Y 3

4.


0 49 F
50 59 D
60 69 C
70 79 B
80 100 A

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9.1


3
A

1.
2.
3.

Instruction

Instruction

F
GoTo

9.1

IF
<Condition(s)>

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3 3

for

for (initialization; condition; increment or decrement)
{

}
initialization

condition

increment

decrement


int i;
/* I */
for ( i = 1; i <= 5; i++)
printf(%d ,i);
i 1 i 5
i I
1 2 3 4
5

do-while



do {

}while (condition)
condition

while

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while (condition)
{

}
condition

9.2


9.2

1 10
1.
2. X = 1
3. X 10
X
X
4.

9.2


10.2
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FOR, DO ENDFOR
FOR

ENDFOR
9.1 1
10
10

sum
I

sum = 0
I = 1
I 10
4.1 sum sum I I
4.2 I
5. sum
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.

9.3 9.1

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9.1 (Sum)
(I) sum
I I
10 10

9.1 0 100 10

(Max), (Min)
Max Mix
10
I 10
Max = 0 Min = 100
x
Max Min

x


1.
2. I = 1
3. Max = 0, Min = 100;
4. I 10
4.1 x
4.2 x Min
Min = x

4.3 x Max
Max = x
4.4 I
5. Max Min
6.

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I=0
Max = 0, Min = 100

I <= 10

X < Min

Min = X

X > Max

Max = X

Max,
Min

#include stdio.h
#include conio.h
main()
{
int I, X, Max, Min;
Max = 0;
Min = 100;
for(I = 1; I <= 10; I++)
{
printf(Input Num %d ,I);
scanf(%d,&X);
if (X < Min)
Min = X;
if (X > Max)
Max = X;
}
printf(Max = %d, Min = %d\n, Max, Min)
getch();
}

9.4 10

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10

9.3




REPEATUNTIL
DOUNTIL 9.5

REPEAT
.
.

UNTIL ()

9.5

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do..while

do
{

statement;
}while(condition);
do condition while

9.2

int counter = 1;
/* counter 1 */
do {
printf(%d ,counter);
}while(++counter <= 10); /* counter 10 */

1 counter
10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

9.3 100
100

int num;
/* num */
do{
printf(Input Number );
scanf(%d,&num); /* num */
printf(/n);
/* */
}while(num > 100);
/* num 100 */

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9.2
0

0
(sum)
0
(x) sum
x 0

0
1.
start
2. sum 0
3. X
4. X 0
sum = 0
4.1 sum = sum + X
4.2 X
5. sum
INPUT X
6.

START

sum = sum + x

INIT SUM = 0
READ X
do
SUM = SUM + X
READ X
while (X !=0)
PRINT X

INPUT X

NO
X=0

YES

END
9.6 9.2

Display sum

STOP
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10

#include stdio.h
#include conio.h
main()
{
int x, sum;
sum = 0;
printf(INPUT DATA );
scanf(%d,&x);
do {
sum = sum + x;
printf(INPUT DATA );
scanf(%d,&x);
}while(x != 0);
printf(Sum = %d\n,sum);
getch();
}

0

9.4
0

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11

Sum
Counter
(Sum) (Counter)
9.7
START

1.START
2.Sum = 0
3.Counter = 0
4.READ Age
5 DO
Sum = Sum + Age
Counter = Counter+1
READ Age
WHILE Age != 0
6.Average = Sum/Counter
7.Print Average
8. STOP

Sum = 0

Counter = 0

Enter
Age

Sum = Sum+Age

T
Counter =
Counter+1

Enter
Age

Until
Age = 0
T

Average =
Sum/Counter

Print
Average

END

9.7
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12

9.4



WHILEENDWHILE
9.8
x 1 10

1.
2. x 0
3. x < 10
x
x
4.

F
While
<Condition>
T

Instruction

Instruction

9.8

9.5
(fahrenheit) (Celsius) 15

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13
c_temp = (f_temp 32)*(5/9)

c_temp

f_temp

temp_count


1.
2. temp_count
3. temp_count 15
3.1 f_temp
3.2 c_temp c_temp = (f_temp - 32) * 5/9
3.3 c_temp
3.4 temp_count
4.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

START
INIT temp_count = 0
WHILE temp_count < 15
READ f_temp
c_temp = (f_temp 32) * 5/9
PRINT c_temp
temp_count = temp_count + 1
ENDWHILE
STOP

1. 32 50

f_temp

32

50

2.

c_temp

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14

3.

temp_count

1,2
3
4
5
6
7
3
4
5
6
7

WHILE

f_temp

c_temp

32
0

1

50
10

4. c_temp 3 2

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15

9.5

C=B

C=B

Instruction

IF
C <= E

Instruction

Instruction

C=C+S

Instruction

C=C+S

IF
C <= E
F

.
9.9

C , B , E S
.
. WHILE
REPEAT-UNTIL .

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16

Counter = Begin
REPEAT
Instruction
Instruction
Counter = Counter + S
UNTIL Counter > End

Counter = Begin

Instruction

Instruction

Counter = Counter + S

Counter > End

T

Counter = Begin
WHILE Counter <= End
Instruction
Instruction
ENDWHILE

Counter = Begin

T
Counter <=
End
F

Instruction

Instruction

Counter = Counter + S

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17

1.



WHILE

READ DATA
WHILE DATA !=
.
.
READ DATA
ENDWHILE

2.

WHILE FOR
9.5

9.6

200 asterisk (*)






200 *

= +
= *
=
> 200 *

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18

number1

number2

sum, product, average

WHILE

AND
IF *

1.
2. sum
3. Prompt
4. number1 number2
5. number1 number2
5.1 sum = number1 + number2
5.2 produce = number1 * number2
5.3 average = sum / 2
5.4 sum 200
5.4.1 sum, * ,product, average

5.4.2 sum, product, average

5.5 Prompt
5.6 number1 number2
6.

START
INIT sum = 0
Prompt for number1, number2
READ number1, number2
WHILE NOT(number1 = 0 AND number2 = 0)
sum = number1 + number2
product = number1*number2
average = sum/2
IF sum > 200 THEN
Display sum, *, product, average
ELSE
Display sum, product, average

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19

ENDIF
Prompt for number1, number2
READ number1, number2
ENDWHILE
STOP

9.7
S U S
, , , , (full-time :F/T)
(part-time : P/T) U

S Records
number

name

address

age

gender

attendance_pattern

U
Record

S



number, name address


S

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20

Print_student_records
Print STUDENT LIST heading
READ student record
WHILE more records exist
IF student record = S record THEN
Print student_number, name, address
ENDIF
READ student record
ENDWHILE
END
START

Print
heading

Read
student
record

More
Records?
T
T

F
Record = S?

STOP

Print
Student
details

Read
Student
record

9.10 9.7
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21

9.8 9.7
, ,
9.7



1 IF
Produce_part_time_female_list
Print PART TIME FEMALE STUDENTS heading
READ student record
WHILE more records
IF student record = S record THEN
IF attendance_pattern = P/T THEN
IF gender = female THEN
Print student_number, name,
address, age

ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
READ student record
ENDWHILE
END

2 IF
Produce_part_time_female_list
Print PART TIME FEMALE STUDENTS heading
READ student record
WHILE more records
IF student record = S record THEN
IF (attendance_pattern = P/T
AND gender = female) THEN
Print student_number, name,
address, age

ENDIF
ENDIF
READ student record
ENDWHILE
END

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22

3 IF
Produce_part_time_female_list
Print PART TIME FEMALE STUDENTS heading
READ student record
WHILE more records
IF student record = S record
AND attendance_pattern = P/T
AND gender = female) THEN
Print student_number, name, address, age

ENDIF
READ student record
ENDWHILE

END

9.11 9.8
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23

9.9 9.8



total_students

total_selected_students




Produce_part_time_female_list
Print PART TIME FEMALE STUDENTS heading
Set total_students to zero
Set total_selected_students to zero
READ student record
WHILE records exist
IF student record = S record THEN
increment total_students
IF (attendance_pattern = P/T
AND gender = female) THEN
increment total_selected_students
Print student_number, name,
address, age

ENDIF
ENDIF
READ student record
ENDWHILE
Print total_students
Print total_selected_students
END

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24
START

Print
heading

Read
student
record

More
Records?
T
T

Print_total_
students

Record = S?

Increment
total_
students

Student
=P/T&female

Print_total_
Selected_
students

F
STOP

Increment
total_selected_
students

Print
Student
details

Read
Student
record

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25

1
1.
. 1
. 2
. 3
. 4
2.
. FOR
. REPEAT
. LOOP
. UNTIL
3.
.
.
.
.
4.
.
.
.
.
5.
.
.
.
.
6.
.
.
.
.
7.
. REPEAT.UNTIL
. WHILE.ENDWHILE
. UNTILGO
.
8.
.
.
.
.
9. REPEATUNTIL
.
.
.
.
10. WHILEENDWHILE
.
.
.
.

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26

3
1.

.
2.

I 0
I < 5
X
Y
Y X
M X Y

M X Y
I 1
M

3. 2 I

4. 10


5.
7 x 1
=
7
7 x 2
=
14
7 x 3
=
21

.
7 x 12
=
84
6. 5

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10

(array)

(element) (cell)
(index number)
8

X[1]
20

X[2]
35

X[3]
84

X[4]
21

X[5]
45

X[6]
65

X[7]
71

X[8]
39

X
[ ]
X[1..8] X[3]
X 3

X[2]
X[2] + X[3]
X[1+3]
X[5] + 1

2 35
2 3 35 + 84 119
4 21
5 1 46

X[5] :=
45;
45 X 5
Print X[6])
X 6

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0 1

10.1.

9 9
Age

7 Age(7)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Array
Age
12
9
11
12
9
14
13
8
16

Age(1)
Age(2)
Age(3)
Age(4)
Age(5)
Age(6)
Age(7)
Age(8)
Age(9)

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10

Fine_sum_10_number
Set sum to zero
FOR I = 1 TO 10 DO
READ x
sum = sum + x
ENDFOR
PRINT x
END

/** 10
/** x
/**
/**

10

x

10.1

array , Sum
number_of_elements

Find_sum_of_elements
Set sum to zero
FOR index = 1 to number_of_elements
sum = sum + array(index)
ENDFOR
Print sum
END

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/**

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10.2 10.1

Find_element_average
Set sum to zero
FOR index = 1 to number_of_elements
sum = sum + array(index)
ENDFOR
average = sum / number_of_elements
Print average
END

10.3

8

1 8

largest_element

Find_largest_element
Set largest_element to array(1)
FOR index = 2 to number_of_elements
IF array(index) > largest_element THEN
largest_element = array(index)
ENDIF
ENDFOR
Print largest_element
END

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10.4
10.3 smallest_element

Find_smallest_element
Set smallest_element to array(1)
FOR index = 2 to number_of_elements
IF array(index) < smallest_element THEN
smallest_element = array(index)
ENDIF
ENDFOR
Print smallest_element
END

10.5

10.4 10.5

Find_range_of_elements
Set smallest_element to array(1)
Set largest_element to array(1)
FOR index = 2 to number_of_elements
IF array(index) < smallest_element THEN
smallest_element = array(index)
ELSE
IF array(index) > largest_element THEN

largest_element = array(index)
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDFOR
Print the range as smallest_element followed by largest_element
END

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10.2

A1
B1
C2
D2

A1
B1
C2
D2

C2
3

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month_table
Initialise_month_table
month_table(1) = January
month_table(2) = February
:
:
month_table(12) = December
END

10.6



, ,

ID

A001
A002
A003
B001
B002
ID
H
R
Total

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30
27
32
19

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50
45
75
30
40

Total

Total H
R 100

FOR I = 1 TO 100 DO
Total(I) = H(i) x R(I)
ENDFOR

100
H R Total

Total

10.7

While
1

Read_values_into_array
Set max_num_elements to required value
/*
Set index to zero
Read first input value
WHILE (input values exist) AND (index < max_num_elements)
index = index + 1
array(index) = input value
/*
Read next input value
/*
ENDWHILE
IF (input values exit) AND index = max_num_elements THEN
Print Array size too small
ENDIF
END
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10.8 10.7 9999

WHILE 9999

Read_values_into_variable_array
Set max_num_elements to required value
Set index to zero
Read first input value
WHILE (input values NOT = 9999) AND (index < max_num_elements)
index = index + 1
array(index) = input value
/*
Read next input value
ENDWHILE
IF index < max_num_elements THEN
index = index + 1
array(index) = 9999
ELSE
Print Array size too small
ENDIF
END
9999

Write_values_of_array
FOR index = 1 to number_of_elements DO
Print array(index)
ENDFOR
END

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10

10.9
18

18
18

FOR
scores

Process_exam_scores
Set total_score to zero
FOR index = 1 to 18
Prompt operator for score
Get scores(index)
total_score = total_score+scores(index)
ENDFOR
Compute average_score = total_score / 18
FOR index = 1 to 18
Display scores(index)
ENDFOR
Display average_score
END

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11

10.9

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12

10.10 100 number

100 number

number

10.9

integer_total

integer_count
Process_integer_array
Set integer_total to zero
Set integer_count to zero

FOR index = 1 to 100

integer_total = integer_total + number(index)

ENDFOR
integer_average = integer_total / 100

FOR index = 1 to 100

IF number(index) > integer_average THEN
add 1 to integer_count
ENDIF
ENDFOR
Display integer_average, integer_count
END

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13

10.10

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14

10.3

1
[ ]
type
var_name[size]

[]
type var_name size
A
10
int A[10];
0
150 200
A
A[0] =
150;
A[9] =
200;
10.1 4

#include "stdio.h"
#include "conio.h"
main()
{
int A[4];
/* 4 */
int sum = 0;
/* */

printf("Input Number 1 : ");

scanf("%d",&A[0]);
printf("Input Number 2 : ");
scanf("%d",&A[1]);
printf("Input Number 3 : ");
scanf("%d",&A[2]);
printf("Input Number 4 : ");
4
scanf("%d",&A[3]);
sum = A[0] + A[1] + A[2] + A[3];
printf("Sum = %d\n",sum);
getch();
}

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15

scanf()

type array_name[size] = {value-list}

,
A 5

int A[5] = {1, 8, 4, 9, 7};

char A[3] = {A, B, C};
10.2 10

10.9

10

10

#include "stdio.h"
#include "conio.h"
main()
{
int number[10], i, sum = 0;
/* */
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
10
printf("Input Number %d : ",i);
scanf("%d",&number[i]);
}
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)

sum = sum + number[i];

printf("The average is %.2f\n",sum/10.0); /* */
getch();
}

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16

10

#include "stdio.h"
#include "conio.h"
main()
{
int number[10], i, sum = 0;
for(i = 0; i<10; i++)
{
printf("Input Number %d : ",i);
scanf("%d",&number[i]);
sum = sum + number[i];
}
printf("The average is %.2f\n",sum/10.0);
getch();
}

2
2

2 4 4

2 2

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17

type array_name{Row] [ Column]

int AB[2][3]
AB 6 (2 x
3)
0
1

AB[0][0] , AB[0][1] , AB[0][2]

AB[1][0] , AB[1][1] , AB[1][2]

2
int sqr[3][3]
=
{
1 , 2 , 3,
4,5,6,
7,8,9
};
sqr 2 sqr[0][0]
1 sqr[0][1] 2 sqr[0][2] 3

10
1

5. 10.6

1.
2.
3.
4.

2
1. 10

2. 1
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18

3. A 20 20

4.
10,000
5 %
10 %
10,000 30,000
30,000
15 %


5. 40
3

6. 5

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1.  
  


(
)


BCPL


B

Basic Combined
Programming
Language


PDP-7
(UNIX)
.. 2513


C
.. 2515
  ! 



   (SP2) / .. 

2. -).)/01234)567

# header
main( )
{
/* 
 */
declaration

 1 89:;.74 </=4> ? @()@(;A

:1<. -A?;.()B 04); ? # C
# include <stdio.h>
@89:;.(<H=> stdio.h  @8<H=>1 /04B
 I:C.()4?J: <H=>1 :C.)<A.
;04 # define START 0
@@(;A):;.@8 Q START
-A?:;.  0
;04 # define temp 37
@@(;A:;. Q temp @8 37

 1
 2

'''
() ) *

 3



   (SP2) / .. 



   (SP2) / .. 

28/04/2010

 3 Body 0434) -Q@ -A?B .4)

 .A.?H^)@>C
main ( ) Q=.:04 ); ?@(;A3483 
 .34) 
-Q@ 04 { ;=)B@1:();04H^)@>C ) * -A?Q 
=();04H^)@>C1 * B .4)_AA.?04); ? ;
 04 .4)@B8-Q@ :;.:04); ? } _A.? C
main ( )
{
/* 
 .-Q@ */
() ) * ;
H^)@>C;
'''''
''''...
}
/* B8-Q@ */

 2 declaration @@(;AC

A3.4 J=B:C.:
-Q@ 7T) Q;043.4 J= ) * 1B .4)IJ@
@U(declare) :1@4 BT)B I(<:C.
:-Q@ <A. C
int stdno;
@@(;A Q stdno 3.4 J=C
AB( W
;04 interger 7T)4B<A.Q@ 0,4,-1,-3,'.  .
float score;
@@(;A Q score 3.4 J=C
A=3 B9A
U
? (floating point)7T)4B  0.23, 1.34, -21.002,  .



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173 of 229

 4?)-Q@
04); ? ) *

-Q@  1
# include <stdio.h>
int main (void )
{
printf(%Hello, Good morning. \n+);
}

{ } -  @(;A3483 ;048=W4@34)H^)@>C

( ) - @89 b;044>@
  >:;.@8H^)@>C
I.5?:)=W8<  3.4 :A * QA)<   b
 .4)@89(;8H^)@>C1 *
/* */ - @@(;A comment ;043.4 < 
.4)@:;.4 </=4>c
8
) 7T)3.4 4?J
5?:04); ?1BI04 < :C()c
8
)



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" #$ %&'( Hello, Good morning.

7



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 ! 2

&&' 2**)-$(1


# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
float point;
printf("\n\nPut your score in\n");
scanf("%f", &point);
printf("Your score is %f point\n\n", point);
}

" $)*)+,!-$( point

.*$/$0#$1.'  %Q 



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  ;=@@ A)1
1. .4)3T1 .A.? 4@6
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3.  I:C.04 ); ? underline e_g <A.
4. ;. :C. reserved words C int, float, etc.
Note: 4 </=4>:567 I;W Q @ )34)C04 
Q<A.?< @
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JQ8834) 4@6 )@
9



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Q883.4 J=Q=3A



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10

-#0!1.,(( /3*),-$(*&!+&&' 2*-,*) 

6789:;<=
Char
Int
Short
Long

Q883.4 J=;04C
A34) Q ) * @(;A<.:567
char
C
A34) 4@6;044@3
int
C
AB( W @

short
C
AB( W @

long
C
AB( W   ? 2 
unsigned
C
A34)=3< 
A04); ?
float
C
A=3 B9AU
?
double
C
A=3 B9AU
?  ? 2 

28/04/2010

Unsigned
Float
Double
11

7>;? @AB DC EFGHG(IGJK)

1
2
2
4

LMDJFN=9@A HG
HGJFN;FQ ASCII I8: 1 JFNE>;UCD7N7JHVENMDW 0 YZW 255
LMDJFN=9VENMDW ]32768 YZW 32767
LMDJFN=9VENMDW ]32768 YZW 32767

LMDJFN=9
VDd 2000 =:D7
Unsigned short = 2 LMDJFN=9VENMDW 0 YZW 65535
Unsigned long = 4 LMDJFN=9VENMDW 0 YZW 4000 =:D7
4
I8:LDM JFN=9hCD=FW 10x 8h x ALDM VENMDW ]37 YZW +38
8
LNDY<J:;W9;WJFN=9UVALDM B<W9Z7?



   (SP2) / .. 

12

174 of 229

&' 2**)-$( $&)

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# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
char reply;

3.4 J=Q= QC

A4@3
3.4 J=Q= QC
AB( W

reply = myn;
ooooooo

3.4 J=Q= QC

A=3 B9AU
?
}

3.4 J=Q= QQ88 

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   (SP2) / .. 

13



   (SP2) / .. 

14

4?)-Q@

@:;.4@3;/
U6;04;89

# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
char newline;

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e\g (;. ;04:C. 4@3@(;A:;.@8;1 * 3? 
04); ? e\g (;8;8)  C

newline = m\nn;
printf(%Hello, Good morning. %c+,newline);
printf(%Hello, Good morning.\n+);

; BELL QA.? ASCII 007 7T)@(;A<A.A)1

beep = e\007g;
;04;89 @3T18A:;  4@3@(;A:;.@8;
04 n
 I@(;A newline = e\ng;



   (SP2) / .. 

15



   (SP2) / .. 

&' 2**)-$( *& /4!

&' 2**)-$( /3(-+

B( W :567 I:C.Q<A. 4 JQ8804 int, short, long
Q= unsigned
(;8@@(;A QQ88 unsigned 04B( W < 
A
04); ?1B .4):C.8J@8JQ883.4 J=B( W C
A40
* 04 int ;04 short ;04 long 4?)C

(;8=3 B9AU
? 1Q<A. 2 Q8804 float Q=
double -A? double @W8<A. 2 34) float
(;8))
?U > .4)@ =4?A:@@W8
@:C.@@W8:JQ881 04@W8Q884W@-/7> A) 4?) 4<1
=3
9,000,000,000
345,000
0.00063
0.00000924

unsigned int plusnum;

unsigned long width;
unsigned short absno; /* absolute number */



   (SP2) / .. 

28/04/2010

16

17

QA)Q88
?U >
Q884W@-/7>
9
9.0*10
9.0e9
3.45*105
3.45e5
6.3e-4
6.3*10-4
9.24*10-6
9.24e-6



   (SP2) / .. 

18

175 of 229



 
 

@@(;A:;. Q4B(<A.-A?@(;A:-Q@
;04@(;A:3d @@(;AC
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main ( )
{
int age = 18;
float height;

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7T)@( Q;=? *  @W8 @:5671?@ 4?>
(array) A)13.4 J=Q88 
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04); ?34)4?>04 [ ] JQ88@@(;A 
)BT) 
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char name[30];
; ?IT) Q name C
A char   ? 30 4@6
-A?@W8 4?> @@W81B@W8?)@=<8 > Q=<8 >9A.?
@W8; null 04 \0 A)1B@W8<A.B
)/?) 29 4@6



   (SP2) / .. 

height = 172.5;
printf(%Mr. Surasak is %d years old+,age);
printf(% and tall %f cms.\n+,height);
}

19



   (SP2) / .. 

4?)34)-Q@ :@@(;AQ=)b==/v>

# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
int sum,valuea;
int count = 1;


  printf( )  scanf( )

JQ8834) printf ( )
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  >, 4>@
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89 @/
/>  
) 3.4 Q=JQ8834)@
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valuea = 4;
sum = count + valuea;
printf(%Total value is %d.\n+,sum);

4>@
  > B(3.4 J= /
/>  JQ88
@(;A :89 @/
/>

}
b==/v>B@c3.4 : Total value is 5.



   (SP2) / .. 

JQ88:C.(;8@(;A@/

/>:H^)@>C printf
%d /
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8
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x
x3.
4


   (SP2) / .. 

28/04/2010

20

21



   (SP2) / .. 

22

04); ?(;88=?JQ8834)3.4 J=

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23



   (SP2) / .. 

24

176 of 229

JQ8834) scanf ( )

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scanf( 89 3.4 J=, 4>@

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A34)3.4 J= .4)
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   (SP2) / .. 

25



   (SP2) / .. 

@=?C
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A .4)@=?5?:04); ? ( )
Q=.);. Q;043.4 J= .4)@=?Q=)C
A

int cost;
cost = 2.7+4.5;
cost = (int)2.7+(int)4.5;
27



   (SP2) / .. 

,.
 (Assignment expression)

point = 44;
; ?IT) @@(;A:;.@8 Q point :;. @8 44

3.4.6 +
-9,.+:9;+<:9;
> ;04 >= @@ ;04 @@@8
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28/04/2010

28

( --,&.  = *) ==

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1&6)!.  == ". ! -$(, ,

04); ?:C.@(;A04 =

-A?@@(;A)334)04); ? :;.@8 Q4?J
)7.? C j = 7+2
;04
k = k+4



   (SP2) / .. 

/
  n 4@ 1
=A n =) 1

 Q @ );) count++ Q= ++count

C
count = 5;
x = count++; B<A. x @8 5
Q=. count @8 6
count = 5;
x = ++count; B<A. x @8 6

float money;
.4)@=? Q float < integer (<A.A)1
(int) money;



   (SP2) / .. 

26

point == 44;
. 78 "-(/#(,, point ,!,$ 44 .: ,

29



   (SP2) / .. 

30

177 of 229


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if (score >= 80)
grade = eAg; /* simple statement */
;04
if (math >= 60 && eng >= 55)
{ grade = eSg; /* compound statement */
printf(wYour grade is %c\nx,grade);
}



   (SP2) / .. 

Q= (and)
;04 (or)
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34)
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   (SP2) / .. 

31


 if >.. else >..

+
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+:9;+<:9;+
AB ? :

JQ8834)()
if (();04
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)
else () .4)( 04)04<31< B
)

JQ88<34)()?8?8)04<3 ? : A)1


/B> 1 ? 
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/B> 3
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if 
/B> 1 B
)
(  ():
/B> 2
else
(  ():
/B> 3

4?)C
if (value1 > value2)
min = value2;
else
min = value1;



   (SP2) / .. 

C
33

34

4?)
switch (ch)
{
case m1n :
printf(%Red\n+);
case m2n :
printf(%Blue\n+);
case m3n :
printf(%Yellow\n+);
default :
printf(%White\n+);
}

JQ88()
switch (
/B>)
{
case label1 : statement1;
case label2 : statement2;
'''''..
'''''..
default
: statementn;
}

28/04/2010

x = (y< 0) ? -y : y;



   (SP2) / .. 


.;+
AB9 E < : switch  break



   (SP2) / .. 

32

35



   (SP2) / .. 

36

178 of 229

3#$ loop .3#$(03

4?)
switch (ch)
{
case m1n : printf(%Red\n+);
break;
case m2n : printf(%Blue\n+);
break;
case m3n : printf(%Yellow\n+);
break;
default : printf(%White\n+);
}



   (SP2) / .. 


J while
JQ88
while (
/B>)04<3)
{
()=J;
''''
''''.
}
37



   (SP2) / .. 


J for

38


;;;<:
.;+ 
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JQ88
for ( 
/B> 1 ; 
/B> 2 ; 
/B> 3 )
{
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}
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 .:;.@8 Q:C.:@48

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/B> 3 ():@
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   (SP2) / .. 

JQ88
do
statement;
while (
/B>)04<3);
C

39

40


 goto  labels
() goto @48A.? 2  04
- () goto ():;.@-AA<?) (Q;)@(;A
-A?B@(;AC04 ?@ label name
- C04 (label name)  @(;A (Q;)()B@-AA
<()


 break
:C. 04 .4)@:;.@() I;=9A44@B@=JQ=@-AA
<?)()4?J4@=J -A?<  .4) B48)04 <3:A *


 continue

3.4) ! ()1I04();=@=?):@3?-Q@

Q I.B(;04;=@=?)< <A.1 BT)B:C.()1

:C. 04 .4)@:;.@()1 ?.4@=8<48:; 4@1)

7T) =@6d )3. @8() break



   (SP2) / .. 

num = 2;
do
{
num++;
printf(wNow no is %d\nx,num);
} while (num == 10)



   (SP2) / .. 

3#$(4  ; break, continue, goto *) labels

28/04/2010

compound statements

41



   (SP2) / .. 

42

179 of 229


 (Function)

4?)-Q@ :C.() goto

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{ int sum,n;
for(n=1;n<10;n++)
if (n==5)
goto part1;
else printf(%%d\n+,n);
part1 : printf(%Interrupt with no. 5\n+);
}



   (SP2) / .. 

43



   (SP2) / .. 



yzWK6F7 (Functions)

@44@Q88-Q@ :567B4?J8/012
34)@44@Q88- AJ= (Module Design) -A?@Q8)
-Q@ 44@)?4? * (;04- AJ=) Q =)?4?
B()4?):A4?);T)1 Q=< B 3A
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567B@3?:=@6d34)H^)@>C

44

-Q@ /048@=34)B(8B@bJ.:C.

Q=QA)b=@(d
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83.4 J= 2 B(B@bJ.:C.
8@=3 2 B(Q=.@W8b==/v>
QA)b==/v>34)@()



   (SP2) / .. 

45



   (SP2) / .. 

 (
)
B<A.-Q@ @48A.?H^)@>C 4 H^)@>C
04
H^)@>C;=@

31 4@.)-Q@ A.?56 C

Source file
function compile
function
function

H^)@>C@83.4 J=
H^)@>C:@8@=3

Source file compile

function
function
function

H^)@>CQA)b==/v>



   (SP2) / .. 

28/04/2010

46

47

Object
file

link

link

Library file
link
Execute
file

Object
file



   (SP2) / .. 

48

180 of 229

4.1 JQ8834)H^)@>C
Q88 1

Q88 2

int , char , float , double =

void C04H^)@>C ( @@U Q )

{
@@U Q5?:H^)@>C;
();
}

C
A3.4 J=0  C04H^)@>C ( @@U Q )
{
@@U Q5?:H^)@>C ;
();
return (3.4 J= 4. )@)@=8);
}



   (SP2) / .. 

49



   (SP2) / .. 

4?) 4.1 QA)@()34)-Q@ @8@

=3B(B
) 2 B(8B@bJ.:C.

double SumDouble ( double x, double y )

{
return ( x + y );
}
void PrintOut ( double x )
{
printf ( w\n Result of sum is : %.2fx, x );
}
51



   (SP2) / .. 

52

4.2 @@U-/-<34)H^)@>C

 4.1 (
)

void main ( )
{
double a1, a2, sumVal;
a1 = InputDouble( );
a2 = InputDouble( );
sumVal = SumDouble ( a1, a2 );
PrintOut ( sumVal );
}



   (SP2) / .. 

28/04/2010

50

 4.1 ( 4)

#include <stdio.h>
double InputDouble ( )
{
double x;
printf ( w\nInput real value : w );
scanf ( w%.2f x, &x );
return ( x );
}



   (SP2) / .. 

JQ8834)H^)@>C ( 4)

@@U-- <

)B(:
56704)B@56756:=@6d .4)
@@UH^)@>C @4B?@:C.H^)@>C 1
(Predefined Function)

53



   (SP2) / .. 

54

181 of 229


 4.2

B@ 4?) 4.1 B;WH^)@>C main ( ) B4?J: .

H^)@>C40 *  @?@:C. =@6d 4. )
@UH^)@>C  4. )@?@:C.@4B@?@:C.
H^)@>C1 Q ;@ .4)@?.?H^)@>C main ( ) 3T1<
<.A.8 B .4) @@U-- <34)H^)@>C
 .4)@?@:C.@4  4



   (SP2) / .. 

QA)@()34)-Q@ @8@

=3B(B
) 2 B(8 B@bJ.:C.
:=@6d @@U-- <

#include <stdio.h>
double InputDouble ( );
double SumDouble ( double , double );
void PrintOut ( double );

55



   (SP2) / .. 

56

 4.2 (
)

B;W:-- <<  @@UC04 

Q
Q @3?534) Q<.5?:
@C?:;.4 </=4> I B48B(
34) Q 534) Q 534)@0
 5?:-Q@  @?@:C.)
) ) *
@?@8H^)@>C1IJ@ .4);04< 
4@B@1 
4BBQ?@-- <<3?<.:4
=JC<H=>@W
<A.CA?@

void main ( )
{
double a1, a2, sumVal;
a1 = InputDouble( );
a2 = InputDouble( );
sumVal = SumDouble ( a1, a2 );
PrintOut ( sumVal );
}



   (SP2) / .. 

57



   (SP2) / .. 

58



4.3 @?@:C.H^)@>C

a1 .4) C
A double 04)B@B )
0@=8 B@H^)@>C C
A double

@?@:C.H^)@>C @ 0 B:C.
JQ88A) 4<1

a1 = InputDouble ( );

8 = H^)@>C (4>@

  >)

:C.J@8-- <

double InputDouble ( );



   (SP2) / .. 

28/04/2010

59



   (SP2) / .. 

60

182 of 229

10






a1 Q= a2 .4) C

A double
/04:;. )@8C
A Q34)4>@
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@U:-- <

PrintOut( sumVal );
:C.J@8-- <

void PrintOut ( double );

sumVal = SumDouble (a1,a2 );

:C.J@8-- <

double InputDouble ( );
)1.'2'(,<=% $0: ,  ,



   (SP2) / .. 

61



   (SP2) / .. 

62

4.4 3483 ( Scope)

 04 @?@:C.)H^)@>CB @B4)/01
;? B((;8 Q  .4):C.5?:
H^)@>C1 Q= 04
19A@()34)H^)@>C
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88 @:C.) QQ = B 3483
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1

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(Control) 89 @()<?)H^)@>C 1 *
B@BB8H^)@>C ;04/8() return



   (SP2) / .. 



63



   (SP2) / .. 

B@ 4?) 4.1 Q= 4.2  I

QA)3483 @()<A.A) 1

main ( )

a1
a2
sumVal

 (
)

main ( )

step1

a1 = InputDouble(
InputDouble( );

28/04/2010

a1
a2
sumVal

step2

a2 = InputDouble(
InputDouble( );

InputDouble ( ) x

InputDouble ( ) x



   (SP2) / .. 

64

65



   (SP2) / .. 

66

183 of 229

11


 (
)

Step3

 (
)

main ( )

sumVal=SumDouble(a1,a2)
sumVal=SumDouble(a1,a2)

main ( )

a1
a2
sumVal

PrintSum ( )

sumDouble ( ) x
y



   (SP2) / .. 

67

69



   (SP2) / .. 

QA)@()34)-Q@ :=@6d

  Q-@=84= QA)3483 @:C.
)34) Q5?:-Q@
#include <stdio.h>
int x;
void func1 ( )
{
x = x + 10;
printf ( wfunc1 -> x : %d\nx, x );
}

 4.3

28/04/2010

PrintSum(sumVal);
PrintSum(sumVal);

68

4@B@1 I@U Q<.5?4@H^)@>C

8
d
 34)-Q@ B?@ Q-@
Q-@
=84= (Global Variable) 7T) Q I
?@:C.  (Q;):A * :-Q@ @W<A. ?@.:
@d @@U Q C 04A?@ Q-@
=84=5?:8=W4@;04H^)@>C

3483 @()34) QQ = B@(;A4?J

5?8=W4@34)()5?:04); ?@@ ( { } ) ;04
@@U:C)34)@@UH^)@>C ?@ Q
;=1 Q-=4= (Local Variable)



   (SP2) / .. 

step4



   (SP2) / .. 

B;W Q x @U:Q =31 4B

()4?J5 ?:H^)@>C @@U1 Q=:C.
/01:@@W83.4 J==@



   (SP2) / .. 

a1
a2
sumVal

70

 4.3 (
)

void func2 ( int x )
{
x = x + 10;
printf ( wfunc2 -> x : %d\nx, x );
}
void func3 ( ) {
int x=0;
x = x + 10;
printf ( wfunc3 -> x : %d\nx, x );
}

71



   (SP2) / .. 

72

184 of 229

12


 4.3 (
)

 4.3 (
)

void main ( )
{
x = 10;
printf ( wmain (start) -> x : %d\nx, x );
func1 ( );
printf ( wmain (after func1) -> x : %d\nx, x );
func2 ( x );
printf ( wmain (after func2) -> x : %d\nx, x);
func3 ( );
printf ( wmain (after func3) -> x : %d\nx, x);
}



   (SP2) / .. 

>*!3
main (start) -> x : 10
func1 -> x : 20
main (after func1) -> x : 20
func2 -> x : 30
main (after func2) -> x : 20
func3 -> x : 10
main (after func3) -> x : 20
73



   (SP2) / .. 

74

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int x;
int y;
};

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int x;
int y;
} x, y , z;

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Q88 2 struct point {

int x;
int y;
};
struct point x,y,z



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 . (0, 0) :A I:C.
double dist, sqrt (double);
dist =sqrt ((double)pt.x * pt.x +(double)pt.y * pt.y );



   (SP2) / .. 

struct rect {
struct point pt1;
struct point pt2;
};
struct rect screen;
int co_x;
co_x = screen.pt1.x



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80

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struct alignment {
int num1;
char ch;
int num2;
} example;

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struct rect screen;

struct point middle;
struct point makepoint ( int, int );
screen.pt1 = makepoint ( 0, 0 );
screen.pt2 = makepoint ( XMAX, YMAX );
middle = makepoint ((screen.pt1.x + screen.pt2.x) / 2,
(screen.pt1.y + screen.pt2.y) / 2 );

struct point makepoint ( int x, int y )

{
struct point temp;
temp.x = x;
temp.y = y;
return temp;
}

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{
return p.x >= r.pt1.x && p.x < r.pt2.x &&
p.y >= r.pt1.y && p.y < r.pt2.y;
}

struct point addpoint(struct point p1, struct point p2)

{
p1.x += p2.x;
p1.y += p2.y;
return p1;
}

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(Pointer and Array)
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i

400
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400
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int
int
ip
y
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y
ip
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iq

x = 1, y = 2;
*ip, *iq;
= &x;
= *ip;
= 0;
= 5;
= &y;
= 3;
= ip;

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JFN6A?



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400

402

ip

400

iq

400

402

ip

500

iq

502

97



   (SP2) / .. 

400

402

500

ip

400

500

502

iq

ip = &x;



   (SP2) / .. 

400

402

y = *ip;



   (SP2) / .. 

*ip = 0;

400

402

400

500

400 500

ip

iq

502

iq

28/04/2010

98

502

99

ip



   (SP2) / .. 

int x = 1, y = 2;
int *ip, *iq;

101

100

y = 5;

502



   (SP2) / .. 

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17

400

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ip

402

500

iq

ip = &y;

400

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iq



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105



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502

103

iq = ip;
ip

400

ip



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106

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void swap (int *, int *);

107



   (SP2) / .. 

108

190 of 229

18

 4?) 6.1 ( 4)

4?) 6.1 ( 4)

void main ( )
{
int x = 5, y = 10;
printf(wBefore swap : x = %dx, x, w, y = %d\nx, y);
swap ( &x, &y);
printf(wAfter swap : x = %dx, x, w, y = %d\nx, y);
}



   (SP2) / .. 

void swap (int *px, int *py)

{
int temp;
temp = *px;
*px = *py;
*py = temp;
}

109



   (SP2) / .. 

110

in main ( )
x
y

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py
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111



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112

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)%%

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113



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table
table[0] table[1] table[2]

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sumThird = table[0] + table[1] + table[2];

table[0] = 5;
if ( a[0] > a[9] )
printf (wFirst is greater than last\nx );



   (SP2) / .. 

117



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for (int k = 0; k < 9; k++)

printf (wValue at %d = %d\nx, k+1, table[k]);
table[i + j] = 0;
table[7 table[j]] = j;



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118

119



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main ( ) {
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for (k = 0; k < SIZE; k++)
scanf (w%dx, &table[k]);
for (k = SIZE-1; k >= 0; k--)
printf (w%d\nx, table[k]);
}



   (SP2) / .. 

121



   (SP2) / .. 

122

6.6 D~6:JFN6A?FG;DKhK

typedef enum month Month;
int age[TSIZE];
float size[TSIZE+1];
Month date[8];
char name[NAMESIZE], address[ADDRSIZE];



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/* string constant */
strlen (array);
/* char array[10] */
strlen (ptr);
/* char *ptr;
*/

int strlen (char *s)

{
int n;
for ( n = 0; *s != e\0g; s++ )
n++;
return n;
}



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133



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Q88 1

typedef struct {
int day;
int month;
int year;
} Date;
Date today;
Date *ptrdate;



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typedef struct {
int day;
int month;
int year;
} Date;
typedef Date *PtrDate;
PtrDate ptrdate;



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#include <stdio.h>
struct date { /*date template */
int day;
int month;
int year;
};
typedef struct date Date;
typedef Date *PtrDate;

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@-).)-A?:C.04 ); ? ->
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27

 4?) 6.8 ( 4)

main ( ) {
Date today;
PtrDate ptrdate;
ptrdate = &today;
ptrdate->day = 27;
ptrdate->month = 9;
ptrdate->year = 1985;
printf ( wToday\gs date is %2d/%2d/%4d\nx,
ptrdate->day, ptrdate->month, ptrdate->year );
}



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Person staff[STAFFSIZE];



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print_person ( staff[k] );

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void sort_forename ( Person staff[ ], int size )

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void print_person ( Person employee )



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(Multi-dimensional Arrays)

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-A?
Person staff[ ] = { { wBloggsx, wJoex, MALE, 21 },
{ wSmithx, wJohnx, MALE, 30 },
{ wBlackx, wMaryx, FEMALE, 25 } };



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4834)@481)
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#define NUMBER_OF_PAPERS 5
int student [ NUMBER_OF_PAPERS ];
/* int student[5]; */
student[0] student[1] student[2] student[3] student[4]

5.6 8.5 12.6

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marks[1][8]
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row

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#define NUMBER_OF_PAPERS
5
#define NUMBER_OF_STUDENTS 50
int
marks[NUMBER_OF_STUDENTS][NUMBER_OF_PAPERS];
/* int marks[50][5]; */



   (SP2) / .. 

*$6)&' 2*

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{ float score[10][3];
int i,j;
printf(wPlease put score\nx);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
scanf(w%fx,&score[i][j]);
}

175

score[0][0] score[0][1] score[0][2]

score[1][0] score[1][1] score[1][2]

score[9][0] score[9][1] score[9][2]



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176

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score[0][0] score[0][1] score[0][2]

score[1][0] score[1][1] score[1][2]
score[2][0] score[2][1] score[2][2]

200 202 204 206 208 210

[0][0] [0][1] [0][2] [1][0] [1][1] [1][2]
210 212 214 216 218 220
[2][0] [2][1] [2][2] [3][0] [3][1] [3][2]
220 222 224 226 228 230
[4][0] [4][1] [4][2] [5][0] [5][1] [5][2]

score[9][0] score[9][1] score[9][2]



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30

Stacks
Stack: what is it?
Applications
Implementation(s)

Computer Algorithm :
Analysis and Design
Krisana Chinnasarn, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Computer Science
Web: http://www.cs.buu.ac.th/~krisana
Stacks and Queues
Reading: Chap.3 Weiss

What is a stack?

Last In First Out

Stores a set of elements in a particular order

Stack principle: LAST IN FIRST OUT
= LIFO
It means: the last element inserted is the first one to be
removed
Example

Which is the first element to pick up?

B
top A

C
top B
A

D
top C
B
A

top

E
D
C
B
A

top

D
C
B
A

Array-based Stack
Implementation

Stack Applications

Allocate an array of some size (pre-defined)

Maximum N elements in stack

Real life

Bottom stack element stored at element 0

last index in the array is the top
Increment top when one element is pushed,
decrement after pop

Pile of books
Plate trays

More applications related to computer science

Program execution stack (read more from your text)
Evaluating expressions

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Stack Implementation:
CreateS, isEmpty, isFull

Push

Stack createS(max_stack_size) ::=

#define MAX_STACK_SIZE 100 /* maximum stack size */
typedef struct {
int key;
/* other fields */
} element;
element stack[MAX_STACK_SIZE];
int top = -1;

void push(int *top, element item)

{
/* add an item to the global stack */
if (*top >= MAX_STACK_SIZE-1) {
stack_full( );
return;
}
stack[++*top] = item;
}

Boolean isEmpty(Stack) ::= top< 0;

Boolean isFull(Stack) ::= top >= MAX_STACK_SIZE-1;

List-based Stack
Implementation: Push

Pop

void push(pnode top, element item)

{
/* add an element to the top of the stack */
pnode temp =
(pnode) malloc (sizeof (node));
if (IS_FULL(temp)) {
fprintf(stderr, The memory is full\n);
exit(1);
}
temp->item = item;
temp->next= top;
top= temp;
}

element pop(int *top)

{
/* return the top element from the stack */
if (*top == -1)
return stack_empty( ); /* returns and error key */
return stack[(*top)--];
}

10

Algorithm Analysis

Pop

push
pop
isEmpty
isFull

element pop(pnode top) {

/* delete an element from the stack */
pnode temp = top;
element item;
if (IS_EMPTY(temp)) {
fprintf(stderr, The stack is empty\n);
exit(1);
}
item = temp->item;
top = temp->next;
free(temp);
return item;
}

What if top is stored at the beginning of the

array?

11

28/04/2010

O(?)
O(?)
O(?)
O(?)

12

204 of 229

The Towers of Hanoi

A Stack-based Application

Towers of Hanoi

GIVEN: three poles

a set of discs on the first pole, discs of different sizes, the
smallest discs at the top
GOAL: move all the discs from the left pole to the right one.
CONDITIONS: only one disc may be moved at a time.
A disc can be placed either on an empty pole or on top of a
larger disc.

13

14

Towers of Hanoi

Towers of Hanoi

15

16

Towers of Hanoi

Towers of Hanoi

17

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Towers of Hanoi

Towers of Hanoi

19

20

Towers of Hanoi Recursive

Solution

Towers of Hanoi

void hanoi (int discs,

Stack fromPole,
Stack toPole,
Stack aux) {
Disc d;
if( discs >= 1) {
hanoi(discs-1, fromPole, aux, toPole);
d = fromPole.pop();
toPole.push(d);
hanoi(discs-1,aux, toPole, fromPole);
}

21

22

Is the End of the World

Approaching?

Queue

Problem complexity 2n
64 gold discs
Given 1 move a second

Stores a set of elements in a particular order

Stack principle: FIRST IN FIRST OUT
= FIFO
It means: the first element inserted is the first
one to be removed
Example

The first one in line is the first one to be

served

23

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Queue Applications

First In First Out

Real life examples

Waiting in line
Waiting on hold for tech support

Applications related to Computer Science

Threads
Job scheduling (e.g. Round-Robin algorithm for CPU
allocation)

rear
front

B
A

C
rear B
front A

D
rear C
B
front A

rear

25

Array-based Queue
Implementation
As with the array-based stack implementation,
the array is of fixed size

front rear Q[0] Q[1] Q[2] Q[3] Comments

-1
0
1
2
2
2

J1
J1
J1

J2
J2
J2

J3
J3
J3

front

26

Applications: Job Scheduling

-1
-1
-1
-1
0
1

rear

D
C
front B

queue is empty
Job 1 is added
Job 2 is added
Job 3 is added
Job 1 is deleted
Job 2 is deleted

A queue of maximum N elements

Slightly more complicated

Need to maintain track of both front and rear
Implementation 1

Implementation 2
27

28

Implementation 1:
createQ, isEmptyQ, isFullQ

Implementation 1:
enqueue

Queue createQ(max_queue_size) ::=

# define MAX_QUEUE_SIZE 100/* Maximum queue size */
typedef struct {
int key;
/* other fields */
} element;
element queue[MAX_QUEUE_SIZE];
int rear = -1;
int front = -1;
Boolean isEmpty(queue) ::= front == rear
Boolean isFullQ(queue) ::= rear == MAX_QUEUE_SIZE-1

void enqueue(int *rear, element item)

{
/* add an item to the queue */
if (*rear == MAX_QUEUE_SIZE_1) {
queue_full( );
return;
}
queue [++*rear] = item;
}

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Implementation 1:
dequeue

Implementation 2:
Wrapped Configuration
EMPTY QUEUE
[3]

[2]

[2]

[3]
J2

element dequeue(int *front, int rear)

{
/* remove element at the front of the queue */
if ( *front == rear)
return queue_empty( ); /* return an error key */
return queue [++ *front];
}

[1]

[4]

[0]

[1]

[5]

front = 0
rear = 0

J3
[4]

J1

[0]

[5]

front = 0
rear = 3

Can be seen as a circular queue

31

32

Enqueue in a Circular Queue

Leave one empty space when queue is full

Why?
FULL QUEUE
[2]

[3]
J2

[1]

FULL QUEUE
[2]

[3]
J8

J3

J9

J4 [4][1] J7

J1
J5
[0]

[5]

front =0
rear = 5

void enqueue(int front, int *rear, element item)

{
/* add an item to the queue */
*rear = (*rear +1) % MAX_QUEUE_SIZE;
if (front == *rear) /* reset rear and print error */
return;
}
queue[*rear] = item;
}

[4]
J6
[0]

J5
[5]

front =4
rear =3

How to test when queue is empty?

How to test when queue is full?
33

34

List-based Queue
Implementation: Enqueue

Dequeue from Circular Queue

void enqueue(pnode &front, pnode rear, element item)

element dequeue(int* front, int rear)

{
element item;
/* remove front element from the queue and put it in item */
if (*front == rear)
return queue_empty( );
/* queue_empty returns an error key */
*front = (*front+1) % MAX_QUEUE_SIZE;
return queue[*front];
}

{ /* add an element to the rear of the queue */

pnode temp =
(pnode) malloc(sizeof (queue));
if (IS_FULL(temp)) {
fprintf(stderr, The memory is full\n);
exit(1);
}
temp->item = item;
temp->next= NULL;
if (front) { (rear) -> next= temp;}
else front = temp;
rear = temp; }
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Algorithm Analysis

Dequeue

enqueue
dequeue
size
isEmpty
isFull

element dequeue(pnode &front) {

/* delete an element from the queue */
pnode temp = front;
element item;
if (IS_EMPTY(front)) {
fprintf(stderr, The queue is empty\n);
exit(1);
}
item = temp->item;
front = temp->next;
free(temp);
return item;
}

What if I want the first element to be always at

Q[0] ?

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O(?)
O(?)
O(?)
O(?)
O(?)

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The British Constitution

Crown

Computer Algorithm :
Analysis and Design

Church of

House of

House of

Supreme

Commons

Lords

Court

Cabinet

England

Ministers

Krisana Chinnasarn, Ph.D.

County

Assistant Professor of Computer Science

Web: http://www.cs.buu.ac.th/~krisana
Trees. Binary Trees.
Reading: Chap.4 (4.1-4.2) Weiss

Metropolitan
Council
police

More Trees Examples

Rural District

County Borough

Council

Council

Definition of Tree

Unix / Windows file structure

A tree is a finite set of one or more nodes
such that:
There is a specially designated node called
the root.
The remaining nodes are partitioned into n>=0
disjoint sets T1, ..., Tn, where each of these sets is
a tree.
We call T1, ..., Tn the subtrees of the root.

Terminology

Level and Depth

node (13)
degree of a node
leaf (terminal)
nonterminal
parent
children
sibling
degree of a tree (3)
ancestor
level of a node
height of a tree (4)

The degree of a node is the number of subtrees

of the node

Level
3
2
E

2
0

40

30
L

2 1
F

30

A
C
G

2
31
0

3
H

The degree of A is 3; the degree of C is 1.

30

D
I

30

The node with degree 0 is a leaf or terminal

node.
A node that has subtrees is the parent of the
roots of the subtrees.
The roots of these subtrees are the children of
the node.
Children of the same parent are siblings.
The ancestors of a node are all the nodes
along the path from the root to the node.

33
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Tree Properties
Property
Number of nodes
Height
Root Node
Leaves
Interior nodes
Number of levels
Ancestors of H
Descendants of B
Siblings of E
Right subtree

A
C

G
H

Representation of Trees

Value

List Representation
( A ( B ( E ( K, L ), F ), C ( G ), D ( H ( M ), I, J ) ) )
The root comes first, followed by a list of sub-trees

data

link 1 link 2 ...

link n

How many link fields are

needed in such a representation?

A Tree Node

Left Child - Right Sibling

Every tree node:

object useful information
children pointers to its children nodes

data
left child right sibling

B
O
F

E
O

O
K

O
9

10

Tree ADT

Tree Implementation
typedef struct tnode {
int key;
struct tnode* lchild;
struct tnode* sibling;
} *ptnode;

Objects: any type of objects can be stored in a tree

Methods:
accessor methods
root() return the root of the tree
parent(p) return the parent of a node
children(p) returns the children of a node

- Create a tree with three nodes (one root & two children)
- Insert a new node (in tree with root R, as a new child at level L)
- Delete a node (in tree with root R, the first child at level L)

query methods
size() returns the number of nodes in the tree
isEmpty() - returns true if the tree is empty
elements() returns all elements
isRoot(p), isInternal(p), isExternal(p)

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Tree Traversal

Preorder

Two main methods:

preorder traversal

Preorder
Postorder

Algorithm preOrder(v)
visit node v
for each child w of v do
recursively perform preOrder(w)

Recursive definition
PREorder:
visit the root
traverse in preorder the children (subtrees)

POSTorder
traverse in postorder the children (subtrees)
visit the root
13

14

Postorder

Preorder Implementation
public void preorder(ptnode t) {
ptnode ptr;
display(t->key);
for(ptr = t->lchild; NULL != ptr; ptr = ptr->sibling) {
preorder(ptr);
}
}

postorder traversal
Algorithm postOrder(v)
for each child w of v do
recursively perform postOrder(w)
visit node v

du (disk usage) command in Unix

15

16

Postorder Implementation

Binary Trees

public void postorder(ptnode t) {

ptnode ptr;
for(ptr = t->lchild; NULL != ptr; ptr = ptr->sibling) {
postorder(ptr);
}
display(t->key);
}

A special class of trees: max degree for each node

is 2
Recursive definition: A binary tree is a finite set
of nodes that is either empty or consists of a root
and two disjoint binary trees called the left
subtree and the right subtree.
Any tree can be transformed into binary tree.
by left child-right sibling representation

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Example

ADT Binary Tree

A
B

objects: a finite set of nodes either empty or

consisting of a root node, left BinaryTree,
and right BinaryTree.
method:
for all bt, bt1, bt2 BinTree, item element
Bintree create()::= creates an empty binary tree

E
F

G
H

Boolean isEmpty(bt)::= if (bt==empty binary

M

tree) return TRUE else return FALSE

J

19

20

Samples of Trees
BinTree makeBT(bt1, item, bt2)::= return a binary tree
whose left subtree is bt1, whose right subtree is bt2,
and whose root node contains the data item
Bintree leftChild(bt)::= if (IsEmpty(bt)) return error
else return the left subtree of bt
element data(bt)::= if (IsEmpty(bt)) return error
else return the data in the root node of bt
Bintree rightChild(bt)::= if (IsEmpty(bt)) return error
else return the right subtree of bt

1
B

B
Skewed Binary Tree

C
D
E

Maximum Number of Nodes in BT

5
4

21

22

Relations between Number of

Leaf Nodes and Nodes of Degree 2

For any nonempty binary tree, T, if n0 is the

number of leaf nodes and n2 the number of nodes
of degree 2, then n0=n2+1
proof:
Let n and B denote the total number of nodes &
branches in T.
Let n0, n1, n2 represent the nodes with no children,
single child, and two children respectively.
n= n0+n1+n2, B+1=n, B=n1+2n2 ==> n1+2n2+1= n,
24
n1+2n2+1= n0+n1+n2 ==> n0=n2+1

The maximum number of nodes on level i of a

binary tree is 2i-1, i>=1.
The maximum nubmer of nodes in a binary tree
of depth k is 2k-1, k>=1.

Prove by induction.
k

2i 1 = 2 k 1
i =1

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Complete Binary Tree

213 of 229

Binary Tree Representations

Full BT vs. Complete BT

A full binary tree of depth k is a binary tree of
depth k having 2k-1 nodes, k>=0.
A binary tree with n nodes and depth k is
complete iff its nodes correspond to the nodes numbered
from 1 to n in the full binary tree of depth k.
A

C
E

Complete binary tree

C
D
E

A [1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
.
[16]

Full binary tree of depth

4
25

Sequential
Representation

parent(i) is at i/2 if i!=1. If i=1, i is at the root and

has no parent.
leftChild(i) is at 2i if 2i<=n. If 2i>n, then i has no
left child.
rightChild(i) is at 2i+1 if 2i +1 <=n. If 2i +1 >n,
then i has no right child.

B
D

If a complete binary tree with n nodes (depth =

log n + 1) is represented sequentially, then for
any node with index i, 1<=i<=n, we have:

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
(1) waste space
(2) insertion/deletion [5]
[6]
problem
[7]
[8]
A
[9]

A
B
-C
---D
-.
E

26

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

Linked Representation
typedef struct tnode *ptnode;
typedef struct tnode {
int data;
ptnode left, right;
};

data
left

data

right

left

27

28

Binary Tree Traversals

Arithmetic Expression Using BT

+

Let L, V, and R stand for moving left, visiting

the node, and moving right.
There are six possible combinations of traversal

lRr, lrR, Rlr, Rrl, rRl, rlR

*

Adopt convention that we traverse left before

right, only 3 traversals remain
A
29

D
C

lRr, lrR, Rlr

inorder, postorder, preorder

28/04/2010

right

inorder traversal
A/B*C*D+E
infix expression
preorder traversal
+**/ABCDE
prefix expression
postorder traversal
AB/C*D*E+
postfix expression
level order traversal
+*E*D/CAB
30

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Inorder Traversal (recursive version)

Preorder Traversal (recursive version)

void preorder(ptnode ptr)
/* preorder tree traversal */
{
+**/ABCDE
if (ptr) {
printf(%d, ptr->data);
preorder(ptr->left);
predorder(ptr->right);
}
}

void inorder(ptnode ptr)

/* inorder tree traversal */
{
A/B*C*D+E
if (ptr) {
inorder(ptr->left);
printf(%d, ptr->data);
indorder(ptr->right);
}
}
31

32

Level Order Traversal

Postorder Traversal (recursive version)

(using queue)

void levelOrder(ptnode ptr)

/* level order tree traversal */
{
int front = rear = 0;
ptnode queue[MAX_QUEUE_SIZE];
if (!ptr) return; /* empty queue */
enqueue(front, &rear, ptr);
for (;;) {
ptr = dequeue(&front, rear);

void postorder(ptnode ptr)

/* postorder tree traversal */
{
AB/C*D*E+
if (ptr) {
postorder(ptr->left);
postdorder(ptr->right);
printf(%d, ptr->data);
}
}
33

34

Euler Tour Traversal

generic traversal of a binary tree
the preorder, inorder, and postorder traversals are
special cases of the Euler tour traversal
walk around the
tree and visit each
node three times:

if (ptr) {
printf(%d, ptr->data);
if (ptr->left)
enqueue(front, &rear,
ptr->left);
if (ptr->right)
enqueue(front, &rear,
ptr->right);
}
else break;
+*E*D/CAB
}

on the left
from below
on the right

}
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Euler Tour Traversal (contd)

Euler Tour Traversal (contd)

preorder traversal = Euler Tour with a visit only on
the left
inorder = ?
postorder = ?
Other applications: compute number of descendants
for each node v:

eulerTour(node v) {
perform action for visiting node on the left;
if v is internal then
eulerTour(v->left);
perform action for visiting node from below;
if v is internal then
eulerTour(v->right);
perform action for visiting node on the right;
}

counter = 0
increment counter each time node is visited on the left
#descendants = counter when node is visited on the right
counter when node is visited on the left +
1

Running time for Euler Tour?

37

38

Application: Evaluation of
Expressions
+
*
*

D
C

/
B

Inorder Traversal (recursive version)

inorder traversal
A/B*C*D+E
infix expression
preorder traversal
+**/ABCDE
prefix expression
postorder traversal
AB/C*D*E+
postfix expression
level order traversal
+*E*D/CAB

void inorder(ptnode ptr)

/* inorder tree traversal */
{
A/B*C*D+E
if (ptr) {
inorder(ptr->left);
printf(%d, ptr->data);
inorder(ptr->right);
}
}

39

40

Preorder Traversal (recursive version)

Postorder Traversal (recursive version)

void preorder(ptnode ptr)

/* preorder tree traversal */
{
+**/ABCDE
if (ptr) {
printf(%d, ptr->data);
preorder(ptr->left);
preorder(ptr->right);
}
}

void postorder(ptnode ptr)

/* postorder tree traversal */
{
AB/C*D*E+
if (ptr) {
postorder(ptr->left);
postorder(ptr->right);
printf(%d, ptr->data);
}
}

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Application:
Propositional Calculus Expression

Propositional Calculus Expression

(x1 x2) ( x1 x3) x3

A variable is an expression.
If x and y are expressions, then x, xy,
xy are expressions.
Parentheses can be used to alter the normal
order of evaluation ( > > ).
Example: x1 (x2 x3)

X1

Node Structure
value

X3

X1

postorder traversal (postfix evaluation)

44

43

data

X3

X2

left

Postorder Eval
right

void post_order_eval(ptnode node)

{
/* modified post order traversal to evaluate a propositional
calculus tree */
if (node) {
post_order_eval(node->left);
post_order_eval(node->right);
switch(node->data) {
case not: node->value =
!node->right->value;
break;

typedef emun {not, and, or, true, false } logical;

typedef struct tnode *ptnode;
typedef struct node {
logical
data;
short int
value;
ptnode right, left;
};

45

46

Postorder Eval (contd)

case and: node->value =
node->right->value &&
node->left->value;
break;
case or:
node->value =
node->right->value | |
node->left->value;
break;
case true: node->value = TRUE;
break;
case false: node->value = FALSE;
}
}
}
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Contents
1. Definitions and Representations

Computer Algorithm :
Analysis and Design

2. A Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm

3. A Shortest-Path Algorithm
4. Traversing Graphs and Digraphs

Krisana Chinnasarn, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Computer Science
Web: www.cs.buu.ac.th/~krisana
Graphs (I)
Reading: Chap.9 : Weiss, Chap.4 :Baase

Applications

What is a Graph?

networks (roads, flights,

communications)

V= {a,b,c,d,e}

JFK

E= {(a,b),(a,c),(a,d),
(b,e),(c,d),(c,e),
(d,e)}

CS16

electronic circuits

A graph G = (V,E) is composed of:

V: set of vertices
E: set of edges connecting the vertices in V
An edge e = (u,v) is a pair of vertices
Example:

LAX

STL

HNL

DFW
FTL

Terminology:
Adjacent and Incident

Terminology:
Degree of a Vertex

If (v0, v1) is an edge in an undirected graph,

The degree of a vertex is the number of edges

incident to that vertex
For directed graph,

v0 and v1 are adjacent

The edge (v0, v1) is incident on vertices v0 and v1

If <v0, v1> is an edge in a directed graph

the in-degree of a vertex v is the number of edges

that have v as the head
the out-degree of a vertex v is the number of edges
that have v as the tail
if di is the degree of a vertex i in a graph G with n
vertices and e edges, the number of edges is

v0 is adjacent to v1, and v1 is adjacent from v0

The edge <v0, v1> is incident on v0 and v1

n 1

e=(

d
0

28/04/2010

)/2

Why? Since adjacent vertices each

count the adjoining edge, it will be
counted twice
6

218 of 229

Terminology:
Path

Examples
0
3

3
3 1

2 3

6
1

1 G2 1
in:1, out: 1

in: 1, out: 2

in: 1, out: 0

3G1

directed graph
in-degree
out-degree

path: sequence of
vertices v1,v2,. . .vk such
that consecutive
vertices vi and vi+1 are
adjacent.

3
3

b
c

c
e d

d
abedc

G3

e
bedc

Even More Terminology

More Terminology
simple path: no repeated vertices
a

connected graph: any two vertices are connected by some path

b
bec

c
e

cycle: simple path, except that the last vertex is the same as
the first vertex
a

connected

not connected

subgraph: subset of vertices and edges forming a graph

connected component: maximal connected subgraph. E.g., the graph
below has 3 connected components.

b
acda

c
e

10

Subgraphs Examples
0
1

2
3
G1
0

1
(i)

0
1

(i)

(iii)
(b) Some of the subgraph of G3

tree

3(iv)

(ii)

tree - connected graph without cycles

forest - collection of trees

28/04/2010

(ii)
(iii)
(a) Some of the subgraph of G1

G3

More

tree

for est
tree
tree

(iv)
11

12

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Connectivity

More Connectivity

Let n = #vertices, and m = #edges

A complete graph: one in which all pairs of vertices
are adjacent
How many total edges in a complete graph?

n = #vertices
m = #edges
For a tree m = n - 1

Each of the n vertices is incident to n-1 edges, however, we

would have counted each edge twice! Therefore, intuitively, m
= n(n -1)/2.

n=5
m=4

If m < n - 1, G is
not connected

Therefore, if a graph is not complete, m < n(n -1)/2

n=5
m=3

n=5
m = (5 4)/2 = 10
13

14

Oriented (Directed) Graph

Directed vs. Undirected Graph

A graph where edges are directed

An undirected graph is one in which the pair

of vertices in a edge is unordered, (v0, v1) =
(v1,v0)
A directed graph is one in which each edge is
a directed pair of vertices, <v0, v1> != <v1,v0>
tail

head

15

16

ADT for Graph

Graph Representations

objects: a nonempty set of vertices and a set of undirected edges, where each
edge is a pair of vertices
functions: for all graph Graph, v, v1 and v2 Vertices
Graph Create()::=return an empty graph
Graph InsertVertex(graph, v)::= return a graph with v inserted. v has no
incident edge.
Graph InsertEdge(graph, v1,v2)::= return a graph with new edge
between v1 and v2
Graph DeleteVertex(graph, v)::= return a graph in which v and all edges
incident to it are removed
Graph DeleteEdge(graph, v1, v2)::=return a graph in which the edge (v1, v2)
is removed
Boolean IsEmpty(graph)::= if (graph==empty graph) return TRUE
else return FALSE
List Adjacent(graph,v)::= return a list of all vertices that are adjacent to v

Adjacency Matrix
Adjacency Lists

17

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18

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Examples for Adjacency Matrix

Adjacency Matrix

Let G=(V,E) be a graph with n vertices.

The adjacency matrix of G is a two-dimensional
n by n array, say adj_mat
If the edge (vi, vj) is in E(G), adj_mat[i][j]=1
If there is no such edge in E(G), adj_mat[i][j]=0
The adjacency matrix for an undirected graph is
symmetric; the adjacency matrix for a digraph
need not be symmetric

3
1
0
1
1

1
1
0
1

0 1 0

1 0 1
0 0 0

G2

G1

symmetric
undirected: n2/2
directed: n2

7
0
1

0
0

0
0

1 1
0 0
0 0
1 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 0

G4

19

Merits of Adjacency Matrix

1
1
1

0
1

20

Adjacency Lists (data structures)

Each row in adjacency matrix is represented as an adjacency list.

From the adjacency matrix, to determine the

connection of vertices is easy
n 1
The degree of a vertex is adj _ mat[i][ j]
j =0
For a digraph (= directed graph), the row sum is
the out_degree, while the column sum is the
in_degree
n 1

n 1

j =0

j =0

#define MAX_VERTICES 50
typedef struct node *node_pointer;
typedef struct node {
int vertex;
struct node *link;
};
node_pointer graph[MAX_VERTICES];
int n=0; /* vertices currently in use */

ind (vi ) = A[ j , i ] outd (vi ) = A[i , j ]

21

0
1

1
0
0
0

1
0

3
3
3
2
0

2
G3

Some Operations

6
7

2
2
1
1
G1

0
1
2

3
0
1
2
3

22

1
2

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

1
0
0
1
5
4
5
6
G4

degree

2
3
3
2

# of nodes in adjacency list

#

of edges in a graph
determined in O(n+e)

out-degree

6
7

of a vertex in a directed graph

# of nodes in its adjacency list

in-degree

of a vertex in a directed graph

traverse the whole data structure

23 nodes
An undirected graph with n vertices and e edges ==> n head nodes and 2e list

28/04/2010

of a vertex in an undirected graph

24

221 of 229

1. Definitions and
Representations

2. Min-Cost Spanning Tree

Representations

2
1

Adjacency Matrix
Adjacency Lists
Adjacency Multi-lists

3
1

G=(V, E, W)

2 1

weight

Vertex

LLLL

Greedy

(1) Sort E in the non-decreasing order of weights

2
3

NIL

NIL

O(eloge)
n2logn Why?
(2) Choose n1 edges from the sorted list of E
as long as the current selected edge does not
form a cycle with the previously-chosen edges

NIL

O(eloge + eG(n))
Kruskals algorithm !!!
Any Better way ?

3
NIL
25

26

Observation
A

1
3

15

1 3

20
2

5
C

G = (V, E, W)

tree vertices = {A, B, C} = VT

fringe vertices = {E,F,D} = VF

Why not local search ?

unseen vertices = {G, H} = VU

CE = {{A,D},{B,E},{C,F}}

27

28

Dijkstra / Prim Algorithm

Dijkstra / Prim Algorithm

B
1

C
2

29

28/04/2010

Select an arbitrary vertex to start the tree;

WHILE there are fringe vertices do
select an edge of minimum weight between a tree vertex
and a fringe vertex;
add the selected edge and the fringe vertex to the tree;
end

5
2

30

222 of 229

B
1

C
2

B
1

4
3

VT = { A }

VT = { A, C }

VF = { C, B, D }

VF = { B, D, E }

CE = { { A, C }, { A, B }, { A, D } }
3
1
4

CE = { { A, D }, { C, B }, { C, E } }
7
3
2
31

VT = { A, B, C }

B
1

C
2

B
1

4
3

32

5
2

VT = { A, B, C, D }

VF = { D, E }

VF = { E }

CE = { { B, D }, { B, E } }
1

CE = { { D, E } }

5
33

B
1

SI { Select an arbitrary vertex to start the tree }

vT = , vF = , CE = ;
vT = vT U {v} ;
Update vF and CE ;

C
2

4
3

34

while vF do ;
e : = min - weight edge in CE ;
Update vT, vF, CE ;
end {while}

5
2

VT = { A, B, C, D, E }
VF =

No sorting !!!
Why this algorithm works ?

CE =
35

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36

223 of 229

Lemma : Let G = ( V, E, W ) be a connected weighted graph

and E' E be a subset of the edges in some minimum
spanning tree T = ( V, ET ) for G. Let V' be the vertices
incident with edges in E'. If { x, y } is an edge of
minimum weight such that x V' and y V', then
E' U {x, y} ET.

x
y

[Proof]

T' = (V', E' )

y

T' T
T= (V, ET)

w
v

y
i) {x, y} ET trivial
ii) {x, y} ET
See the figure.
37

38

Algorithm : Minimum spanning tree(Dijkstra/Prim)

Time complexity

Input : G = (V,E,W), a weighted graph.

Output : The edges in a minimum spanning tree.
1. { Initialization }
Let x be an arbitrary vertex ;
ET:= ; stuck := false ; VT:={x};

Kruskal
Dijkstra & Prim

2. { Main loop ; x has just been brought into the tree. Update fringe and candidates. }
while VT V and not stuck do
3.
{ Replace some candidate edges. }
for each fringe vertex y adjacent to x do
Update
if W(xy) < W(the candidate edge e incident with y) then
candidate
xy replaces e as the candidate edge for y ;
edges
end { if }
end{for}
4.
{ Find new fringe vertices and candidate edges. }
for each unseen y adjacent to x do
Add new fringe vertices
y is now a fringe vertex and xy is a candidate ;
and edges. (candidate)
end { for } ;
5.
{ Ready to choose next edge. }
if there are no candidates then stuck := true { no spanning tree} ;
else
6.
{ Choose next edge. }
Find a candidate edge e, with minimum weight ;
x := the fringe vertex incident with e.
Add x and e to the tree.
{ x and e are no longer fringe and candidate. }
Choose new edges.
end { if }
end { while }
39

40

Algorithm : Minimum spanning tree (Dijkstra/Prim)

1. { Initialization }
Let x be an arbitrary vertex ;
ET:= ; stuck := false ; VT:={x} ;
O(n)
2. { Main loop ; x has just been brought into the tree.
Update fringe and candidates. }
while VT V and not stuck do
3. { Replace some candidate edges. }
for each fringe vertex y adjacent to x do
if W(xy) < W(the candidate edge e incident with y) then
xy replaces e as the candidate edge for y ;
end { if }
end{for}
O(|E|)
4. { Find new fringe vertices and candidate edges. }
for each unseen y adjacent to x do
y is now a fringe vertex ;
xy is now a candidate ;
end { for } ;
5. { Ready to choose next edge. }
if there are no candidates then stuck := true { no spanning tree} ;
else
6. { Choose next edge. }
Find a candidate edge e, with minimum weight ;
x := the fringe vertex incident with e.
Add x and e to the tree.
O(n2)
{ x and e are no longer fringe and candidate. }
end { if }
end { while }

( By induction on # of edges chosen )

min-cost edge

(m=1)

(m=k)

Assume that all the edges so far selected

are in a min-cost spanning tree for G.

( m = k+1) By the previous Lemma, the result follows.

28/04/2010

O (e + n 2 )
O(e + n log n)

Theorem : Dijkstra/Prim Algorithm correctly

constructs a min-cost spanning tree.
[proof]

O (e log e + eG (e))

41

O(|E|+n2)
42

224 of 229

fringeLink
B

3
6
7
G
3 2 C
F 5 1
I 4 H
2
6
8
2
E 1 D
4

2
A
3

parent

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

Lower Bound

adjacencyList

fringeWgt

status

(|E|)
Why ?
(1) a trivial lower bound O(|V| + |E|) = O(|E|)
(2) adversary argument
Every edge is required to be examined at least once.
Why ?
Suppose that some edge e is not examined at all.
(see below)

intree

nil
F

2
4

A
B

intree
fringe
unseen

(Adjacency lists
are not shown.
Nodes are
assumed to be in
alphabetical order
within each list.)

unseen

nil
F
C
H

7
3
3
1

A
A
G
G

fringe
intree

2
12 e

fringe
4

fringe

Shaded entries in fringeLink are

no longer in use. fringeList = I.

14

G = (V, E)

10 15

w(f) 2

fE/{e}

11
12
7
9
5

e must not be contained in a min-cost spanning tree.

why ?
Now, w(e) = 1
Contradiction ! why ?
(|E|)

[ Minimum spanning tree data structure ]

43

44

45

46

3. A shortest path algorithm

P : Given G = (V, E, W) and s,d V,
find a shortest path between s and d.
Does the Dijkstra/Prim algorithm also work for
solving the shortest path finding problem?
No !!!

Why ?

Dijkstras Algorithm
1

Step 0
{ initialization }
v1 := 0
vj := w1j, j = 2, 3, 4,, n
p := {1}, T := {2, 3, 4,, n}
Step 1
{ Designation of permanent of label }
find k such that vk =min
{ vj }
j T
T := T \{k}
P := P U {k}
if T = , stop ( if k = d, stop )
Step 2
{ Revision of Tentative label }
vj := min{ vj, vk + wkj ) j T
go to step 1.

2
4

s1 d4
w12 = 1, w23 = 3, w24 = 2, w34 =2

v1 := 0, v2 = 1, v3 = , v4 =
P := {1}, T := {2, 3, 4}
min{vj} = min{v2, v3, v4}
1

jT

k=2
Is k=4 ? No !!!
T := {2,3,4}/{2} = {3,4}
P := P U{2} = {1,2}
v3 = min{v3, v2+w23} = min{, 1+3} = 4
v4 = min{v4, v2+w24} = min{, 1+2} = 3
min{vj} = min{v3, v4} = min{4, 3} = v4

T := {3,4}/{4} = {3}
P := P U{4} = {1,2,4}
Is k=4 ? Yes !!!

jT

k=4

47

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48

225 of 229

4. Traversing Graphs and

Digraphs

Why does Dijkstras Algorithm

Work ?

start
8 Queen Problem
Recursion
Q

y'
x'

Q
Q
Q

(1,1)

(2,3)

(3,5)

(1,2) (1,3)
(1,4) (1,5) (1,6) (1,7) (1,8)
(2,4)

(2,5) (2,6) (2,7) (2,8)

(3,6)

(3,7)

(3,8)

Depth First Search

y
(4,2)

(4,7)

(4,8)

e
(5,4)

(5,8) (5,2) (5,4) (5,3) (5,4)

min
(6,4)

(6,4)

(7,6)

(7,6)

49

50

C
H

E
A

A
B

B
C
1

C
1
2

C
1
1
2

1
C
1
2

1
2

1
Depth First Search

Breadth First Search

51

F
I
6

B
2

3 C

E
Depth First Search

A 7
1

52

A
F

I
6

F 6

C
3
H 5
4

1
4

3
7 C

E
Breadth First Search

DFS tree

1 A
3 B4
C
7
H

2
5
E

6
I

BFS tree

E
procedure BFS(AdjList : HeaderList; v : VertexType)
var
Q: Queue
w: VertexType
begin
Q:=
visit and mark v; insert v in Q;
while Q do
x := Front(Q);
for each unmarked vertex w adjacent to x do
visit and mark w;
insert w in Q;
end{for};
end{while}
end{BFS}

procedure DFS (AdjList : HeaderList; v : VertexType)

var
s: Stack
w: VertexType
begin
s:=
visit, mark, and stack v;
while s!= do
while there are unmarked vertex w adjacent to Top(s) do
visit, mark, and stack w
end{while};
pop s;
end{outer while}
end{DFS}
53

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54

226 of 229

Depth First Search Tree ( Directed Graph )

Depth First Search

B
2

undirected graphs
G

C
H

A 7
1

C
3
H 5
4

I
6
E

Tree edges
Back edges
Cross edges
Descendant edges
(forward)

Tree edges
Back edges
(no other types)

Note : (1) top

(2) left

why not in
undirected graph?

down
right

55

56

Applications: Finding a Path

DFS vs. BFS

DFS Process

Find path from source vertex s to destination

vertex d
Use graph search starting at s and terminating
as soon as we reach d

start

destination

Need to remember edges traversed

A DFS on A

Use depth first search ?

Use breath first search?

G
D
B
A
57

B DFS on B
A

Call DFS on G

C
B
A

DFS on C

Call DFS on D

B
A

Return to call on B

found destination - done!

Path is implicitly stored in DFS recursion
Path is: A, B, D, G
58

DFS vs. BFS

F

G
destination

start

BFS Process

rear

front

A
Initial call to BFS on A
Add A to queue
rear

rear

front

rear

front

D C

Dequeue A
Add B

Dequeue B
Add C, D

rear

front

D
Dequeue C
Nothing to add

front

G
Dequeue D
Add G

found destination - done!

Path must be stored separately

59

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