Introduction to Unix

Rob Funk
<[email protected]>
University Technology Services
Workstation Support
http://wks.uts.ohio-state.edu/

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 Course Objectives
• basic background in Unix structure
• knowledge of getting started
• directory navigation and control

• file maintenance and display commands

• shells
• Unix features

• text processing

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 Course Objectives
Useful commands
• working with files

• system resources
• printing
• vi editor

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 In the Introduction to UNIX document
3

• shell programming
• Unix command summary tables

• short Unix bibliography (also see web site)

We will not, however, be covering these topics in the lecture.
Numbers on slides indicate page number in book.

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 History of Unix
7–8

1960s multics project (MIT, GE, AT&T)

1970s AT&T Bell Labs
1970s/80s UC Berkeley
1980s DOS imitated many Unix ideas
Commercial Unix fragmentation
GNU Project
1990s Linux
now Unix is widespread and available from many
sources, both free and commercial

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 Unix Systems
7–8

SunOS/Solaris Sun Microsystems

Digital Unix (Tru64) Digital/Compaq
HP-UX Hewlett Packard
Irix SGI
UNICOS Cray
NetBSD, FreeBSD UC Berkeley / the Net
Linux Linus Torvalds / the Net

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 Unix Philosophy
• Multiuser / Multitasking
• Toolbox approach
• Flexibility / Freedom

• Conciseness
• Everything is a file
• File system has places, processes have life

• Designed by programmers for programmers

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 Unix Structure
The Operating System
9–10

Programs

Kernel

Hardware

System Calls

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 The File System
11–12

bin etc lib usr dev tmp home

sh date csh libc.so bin man local ttya null

passwd group bin man src frank lindadb rfunk

mail bin src

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 Unix Programs
13

• Shell is the command line interpreter

• Shell is just another program
A program or command

• interacts with the kernel

• may be any of:
– built-in shell command
– interpreted script
– compiled object code file

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Any Questions?

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 Getting Started — Logging In
14

• Login and password prompt to log in

• login is user’s unique name

• password is changeable; known only to user, not to

system staff
• Unix is case sensitive

• issued login and password (usually in lower case)

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 Terminal Type
14

• Default is often to prompt the user

• e.g. vt100, xterm or sun

• To reset:
• setenv TERM terminaltype (C-shell)
• may need to unsetenv TERMCAP

• TERM=terminaltype; export TERM (Bourne shell)

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 Passwords
15

Do:
• make sure nobody is looking over your shoulder when
you are entering your password.
• change your password often
• choose a password you can remember

• use eight characters, more on some systems

• use a mixture of character types – include punctuation
and other symbols

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 Passwords
15

Don’t:
• use a word (or words) in any language
• use a proper name
• use information in your wallet
• use information commonly known about you
• use control characters
• write your password anywhere
• EVER give your password to anybody

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 Passwords
15

Your password is your account security:

• To change your password, use the passwd command

• Change your initial password immediately

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 Exiting
15

ˆC interrupt
ˆD can log a user off; frequently disabled
logout leave the system
exit leave the shell

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 Unix Command Line Structure
16

A command is a program that tells the Unix system to do

something. It has the form:
command options arguments

• “Whitespace” separates parts of the command line

• An argument indicates on what the command is to
perform its action
• An option modifies the command, usually starts with “-”

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 Unix Command Line Structure
16

• Not all Unix commands will follow the same standards

• Options and syntax for a command are listed in the
“man page” for the command

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 Getting Help
19

man: On-Line manual

% man command
% man -k keyword

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 Control Keys
17

Perform special functions

ˆS pause display
ˆQ restart display
ˆC cancel operation
ˆU cancel line
ˆD signal end of file
ˆV treat following control character as normal
character

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 stty - Terminal Control
17–18

• reports or sets terminal control options

• configures aspects of I/O control
• syntax:
stty attribute value
• example:
stty erase ˆH

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Directory Navigation and Control Commands
20–22

pwd print working directory

cd change working directory
(“go to” directory)
mkdir make a directory
rmdir remove directory

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 List directory contents
23–24

ls [options] [argument]

-a list all files

-d list directory itself, not contents
-l long listing (lists mode, link info, owner, size,
last modification
-g unix group (requires -l option)

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 List directory contents
23–24

Each line (when using -l option of ls) includes the following:

• type field (first character)

• access permissions (characters 2–10):

– first 3: user/owner
– second 3: assigned unix group
– last 3: others

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 Permissions
24

Permissions are designated:

r read permission
w write permission
x execute permission
- no permission
s and t also seen in special cases

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 File Maintenance Commands
25–28

chmod change the file or directory access

permissions (mode)
chgrp change the group of the file
chown change the owner of a file

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 Change permissions on file
27–28

chmod [options] file

Using + and - with a single letter:

u user owning file

g those in assigned group
o others

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 Change permissions on file
27–29

chmod [options] file

chmod u+w file
gives the user (owner) write permission
chmod g+r file
gives the group read permission
chmod o-x file
removes execute permission for others

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 Change permissions on file
27–29

chmod [options] file

using numeric representations for permissions:

r = 4
w = 2
x = 1
Total: 7

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 Change permissions on file
27–29

chmod [options] file

chmod 7 7 7 filename
user group others
gives user, group, and others r, w, x permissions

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 Change permissions on file
27–29

chmod [options] file

chmod 750 filename

• gives the user read, write, execute

• gives group members read, execute

• gives others no permissions

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 Change permissions on file
27–29

chmod [options] file

chmod 640 filename

• gives the user read, write

• gives group members read

• gives others no permissions

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 Setting default permissions
49

umask mask
• set in startup files for the account
• masks out permissions
• umask numbers added to desired permission number
equals 7

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 File maintenance commands
25–29

chgrp change the group of the file

can be done only by member of group
chown change the ownership of a file
usually need root access
rm remove (delete) a file
cp copy file
mv move (or rename) file

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 Display Commands
30–32

echo echo the text string to stdout

cat concatenate (list)
head display first 10 (or #) lines of file
tail display last 10 (or #) lines of file

more
less page through a text file
pg

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Any Questions?

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 System Resources
33–40

These commands report or manage system resources

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 Disk space commands
33–35

df [options] [directory]
% df -k /

du [options] [directory] % du
% du directory
% du -s directory
% du -k directory

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 Show status of processes
35–36

ps [options]
% ps
% ps -ef
% ps auxw

Options vary from system to system — see the man pages

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 Terminate a process
36

kill [-signal] processID

% kill -l
displays the available kill signals
% kill -9 processID
last resort — “nuke” without mercy

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 User listing
37

who [am i]
% who
lists all users currently on system
% who am i
reports information on command user
% whoami
reports username of command user

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 Report program locations
37–38

whereis [options] command

-b report binary files only

-m report manual page files only
-s report source files only
Examples:
% whereis mail
% whereis -b mail
% whereis -m mail

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 Report the command found
38

which command
will report the name of the file that will be executed
when the command is invoked
• full path name

• alias found first

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 Report the name of machine
38

hostname
reports the name of the machine the user is logged into
uname [options]
has additional options to print info about system
hardware and software

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 Record your session
38–39

script [-a] [filename]

-a appends content to a file

% script
(...commands...)
% exit
% cat typescript

typescript is the default name of the file used by script

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 Date
40

date [options] [+format]

-u use Universal Time (GMT)

+format:

+%a +%t +%D +%y +%j

% date
% date -u
% date +%a%t%D
% date ’+%Y:%j’

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 Printing Commands
41–42

BSD and others:

lpr [options] filename
lpq [options] [job#] [username]
lprm [options] [job#] [username]

System V:
lp [options] filename
lpstat [options]
cancel [requestID] [printer]

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Any Questions?

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Handy file commands
70

More fun with files

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 touch — Create a file
76

touch [options] file

Options:

-c don’t create file if it doesn’t already exist

% touch file

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 ln — Link to another file
78

ln [options] source target

% ln -s chkit chkmag
symbolic link
% ln chkit chkmag2
hard link

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 find — Find files
89–90

find directory [options] [actions] [...]

% find . -name ay -ls
% find . -newer empty -print
% find /usr/local -type d -print

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 Compression
91-93

compress [options] [file]

zcat [file.Z]
uncompress [options] [file.Z]

% compress logins.*
% zcat beauty.Z | head
% uncompress logins.*.Z

gzip / gunzip often used too – .gz extension

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 tar — Archive files
93

tar [options] [directory/file]

Options:

-c create an archive
-t table of contents list
-x extract from archive
-f file archive file is named file
-v verbose

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 tar — Archive files
93

% tar -cf logfile.tar logs.*

% tar -tf logfile.tar
% tar -xf logfile.tar

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 fgrep — find text in a file
61

fgrep [options] text [files...]

The fgrep utility is a simplified version of the grep utility.
fgrep is used to search for exact strings in text files.
Some options for fgrep are:

-i ignore case
-v display only lines that dont match
-n display line number with the line where
match was found

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Any Questions?

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 Shells
45

The shell sits between you and the operating system

• acts as a command interpreter
• reads input

• translates commands into actions to be taken by the

system
To see what your current login shell is:

echo $SHELL

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 Bourne Shell (sh)
45

• good features for I/O control — often used for scripts

• not well suited for interactive users
• other shells based on Bourne may be suited for
interactive users
• default prompt is $

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 C Shell (csh)
45

• uses C-like syntax for scripting

• I/O more awkward than Bourne shell
• nicer for interactive use
• job control
• history
• default prompt is %

• uses ˜ symbol to indicate a home directory (user’s or

others’)

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 Other Shells
45

Based on the Bourne Shell:

• Korn (ksh)
• Bourne-Again Shell (bash)
• Z Shell (zsh)

Based on the C Shell:

• T-C shell (tcsh)

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 Built-in Shell Commands
46–47

The shells have a number of built-in commands:

• executed directly by the shell

• don’t have to call another program to be run

• different for the different shells

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 Environment Variables
48

DISPLAY
EDITOR
PAGER
PATH
TERM

csh setenv NAME value

sh NAME=value ; export NAME

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 Shell Variables
48

PS1 (sh)
prompt (csh)
others as needed

csh set name=value

sh name=value
These are used by the shell and shell scripts; not seen or used
by external programs

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 Shell startup
49

The file .profile (sh) or .login (csh) is used at login to:

• set path
• define functions
• set terminal parameters (stty)

• set terminal type

• set default file permissions (umask)

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 Sample .profile file
49

PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ucb:/usr/local/bin:.
export PATH
PS1="{ ‘hostname‘ ‘whoami‘ } "
ls() { /bin/ls -sbF "$@"; }
ll() { ls -al "$@"; }
stty erase ˆH
eval ‘tset -Q -s -m ’:?xterm’‘
umask 077

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 C Shell Features
50–51

• noclobber
• ignoreeof

• history
• alias

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 .login and .cshrc
50–51

• .login runs only at login time

• tell whether you have mail

• tell who else is online

• configure terminal settings
• .cshrc runs whenever the shell starts

• set environment and shell variables

• set aliases

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 Sample .login file
51

# .login
stty erase ˆH
set noglob
eval ‘tset -Q -s -m ’:?xterm’ ‘
unset noglob

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 Sample .cshrc file
50–51

set path=(/usr/bin /usr/ucb /usr/local/bin ˜/bin .)

set prompt = "{‘hostname‘ ‘whoami‘ !}"
set noclobber
set ignoreeof
set history=100 savehist=50

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 Sample .cshrc file
50–51

#aliases
alias h history
alias ls "/usr/bin/ls -sbF"
alias ll ls -al
alias cd ’cd \!*;pwd’
umask 077

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 csh Job Control
51

• Putting a job into the background

• appending & to the command line

• ˆZ to stop while job is running

• bg to continue stopped job in background
• fg to return the job to the foreground

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 csh Job Control
51

• builtin jobs command to list background jobs

• kill command to kill a background job

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 History
52–53

C Shell, Korn shell and others retain information about

former commands executed within the shell

• Use history and savehist variables to set number of

commands retained:
• in .cshrc:
set history=100 savehist=50

• saved in ˜/.history between logins

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 History shortcuts in csh
53

% history nn
prints last nn commands

% !!
repeats the last command
% !nn
repeats the command numbered nn
% !string
repeats latest command starting with string

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 Changing your Shell
54

• chsh
• passwd -e /usr/local/bin/tcsh
The new shell must be the full path name for the shell on the
system
Frequently standard shells:

Bourne: /bin/sh
Korn: /bin/ksh
C: /bin/csh

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 Changing your Shell
54

• Alternate shells should be listed in /etc/shells

• tcsh and bash most common alternatives

• Less frustrating to fix typos or redo previous commands.
To try the shell without changing to it, just type its name at
your system prompt. (Type exit to return to normal.)

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Any Questions?

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 Special Unix Features
55

I/O redirection and piping

• output redirection to a file

• input redirection from a file

• piping
• output of one command becomes the input of a
subsequent command

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 Standard File Descriptors
55

stdin Standard input to the program

stdout Standard output from the program
stderr Standard error output
These are not called by name at shell prompt, but are often
referenced by these names.

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 File Descriptors
55

stdin normally from the keyboard, but can redirect

from a file or command
stdout & stderr normally to the terminal screen, but can
redirect either or both to a file or command

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 File Redirection
55–57

> redirect standard output to file

command > outfile
>> append standard output to file
command >> outfile
< input redirection from file
command < infile
| pipe output to another command
command1 | command2

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 File Redirection (csh)
55–57

>& file redirect stdout and stderr to file

>>& file append stdout and stderr to file
|& command pipe stdout and stderr to command
To redirect stdout and stderr to separate files:
% (command > outfile ) >& errfile

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 File Redirection (sh)
55–57

2>file direct stderr to file

>file 2>&1 direct both stdout and stderr to file
>>file 2>&1 append both stdout and stderr to file
2>&1|command pipe stdout and stderr to command

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 File Redirection (sh)
55–57

To redirect stdout and stderr to two separate files:

$ command > outfile 2 > errfile

To discard stderr:
$ command 2 > /dev/null
(/dev/null is a “black hole” for bits)

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 Other Special Command Symbols
58

; command separator
& run the command in the background
&& run the following command only if previous
command completes successfully
|| run the following command only if previous
command did not complete successfully
() grouping — commands within parentheses
are executed in a subshell

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 Quoting
58

\ escape the following character (take it

literally)

’ ’ don’t allow any special meaning to characters

within single quotes (except ! in csh)
" " allow variable and command substitution
inside double quotes (does not disable $ and
\ within the string)

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 Backquotes
58

‘command‘ take the output of command and substitute it

into the command line
Works inside double-quotes

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 Wild Cards
58

? match any single character

* match any string of zero or more characters
[abc] match any one of the enclosed characters
[a-z] match any character in the range a through z

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 Wild Cards
58

[!def] (sh) match any characters not one of the

[ˆdef] (csh) enclosed characters

{abc,bcd,cde} match any set of characters separated by

comma (csh)

˜ user’s own home directory (csh)

˜user home directory of specified user (csh)

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Any Questions?

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 Text Processing

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 Editors
123–127

Programs that let you interactively edit text files

• Textual
– vi / vim
– emacs
– pico
• Graphical
– emacs / xemacs
– dtpad (CDE)
– jot (SGI)

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 vi — Visual Editor
126

• Pronounce both letters: V-I, never “Vy”

• Three modes
– Command mode (“beep mode”)
– Insert mode (“no beep mode”)
– Command line mode (“colon mode”)
• Commands are generally case sensitive

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 Cursor Movement
126

arrow keys (depending on terminal)

h, j, k, l alternates for arrows
[n] h left [n] space(s)
[n] j down [n] space(s)
[n] k up [n] space(s)
[n] l down [n] space(s)

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 Cursor Movement
126

ˆF forward one screen

ˆB back one screen
ˆD down half screen
ˆU up half screen
not case sensitive

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 Cursor Movement
126

G go to last line of file

[n] G go to last line or line [n]
$ end of current line
ˆ beginning of text on current line
0 beginning of current line
[n] w forward [n] word(s)
[n] b back [n] word(s)
e end of word

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 Inserting Text
126

i insert text before the cursor

a append text after the cursor
I insert text at beginning of line
A append text at end of line
o open new line after current line
O open new line before current line

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 Deleting Text
126

dd delete current line

[n] dd delete [n] line(s)
[n] dw delete [n] word(s)
D delete from cursor to end of line
x delete current character
[n] x delete [n] characters
X delete previous character (like backspace)

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 Change commands
126

cw change word
[n] cw change next [n] word(s)
c$ change from cursor to end of line
˜ change case of character
J joins current line and next line
u undo the last command just done

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 Change commands
126

. repeat last change

[n] yy yank [n] line(s) to buffer
[n] yw yank [n] word(s) to buffer
p puts yanked or deleted text after cursor
P puts yanked or deleted text before cursor

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 File Manipulation
126

:w write changes to file

:wq write changes and quit
:w! force overwrite of file
:q quit if no changes made
:q! quit without saving changes
:! shell escape
:r! insert result of shell command at cursor posi-
tion

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Any Questions?

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 Text Processing Commands
61

• grep / egrep / fgrep — search the argument for all

occurences of the search string; list them

• sed — stream editor for editing files from script or

command line
• awk / nawk — scan for patterns in a file and process the
results

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 grep
61–64

grep [options] regexp [files...]

The grep utility is used to search for regular expressions in
Unix files.
fgrep searches for exact strings. egrep uses “extended”
regular expressions.

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 grep options
61–64

Some options for grep are:

-i ignore case
-v display only lines that dont match
-n display line number with the line where
match was found
grep ’regexp’ file

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 Regular Expression Syntax
59–60

Regular expressions:
• allow pattern matching on text
• combine normal and special characters (metacharacters)

• should not be confused with wildcards for matching files

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 Regular Expression Syntax
59–60

Regular expressions come in three different forms:

• Anchors — tie the pattern to a location on the line

• Character sets — match a single character at a single
position

• Modifiers — specify how many times to repeat the

previous expression

Regular Expressions can be combined to form longer regular

expressions.

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 Regular Expression Syntax
59–60

. match any single character except newline

* match zero or more instances of single ex-
pression preceding it
[abc] match any of the characters enclosed
[a-d] match any character in enclosed range

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 Regular Expression Syntax
59–60

[ˆabc] match any character NOT in the enclosed set

ˆexp regular expression must start at the beginning
of the line
exp$ regular expression must end at the end of the
line
\ treat the next character literally

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Any Questions?

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More file processing commands
70

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 file — File type
86–88

file [options] file

Options:

-f filelist
filelist is a file which contains a list of files to
examine
-h don’t follow symbolic links (SVR4)
-L follow symbolic links (BSD)
% file *

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 strings — find printable strings
85

strings [options] file

Options:

-n num use number as minimum string length

-num (same)
-a look at all of object file

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 sort — Sort file contents
79–81

sort [options] [+pos] file

-n numeric order
-u unique; omit multiple copies
-f fold upper case to lower case
-d dictionary order (ignore punctuation)
-b ignore leading blanks

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 uniq — remove duplicate lines
84

uniq [options] file [file.new]

Options:

-d one copy of only the repeated lines

-u select only the lines not repeated
-c include count of duplications in original
% uniq file file.new
% uniq -2 file

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 wc — (Word) Count
75

wc [options] file
Options:

-c count bytes
-m count characters (SVR4)
-l count lines
-w count words
% wc userlist

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Any Questions?

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 Shell Scripts
103

• Similar to DOS batch files

• Quick and simple programming

• Text file interpreted by shell, effectively new command

• List of shell commands to be run sequentially
• Execute permissions, no special extension necessary

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 Magic first line
103

#!
Include full path to interpreter (shell)
• #!/bin/sh

• #!/bin/csh -f

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 Special Variables (sh)
105

$# Number of arguments on command line

$0 Name that script was called as
$1 – $9 Command line arguments
$@ All arguments (separately quoted)
$* All arguments
$? Numeric result code of previous command
$$ Process ID of this running script

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 Interacting With User
110

echo output text

Talk to user (or ask questions)
read variable
Get input from user, put it in variable

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 Decisions
• test and [

• if [ . . . ]; then
...
fi
• case $variable in . . . esac
• for variable in . . .
do . . . done
Check sh man page for details, also look at examples.

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Any Questions?

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Introduction to Unix
Rob Funk
<[email protected]>
University Technology Services
Workstation Support
http://wks.uts.ohio-state.edu/

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