Preface Basic Physics is intended to cover part of the K.C.E and U.C.E syllabi in Physic s.

Each topic has been written after an exhaustive research to make it as compre hensive as possible and to include the most recent advances in the syllabus and the subject as well. Efforts have been made to write the book in a clear, concise and very simplified language which an average student can understand with minimum assistance. Throughout the book, a good number of worked examples on each topic have been in cluded. Many of these are easy and bring out the principles of the subject. This is intended to assist the reader understand and grasp the content of the subjec t from first principles rather than cramming. Its hoped that all the explanations and calculations are such that all students w ill understand them but at the same time the content therein will provide the ba sic principles to Physics beginners. Again at the end of each topic, many Exercises with Answers have been added so t hat learners can obtain an immediate test of their understanding of the topic. Looking at the book as a whole, it is commendable work and appropriate for all F orm 1, Form 2, Form 3 and Form 4 students and Physics tutors. Special thanks go to colleagues N.U. Ayin and A. Kekoti, N.M Metropolitan univer sity south Africa for there valuable suggestions and comments in writing the boo k. Sserem ba Moses

CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. 1.1 1.2 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Measurements and units of measurement Standard Form 1 2 4 5 PAGE

Exercise 1.3 6 1.4 1.5 1.5.1 Significant figures Measurement of length Measuring devices Vernier caliper

6 8 9

1.5.2

Micrometer screw gauge

11 13 13 14 15 18

Exercise 1.6 Measurement of mass

Exercise 1.7 1.8 19 2. 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 32 DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY R.D of Solid and Liquid Archimedes Principle and Floatation Measurement of Upthrust Determination of R.D of a liquid Floatation 28 21 Measurement of time Volume Exercise

26 28

30

Self assessment Test 3. 3.1 3.2 40 3.3 FORCES AND QUANTITIES Types of Forces Types of Friction Scalar and vector quantities 38

34

38

43 48 51 52 54 56 56

Self assessment Test 3.4 3.5 Surface Tension Cohesion and Adhesion

Self assessment Test 4. 4.1 4.2 56 4.3 57 4.4 PROPERTIES OF MATTER Particulate nature of matter. States of Matter. Brownian Motion. Diffusion.

58 4.5 Size of a Molecule. 59 63 65

Exercise 5. 5.1 65 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Definitions

5.2 Hookes Law 67 Exercise 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 82 5.7 83 Stress, Strain and Youngs modulus Elastic Potential Energy Struts and Ties Building Materials Notches

71 73 76 80

Self assessment Test 6. 6.1 86 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY Types of Energies 86

85

Exercise 6.2 94 Exercise 96 7. 98 7.1 7.2 101 7.3 102 MACHINES Types of Machines Classes of Levers Types of Pulleys Power

92

100

Exercise 7.4 8. 112 Other Machines MOTION

106 107 - 110

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Linear Motion Speed, Velocity and Acceleration. Motion Graphs Equations of Linear Motion

112 112 114 117 120 128 129 134 135 136 137

Exercise 8.5 8.5.1 8.6 8.7 8.8 Motion under gravity Projectile motion Fluid Motion Circular motion Newtons Laws of motion

Exercise 8.9 Momentum 139 Exercise 9. 9.1 9.2 9.3 TURNING FORCES Principle of moments Verification the Principle Types of Equilibrium

146 147 148 151 155 155

Exercise 10. 158 10.1 10.2 161 10.3 10.4 166 GAS LAWS Charles Law Boyles Law Pressure Law Equation of State

158

163

Exercise 11. 11.1 11.2 172 11.3 CONCEPTS OF HEAT Nature of Heat Expansion Thermometer

169 171 171

175

11.4 11.5 11.6

Heat transfer Thermos Flask Understanding Heat calculations.

179 186 187 190 - 202

Exercise 11.8 205 Latent Heat

Exercise 11.7 11.8 Latent heat and kinetic theory Melting and Freezing 230

212 222 223

Refrigerator and mode of operation 12. 234 12.1 237 12.2 12.3 12.4 248 LIGHT Reflection of Light Mirrors and Image formation Mirror Formula Refraction of light

238 246

Exercise 12.5 12.6 262 13. 267 13.1 Lenses Dispersion

258 261

PRESSURE Definition and simple calculations 267 270 271 274 279 282 287 288

Exercise 13.2 Pressure in liquids

Exercise 13.3 13.4 Pressure in gasses. Transmission of pressure in fluids.

Exercise 14. ELECTROSTATICS

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 15. 15.1 304 15.2 15.21 15.3 15.31 15.32 15.33 15.4 15.41 15.5 15.6 328 15.7 15.71 16. 16.1 333 16.2 335 16.3 16.4 339 17. 340 17.1

The gold leaf electroscope (G.L.E) Methods of Charging a body Lightening and lightening conductors. Faradays ice pail experiment. Electric fields CURRENT ELECTRICITY Definitions Ohms law Ohmic and non - Ohmic conductors Connecting resistors. Series connection Parallel arrangement Examples Arrangement of cells Examples Effects of electric current Electrical power Commercial unit of electric energy Examples ELECTRIC CELLS Simple cells Dry cell Lead acid accumulator Nife cells 311 309 304 299 300

289 290

301

307

310 310

311 318 319 327

330 330 333

336

MAGNETISM Magnetic materials 340

17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.51 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.91 17.92 18.0 18.1 19. 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 391 19.51 20. 20.1 398 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 416

Magnetization and Demagnetization Magnetic fields Magnetic effect of an electric current Electromagnets Applications Mechanical effects of an electric current Moving coil galvanometer Moving coil loudspeaker Electromagnetic induction Applications Self and mutual induction Transformer Examples MODERN PHYSICS Methods of producing of electrons Cathode rays and x rays Cathode ray oscilloscope Radioactivity Half-life Examples WAVE MOTION Transverse waves Longitudinal waves Properties of waves. Electromagnetic waves Sound waves Resonance 370 374 353

342 345 351 353

355 359 366 366

376 377 380 380 382 385 388

393 398

400 401 404 406

BASIC PHYSICS Form 1 Form 4 2011 S.M. Demore

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Physics as a branch of science, attempts to investigate movements and forces, th e different forms of energy, the matter that makes up the universe and everythin g in it. Matter refers to any materials which occupy space. These can be examined by meas uring and weighing. DEFINITION: Physics is the study of matter in relation to energy. Through experiments, theories and observations, Physics aims; To understand and explore everything in the world. To discover the scientific laws that explain the properties and behaviours of ma tter through performing experiments. To develop an understanding of the world of science and modern technology. To develop future careers like Engineering, Electronics, Information Technology, Medicine, Science Education e.t.c.. To explain why things work as they are.

It explains the various forms of Physics as grouped below. Mechanics, Heat, Electricity and Magnetism, Sound, Light (Optics), Modern P hysics (Atomic and Nuclear Physics) With New concepts and ideas, there is always development of New Technology and t his often stimulates new production. The following are some of the day today applications of Physics. Physics is applied at home for cooking, Lighting, e.t.c. In industries for manufacturing clothes, Iron sheets, soda and beers In communication e.g Radios, Televisions, Phones, Satellites In construction e.g Roads, Dams, Bridges, Schools e.t.c.. In wars e.g Guns., Bombs, Missiles e.t.c. In transport e.g Cars, Aero planes, submarines e.t.c.. 1.1 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Measurements in Physics are based on Internationally agreed units. Both the quan tity and the measurement used must be stated to give meaning to a measurement, e .g. A mass of a boy is 50kg, the height of a girl is 120cm, Sserembas temperatur e was as high as 390C e.t.c. Scientists all over the world use a system of units which is universally recogni zed as the System International units (S.I) from a French name Systm Internationa l dUnits. All measurements are described in terms of the three fundamental quantities of m atter which are; Mass, Length and Time. The table below shows the basic units in the S.I system that are used in measure ment of physical quantities. PHYSICAL QUANTITY Mass Kilogram Length Metre m Time Second s Temperature Kelvin Electric current Amount of substance UNIT NAME kg K Ampere A Mole mol BASIC UNIT SYMBOL

However there are some suitable units which are derived for measuring some physi cal quantities e.g the Speed of a car is the distance (m) it travels each second (s). Quantities formed mathematically in terms of the Fundamental quantities of mass, Length and Time are called Derived units. Some derived quantities are summarized in the table. PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT NAME SYMBOL Area Square metre m2 Volume Cubic Metre m3 Density Kilogram per metre cubed kg/m3 or kg m3 Acceleration Metre per second squared m/s or m s-1 Velocity Metre per second m/s2 or m s-2 Force newton N E.m.f volt V Pressure pascals Pa or N/m2 Power watt W Energy joule J Momentum kilogram metre per second kg m s-1 When writing derived units, there is a space between each base unit in the deriv ed unit e.g m s-1 and NOT ms-1, kg m s-1 and NOT kgms-1. How to Derive Units. Example. Density = Mass = kg = kg/m3 or kg m-3 as the S.I uni

t of Volume Example. m3 Momentum = mass velocity = kg m s-1 density

= kg m s-1 Example. Power = Work done = J = J/s Time taken s Bigger and Smaller units. Basic and derived units can be expressed in convenient forms using prefixes whic h denote a multiple. Some of these are given in the table below. Factor 103 106 109 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Prefix kilo mega giga centi milli micro nano pico Symbol k M G C m n P Example 20km = 20 103 m 20Mbytes = 20 106 bytes 1.3GHz = 1.3 109 Hz 2cm = 2 10-2 m 3mm = 3 10-3 m 4 m = 4 10-6 m 1.5nm = 1.5 10-9 m 2.3PF = 2.3 10-12F or Js-1

1.2

STANDARD FORM or SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 10

A number is in standard form when there is one figure (not zero) before the deci mal point. Thus any number can be written in standard form as a 10n where 0 a and n in an integer. The superscript or exponent (n) shows the number of times the factor must be multiplied together. Examples. (i) (v) Write the following numbers in standard form 23.4 00.408 (vii) (iii) 10 0.0000085 (v) (iv) 0.1 9878.62

250000 (ii) 0.0003 (vi)

Solutions. (i) = 2.5 105 Move the arrow to the left to a number less than but greater than zero and place your decimal point. Count the decimal places you have moved. That gives you the power. (ii) 23.4 = = 2.34 101 {1 decimal place to left (+ve power) } =1.0 101 {1 decimal place to left (+ve power) } 103 { 3 decimal place to left (+ve p

(iii) 10 = (iv) 9878.62 = ower)}

= 9.8862

(v) 0.0003 = (vi) 0.408 = = 4.08 (vii) 0.0000085 = = 8.5

= 3

10-4 { 4 decimal place to right (- ve power) }

10-1 { 1 decimal place to right (- ve power) }

10-6 {1 decimal place to right (- ve power)}

Note: A whole number expressed in standard form will always carry a positive (+v e) power while a decimal number expressed in standard form will always carry a n egative power (- ve) Exercise. 1. Express the following in scientific notation. 240000 (iii) (vi) 300 (x) 16.3 (vii) (iv) 3335 0.0078 (viii)

(i) 9504.42 (ii) (v) 0.84 445000 (ix) 450million 2. (a) 3.

0.000143

Work out the following 103 109 (b) 104 10-2 (c) 4 106 2 10-3

The thickness of a molecule is 0.000000001 m. This can be written as C.1.0 10-10 m D. 1.0 10-8 m

A. 1.0 10-9 m B. 1.0 10-9 m

Applications of convection. Land and sea breeze. During day, land picks more heat from the sun than the sea simply because land h as a lower specific heat capacity and is a better absorber of heat than the sea. This causes air near the land get more heated and thus rises above the land. Co oler air from the sea flows towards the land to replace the warm air. Air from t he atmosphere moves down into the sea. Combination of all the above sets up a ci rculation current as illustrated below.

This is called a sea breeze since its cool and flows from sea towards land. At NIGHT both land and sea cool, but because land is a better absorber of heat, its also a better emitter of heat therefore it cools faster than the sea. Air above sea heats more than that in the land. Warm air above the sea rises yet the cooler air from the land flows towards the sea to replace warm air. Air in the atmosphere flows towards land. This sets up a circulation current as that be fore.

This is called a land breeze since its cool and flows from land towards sea. Ventilation in houses On a hot day, air in the room may get heated up and thus becomes warm. Fresh air (cool air) then enters the room through windows or doors. The warm air flows ou t of the room through ventilators while cool one enters. Thats why its recommended to set up a building with enough ventilation. 11.7 Motor car radiation. Radiation of different surfaces.

To show that black surface is a better absorber of heat than shiny surface.

n.

Choose two similar cans A and B. Outer of B is painted black (dull) and outer of A painted white. Fill the cans with equal amount of water. Insert thermometers in the holes in the lids. Place the cans at equal distances from the heat source. Read and record temperatures on both thermometers after some time. Its observed that the value of T2 is higher than that of T1 at every reading take

Alternatively. The above experiment can be illustrated using the arrangement bellow.

lls OFF face is

One of the metal surfaces is painted white (polished) and the other black. Cork is attached on each of the reverse sides of the surfaces by means of wax. The source of heat A is then placed at equal distance from each of the surfaces. After a short while, the wax behind the dull black surface melts and the cork fa while that of the polished surface remains. This shows that dull black surface is a better absorber of heat and polished sur a poor absorber.

To show that dull black surfaces are GOOD EMITTERS than polished (white) surface s.

The above experiment can be illustrated using Leslies cube (hollow metal cube). T he sides of the cube are painted white and dull black. The cube is then filled w ith hot water and the radiation from each surface detected using a thermopile. T he thermopile has got a pointer which deflects when a radiation falls on it. Dif ferent sides of the cube are made to face the thermopile at a time. Its observed that, greatest deflection is obtained when dull black surface is made to face th e thermopile and least deflection obtained when highly polished surface (white s urface) faces the thermopile. We hence say dull black surfaces are better emitters of heat (Good radiators of heat) than highly polished surfaces. A hot object standing on a metallic table on the surface of the moon loses heat. Explain why. Answer: There are two processes by which the hot body (object) will lose heat i. e; conduction and radiation. During conduction the electrons in the hot object move faster hence colliding wi th atoms in the metallic table. By this way, heat energy is passed onto these a toms and hence heat loss. During radiation, heat energy of the hot object is lost in form of electromagnet ic radiation. Such radiations travel in vacuum around the object on the moon. Since the moon has no atmosphere (no gases) we dont expect heat loss by convectio n.

Exercise. 1. (i) (ii) 2. At this point you should be able to explain; Why car radiators are painted black. Why a white dress is preferred on hot days. (a) With reference to heat define the terms: (i) conduction (ii) convection

(b) (i) Give two differences between boiling and evaporation. (ii) Explain the observation: Scalds of steam burn the skin more severely tha n boiling water. ( c) Describe briefly an experiment to illustrate that water is a bad conduct or of heat. (d) What is 370C on thermodynamic scale of temperature? 4. (b) 11.8 (a) Describe the fixed points of a Celsius scale of temperature. Give two advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric liquid. THE THERMOS (VACCUM) FLASK.

The vaccum flask keeps because; Heat losses by Heat losses by Heat losses by

a cold liquid cold and hot liquid hot. Its able to do that conduction and evaporation are eliminated by the cork. conduction and evaporation are eliminated by the vaccum. radiation are eliminated by presence of silvered surfaces.

The vaccum seal should never be broken because it seals off the vaccum. When its broken the vaccum is lost and thus heat is lost by radiation, convection and con duction hence rendering the flask useless. 11.9 Understanding Heat calculations

Specific Heat capacity (s.h.c) The amount of heat (H) absorbed or given out by a body depends on; Nature of the material (C) Mass of the body (M) Change in the temperature ( ) If we combine the above we write it as C is referred too as the specific heat capacity of the body. If H is measured in Joules (J), mass in kg, in K or 0C then C is measured in JKg-1K-1 We can therefore say that Specific heat capacity (s.h.c) is the quantity of heat

required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of a substance by 1K. Different substances have got different s.h.c as shown in the table. Owing to the low conductivity and density of liquids, it should be noted that th e s.h.c of liquids e.g water is higher than that of solids. Its for this reason w hy water takes longer to heat up or cool compared to other substances. This explains why; Water is used in the cooling system of a car engine. The sea remains colder than land during day time and hotter than land at night. Heat capacity: This is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1K. If a body absorbs an amount of energy (H) and the temperature changes by K then;

C is what is referred too as heat capacity of the body. S.I unit of C = JK-1 Heat capacity is also given by;

Example. 1. y 15K 75000J of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance b (i) (ii) Solutions. (i) H = C 75000 = C 15 what is the heat capacity of the substance. Find also the mass of substance if its s.h.c is 900JKg-1K-1

C = 75000 = 5000JK-1 15 (ii) Heat capacity = m 5000 = m s.h.c 900

M = 5000 = 5.5kg 900 2. How much Heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1kg of wat er from 200C to 800C.? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/kgK) H = MC = 1 4200 (80 20) = 252000J

3. How much Heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1kg of wat er from 200C to boiling point? (Assume Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/ kgK) Solution. H = Boiling point of water = 1000C. MC = 1 4200 (100 20) = 336000J.

4. How much heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1.5 litres of water from 200C to Boiling point? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/k gK) Solution. Assume mass of 1litre of water = 1kg = 1000C - 200C = 80K

Temperature change H = MC = 1.5

4200 (100 20) = 50400J.

5. How much heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1g of wate r from 200C to 800C.? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/kgK). Solution. Change mass from grams to kg. 1 g = MC = 0.001 = 1 kg = 1000 0.001kg

4200 (80 20) = 252J

6. How much heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1kg of wat er by 100C.? Solution. By in this context means Where = = 100C.

is the temperature change. MC = 1 4200 10 = 42000J

Please Note: For High energies the energy is expressed in Kilo Joules (KJ) and 1KJ = 1000J Heat energy in examples above can be expressed as follows; 252000J 252000 = 252KJ 1000 336000J = 50400J = 252J = 42000J = 336KJ 50.4KJ 0.252KJ 42KJ e.t.c.

7. 7200J of heat energy raised the temperature of 2kg of a substance from 8 00C to 840C. Find the specific heat capacity. H = C = M MC H = 7200 = 2 (84-80) 900

Specific heat capacity of the substance = 900J/kgK. 8. (i) A material of mass 2kg requires 4.4 103J for its temperature to change from 600C to 800C. Calculate its specific heat capacity. (ii) If the material in (d) (i) is placed in a vacuum, state why it c ools. (i) Solution. m = 2kg H = 4.4 103J = 80 60 = 20oC

H 4.4

= mC C 20

103 = 2

C = 110Jkg-1k-1 The specific heat capacity of the material = 110Jkg-1k-1 (ii) Such a material will cool because it loses heat by radiation.

These values of Specific heat capacity (S.h.c) in J/kgK are to be used i n all the numerical work in the exercise below. Substance S.h.c Water Aluminium Brass Copper Glass Ice 4200 900 380 400 670 2100 Iron Lead Mercury Methylated spirit Sea water 460 130 140 2400 3900 Exercise. 1. How much heat energy is required to raise the temperature of? (a) 1 kg of water by 100C. (b) 200g of water from 100C to boiling point (c) 500g of ice water to boiling point (d) 800g of Aluminum from 300C to 1290C Answers: (a) 42000J (b) 75600J (c) 210000J (d) 71280J 2. How much heat energy is lost to lower the temperature of? (a) 80g of water by 50C. (b) 3kg of iron by 190C (c) 500g of ice from 00C to 100C. Answers: (a) 1680J (b) 26220J (c) 10500J. 3. 5200J of heat is given to 500g of lead at 1000C. What is its temperatur e now? Answer. 1800C. 4. 2200J raises the temperature of 100g of paraffin oil from 220C to 320C. What is its specific heat capacity? Answer. 2200J/kgK 5. When an iron piece lost 920J of heat, it cooled from 2270C to 270C. What was the mass of iron cooled? Answer. 10g or 0.01kg Substance S.h.c

Method of mixtures. This can be used to find the s.h.c of both liquids and solids, good or bad condu ctors. It can be divided into two parts; (i) Solid liquid method. (ii) Liquid liquid method.

Determination of s.h.c of solid by method of mixtures.

A solid of mass Ms and specific heat capacity Cs is heated in boiling water whil e stirring to a temperature 3. Its then transferred quickly to a liquid of mass M1 , s.h.c C1 at a temperature 1 in a calorimeter of mass Mc, s.h.c Cc. The mixture is stirred continuously and the temperature of the mixture noted at regular time intervals until it reaches the equilibrium temperature 2 (final steady temperatu re). If no heat is lost to the surrounding, when the solid is transferred into t he liquid then; Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter. MsCs( 3 - 2) = M1C1( 2 - 1) + McCc( 2 - 1) Cs = M1C1( 2 - 1) + McCc( 2 - 1) Ms ( 3 2)

Please Note: When carrying out the experiment, there is a possibility of losing heat by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. Heat losses by convection and evaporation can be reduced by covering the contain er (calorimeter) with a lid (preferably made of wood). Heat losses by conduction can be reduced by insulating the calorimeter with poor conductors e.g cotton wool or felt jacket. The process of doing this is referred too as lagging.

Heat losses by radiation can be reduced by polishing the calorimeter or lagging is as before. Examples 1. The temperature of 500g of a certain metal is raised to 1000C and it is then placed in 200g of water at 150C. If the final steady temperature rises to 2 10C, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. Heat given out by metal = 500 1000 MMC C(100 - 21) Heat received by water = MwC = 200 4200 (21 15) 1000

Cross multiply and apply mathematics. 5 C 79 = 2 4200 6 395 C = 8400 6

395

395 C = 128J/kgK

2. A copper vessel of mass 1.75kg is at 100C. 50g of boiling water is poure d into it. Calculate the specific heat capacity of copper if the final steady te mperature is 300C. Let CC be the specific heat capacity of copper and boiling point of water = 1000 C Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by Copper vessel MWCW 50 1000 4200 (100 30) 5 = MWCW = 1.75 CC (30 10) CC 20

42 (70) = 1.75 14700 = 35CC 35 35 420 = CC

Therefore specific heat capacity of copper = 420J/kgK. Before solving such problems the reader is advised to note; what substance is lo osing heat and which substance gains heat. 3. The temperature of a piece of copper of mass 250g is raised to 1000C and its then transferred to a well lagged Aluminium can of mass 10g containing 120g of methylated spirit at 100C. Calculate the final steady temperature after the s pirit has been well stirred. Neglect the heat capacity of the stirrer and any losses from evaporation (use ta ble 1) Solution. Let final steady temperature be 0C. Its assumed that both aluminium and methylated spirit are at 100C initially and are to warm, up to 0C. Temperature change for aluminum = ( 10) K. Temperature change for methylated spirit = ( - 10) K. If Copper cools from 1000C to Temperature change = (100 - ) K Heat given out by = Heat gained by copper Alluminium MC CC (100 ) = MACC ( ) = 10 - 10) + Heat gained by methylated Spirit + MMCM ( - 10) 2400 ( - 10) 1000 24 ( - 10)

250 400 (100 1000

900 ( - 10) + 120 1000

Apply simple mathematics now. 25 4 (100 - ) = 1 9 ( - 10) + 12 100 (100 - ) = 9 ( - 10) + 288 ( - 10) 10000 - 100 = 9 - 90 + 288 - 2880 10000 + 90 + 2880 = 9 + 288 + 100 12970 = 397 397 397

32.7 = . Final steady temperature = 32.70C. Where MC and CC is the mass of copper and specific heat capacity of copper respe ctively. Determination of s.h.c of liquid by method of mixtures.

Fig. 184

Fig. 185

Liquid 1 of mass M1 and s.h.c C1 is heated to a temperature 1 and then transferre d to a calorimeter 2 of mass Mc and s.h.c Cc containing liquid 2 of mass M2 and s.h.c C2 at a temperature 2. The mixture is then stirred thoroughly and the temperature noted when it reaches equilibrium point 3. Ignoring heat losses to the surrounding then; Heat lost by liquid 1 = heat gained by liquid 3 + heat gained by calorimeter. M1C1( 1 - 3) = M2C2( 3 - 2) + McCc( 3 - 2) Cs = M2C2( 3 - 2) + McCc( 3 - 2) M1( 1 3) S.h.c of liquid 2 must be known. Assuming liquid 1 and 2 are the same, then their specific heat capacity are the same i.e C1 = C2 M1C1( 1 M1C1( 1 3) = M2C1( 3 3) - M2C1( 3 2) + McCc ( 3 - 2) 2) = McCc( 3 2)

C1 [M1 ( 1 - 3) - M2( 3 C1 = Example 1.

2) ] = McCc( 3 - 2)

McCc ( 3 - 2) M1( 1 - 3) - M2( 3 - 2)

What is the final temperature of the mixture if 100g of water at 700C is

added to 200g of cold water at 100C and well stirred? (Neglect heat absorbed by the container). Solution: Let the final temperature of the mixture be 0C. Change in temperature of hot water = (70 ) K.

Change in temperature of cold water = ( - 100) K. Heat given out by hot water = heat received by cold water. MHC 100 4200(70 ) = MCC . 4200 ( - 10 )

= 200

1000 70 70 -

1000 = 2 ( - 10) = 2 - 20

70 + 20 = 2 + 90 = 3 30 = The final temperature of the mixture is 300C. Recall to convert mass from grams to kg and then apply usual mathematics to solv e for . Exercise In this Exercise assume values of constants in table below. Substance S.h.c Water Aluminium Brass Copper Glass Ice 4200 900 380 400 670 2100 Iron Lead Mercury Methylated spirit Sea water 460 130 140 2400 3900 Substance S.h.c 3 3

1. A piece of copper of mass 40g at 2000C is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 60g containing 50g of water at 100C. Ignoring heat losses, what will be the final steady temperatures after stirring? (s.h.c of copper = 400J/kg K) Answer: 220C 2. A bath contains 100kg of water at 600C. Hot and cold taps are then turned on to deliver 20kg per minute each at temperatures of 700C and 100C respe ctively. How long will it be before the temperatures in the bath have dropped to 450C? Assume complete mixing of the water and ignore heat losses. Answer: 7.5 min 3. Find the final temperature of the water, if a ball of copper of mass 420 g at 1000C is introduced in 400g of water at 200C. Answer: 27.30C 4. 18KJ of heat raised the temperature of 1kg of Aluminium through 20K. Wha t is the specific heat capacity of Aluminium? Answer: 900 J/kg K.

5. A red hot iron ball weighing 20kg was immersed in a polystyrene tube con taining 120kg of water at 270C. If the final temperature of water was 400C, fin d the initial temperature of the ball. Answer. 13000C 6. A piece of metal weighing 1kg is heated up to 1000C and immersed in 220g of water at 260C. If the final temperature of water was 560C, find the specifi c heat capacity of the metal. Answer: 630J/kgK. Determination of s.h.c of liquid by Electrical method.

Fig. 186

A liquid of mass M1 is put in a calorimeter of mass Mc at a temperature 1 before heating. The heater is then inserted in the liquid placed in a well lagged calor imeter and a steady current I at a steady P.d V are passed through the heater fo r a time t while stirring. The final temperature 2 after heating for a time t is noted from thermometer. If no heat is lost to the surrounding then; Electrical energy = heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter. IVt = M1C1 ( 2 1 ) + McCc ( 2 1)

C1 and Cc are the specific heat capacities of liquid and calorimeter respectivel y. If Cc is known then C1 can be determined. Please Note. Current I is measured in amperes by ammeter and potential difference V in volts by voltmeter while time in seconds by stop clock. If the calorimeter is at a temperature of 1 before heating, then the liquid in it is also at 1 The electrical heater must be completely immersed in the liquid. Example. A liquid of mass 600g is heated from 250C to 700C by a heater with a power of 500W in a calorimeter of heat capacity 190Jkg-1 for 1 minutes. Ne glecting heat losses to the surrounding. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid. Solution. If no heat is lost to the surrounding then;

Electrical energy = heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter. IVt = MLCL ( 2 (IV)t = MLCL ( 2 P t = MLCL ( 2 1 ) + McCc ( 2 1)

1 ) + heat capacity ( 2 - 1) 1 ) + Heat capacity ( 2 - 1)

500

90 = 600 45000 = 0.6

CL (70 25) + 190 (70 CL 45 + 190 45

25)

45000 = 27CL + 8550 CL = 1350JKg-1K-1 In the above example, you must have noted that P = IV, heat capacity McCc and ti me = 1 minutes = 90s. Example. A liquid of mass 400g in a calorimeter of heat capacity 200JK-1 is heated such that its temperature changes from 250C to 700C. Find the specific heat capacity of the liquid if the heat supplied is 18000J. Heat supplied = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter. 18000 = MLCL( 2 - 1) + McCc( 2 - 1) 18000 = 18000 = 0.4 9000 = 0.4 CL CL 400 CL (70 - 25) + 200 (70 - 25) 1000 45

45 + 200 45

CL = 500JKg-1K-1 Example. A liquid of mass 1500g is heated by a heater with a power of 15k Wh in a calorimeter of mass 250g for 3 minutes. The temperature of the liquid ro se by 5K. If the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter is 400Jkg-1K-1. Negle cting heat losses to the surrounding. Calculate the specific heat capacity of th e liquid. P= 15kW = 15 1000 = 15000W time = 3minutes = 3 60 = 180s

Assuming no heat losses then; Electrical energy = heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter. P t = MLCL ( 2 15000 1 ) + McCc ( 2 CL 1000 5 + 1) 400 5 1000

180 = 1500 5

250

2700000 = 1.5 2699500 = 7.5CL

CL + 500 CL = 3.59 105 JKg-1K-1.

Example. 18KJ of energy is supplied to a liquid of mass 200g in a calorim eter of mass 250g such that the temperatures change by 14K. Assuming no heat los ses. Determine the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter if the specific hea t capacity of the liquid is 1200JKg-1K-1. Solution. H = 18J = 18 1000 = 18000J.

Assuming no heat losses, then; Heat supplied = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter.

18000 = MLCL 18000 = 18000 = 0.2 18000 = 3360 Cc = 4.183 Example. 1200 Cc 200

+ McCc 1200 1000 14 + Cc 200 14 Cc 14 1000

14 + 0.25 3.5

103JKg-1K-1

A liquid of mass 600g is heated by a ligible heat capacity for 3 minutes. C to 800C. Neglecting heat losses to t capacity of the liquid if the mass Solution. P= 2kW = 2 1000 = 2000W

heater of power 2KW in a calorimeter of neg The temperature of the liquid rose from 600 the surrounding, calculate the specific hea of the calorimeter is 400g.

time = 3minutes = 3

60 = 180s

Assuming no heat losses then; Heat lost by heater = heat gained by liquid P t = MLCL ( 2 - 1) 2000 2000 180 180 = 600 CL 1000 CL 2 20 CL 104 JKg-1K-1. (80 60)

1000 = 600 2000 180 = 6

CL = 3

N.B: in this example, if a calorimeter has negligible heat capacity its assumed i t doesnt absorb any heat. Example. A steady current of 10A and has a P.d of 220V is passed through a block of mass 1500g for one minute. If the temperature of the block rises from 200C to 750C. C alculate; (i) (ii) Solution. (i) 1minute = 60sec. The specific heat capacity of the block. The heat capacity of a 5kg mass of the same block.

Heat lost by heater = heat gained by block IVt = MC ( 2 - 1 ) 10 220 60 = 1500 CL = 10 C (75 20) 1000 220 60 1000 = 1600 JKg-1K-1

1500 (75 - 20) (ii) Heat capacity = M s.h.c = 5 1600 = 8000JKg-1K-1

Example The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 JKg-1K-1. What is me ant by the above statement? Answer: This means that 1kg of water gives out or takes in as the case may be 42 00J when its temperature changes by 1K. Self Check Problems. Where necessary assume the following Specific heat capacity of water Specific heat capacity of ice Specific latent heat of fusion of ice Specific latent heat of vaporization of water =

= 4200 JKg-1K-1 = 2100 JKg-1K-1 = 340000 JKg-1 2260000 JKg-1

1. 225KJ of energy is required to raise the temperature of Aluminum by 15K. Determine the heat capacity and mass of Aluminum if its s.h.c is 900JKg-1K-1. 2. Define the following and give their S.I units. (a) Heat capacity. (b) Specific heat capacity (c) Latent heat. (d) Specific latent heat of fusion. Specific latent heat of vaporization. Find the amount of heat given out when; (a) 500g of water is heated from 250C to 400C (b) 200g of ice at 00C melts to water at 400C (c) 400g of water at 500C completely evaporates at 1000C 2kg of ice at -100C is heated to water at 1000C. (a) Draw a temperature time graph for the process. (b) Calculate the amount of heat absorbed.

(e) 3.

4.

5. 300g of water at 100C is mixed with 500g of water at 800C. Determine the final temperature after mixing. 6. Find the amount of energy needed to heat 2kg of water from 800C until 0.5kg of it has evaporated. 7. 3kg of ice at -150C is heated to water at 600C. Find the heat absorbed. 8. Find the amount of heat needed to heat 800g of ice at -200C until 200g of it evaporates. 9. Find the heat given out when 2kg of steam at 1000C condenses to water at 500C. 10. 300C. Find the heat absorbed when 5kg of ice at 00C is melted to water at

11. 200g of ice at 00C is added to 800g of water at 700C. Find the final temperature of the mixture. 12. 300g of steam at 1000C was passed into 1kg of water at 200C. Find the final temperature.

13. A copper calorimeter of mass 200g contains 500g of water at 300C. A piece of copper metal of mass 400g at 2000C is dropped into the water. Find the final temperature of the water. Assume the specific heat capacity of copper to b e 400Jkg-1K-1. In the following sub chapters the theory of Current Electricity is important, he nce the need to revise it. Determination of specific heat capacity of a metal using (Electrical method) Fig. 187

Apparatus required; Metal of known mass M with holes, Ammeter voltmeter, Stop cl ock, Battery, Heater. Method. The electrical heater and thermometer are put into holes drilled in the metal to ensure good thermo contact. The initial temperature ( 1) is noted. When you swit ch on you start timing using a stop clock. After a known time (t) seconds when t he temperature has risen to ( 2) switch off the heater after noting the current (I ) from Ammeter and voltage or potential difference (V) from voltmeter. Heat supplied by heater = VIt Heat received by metal = MC

= 2 1 = change in temperature. Assuming there is no heat lost to the surroundings, Heat received by metal = Heat supplied by heater MC = VIt NOTE: S.I unit of current is Amperes (A), S.I unit of P.d is Volts (V) S.I unit of power is watts (W), S.I unit of Heat is Joules (J) Example 1 If a mass of body 8kg is heated for 10min voltmeter reading 12V and ammeter read ing is 2.5A. The temperature rise produced is 200C find. i) Power rating of the heater ii) Energy received by the metal iii) The specific heat capacity of the metal. iv) State the assumption made Solution supplied M = 8kg V = 12V 12 2.5 600 I = 2.5A 18000J. i) = P 12 = = IV 2.5 30W (ii) Energy received = energy = IVt = =

= 200C t = 10min = 600s iii) Heat received by metal = heat given out by heater. MC = VIt C = VIt = 18000 = 112.5 Jkg-1K-1 M 8 20 iv) Assumption: No heat was lost to the surroundings.

Example 2 Find the amount of heat gained by 3kg of water from 300C to its boiling point. S pecific heat capacity of water (H20) = 4200 J kg-1k-1 Solution. H = MC = 3 M = 3kg 4200 C = 4200Jkg-1k-1 70 = 882000J = 300 2 = 1000 = 700C

Example 3 A heater of Power 500W is placed 0.5kg of water 200C. Find its temperature afte r 3.5 minutes. Specific heat capacity of water (H20) = 4200 Jkg-1k-1 Solution: s P = 500 W M = 0.5 kg 1 = 200C t = 3.5 60 = 210

And if C = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 Heat given out by heater = heat gained by water. Pt = MC C = Pt M 420 = 500 210 0.5 = 500C = 50 = 2 2 - 20 1

2 = 700C Example 4 An electrical heater put into 500g of oil raises the temperature of oil from 40C to 360C. The reading of power supply are Voltmeter = 12V Ammeter = 4A time = 1 hrs Find i) ii) Power supplied. Specific heat capacity of oil. M = 500g = 0.5kg = 2 1 = 36 20 = 160C V = 12V I = 4A

Solution:

t = 1 hr = 3600 + 1800 = 5400s. i) P = VI = 12 4 = 48W

ii) Heat given out by heater = heat gained by oil. MC = VIt 0.5 C 16 C = 48 5400

= 259200 = 259200 = 32400J kg-1k-1 5 16 8

11.9.2 Consider

LATENT HEAT

Fig. 188 Latent heat is the amount of heat required to change the state of a substance wi thout change in temperature. They are two types latent heat. 1. Latent heat of fusion This is the amount of heat required to convent a substance from its solid state to liquid state without change in temperature. 2. Latent heat of vaporization. This is the amount of heat required to convent a substance from its liquid state into vapour without change in temperature. Latent heat of fusion/vaporization depends on the mass and nature of substance. If (H) is the heat absorbed to change the state of a substance of mass (M) and ( L) is the latent heat. Then H = ML S.I unit of latent heat is J/kg or Jkg-1 A smaller unit of latent heat is Jg-1 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity (amount) a heat re quired to convert 1kg mass of solid into liquid without change in temperature. SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION Is the quantity (amount) of heat required to convert 1kg mass of a liquid into v apour without change in temperature.

Fig. 189

The flow above is very important when solving problems related to Latent heat. And if well understood learner will never fail to attempt any Latent heat probl em. Example 1. Calculate the quantity of heat recquired to melt 4kg of ice and to raise the tem perature of water formed to 500C, take specific latent heat of ice to be 3.4 105J/kg and s.h.c of water = 4200J/kgk Solution. Using fig (189). Consider c and b. H = 2. 1000C. c + b + MCW = 4 3.4 105 + 4 4200 (50 0) = 2.2 106J Calculate the heat recquired to convert 2kg of ice at -120C to steam at = Ml

H = d + c + b + a = MCi + Mlf + MCw + MLv = 2 2100 (0 - -12) + 2 336000 + 2 + 2 2260000 = 6.0824 106J. Self test problem.

4200 (100)

Calculate the Heat recquired to convert 2g of ice at -120C to steam. (Hint: Covert grams to kg, temperature of steam is always taken as 1000C and pe rform calculations as in previous example). Example 3 How much heat is required to convert 0.2kg of water into steam? Lv of water or steam = 2.26 106Jkg-1 Solution M = 0.2kg 2.26 Lv = 2.26 106 = 0.452 106 Jkg-1 106 = 4.52 105J H = ?

H = MLv = 0.2 Example 4

Calculate the heat energy recquired to convert 700g of ice at 00C into ice water at 00C. Take specific latent heat of fusion of ice to be 3.34 105J/kg.

From figure 189. Take stage c H = MLf = 700 1000 Example 5 622 kJ of energy is required to convent 2kg of substance into liquid. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion. Solution H = 622 KJ = 672 H = MLf 672000 = 2 2 2 Lf = 336000J kg-1 = 3.36 105 Jkg-1 Graph Lf 1000 = 672000J M = 2kg Lf = ? 3.34 105 = 233.8 103J 233.8kJ.

2Lf = 672000

Fig. 190

Example 4 a) Find the heat required to melt completely 200g of lead initially at 270C if its melting point is 3270C. If the heat is supplied to lead at the rate of 30Js-1, Find: i) The time taken to bring the lead to its melting points ii) Additional time required to melt it. S.h.c of lead = 0.14J/gk-1 1000 = 140J/kgk Lf of lead = 270 J/g 1000 = 270000J/kg Solution a) M = 200g = 0.2kg

Heat gained to raise temperatures from 270C to 3270C is H = MC = 0.2 140 300 = 8400J MLf = 0.2 270000 = 54000J

Heat for melting lead at 3270C = Total heat

= 8400 + 54000 = 62400J.

b)

i) ii)

Time = Energy = 8400 = 280s Power 30 t = 54000 30 = 1800s

Total time = 280 + 1800 = 2080s. Example How much heat is needed when 10g of steam at 1000C is condensed to water at 600C.? Take specific latent heat of vaporization to be 2.26 106J/kg. Solution. MLv Fig. 191 From fig (189) that is stage a and b H = a + b = MLv + MCw = 10 2.26 1000 = 22600 + = 24280J Example Calculate the mass of steam at 1000C needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of water from 300C to 800C. Assume S.h.c of water = 4200J/kgK and Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 106J/kg. Heat lost by steam = Heat gained to warm water from 300C to 800C. Let mass of steam be M (kg) Change of state; MLv Fig. 192 H = MLv + MC = M 2.26 106 + M 4200 (100 - 80) = 2.26 106M + 84000M = 2.344 106M. Heat gained to warm water from 300C to 800C = MC = 1 4200 (80 30) = 210000J Since Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water to warm from 300C to 800C. 2.344 106M = M 210000 = 210000 = 0.0895kg Heat lost by steam = MCw M mass of steam given as 10g. MCw

106 + 10 1000 1680

4200 (100 60)

2.344 Mass of steam recquired = 0.0895kg. Example

106

A piece of metal of specific heat capacity 450J/kgK and of mass 334g at 1000C is placed on the surface of ice at 00C. Calculate mass of ice melted. (Take Lf = 3.34 105J/kg). Solution: Assume Mi - Mass of ice. = Heat gained to melt ice = Mi Lf 3.34 105 105 Mi 3.34 = Mi = 0.045 kg

Heat lost by hot Piece of metal MC 334 450 (100- 0) = Mi 1000

15030 = 3.34 3.34 105 0.045kg

105

Mass of melted ice

Example A refrigerator can convert 400g of water at 200C to ice at -100C in 3 hours. Find the average rate of heat extraction from water in Joules per second. (Take Lf = 336000J/kg) Solution b d MCw MCi Fig. 193 The question recquires you to calculate for power. H = b + c + d = MCw + MLf + MCi 336 103 + 400 2100 1000 10 MLf c

= 400 4200 (20 - 0) + 400 1000 1000 Simplifying gives; Time taken Power = H = 176.4 103J

= 3 hours (convert this to seconds) 1 hr = 3600s 3 hrs = 3 3600 = 10800s Total Heat = H = 176.4 103 = 16.3J/s Time taken t 10800

The rate of heat extraction from water is 16.3 J/s.

Exercise. 1. Calculate the thermal energy (heat) required to convert 300g of ice at -100C to steam at 1000C. Show it on temperature - time graph. 2. Calculate the heat required to convert 700g of water at 600C to steam at 1000C. Show it on temperature - time graph. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF STEAM (Using Method of Mixtures) Weigh a calorimeter when empty, then re-weigh when half full of water. By subtr action find the mass of water. Note the temperature 1 of water and colorimeters a t the beginning of the experiment.

Fig. 194 Dry steam is then passed through tube (T) into water for some time. The tube (T ) is removed and water continuously stirred gently until a steady final temperat ure 2 is obtained. The calorimeter and its contents are again reweighed to find t he mass of the condensed steam. Let M1 = mass of calorimeter of specific heat capacity C1 M2 = mass of water of specific heat capacity C2 M3 = mass of steam of latent heat of vaporization Lv 3 = temperature of boiling water (1000 C at sea level) 1 = Initial temperature of calorimeter and contents 2 = Final temperature of calorimeter and contents (mixture). Heat lost by steam in condensing 3 = M3Lv Heat lost by condensed steam in cooling from 3 to 2 = M3C2( 3 - 2) Heat gained by a calorimeter from 1 to 2 = MC1( 2 - 1) Heat gained by water from 1 to 2 = M2 C2 ( 2 - 1) Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings. Total heat lost M3Lv + M3C2 ( 3 2) = Total heat gained = M1C1( 2 1) + M2 C2 ( 2 - 1)

Lv can then be calculated using the above expression. Example 1 A copper calorimeter weighs 100g when empty and 300g when half full of water at 300C. 5g of steam is passed into the calorimeter and a final steady temperature is reached. Neglecting heat loses to the surroundings; calculate the final stea

dy temperature of the calorimeter and its contents. Given that Lv = 2.26 106Jkg-1 M1 = 100g Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1k-1 Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg-1k-1

M2 = 200g

M3 = 5g

Solution. Let the final steady temperature be Heat lost by steam in condensing = M3Lv = 0.005 2260000 = 11300J Heat lost by condensed steam from 1000C to = M3C2(100- ) Heat gained by calorimeter from 300C to = M1C1 ( - 30) = 0.1 400 ( - 30) = 40( - 30) = 40 - 1200J Heat gained by water from 300C to = M2C2( -30) = 0.2 4200 ( -30) = 840 ( - 30) = 840 - 25200J Total heat lost = Total heat gained. 11300 + 2100 - 21 = 40 - 1200 + 840 - 25200 11300 + 2100 + 1200 + 25200 = 40 + 840 + 21 39800 = 901 = 39800 = 44.17 44.20C 901 Example 2 A copper calorimeter of mass 120 g contains 70g of water and 10g of ice at 00C. What mass of steam at 1000C must be passed into the calorimeter to rise the temp erature to 400C ? Given;Specific latent heat of fusion = 320Jg-1 Specific latent heat of vaporisation = 2200Jg-1, Specific heat capacity of copp er 0.4Jg-1k-1 , Specific heat capacity of water 4.2Jg-1k-1 Solution. Mc = 120g, Mw = 70g, Mi = 10g and let mass of steam be M = MLv = 2200 M = 2200M

Heat lost by steam in condensing at 1000C

Heat lost by condensed steam from 1000C to 400C = MCw (100 - 40) = M = 252M Heat gained by water from 0C to 400C = MwCw (40 0) = 70 4.2 40 = 11760J 4.2 60

Heat gained by calorimeter from 00C to 400C = McCc (40 0) = 120 0J Heat gained by ice in melting at 00C = Mi Lf = 10 320 = 3200J 0.4 40 = 192

Heat gained by melted ice (water) from 00C to 400C = Mi Cw(40 - 0) = 10 0 = 1680J 4.2 4

Heat lost

Heat gained by (ice + water + copper)

2200M + 252M 2452M 2452

= 11760 2452 M

1920

3200 +

1680

= 18560 = 1.6g

Mass of steam = 7.6g Now borrow some ideas from Current Electricity section. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE (Using Electrical Method)

Fig. 195

Pieces of dry ice are put in plastic funnel. Heater connected to power supply is then put into ice. The heater is then switched on for a time (t) and the mass ( M) of melted ice collected in that time determined. Heat supplied by the heater = VIt Heat received by ice when melting = MLf If no heat is lost to the surrounding then; Heat lost by heater = heat gained by ice VIt = MLf Lf = VIt M P is the power of the heater in watt (W) Example 1 but P = VI

Fig. 196

When 100W heater is used to heat 1kg of solid wax the temperature of the wax is observed to change in time as shown above. Determine.

(i) (ii)

The melting point of wax. The specific latent heat of fusion of wax.

Solution. i) ii) Melting point = 800C P = 100 W M = 1g t = 200(s) Lf = ?

Pt = MLf Lf 2. = Pt = 100 M 200 = 20000 = 2 1 104 Jkg-1

The figure shows the variation of temperature of a metal with time

Fig. 197

i) Using the graph explain what happens to the metal. ii) If the metal absorbs heat at the rate of 2500Js-1 and Specific heat capa city is 300Jkg-1k-1, calculate the mass of the metal. iii) Find the specific latent heat of the metal. Solution i) The initial temperature of metal is 2500C its heated for 400s and it reac hes its melting point of 9500C. It melts for 350s, while the temperature is con stant. Liquid obtained is then heated further. ii) C = 300Jkg-1k-1 P = 2500Js-1 M = ?? For AB = 950 250 = 7000C iii) Pt = Lf = ?? MLf Lf = Pt M 350 = 183823.5Jkg 4.76

Lf = 2500 Pt = MC 300 700 = 183823.5 Jkg-1 M = 2000 400 = 4.76 kg 300 700

2500

400 = M

3. An ice making machine extracts heat from water at a rate of 20 Js-1 For how long will it take to covert 0.5kg of water at 200C to ice at 00C? Given Specific heat capacity of water 4200 Jkg-1k-1 and Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 105 Jkg-1 Electrical energy = Heat gained by water + heat gained by ice. Pt = MC + MLf 20t = 0.5 4200 20 + 0.5 336000

20t = 210000 t = 210000 = 10500s 20 4.

Fig. 198

The graph shows temperature against time for a substance which is heated at a constant rate. Which part of the graph corresponds with the situation when the molecules of a substance have the highest kinetic energy. Answer: Since kinetic energy is proportional to temperature, the part which give the highest kinetic energy of the molecules is YZ. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE (using Method of Mixtures) Weigh the calorimeter when empty and reweigh when half full of water. By subtra ction find the mass of water M2. Warm the calorimeter and its contents so that t he temperature rises by say about 50C above room temp. Pure dry ice is added to the warm water in bits and the mixture is stirred gentl y until all the ice melts completely. This process continues until the temperat ure of calorimeter and its contents falls by about 50C below the room temperatur e. Re weigh the calorimeter and its contents at the end of the experiment to find t he mass of ice M3 added to water. Let 2 = Temperature of warm water and calorimeter 1 = Final temperature of mixture (water + calorimeter + M1 = mass of calorimeter of specific heat capacity C1 M2 = mass of water of specific heat capacity C2 M3 = mass of ice Lf = Specific latent heat of fusion of ice. Heat lost by calorimeter from 2 to 1 = Heat lost by water from 2 to 1 = Heat gained by ice for melting at 00C = M3Lf Heat gained by melted ice (water from 00C to 1) = M3 C3( = M3C2 1 Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings then; Total heat gained by ice = Total heat lost by (water + calorimeter) M3Lf + M3C2 1 = M1C1 ( 2 - 1) + M2C2 ( 2 - 1) Lf can be determined. Example melted ice)

M1C1( 2 - 1) M2C2 ( 2 - 1) 1 - 0)

16g of dry ice was added to 100g of water at 260C in polystyrene beaker of negligible heat capacity. When all ice had melted the temperature of water was found to be 110C. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. (Assume specific heat capacity of water to be 4200J/kgK) Solution: Equilibrium Temperature = 110C = Heat needed to + Heat gained by melted ice (water) to rise + Lf 1000 MwCw + 16 1000 4200 (11 0) 11

Heat lost by water Melt ice from 00C to 110C. MC 100 1000 =

MiLf

4200 (26 17) = 16

420000 15 = 16Lf + 16 4200 6300000 = 16Lf + 739200 6300000 - 739200 = 16Lf 5560800 = 16Lf 347550 = Lf Latent heat of fusion of ice is 347550J/kg.

Example. What mass of ice at 00C needs to be added to 100g of water at 220C to lower the temperature to 50C ? Lf = 336Jg-1, Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg-1k-1. Solution Mi = ? = Cw = 4.2 Jg-1k-1 MwCw (22 5) = 100 14 17 = 2140J Lf = 336Jg-1

Heat lost by water

Heat gained by ice for melting at 00C = Mi Lf = 336Mi Heat gained by melted ice (now water) from 00C to 50C = Mi Cw (5 0) = Mi 4.2 5 = 21Mi

Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings then; Total heat gained by ice = total heat lost by water. 336 Mi + 21 Mi 357 Mi Mi Exercise. 1. If the melting point of lead is 3270C, find the amount of heat required to melt 200g of lead initially at 270C = = = 7140 7140 7140 = 20.34g 357

Specific heat capacity of lead is 140JKg-1K-1 and Specific latent heat o f fusion of lead is 2.7 105 JKg-1 . Answer: 62400J 2. A solid of mass 300g at 1200C is dropped into a calorimeter of mass 100g containing 80g of water at 300C. Find the final temperature of the mixture. G iven: S.h.c of solid = S.h.c of calorimeter = 500Jkg-1K-1 S.h.c of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1. Find temperature of the mixture. Answer = 55.20C Still have problems in the subject ? contact and Book senior Tutor on : +256 392 967 130 11.9.3 KINETIC THEORY The kinetic theory gives scientists away of explaining the three states of matte r (solids, liquids and gases) behave the way they do. ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC THEORY 1. All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. 2. The molecules are in constant rapid motion or vibration. 3. The higher the temperature the faster the molecules move and the greater the energy. LATENT HEAT AND KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION. 1. HEAT OF FUSION Latent heat of fusion represents the work done in separating the molecules durin g melting. As heat energy is absorbed, the molecules move further apart and the ir potential energy is increased. There is no change of kinetic energy of the m olecules during melting so temperature remains the same. 2. LATENT HAT EVAPOURISATION Liquid molecules overcome the forces holding them together and gain the freedom to move around independently as gas molecules when large amount of energy is app lied. This is received as latent heat of vaporization which increases the poten tial energy of molecules but not kinetic energy. When a vapour (gas) changes bac k into a liquid the molecules are cooled close together by forces of attraction between them and potential energy lost is released as heat. Steam gives out latent heat when it condenses to water thats why a scald from ste am is much worse than that from boiling water. Question: Water Why does steam from water burn the skin more than the boiling

This is because, when the hot steam condenses on the skin, it gives out latent h eat of vaporization thus making it burn more than the boiling point of water. MELTING POINT AND FREEZING POINT. When a substance melts, it does so at one particular temperature called its melt ing point. Therefore melting point is a temperature at which a solid substance t urns into a liquid. When a liquid turns into a solid, it does so at exactly the same temperature. I t is called freezing point. Therefore freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid. FACTORS AFFECTING MELTING POINT 1. Impurities When an impurity such as salt is added to a mixture of ice and water, the temper ature drops (reduces). The fall in temperature is due to the salt lowering the m eting point of the ice thus impurities lower the melting point of the substances E.g. ice. This effect is used in some countries especially in winter were salt

is spread over roads and stop ice forming. 2. Pressure Increasing the pressure of ice lowers its melting point. Thus melting point of a substance E.g ice is lowered by an increase in pressure. This can be illustrated using the demonstration below.

Fig. 199

A block of ice rests on two supports, and a thin copper wire with heavy weights at each end is hung over it. After an hour, more or less, depending on the size of the block, the wire cut right through it and falls to the floor, leaving the ice still in a solid block. This is called regelation (refreezing). The pressure of the wire lowers the melting point of the ice in contact with it, and so the ice melts and flows above the wire. It should be noted that the latent heat of f usion required comes from the copper wire. However as soon as the water passes o ver the wire, it is no longer under pressure and therefore refreezes, the latent heat of fusion is taken away by the wire and used to further melt the ice below it and the process continues. An iron wire with smaller thermal conductivity passes into though much more slow ly. Possible question: Describe with aid of a labeled diagram an experiment to show the effect of increase in pressure on the melting point of ice. COOLING CURVE

Fig. 200

When liquid e.g naphthalene is cooled, its temperature falls to freezing point ( AB) of 800C from B temperature remains constant up to C when freezing is complet e (BC). Temperature of the solid now fall further (CD). Along BC temperature remains constant for sometime because as naphthalene freeze s the heat lost to the surrounding is replaced by latent heat of fusion. HEATING CURVE This can be obtained by taking temperature after every 30 seconds as heating con tinues. A curve is obtained as shown below.

Fig. 201

The temperature rises considerably (AB) and it remains constant at 800C, the mel ting point (BC), the melting point (BC). Heat supplied is not used to change te mperature but its used to convert solid to liquid at that temperature. When all the solid has melted the temperature of the liquid rises again (CD). Example. A liquid is heated at 1200C and allowed to cool. It starts solidifying after 5m inutes when its temperature is 800C and takes 10 minutes to solidify. Sketch th e cooling curve for the liquid. Solution.

Fig. 202 BOILING Boiling occurs when molecules escape in form of bubbles of vapour from the surfa ce of the liquid. 11.9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING BOILING POINT 1. When an higher f water IMPURITIES. impurity such as salt is added to water, the mixture must be heated to a temperature before it boils. Impurities always raise the boiling point o and therefore cooking place faster.

2. PRESSURE. If the pressure above the water is raised, the water has to be heated to a tempe rature above 1000C before it boils, thus the boiling point of water rises when p ressure above it is raised. If the air pressure above some water in a flask is reduced, the liquid starts to boil at a much lower temperature their usual. Note: Boiling point of water is liable to vary from day to day because the atmos pheric pressure doesnt remain constant. E.g At high attitudes like mountain, boil ing point of water is lowered due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure. Ther efore cooking takes longer. Students Question: You can be asked to explain why cooking takes longer at high attitudes? PRESSURE COOKER

Fig. 203

A pressure cooker is a strong aluminum or steel container. The lid which prevent s the steam from escaping has a safety value. As the water inside is being heat ed, steam pressure inside increases, causing the boiling temperature (point) to rise (up to 1200C). The result is that food is cooked faster thus saving time a nd the cost of fuel. Should the steam pressure build up so much, the safety value is lifted up, allow ing some of the steam to escape. A pressure cooker is best used at high attitud es E.g Mountains where atmospheric pressure is low. EVAPORATION This is the change of a liquid to vapour without even reaching its boiling point . FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION. Increase in temperature: When the temperature of a liquid increases, the energy of the molecules also inc reases and thus rate of evaporation also increases. Surface area: Evaporation is rapid if the area of free surface of liquid is increased. i.e as surface area increases, the area from which the liquid molecules can escape incr eases thus evaporation increasing. Wind: When air moves over a liquid surface, it carries away molecules escaping from th e liquid and reduces their chances of returning to it. Thats why wet clothes dry faster on a windy day. Nature of liquid : Different liquids evaporate at different rates. Volatile liquids have low boilin g points and can change from liquid to vapour quite easily at low temperatures. Such liquids include Methylated spirits and Ether. These evaporate faster than o ther types of liquids. Differences between Boiling and Evaporation. Boiling Evaporation

occurs at one particular Temperature called boiling point Occurs at any temperature Takes place throughout the volume of liquid and bubbles of gas are formed in all parts of it Takes place at the surface only and no bubbles are formed The temperature remains Constant. During evaporation, the temperature Table 13. falls.

Kinetic Theory Explanation of Cooling by Evaporation The molecules which escape from the surface of liquids are those with greater ki netic energy and higher velocities. This shows that, as evaporation continues th e molecules which remain in the liquid are those with very low kinetic energy an d so its temperature is lowered since temperature is proportional to kinetic ene rgy. This explains the cooling of a liquid due to evaporation.

Question.

Explain why a liquid cools after evaporation.

Experiment to demonstrate Cooling by Evaporation using Ether.

Fig. 204

A beaker is placed on top of a little water on a wooden block and some liquid Et her then poured into the beaker. Bubbling of air though Ether speeds up evapora tion. Ether evaporates quickly absorbing latent heat of vaporization from water under a beaker. Because water cant get heat from the wood which is a bad conducto r of heat it gets so COLD that it finally freezes to ice i.e. the beaker gets st uck to the wooden block with a thin layer of ice formed between them. Exercise. (i) (ii) State what is observed after along time in the experiment above. Explain your observation.

VAPOUR PRESSURE Some of the molecules of a liquid escape from the surface when such liquid absor bs heat energy. Those molecules accumulate above the liquid and are in random m otion like molecules of a gas. They hence form a VAPOUR which creates a pressure . Vapour pressure: is the pressure exerted by the vapour above the liquid. Saturated Vapour: is one which is in contact or dynamic equilibrium with i ts own liquid. For a saturated vapour, the number of molecules leaving the Liquid (rate of evaporation) equals the number of molecules entering the liquid (rate of condensation) A saturated Vapour Pressure (S.V.P) : is the pressure exerted by a vapour in contact with its own liquid. Unsaturated Vapour: is one which is NOT in contact or dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid. The pressure exerted by a vapour not in contact with its own liquid is referred too as Unsaturated Vapour Pressure Effect of Temperature on Saturated Vapours When a saturated vapour is heated, it can be observed that the S.V.P increases a s temperature increases but saturated vapour does not obey gas laws (Pressure la w P T, Boyles law P 1/v and Charles law V T) because its mass is not fixed. Unsaturated vapour obeys gas laws because it has a fixed mass. Graphs

Fig. 205

Fig. 206

Differences between saturated vapours and unsaturated vapour. Saturated vapour Unsaturated vapour

- Is in contact with its own liquid - Is NOT in contact with its own liquid - Doesnt obey gas laws because its mass is not fixed. - Obeys gas laws because it has a fixed mass. Table 14. 11.9.5 REFRIGERATOR

Fig. 207 Cooling effect in a refrigerator is produced by evaporation of a volatile liquid called Freon. The liquid Freon evaporates rapidly in the pipe in the freezing compartment as more and more of its vapour is removed by the electric pump. As t he liquid evaporates, it takes the necessary latent heat of vapourisation from i nside the refrigerator and the liquid internal energy. Consequently (as a resul t) the liquid cools. The vapour which has been pumped off passes into the condenser which is in Zig Z ag form at the back of the refrigerator were its compressed by the pump and cond enses back to liquid. The latent heat at the back of the refrigerator is releas ed (given off) though the cooling fins. Heat is removed by conduction into the cooling fins and hence by convection and radiation to the surroundings. In this way heat energy removed from inside the r efrigerator is given off at the back hence warming. Liquid is passed back into the evaporation coil round the freezing box from the condensed coil. In this way a continuous collection of liquid and vapour is set up. The rate of evaporation and degree of cooling is controlled by a thermostat whic h switches on and off. The principle of a refrigerator is cooling by evaporation .

CYCLE

Fig. 208

Whats i) ii) iii)

the use of Electric pump Condenser Cooling fins in a domestic refrigerator ?

Electric Pump. - It removes the vapour formed in the freezer - It forces the vapour into the condenser Condenser Its where the vapour is compressed and liquefies giving out latent heat of vaporization. Cooling fins Lets Revise Where necessary assume the following; Specific heat capacity of water Specific heat capacity of copper K-1 Specific Latent Heat of fusion of water Specific heat capacity of ice Specific Latent Heat of vaporization of water 1. a) = = = 4200Jkg-1K-1 = 400Jkg-1 Give out latent heat of vaporization to the surrounding air.

4200Jkg-1 = 2100Jkg-1K-1 2.26 106Jkg-1

Explain why there is no change in temperature at boiling point even though heat is being supplied.

Answer: Heat supplied is used to overcome intermolecular forces holding the molecules of liquid together hence moving further apart. b) The specific latent heat of steam is 2000J/g and the S.h.c of water is 4 .2J/gk when 2g of steam at 1000C condenses to water at 400C, calculate the heat given up. Answer: 4504J 2. (a) (b) (c) Define latent heat of fusion. Briefly describe an experiment to show the effect of pressure on the melting point of a Substance. A block of pure ice at 150C was heated in a beaker and its temperature monitored with a thermometer until the water finally boils. (i) Sketch a graph of variation of temperature with time for (ii) the graph in (c) (i) above. (d) If the mass of ice melted was 80g. Calculate the total amount the above process Using kinetic theory of matter, explain the features of

of heat required to raise the temperature of water to 1000C. (e) 3. State one application of latent heat of vaporization.

Describe how a refrigerator works.

4. (a) A calorimeter of mass 35.0g and specific heat capacity 840Jkg-1k-1 contains 143.0g of water at 70C. Dry steam at 1000C is bubbled throu gh the water in the calorimeter until the temperature of the water rises to 290C . If the masses of steam which condenses is 5.6g, (i) Calculate the heat gained by the water and calorimeter. (ii) Obtain an expression for the heat lost by the steam in condensing at 100 0C and in cooling to 290C. (iii) Find the specific latent heat of vaporization of water. (b) Explain in terms of molecules, what is meant by a saturated vapour

5. (a) Describe with aid of a labeled diagram an experiment to show the effect of increase in pressure on the melting point of ice. (b) (i) The fundamental interval of mercury in glass is 180mm. Find the temperature in degrees Celsius when the mercury thread is 55.2mm long. (ii) State two physical properties which change with temperature. 6. By kinetic theory, explain the following;

(i) Cooling by evaporation. (ii) Why the temperature of a gas contained in a cylinder increases when it i s compressed.

Preface Basic Physics is intended to cover part of the K.C.E and U.C.E syllabi in Physic s. Each topic has been written after an exhaustive research to make it as compre hensive as possible and to include the most recent advances in the syllabus and the subject as well. Efforts have been made to write the book in a clear, concise and very simplified language which an average student can understand with minimum assistance. Throughout the book, a good number of worked examples on each topic have been in cluded. Many of these are easy and bring out the principles of the subject. This is intended to assist the reader understand and grasp the content of the subjec t from first principles rather than cramming. Its hoped that all the explanations and calculations are such that all students w ill understand them but at the same time the content therein will provide the ba sic principles to Physics beginners. Again at the end of each topic, many Exercises with Answers have been added so t hat learners can obtain an immediate test of their understanding of the topic. Looking at the book as a whole, it is commendable work and appropriate for all F orm 1, Form 2, Form 3 and Form 4 students and Physics tutors. Special thanks go to colleagues N.U. Ayin and A. Kekoti, N.M Metropolitan univer sity south Africa for there valuable suggestions and comments in writing the boo

k. Sserem ba Moses

CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. 1.1 1.2 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Measurements and units of measurement Standard Form 1 2 4 5 PAGE

Exercise 1.3 6 1.4 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 Significant figures Measurement of length Measuring devices Vernier caliper Micrometer screw gauge 11

6 8 9

Exercise 1.6 Measurement of mass

13 13 14 15 18 Exercise

Exercise 1.7 1.8 19 2. 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY R.D of Solid and Liquid Archimedes Principle and Floatation Measurement of Upthrust Determination of R.D of a liquid 28 21 Measurement of time Volume

26 28

30

2.6 32

Floatation 34 38 38

Self assessment Test 3. 3.1 3.2 40 3.3 FORCES AND QUANTITIES Types of Forces Types of Friction Scalar and vector quantities

43 48 51 52 54 56 56

Self assessment Test 3.4 3.5 Surface Tension Cohesion and Adhesion

Self assessment Test 4. 4.1 4.2 56 4.3 57 4.4 58 4.5 PROPERTIES OF MATTER Particulate nature of matter. States of Matter. Brownian Motion. Diffusion. Size of a Molecule.

59 63 65

Exercise 5. 5.1 65 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Definitions

5.2 Hookes Law 67 Exercise 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 82 5.7 83 Stress, Strain and Youngs modulus Elastic Potential Energy Struts and Ties Building Materials Notches

71 73 76 80

Self assessment Test

85

6. 6.1 86

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY Types of Energies

86

Exercise 6.2 94 Exercise 96 7. 98 7.1 7.2 101 7.3 102 MACHINES Types of Machines Classes of Levers Types of Pulleys Power

92

100

Exercise 7.4 8. 112 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Other Machines MOTION Linear Motion Speed, Velocity and Acceleration. Motion Graphs Equations of Linear Motion

106 107 - 110

112 112 114 117 120 128 129 134 135 136 137

Exercise 8.5 8.5.1 8.6 8.7 8.8 Motion under gravity Projectile motion Fluid Motion Circular motion Newtons Laws of motion

Exercise 8.9 Momentum 139 Exercise

146

9. 9.1 9.2 9.3

TURNING FORCES Principle of moments Verification the Principle Types of Equilibrium

147 148 151 155 155

Exercise 10. 158 10.1 10.2 161 10.3 10.4 166 GAS LAWS Charles Law Boyles Law Pressure Law Equation of State

158

163

Exercise 11. 11.1 11.2 172 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 CONCEPTS OF HEAT Nature of Heat Expansion Thermometer Heat transfer Thermos Flask Understanding Heat calculations.

169 171 171

175 179 186 187 190 - 202

Exercise 11.8 205 Latent Heat

Exercise 11.7 11.8 Latent heat and kinetic theory Melting and Freezing 230

212 222 223

Refrigerator and mode of operation 12. 234 12.1 237 12.2 LIGHT Reflection of Light Mirrors and Image formation

238

12.3 12.4 248

Mirror Formula Refraction of light

246

Exercise 12.5 12.6 262 13. 267 13.1 Lenses Dispersion

258 261

PRESSURE Definition and simple calculations 267 270 271 274 279 282 287 288 289 290 299 300 301 304

Exercise 13.2 Pressure in liquids

Exercise 13.3 13.4 Pressure in gasses. Transmission of pressure in fluids.

Exercise 14. 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 15. 15.1 304 15.2 15.21 15.3 15.31 15.32 ELECTROSTATICS The gold leaf electroscope (G.L.E) Methods of Charging a body Lightening and lightening conductors. Faradays ice pail experiment. Electric fields CURRENT ELECTRICITY Definitions Ohms law Ohmic and non - Ohmic conductors Connecting resistors. Series connection Parallel arrangement 311 309

307

310 310

15.33 15.4 15.41 15.5 15.6 328 15.7 15.71 16. 16.1 333 16.2 335 16.3 16.4 339 17. 340 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.51 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.91 17.92 18.0 18.1

Examples Arrangement of cells Examples Effects of electric current Electrical power Commercial unit of electric energy Examples ELECTRIC CELLS Simple cells Dry cell Lead acid accumulator Nife cells

311 318 319 327

330 330 333

336

MAGNETISM Magnetic materials Magnetization and Demagnetization Magnetic fields Magnetic effect of an electric current Electromagnets Applications Mechanical effects of an electric current Moving coil galvanometer Moving coil loudspeaker Electromagnetic induction Applications Self and mutual induction Transformer Examples 370 374 376 377 353 355 359 366 366 340 342 345 351 353

19. 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 391 19.51 20. 20.1 398 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 416

MODERN PHYSICS Methods of producing of electrons Cathode rays and x rays Cathode ray oscilloscope Radioactivity Half-life Examples WAVE MOTION Transverse waves Longitudinal waves Properties of waves. Electromagnetic waves Sound waves Resonance

380 380 382 385 388

393 398

400 401 404 406

BASIC PHYSICS Form 1 Form 4 2011 S.M. Demore

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS Physics as a branch of science, attempts to investigate movements and forces, th e different forms of energy, the matter that makes up the universe and everythin g in it. Matter refers to any materials which occupy space. These can be examined by meas uring and weighing. DEFINITION: Physics is the study of matter in relation to energy. Through experiments, theories and observations, Physics aims; To understand and explore everything in the world. To discover the scientific laws that explain the properties and behaviours of ma tter through performing experiments. To develop an understanding of the world of science and modern technology. To develop future careers like Engineering, Electronics, Information Technology, Medicine, Science Education e.t.c.. To explain why things work as they are. It explains the various forms of Physics as grouped below. Mechanics, Heat, Electricity and Magnetism, Sound, Light (Optics), Modern P hysics (Atomic and Nuclear Physics) With New concepts and ideas, there is always development of New Technology and t his often stimulates new production. The following are some of the day today applications of Physics. Physics is applied at home for cooking, Lighting, e.t.c. In industries for manufacturing clothes, Iron sheets, soda and beers In communication e.g Radios, Televisions, Phones, Satellites In construction e.g Roads, Dams, Bridges, Schools e.t.c.. In wars e.g Guns., Bombs, Missiles e.t.c. In transport e.g Cars, Aero planes, submarines e.t.c.. 1.1 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Measurements in Physics are based on Internationally agreed units. Both the quan tity and the measurement used must be stated to give meaning to a measurement, e .g. A mass of a boy is 50kg, the height of a girl is 120cm, Sserembas temperatur e was as high as 390C e.t.c. Scientists all over the world use a system of units which is universally recogni zed as the System International units (S.I) from a French name Systm Internationa l dUnits. All measurements are described in terms of the three fundamental quantities of m atter which are; Mass, Length and Time. The table below shows the basic units in the S.I system that are used in measure ment of physical quantities. PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT NAME BASIC UNIT SYMBOL

Mass Kilogram Length Metre m Time Second s Temperature Kelvin Electric current Amount of substance

kg K Ampere A Mole mol

However there are some suitable units which are derived for measuring some physi cal quantities e.g the Speed of a car is the distance (m) it travels each second (s). Quantities formed mathematically in terms of the Fundamental quantities of mass, Length and Time are called Derived units. Some derived quantities are summarized in the table. PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT NAME SYMBOL Area Square metre m2 Volume Cubic Metre m3 Density Kilogram per metre cubed kg/m3 or kg m3 Acceleration Metre per second squared m/s or m s-1 Velocity Metre per second m/s2 or m s-2 Force newton N E.m.f volt V Pressure pascals Pa or N/m2 Power watt W Energy joule J Momentum kilogram metre per second kg m s-1 When writing derived units, there is a space between each base unit in the deriv ed unit e.g m s-1 and NOT ms-1, kg m s-1 and NOT kgms-1. How to Derive Units. Example. t of Volume Example. Density = m3 Momentum = mass velocity = kg m s-1 Mass = kg = kg/m3 or kg m-3 as the S.I uni density

= kg m s-1 Example. Power = Work done = J = J/s Time taken s Bigger and Smaller units. Basic and derived units can be expressed in convenient forms using prefixes whic h denote a multiple. Some of these are given in the table below. Factor 103 106 109 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 Prefix kilo mega giga centi milli micro nano pico Symbol k M G C m n P Example 20km = 20 103 m 20Mbytes = 20 106 bytes 1.3GHz = 1.3 109 Hz 2cm = 2 10-2 m 3mm = 3 10-3 m 4 m = 4 10-6 m 1.5nm = 1.5 10-9 m 2.3PF = 2.3 10-12F or Js-1

1.2

STANDARD FORM or SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 10

A number is in standard form when there is one figure (not zero) before the deci mal point. Thus any number can be written in standard form as a 10n where 0 a and n in an integer. The superscript or exponent (n) shows the number of times the factor must be multiplied together. Examples. (i) (v) Write the following numbers in standard form 23.4 00.408 (vii) (iii) 10 0.0000085 (v) (iv) 0.1 9878.62

250000 (ii) 0.0003 (vi)

Solutions. (i) = 2.5 105 Move the arrow to the left to a number less than but greater than zero and place your decimal point. Count the decimal places you have moved. That gives you the power. (ii) 23.4 = = 2.34 101 {1 decimal place to left (+ve power) } =1.0 101 {1 decimal place to left (+ve power) } 103 { 3 decimal place to left (+ve p

(iii) 10 = (iv) 9878.62 = ower)} (v) 0.0003 = (vi) 0.408 = = 4.08 (vii) 0.0000085 = = 8.5

= 9.8862 = 3

10-4 { 4 decimal place to right (- ve power) }

10-1 { 1 decimal place to right (- ve power) }

10-6 {1 decimal place to right (- ve power)}

Note: A whole number expressed in standard form will always carry a positive (+v e) power while a decimal number expressed in standard form will always carry a n egative power (- ve) Exercise. 1. Express the following in scientific notation. 240000 (iii) (vi) 300 (x) 16.3 (vii) (iv) 3335 0.0078 (viii)

(i) 9504.42 (ii) (v) 0.84 445000 (ix) 450million 2. (a) 3.

0.000143

Work out the following 103 109 (b) 104 10-2 (c) 4 106 2 10-3

The thickness of a molecule is 0.000000001 m. This can be written as

A. 1.0 10-9 m B. 1.0 10-9 m

C.1.0 10-10 m

D. 1.0 10-8 m

Applications of convection. Land and sea breeze. During day, land picks more heat from the sun than the sea simply because land h as a lower specific heat capacity and is a better absorber of heat than the sea. This causes air near the land get more heated and thus rises above the land. Co oler air from the sea flows towards the land to replace the warm air. Air from t he atmosphere moves down into the sea. Combination of all the above sets up a ci rculation current as illustrated below.

This is called a sea breeze since its cool and flows from sea towards land. At NIGHT both land and sea cool, but because land is a better absorber of heat, its also a better emitter of heat therefore it cools faster than the sea. Air above sea heats more than that in the land. Warm air above the sea rises yet the cooler air from the land flows towards the sea to replace warm air. Air in the atmosphere flows towards land. This sets up a circulation current as that be fore.

This is called a land breeze since its cool and flows from land towards sea. Ventilation in houses On a hot day, air in the room may get heated up and thus becomes warm. Fresh air (cool air) then enters the room through windows or doors. The warm air flows ou t of the room through ventilators while cool one enters. Thats why its recommended to set up a building with enough ventilation. 11.7 Motor car radiation. Radiation of different surfaces.

To show that black surface is a better absorber of heat than shiny surface.

n.

Choose two similar cans A and B. Outer of B is painted black (dull) and outer of A painted white. Fill the cans with equal amount of water. Insert thermometers in the holes in the lids. Place the cans at equal distances from the heat source. Read and record temperatures on both thermometers after some time. Its observed that the value of T2 is higher than that of T1 at every reading take

Alternatively. The above experiment can be illustrated using the arrangement bellow.

lls OFF face is

One of the metal surfaces is painted white (polished) and the other black. Cork is attached on each of the reverse sides of the surfaces by means of wax. The source of heat A is then placed at equal distance from each of the surfaces. After a short while, the wax behind the dull black surface melts and the cork fa while that of the polished surface remains. This shows that dull black surface is a better absorber of heat and polished sur a poor absorber.

To show that dull black surfaces are GOOD EMITTERS than polished (white) surface s.

The above experiment can be illustrated using Leslies cube (hollow metal cube). T he sides of the cube are painted white and dull black. The cube is then filled w ith hot water and the radiation from each surface detected using a thermopile. T he thermopile has got a pointer which deflects when a radiation falls on it. Dif ferent sides of the cube are made to face the thermopile at a time. Its observed that, greatest deflection is obtained when dull black surface is made to face th e thermopile and least deflection obtained when highly polished surface (white s urface) faces the thermopile. We hence say dull black surfaces are better emitters of heat (Good radiators of heat) than highly polished surfaces. A hot object standing on a metallic table on the surface of the moon loses heat. Explain why. Answer: There are two processes by which the hot body (object) will lose heat i. e; conduction and radiation. During conduction the electrons in the hot object move faster hence colliding wi th atoms in the metallic table. By this way, heat energy is passed onto these a toms and hence heat loss. During radiation, heat energy of the hot object is lost in form of electromagnet ic radiation. Such radiations travel in vacuum around the object on the moon. Since the moon has no atmosphere (no gases) we dont expect heat loss by convectio n. Exercise. 1. (i) (ii) 2. At this point you should be able to explain; Why car radiators are painted black. Why a white dress is preferred on hot days. (a) With reference to heat define the terms: (i) conduction (ii) convection

(b) (i) Give two differences between boiling and evaporation. (ii) Explain the observation: Scalds of steam burn the skin more severely tha n boiling water. ( c) Describe briefly an experiment to illustrate that water is a bad conduct or of heat. (d) What is 370C on thermodynamic scale of temperature? 4. (b) 11.8 (a) Describe the fixed points of a Celsius scale of temperature. Give two advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric liquid. THE THERMOS (VACCUM) FLASK.

The vaccum flask keeps because; Heat losses by Heat losses by Heat losses by

a cold liquid cold and hot liquid hot. Its able to do that conduction and evaporation are eliminated by the cork. conduction and evaporation are eliminated by the vaccum. radiation are eliminated by presence of silvered surfaces.

The vaccum seal should never be broken because it seals off the vaccum. When its broken the vaccum is lost and thus heat is lost by radiation, convection and con duction hence rendering the flask useless. 11.9 Understanding Heat calculations

Specific Heat capacity (s.h.c) The amount of heat (H) absorbed or given out by a body depends on; Nature of the material (C) Mass of the body (M) Change in the temperature ( ) If we combine the above we write it as C is referred too as the specific heat capacity of the body. If H is measured in Joules (J), mass in kg, in K or 0C then C is measured in JKg-1K-1 We can therefore say that Specific heat capacity (s.h.c) is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of a substance by 1K. Different substances have got different s.h.c as shown in the table. Owing to the low conductivity and density of liquids, it should be noted that th e s.h.c of liquids e.g water is higher than that of solids. Its for this reason w hy water takes longer to heat up or cool compared to other substances. This explains why; Water is used in the cooling system of a car engine. The sea remains colder than land during day time and hotter than land at night. Heat capacity: This is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1K. If a body absorbs an amount of energy (H) and the temperature changes by K then;

C is what is referred too as heat capacity of the body. S.I unit of C = JK-1 Heat capacity is also given by;

Example. 1. 75000J of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance b

y 15K (i) (ii) Solutions. (i) H = C 75000 = C 15 what is the heat capacity of the substance. Find also the mass of substance if its s.h.c is 900JKg-1K-1

C = 75000 = 5000JK-1 15 (ii) Heat capacity = m 5000 = m s.h.c 900

M = 5000 = 5.5kg 900 2. How much Heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1kg of wat er from 200C to 800C.? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/kgK) H = MC = 1 4200 (80 20) = 252000J

3. How much Heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1kg of wat er from 200C to boiling point? (Assume Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/ kgK) Solution. H = Boiling point of water = 1000C. MC = 1 4200 (100 20) = 336000J.

4. How much heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1.5 litres of water from 200C to Boiling point? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/k gK) Solution. Assume mass of 1litre of water = 1kg = 1000C - 200C = 80K

Temperature change H = MC = 1.5

4200 (100 20) = 50400J.

5. How much heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1g of wate r from 200C to 800C.? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/kgK). Solution. Change mass from grams to kg. 1 g = MC = 0.001 = 1 kg = 1000 0.001kg

4200 (80 20) = 252J

6. How much heat energy is recquired to raise the temperature of 1kg of wat er by 100C.? Solution. By in this context means Where = 100C.

is the temperature change.

MC

= 1

4200

10 = 42000J

Please Note: For High energies the energy is expressed in Kilo Joules (KJ) and 1KJ = 1000J Heat energy in examples above can be expressed as follows; 252000J 252000 = 252KJ 1000 336000J = 50400J = 252J = 42000J = 336KJ 50.4KJ 0.252KJ 42KJ e.t.c.

7. 7200J of heat energy raised the temperature of 2kg of a substance from 8 00C to 840C. Find the specific heat capacity. H = C = M MC H = 7200 = 2 (84-80) 900

Specific heat capacity of the substance = 900J/kgK. 8. (i) A material of mass 2kg requires 4.4 103J for its temperature to change from 600C to 800C. Calculate its specific heat capacity. (ii) If the material in (d) (i) is placed in a vacuum, state why it c ools. (i) Solution. m = 2kg H = 4.4 H 4.4 103J = 80 60 = 20oC = mC C 20

103 = 2

C = 110Jkg-1k-1 The specific heat capacity of the material = 110Jkg-1k-1 (ii) Such a material will cool because it loses heat by radiation.

These values of Specific heat capacity (S.h.c) in J/kgK are to be used i n all the numerical work in the exercise below. Substance Water Aluminium Brass Copper Glass Ice 4200 900 380 400 670 S.h.c Substance S.h.c

2100 Iron Lead Mercury Methylated spirit Sea water 460 130 140 2400 3900 Exercise. 1. How much heat energy is required to raise the temperature of? (a) 1 kg of water by 100C. (b) 200g of water from 100C to boiling point (c) 500g of ice water to boiling point (d) 800g of Aluminum from 300C to 1290C Answers: (a) 42000J (b) 75600J (c) 210000J (d) 71280J 2. How much heat energy is lost to lower the temperature of? (a) 80g of water by 50C. (b) 3kg of iron by 190C (c) 500g of ice from 00C to 100C. Answers: (a) 1680J (b) 26220J (c) 10500J. 3. 5200J of heat is given to 500g of lead at 1000C. What is its temperatur e now? Answer. 1800C. 4. 2200J raises the temperature of 100g of paraffin oil from 220C to 320C. What is its specific heat capacity? Answer. 2200J/kgK 5. When an iron piece lost 920J of heat, it cooled from 2270C to 270C. What was the mass of iron cooled? Answer. 10g or 0.01kg Method of mixtures. This can be used to find the s.h.c of both liquids and solids, good or bad condu ctors. It can be divided into two parts; (i) Solid liquid method. (ii) Liquid liquid method.

Determination of s.h.c of solid by method of mixtures.

A solid of mass Ms and specific heat capacity Cs is heated in boiling water whil e stirring to a temperature 3. Its then transferred quickly to a liquid of mass M1 , s.h.c C1 at a temperature 1 in a calorimeter of mass Mc, s.h.c Cc. The mixture is stirred continuously and the temperature of the mixture noted at regular time intervals until it reaches the equilibrium temperature 2 (final steady temperatu re). If no heat is lost to the surrounding, when the solid is transferred into t he liquid then; Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter. MsCs( 3 - 2) = M1C1( 2 - 1) + McCc( 2 - 1)

Cs = M1C1( 2 - 1) + McCc( 2 - 1) Ms ( 3 2)

Please Note: When carrying out the experiment, there is a possibility of losing heat by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation. Heat losses by convection and evaporation can be reduced by covering the contain er (calorimeter) with a lid (preferably made of wood). Heat losses by conduction can be reduced by insulating the calorimeter with poor conductors e.g cotton wool or felt jacket. The process of doing this is referred too as lagging.

Heat losses by radiation can be reduced by polishing the calorimeter or lagging is as before. Examples 1. The temperature of 500g of a certain metal is raised to 1000C and it is then placed in 200g of water at 150C. If the final steady temperature rises to 2 10C, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal. Heat given out by metal = 500 1000 MMC C(100 - 21) Heat received by water = MwC = 200 4200 (21 15) 1000

Cross multiply and apply mathematics. 5 C 79 = 2 4200 6 395 C = 8400 6 395 395 C = 128J/kgK 2. A copper vessel of mass 1.75kg is at 100C. 50g of boiling water is poure d into it. Calculate the specific heat capacity of copper if the final steady te mperature is 300C. Let CC be the specific heat capacity of copper and boiling point of water = 1000 C Heat lost by hot water = Heat gained by Copper vessel MWCW 50 1000 4200 (100 30) 5 = MWCW = 1.75 CC (30 10) CC 20

42 (70) = 1.75 14700 = 35CC 35 35 420 = CC

Therefore specific heat capacity of copper = 420J/kgK. Before solving such problems the reader is advised to note; what substance is lo

osing heat and which substance gains heat. 3. The temperature of a piece of copper of mass 250g is raised to 1000C and its then transferred to a well lagged Aluminium can of mass 10g containing 120g of methylated spirit at 100C. Calculate the final steady temperature after the s pirit has been well stirred. Neglect the heat capacity of the stirrer and any losses from evaporation (use ta ble 1) Solution. Let final steady temperature be 0C. Its assumed that both aluminium and methylated spirit are at 100C initially and are to warm, up to 0C. Temperature change for aluminum = ( 10) K. Temperature change for methylated spirit = ( - 10) K. If Copper cools from 1000C to Temperature change = (100 - ) K Heat given out by = Heat gained by copper Alluminium MC CC (100 ) = MACC ( ) = 10 - 10) + Heat gained by methylated Spirit + MMCM ( - 10) 2400 ( - 10) 1000

250 400 (100 1000

900 ( - 10) + 120 1000

Apply simple mathematics now. 25 4 (100 - ) = 1 9 ( - 10) + 12 24 ( - 10) 100 (100 - ) = 9 ( - 10) + 288 ( - 10) 10000 - 100 = 9 - 90 + 288 - 2880 10000 + 90 + 2880 = 9 + 288 + 100 12970 = 397 397 397 32.7 = . Final steady temperature = 32.70C. Where MC and CC is the mass of copper and specific heat capacity of copper respe ctively. Determination of s.h.c of liquid by method of mixtures.

Fig. 184

Fig. 185

Liquid 1 of mass M1 and s.h.c C1 is heated to a temperature 1 and then transferre d to a calorimeter 2 of mass Mc and s.h.c Cc containing liquid 2 of mass M2 and s.h.c C2 at a temperature 2. The mixture is then stirred thoroughly and the temperature noted when it reaches equilibrium point 3. Ignoring heat losses to the surrounding then; Heat lost by liquid 1 = heat gained by liquid 3 + heat gained by calorimeter. M1C1( 1 - 3) = M2C2( 3 - 2) + McCc( 3 - 2) Cs = M2C2( 3 - 2) + McCc( 3 - 2)

M1( 1 -

3)

S.h.c of liquid 2 must be known. Assuming liquid 1 and 2 are the same, then their specific heat capacity are the same i.e C1 = C2 M1C1( 1 M1C1( 1 3) = M2C1( 3 3) - M2C1( 3 2) + McCc ( 3 - 2) 2) = McCc( 3 2)

C1 [M1 ( 1 - 3) - M2( 3 C1 = Example 1.

2) ] = McCc( 3 - 2)

McCc ( 3 - 2) M1( 1 - 3) - M2( 3 - 2)

What is the final temperature of the mixture if 100g of water at 700C is

added to 200g of cold water at 100C and well stirred? (Neglect heat absorbed by the container). Solution: Let the final temperature of the mixture be 0C. Change in temperature of hot water = (70 ) K.

Change in temperature of cold water = ( - 100) K. Heat given out by hot water = heat received by cold water. MHC 100 1000 4200(70 70 70 ) = MCC . - 10 )

= 200 4200 ( 1000

= 2 ( - 10) = 2 - 20

70 + 20 = 2 + 90 = 3 30 = The final temperature of the mixture is 300C. Recall to convert mass from grams to kg and then apply usual mathematics to solv e for . Exercise In this Exercise assume values of constants in table below. Substance Water Aluminium Brass Copper S.h.c Substance S.h.c 3 3

Glass Ice 4200 900 380 400 670 2100 Iron Lead Mercury Methylated spirit Sea water 460 130 140 2400 3900 1. A piece of copper of mass 40g at 2000C is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 60g containing 50g of water at 100C. Ignoring heat losses, what will be the final steady temperatures after stirring? (s.h.c of copper = 400J/kg K) Answer: 220C 2. A bath contains 100kg of water at 600C. Hot and cold taps are then turned on to deliver 20kg per minute each at temperatures of 700C and 100C respe ctively. How long will it be before the temperatures in the bath have dropped to 450C? Assume complete mixing of the water and ignore heat losses. Answer: 7.5 min 3. Find the final temperature of the water, if a ball of copper of mass 420 g at 1000C is introduced in 400g of water at 200C. Answer: 27.30C 4. 18KJ of heat raised the temperature of 1kg of Aluminium through 20K. Wha t is the specific heat capacity of Aluminium? Answer: 900 J/kg K. 5. A red hot iron ball weighing 20kg was immersed in a polystyrene tube con taining 120kg of water at 270C. If the final temperature of water was 400C, fin d the initial temperature of the ball. Answer. 13000C 6. A piece of metal weighing 1kg is heated up to 1000C and immersed in 220g of water at 260C. If the final temperature of water was 560C, find the specifi c heat capacity of the metal. Answer: 630J/kgK. Determination of s.h.c of liquid by Electrical method.

Fig. 186

A liquid of mass M1 is put in a calorimeter of mass Mc at a temperature 1 before heating. The heater is then inserted in the liquid placed in a well lagged calor imeter and a steady current I at a steady P.d V are passed through the heater fo r a time t while stirring.

The final temperature 2 after heating for a time t is noted from thermometer. If no heat is lost to the surrounding then; Electrical energy = heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter. IVt = M1C1 ( 2 1 ) + McCc ( 2 1)

C1 and Cc are the specific heat capacities of liquid and calorimeter respectivel y. If Cc is known then C1 can be determined. Please Note. Current I is measured in amperes by ammeter and potential difference V in volts by voltmeter while time in seconds by stop clock. If the calorimeter is at a temperature of 1 before heating, then the liquid in it is also at 1 The electrical heater must be completely immersed in the liquid. Example. A liquid of mass 600g is heated from 250C to 700C by a heater with a power of 500W in a calorimeter of heat capacity 190Jkg-1 for 1 minutes. Ne glecting heat losses to the surrounding. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the liquid. Solution. If no heat is lost to the surrounding then;

Electrical energy = heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter. IVt = MLCL ( 2 (IV)t = MLCL ( 2 P t = MLCL ( 2 500 1 ) + McCc ( 2 1)

1 ) + heat capacity ( 2 - 1) 1 ) + Heat capacity ( 2 - 1) CL (70 25) + 190 (70 CL 45 + 190 45 25)

90 = 600 45000 = 0.6

45000 = 27CL + 8550 CL = 1350JKg-1K-1 In the above example, you must have noted that P = IV, heat capacity McCc and ti me = 1 minutes = 90s. Example. A liquid of mass 400g in a calorimeter of heat capacity 200JK-1 is heated such that its temperature changes from 250C to 700C. Find the specific heat capacity of the liquid if the heat supplied is 18000J. Heat supplied = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter. 18000 = MLCL( 2 - 1) + McCc( 2 - 1) 18000 = 18000 = 0.4 9000 = 0.4 CL CL 400 CL (70 - 25) + 200 (70 - 25) 1000 45

45 + 200 45

CL = 500JKg-1K-1

Example. A liquid of mass 1500g is heated by a heater with a power of 15k Wh in a calorimeter of mass 250g for 3 minutes. The temperature of the liquid ro se by 5K. If the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter is 400Jkg-1K-1. Negle cting heat losses to the surrounding. Calculate the specific heat capacity of th e liquid. P= 15kW = 15 1000 = 15000W time = 3minutes = 3 60 = 180s

Assuming no heat losses then; Electrical energy = heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter. P t = MLCL ( 2 15000 1 ) + McCc ( 2 CL 1000 5 + 1) 400 5 1000

180 = 1500 5

250

2700000 = 1.5 2699500 = 7.5CL

CL + 500 CL = 3.59 105 JKg-1K-1.

Example. 18KJ of energy is supplied to a liquid of mass 200g in a calorim eter of mass 250g such that the temperatures change by 14K. Assuming no heat los ses. Determine the specific heat capacity of the calorimeter if the specific hea t capacity of the liquid is 1200JKg-1K-1. Solution. H = 18J = 18 1000 = 18000J.

Assuming no heat losses, then; Heat supplied = Heat gained by liquid + Heat gained by calorimeter. 18000 = MLCL 18000 = 18000 = 0.2 18000 = 3360 Cc = 4.183 Example. A liquid of mass 600g is heated by a ligible heat capacity for 3 minutes. C to 800C. Neglecting heat losses to t capacity of the liquid if the mass Solution. P= 2kW = 2 1000 = 2000W time = 3minutes = 3 60 = 180s heater of power 2KW in a calorimeter of neg The temperature of the liquid rose from 600 the surrounding, calculate the specific hea of the calorimeter is 400g. 1200 Cc 200 + McCc 1200 1000 14 + Cc 200 14 Cc 14 1000

14 + 0.25 3.5

103JKg-1K-1

Assuming no heat losses then; Heat lost by heater = heat gained by liquid P t = MLCL ( 2 - 1)

2000 2000 180

180 = 600 CL 1000 CL 2 20 CL

(80 60)

1000 = 600 2000 180 = 6

CL = 3

104 JKg-1K-1.

N.B: in this example, if a calorimeter has negligible heat capacity its assumed i t doesnt absorb any heat. Example. A steady current of 10A and has a P.d of 220V is passed through a block of mass 1500g for one minute. If the temperature of the block rises from 200C to 750C. C alculate; (i) (ii) Solution. (i) 1minute = 60sec. The specific heat capacity of the block. The heat capacity of a 5kg mass of the same block.

Heat lost by heater = heat gained by block IVt = MC ( 2 - 1 ) 10 220 60 = 1500 CL = 10 (ii) Heat capacity = M s.h.c = 5 C (75 20) 1000 220 60 1000 = 1600 JKg-1K-1 1500 (75 - 20)

1600 = 8000JKg-1K-1

Example The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 JKg-1K-1. What is me ant by the above statement? Answer: This means that 1kg of water gives out or takes in as the case may be 42 00J when its temperature changes by 1K. Self Check Problems. Where necessary assume the following Specific heat capacity of water Specific heat capacity of ice Specific latent heat of fusion of ice Specific latent heat of vaporization of water =

= 4200 JKg-1K-1 = 2100 JKg-1K-1 = 340000 JKg-1 2260000 JKg-1

1. 225KJ of energy is required to raise the temperature of Aluminum by 15K. Determine the heat capacity and mass of Aluminum if its s.h.c is 900JKg-1K-1. 2. Define the following and give their S.I units. (a) Heat capacity. (b) Specific heat capacity (c) Latent heat. (d) Specific latent heat of fusion. Specific latent heat of vaporization.

(e)

3.

Find the amount of heat given out when; (a) 500g of water is heated from 250C to 400C (b) 200g of ice at 00C melts to water at 400C (c) 400g of water at 500C completely evaporates at 1000C 2kg of ice at -100C is heated to water at 1000C. (a) Draw a temperature time graph for the process. (b) Calculate the amount of heat absorbed.

4.

5. 300g of water at 100C is mixed with 500g of water at 800C. Determine the final temperature after mixing. 6. Find the amount of energy needed to heat 2kg of water from 800C until 0.5kg of it has evaporated. 7. 3kg of ice at -150C is heated to water at 600C. Find the heat absorbed. 8. Find the amount of heat needed to heat 800g of ice at -200C until 200g of it evaporates. 9. Find the heat given out when 2kg of steam at 1000C condenses to water at 500C. 10. 300C. Find the heat absorbed when 5kg of ice at 00C is melted to water at

11. 200g of ice at 00C is added to 800g of water at 700C. Find the final temperature of the mixture. 12. 300g of steam at 1000C was passed into 1kg of water at 200C. Find the final temperature. 13. A copper calorimeter of mass 200g contains 500g of water at 300C. A piece of copper metal of mass 400g at 2000C is dropped into the water. Find the final temperature of the water. Assume the specific heat capacity of copper to b e 400Jkg-1K-1. In the following sub chapters the theory of Current Electricity is important, he nce the need to revise it. Determination of specific heat capacity of a metal using (Electrical method) Fig. 187

Apparatus required; Metal of known mass M with holes, Ammeter voltmeter, Stop cl

ock, Battery, Heater. Method. The electrical heater and thermometer are put into holes drilled in the metal to ensure good thermo contact. The initial temperature ( 1) is noted. When you swit ch on you start timing using a stop clock. After a known time (t) seconds when t he temperature has risen to ( 2) switch off the heater after noting the current (I ) from Ammeter and voltage or potential difference (V) from voltmeter. Heat supplied by heater = VIt Heat received by metal = MC

= 2 1 = change in temperature. Assuming there is no heat lost to the surroundings, Heat received by metal = Heat supplied by heater MC = VIt NOTE: S.I unit of current is Amperes (A), S.I unit of P.d is Volts (V) S.I unit of power is watts (W), S.I unit of Heat is Joules (J) Example 1 If a mass of body 8kg is heated for 10min voltmeter reading 12V and ammeter read ing is 2.5A. The temperature rise produced is 200C find. i) Power rating of the heater ii) Energy received by the metal iii) The specific heat capacity of the metal. iv) State the assumption made Solution i) P = IV (ii) Energy received = energy supplied M = 8kg = 12 2.5 = IVt V = 12V = 30W = 12 2.5 600 I = 2.5A = 18000J. = 200C t = 10min = 600s iii) Heat received by metal = heat given out by heater. MC = VIt C = VIt = 18000 = 112.5 Jkg-1K-1 M 8 20 iv) Assumption: No heat was lost to the surroundings.

Example 2 Find the amount of heat gained by 3kg of water from 300C to its boiling point. S pecific heat capacity of water (H20) = 4200 J kg-1k-1 Solution. H = MC = 3 M = 3kg 4200 C = 4200Jkg-1k-1 70 = 882000J = 300 2 = 1000 = 700C

Example 3 A heater of Power 500W is placed 0.5kg of water 200C. Find its temperature afte r 3.5 minutes. Specific heat capacity of water (H20) = 4200 Jkg-1k-1 Solution: s P = 500 W M = 0.5 kg 1 = 200C t = 3.5 60 = 210

And if C = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 Heat given out by heater = heat gained by water.

Pt = MC C = Pt M 420 = 500 210 0.5 = 500C = 50 = 2 2 - 20 1

2 = 700C Example 4 An electrical heater put into 500g of oil raises the temperature of oil from 40C to 360C. The reading of power supply are Voltmeter = 12V Ammeter = 4A time = 1 hrs Find i) ii) Power supplied. Specific heat capacity of oil. M = 500g = 0.5kg = 2 1 = 36 20 = 160C V = 12V I = 4A

Solution:

t = 1 hr = 3600 + 1800 = 5400s. i) P = VI = 12 4 = 48W

ii) Heat given out by heater = heat gained by oil. MC = VIt 0.5 C 16 C = 48 5400

= 259200 = 259200 = 32400J kg-1k-1 5 16 8

11.9.2 Consider

LATENT HEAT

Fig. 188

Latent heat is the amount of heat required to change the state of a substance wi thout change in temperature. They are two types latent heat. 1. Latent heat of fusion This is the amount of heat required to convent a substance from its solid state to liquid state without change in temperature. 2. Latent heat of vaporization. This is the amount of heat required to convent a substance from its liquid state into vapour without change in temperature. Latent heat of fusion/vaporization depends on the mass and nature of substance. If (H) is the heat absorbed to change the state of a substance of mass (M) and ( L) is the latent heat. Then H = ML S.I unit of latent heat is J/kg or Jkg-1 A smaller unit of latent heat is Jg-1 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity (amount) a heat re quired to convert 1kg mass of solid into liquid without change in temperature. SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION Is the quantity (amount) of heat required to convert 1kg mass of a liquid into v apour without change in temperature.

Fig. 189

The flow above is very important when solving problems related to Latent heat. And if well understood learner will never fail to attempt any Latent heat probl em. Example 1. Calculate the quantity of heat recquired to melt 4kg of ice and to raise the tem perature of water formed to 500C, take specific latent heat of ice to be 3.4 105J/kg and s.h.c of water = 4200J/kgk Solution. Using fig (189). Consider c and b.

H = 2. 1000C.

c + b

+ MCW = 4 3.4 105 + 4 4200 (50 0) = 2.2 106J Calculate the heat recquired to convert 2kg of ice at -120C to steam at

= Ml

H = d + c + b + a = MCi + Mlf + MCw + MLv = 2 2100 (0 - -12) + 2 336000 + 2 + 2 2260000 = 6.0824 106J. Self test problem.

4200 (100)

Calculate the Heat recquired to convert 2g of ice at -120C to steam. (Hint: Covert grams to kg, temperature of steam is always taken as 1000C and pe rform calculations as in previous example). Example 3 How much heat is required to convert 0.2kg of water into steam? Lv of water or steam = 2.26 106Jkg-1 Solution M = 0.2kg 2.26 Lv = 2.26 106 = 0.452 106 Jkg-1 106 = 4.52 105J H = ?

H = MLv = 0.2 Example 4

Calculate the heat energy recquired to convert 700g of ice at 00C into ice water at 00C. Take specific latent heat of fusion of ice to be 3.34 105J/kg. From figure 189. Take stage c H = MLf = 700 1000 Example 5 622 kJ of energy is required to convent 2kg of substance into liquid. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion. Solution H = 622 KJ = 672 H = MLf 672000 = 2 2 2 Lf = 336000J kg-1 = 3.36 105 Jkg-1 Graph Lf 1000 = 672000J M = 2kg Lf = ? 3.34 105 = 233.8 103J 233.8kJ.

2Lf = 672000

Fig. 190

Example 4 a) Find the heat required to melt completely 200g of lead initially at 270C if its melting point is 3270C. If the heat is supplied to lead at the rate of 30Js-1, Find: i) The time taken to bring the lead to its melting points ii) Additional time required to melt it. S.h.c of lead = 0.14J/gk-1 1000 = 140J/kgk Lf of lead = 270 J/g 1000 = 270000J/kg Solution a) M = 200g = 0.2kg

Heat gained to raise temperatures from 270C to 3270C is H = MC = 0.2 140 300 = 8400J MLf = 0.2 270000 = 54000J

Heat for melting lead at 3270C = Total heat b) i) ii)

= 8400 + 54000 = 62400J. Time = Energy = 8400 = 280s Power 30 t = 54000 30 = 1800s

Total time = 280 + 1800 = 2080s. Example How much heat is needed when 10g of steam at 1000C is condensed to water at 600C.? Take specific latent heat of vaporization to be 2.26 106J/kg. Solution. MLv Fig. 191 From fig (189) that is stage a and b H = a + b = MLv + MCw = 10 2.26 1000 M mass of steam given as 10g. MCw

106 + 10 1000

4200 (100 60)

= 22600 + = 24280J Example

1680

Calculate the mass of steam at 1000C needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of water from 300C to 800C. Assume S.h.c of water = 4200J/kgK and Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 106J/kg. Heat lost by steam = Heat gained to warm water from 300C to 800C. Let mass of steam be M (kg) Change of state; MLv Fig. 192 H = MLv + MC = M 2.26 106 + M 4200 (100 - 80) = 2.26 106M + 84000M = 2.344 106M. Heat gained to warm water from 300C to 800C = MC = 1 4200 (80 30) = 210000J Since Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water to warm from 300C to 800C. 2.344 106M = M Mass of steam recquired = 0.0895kg. Example A piece of metal of specific heat capacity 450J/kgK and of mass 334g at 1000C is placed on the surface of ice at 00C. Calculate mass of ice melted. (Take Lf = 3.34 105J/kg). Solution: Assume Mi - Mass of ice. = Heat gained to melt ice = Mi Lf 3.34 105 105 Mi 3.34 = Mi = 0.045 kg 210000 = 210000 2.344 106 = 0.0895kg Heat lost by steam = MCw

Heat lost by hot Piece of metal MC 334 450 (100- 0) = Mi 1000

15030 = 3.34 3.34 105 0.045kg

105

Mass of melted ice

Example A refrigerator can convert 400g of water at 200C to ice at -100C in 3 hours. Find the average rate of heat extraction from water in Joules per second. (Take Lf = 336000J/kg) Solution b d MCw MCi Fig. 193 The question recquires you to calculate for power. H = b + c + d = MCw + MLf + MCi 336 103 + 400 2100 1000 10 MLf c

= 400 4200 (20 - 0) + 400 1000 1000 Simplifying gives; Time taken Power = H = 176.4 103J

= 3 hours (convert this to seconds) 1 hr = 3600s 3 hrs = 3 3600 = 10800s Total Heat = H = 176.4 103 = 16.3J/s Time taken t 10800

The rate of heat extraction from water is 16.3 J/s. Exercise. 1. Calculate the thermal energy (heat) required to convert 300g of ice at -100C to steam at 1000C. Show it on temperature - time graph. 2. Calculate the heat required to convert 700g of water at 600C to steam at 1000C. Show it on temperature - time graph. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF STEAM (Using Method of Mixtures) Weigh a calorimeter when empty, then re-weigh when half full of water. By subtr action find the mass of water. Note the temperature 1 of water and colorimeters a t the beginning of the experiment.

Fig. 194 Dry steam is then passed through tube (T) into water for some time. The tube (T ) is removed and water continuously stirred gently until a steady final temperat ure 2 is obtained. The calorimeter and its contents are again reweighed to find t he mass of the condensed steam. Let M1 = mass of calorimeter of specific heat capacity C1 M2 = mass of water of specific heat capacity C2 M3 = mass of steam of latent heat of vaporization Lv 3 = temperature of boiling water (1000 C at sea level) 1 = Initial temperature of calorimeter and contents 2 = Final temperature of calorimeter and contents (mixture). Heat lost by steam in condensing 3 = M3Lv Heat lost by condensed steam in cooling from 3 to 2 = M3C2( 3 - 2) Heat gained by a calorimeter from 1 to 2 = MC1( 2 - 1) Heat gained by water from 1 to 2 = M2 C2 ( 2 - 1) Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings. Total heat lost M3Lv + M3C2 ( 3 2) = Total heat gained = M1C1( 2 1) + M2 C2 ( 2 - 1)

Lv can then be calculated using the above expression. Example 1 A copper calorimeter weighs 100g when empty and 300g when half full of water at 300C. 5g of steam is passed into the calorimeter and a final steady temperature is reached. Neglecting heat loses to the surroundings; calculate the final stea dy temperature of the calorimeter and its contents. Given that Lv = 2.26 106Jkg-1 M1 = 100g M2 = 200g M3 = 5g Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1k-1 Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 Jkg-1k-1 Solution. Let the final steady temperature be Heat lost by steam in condensing = M3Lv = 0.005 2260000 = 11300J Heat lost by condensed steam from 1000C to = M3C2(100- ) Heat gained by calorimeter from 300C to = M1C1 ( - 30) = 0.1 400 ( - 30) = 40( - 30) = 40 - 1200J Heat gained by water from 300C to = M2C2( -30) = 0.2 4200 ( -30) = 840 ( - 30) = 840 - 25200J Total heat lost = Total heat gained. 11300 + 2100 - 21 = 40 - 1200 + 840 - 25200 11300 + 2100 + 1200 + 25200 = 40 + 840 + 21 39800 = 901 = 39800 = 44.17 44.20C 901 Example 2 A copper calorimeter of mass 120 g contains 70g of water and 10g of ice at 00C. What mass of steam at 1000C must be passed into the calorimeter to rise the temp erature to 400C ? Given;Specific latent heat of fusion = 320Jg-1 Specific latent heat of vaporisation = 2200Jg-1, Specific heat capacity of copp er 0.4Jg-1k-1 , Specific heat capacity of water 4.2Jg-1k-1

Solution. Mc = 120g,

Mw = 70g,

Mi = 10g and let mass of steam be M = MLv = 2200 M = 2200M

Heat lost by steam in condensing at 1000C

Heat lost by condensed steam from 1000C to 400C = MCw (100 - 40) = M = 252M Heat gained by water from 0C to 400C = MwCw (40 0) = 70 4.2 40 = 11760J 4.2 60

Heat gained by calorimeter from 00C to 400C = McCc (40 0) = 120 0J Heat gained by ice in melting at 00C = Mi Lf = 10 320 = 3200J 0.4 40 = 192

Heat gained by melted ice (water) from 00C to 400C = Mi Cw(40 - 0) = 10 0 = 1680J 4.2 4

Heat lost 2200M + 252M

Heat gained by (ice + water + copper) = 11760 2452 M = 1.6g + 1920 + 3200 + 1680

2452M 2452

= 18560

Mass of steam = 7.6g Now borrow some ideas from Current Electricity section. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE (Using Electrical Method)

Fig. 195

Pieces of dry ice are put in plastic funnel. Heater connected to power supply is

then put into ice. The heater is then switched on for a time (t) and the mass ( M) of melted ice collected in that time determined. Heat supplied by the heater = VIt Heat received by ice when melting = MLf If no heat is lost to the surrounding then; Heat lost by heater = heat gained by ice VIt = MLf Lf = VIt M P is the power of the heater in watt (W) Example 1 but P = VI

Fig. 196

When 100W heater is used to heat 1kg of solid wax the temperature of the wax is observed to change in time as shown above. Determine. (i) (ii) The melting point of wax. The specific latent heat of fusion of wax.

Solution. i) ii) Melting point = 800C P = 100 W M = 1g t = 200(s) Lf = ?

Pt = MLf Lf 2. = Pt = 100 M 200 = 20000 = 2 1 104 Jkg-1

The figure shows the variation of temperature of a metal with time

Fig. 197

i)

Using the graph explain what happens to the metal.

ii) If the metal absorbs heat at the rate of 2500Js-1 and Specific heat capa city is 300Jkg-1k-1, calculate the mass of the metal. iii) Find the specific latent heat of the metal. Solution i) The initial temperature of metal is 2500C its heated for 400s and it reac hes its melting point of 9500C. It melts for 350s, while the temperature is con stant. Liquid obtained is then heated further. ii) C = 300Jkg-1k-1 P = 2500Js-1 M = ?? For AB = 950 250 = 7000C iii) Pt = Lf = ?? MLf Lf = Pt M 350 = 183823.5Jkg 4.76

Lf = 2500 Pt = MC 300 700 = 183823.5 Jkg-1 M = 2000 400 = 4.76 kg 300 700

2500

400 = M

3. An ice making machine extracts heat from water at a rate of 20 Js-1 For how long will it take to covert 0.5kg of water at 200C to ice at 00C? Given Specific heat capacity of water 4200 Jkg-1k-1 and Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 105 Jkg-1 Electrical energy = Heat gained by water + heat gained by ice. Pt = MC + MLf 20t = 0.5 4200 20 + 0.5 336000

20t = 210000 t = 210000 = 10500s 20 4.

Fig. 198

The graph shows temperature against time for a substance which is heated at a constant rate. Which part of the graph corresponds with the situation when the molecules of a substance have the highest kinetic energy. Answer: Since kinetic energy is proportional to temperature, the part which give the highest kinetic energy of the molecules is YZ. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE (using Method of Mixtures)

Weigh the calorimeter when empty and reweigh when half full of water. By subtra ction find the mass of water M2. Warm the calorimeter and its contents so that t he temperature rises by say about 50C above room temp. Pure dry ice is added to the warm water in bits and the mixture is stirred gentl y until all the ice melts completely. This process continues until the temperat ure of calorimeter and its contents falls by about 50C below the room temperatur e. Re weigh the calorimeter and its contents at the end of the experiment to find t he mass of ice M3 added to water. Let 2 = Temperature of warm water and calorimeter 1 = Final temperature of mixture (water + calorimeter + M1 = mass of calorimeter of specific heat capacity C1 M2 = mass of water of specific heat capacity C2 M3 = mass of ice Lf = Specific latent heat of fusion of ice. Heat lost by calorimeter from 2 to 1 = Heat lost by water from 2 to 1 = Heat gained by ice for melting at 00C = M3Lf Heat gained by melted ice (water from 00C to 1) = M3 C3( = M3C2 1 Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings then; Total heat gained by ice = Total heat lost by (water + calorimeter) M3Lf + M3C2 1 = M1C1 ( 2 - 1) + M2C2 ( 2 - 1) Lf can be determined. Example 16g of dry ice was added to 100g of water at 260C in polystyrene beaker of negligible heat capacity. When all ice had melted the temperature of water was found to be 110C. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. (Assume specific heat capacity of water to be 4200J/kgK) Solution: Equilibrium Temperature = 110C = Heat needed to + Heat gained by melted ice (water) to rise + Lf 1000 MwCw + 16 1000 4200 (11 0) 11 melted ice)

M1C1( 2 - 1) M2C2 ( 2 - 1) 1 - 0)

Heat lost by water Melt ice from 00C to 110C. MC 100 1000 =

MiLf

4200 (26 17) = 16

420000 15 = 16Lf + 16 4200 6300000 = 16Lf + 739200 6300000 - 739200 = 16Lf 5560800 = 16Lf 347550 = Lf Latent heat of fusion of ice is 347550J/kg.

Example. What mass of ice at 00C needs to be added to 100g of water at 220C to lower the temperature to 50C ? Lf = 336Jg-1, Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg-1k-1. Solution Mi = ? = Cw = 4.2 Jg-1k-1 MwCw (22 5) = 100 14 17 = 2140J Lf = 336Jg-1

Heat lost by water

Heat gained by ice for melting at 00C = Mi Lf = 336Mi Heat gained by melted ice (now water) from 00C to 50C = Mi Cw (5 0) = Mi 4.2 5 = 21Mi

Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings then; Total heat gained by ice = total heat lost by water. 336 Mi + 21 Mi 357 Mi Mi Exercise. 1. If the melting point of lead is 3270C, find the amount of heat required to melt 200g of lead initially at 270C Specific heat capacity of lead is 140JKg-1K-1 and Specific latent heat o f fusion of lead is 2.7 105 JKg-1 . Answer: 62400J 2. A solid of mass 300g at 1200C is dropped into a calorimeter of mass 100g containing 80g of water at 300C. Find the final temperature of the mixture. G iven: S.h.c of solid = S.h.c of calorimeter = 500Jkg-1K-1 S.h.c of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1. Find temperature of the mixture. Answer = 55.20C Still have problems in the subject ? contact and Book senior Tutor on : +256 392 967 130 11.9.3 KINETIC THEORY The kinetic theory gives scientists away of explaining the three states of matte r (solids, liquids and gases) behave the way they do. ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC THEORY 1. All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. 2. The molecules are in constant rapid motion or vibration. 3. The higher the temperature the faster the molecules move and the greater the energy. LATENT HEAT AND KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION. 1. HEAT OF FUSION Latent heat of fusion represents the work done in separating the molecules durin g melting. As heat energy is absorbed, the molecules move further apart and the ir potential energy is increased. There is no change of kinetic energy of the m = = = 7140 7140 7140 = 20.34g 357

olecules during melting so temperature remains the same. 2. LATENT HAT EVAPOURISATION Liquid molecules overcome the forces holding them together and gain the freedom to move around independently as gas molecules when large amount of energy is app lied. This is received as latent heat of vaporization which increases the poten tial energy of molecules but not kinetic energy. When a vapour (gas) changes bac k into a liquid the molecules are cooled close together by forces of attraction between them and potential energy lost is released as heat. Steam gives out latent heat when it condenses to water thats why a scald from ste am is much worse than that from boiling water. Question: Water Why does steam from water burn the skin more than the boiling

This is because, when the hot steam condenses on the skin, it gives out latent h eat of vaporization thus making it burn more than the boiling point of water. MELTING POINT AND FREEZING POINT. When a substance melts, it does so at one particular temperature called its melt ing point. Therefore melting point is a temperature at which a solid substance t urns into a liquid. When a liquid turns into a solid, it does so at exactly the same temperature. I t is called freezing point. Therefore freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid. FACTORS AFFECTING MELTING POINT 1. Impurities When an impurity such as salt is added to a mixture of ice and water, the temper ature drops (reduces). The fall in temperature is due to the salt lowering the m eting point of the ice thus impurities lower the melting point of the substances E.g. ice. This effect is used in some countries especially in winter were salt is spread over roads and stop ice forming. 2. Pressure Increasing the pressure of ice lowers its melting point. Thus melting point of a substance E.g ice is lowered by an increase in pressure. This can be illustrated using the demonstration below.

Fig. 199

A block of ice rests on two supports, and a thin copper wire with heavy weights at each end is hung over it. After an hour, more or less, depending on the size of the block, the wire cut right through it and falls to the floor, leaving the ice still in a solid block. This is called regelation (refreezing). The pressure of the wire lowers the melting point of the ice in contact with it, and so the ice melts and flows above the wire. It should be noted that the latent heat of f usion required comes from the copper wire. However as soon as the water passes o ver the wire, it is no longer under pressure and therefore refreezes, the latent heat of fusion is taken away by the wire and used to further melt the ice below it and the process continues. An iron wire with smaller thermal conductivity passes into though much more slow ly.

Possible question: Describe with aid of a labeled diagram an experiment to show the effect of increase in pressure on the melting point of ice. COOLING CURVE

Fig. 200

When liquid e.g naphthalene is cooled, its temperature falls to freezing point ( AB) of 800C from B temperature remains constant up to C when freezing is complet e (BC). Temperature of the solid now fall further (CD). Along BC temperature remains constant for sometime because as naphthalene freeze s the heat lost to the surrounding is replaced by latent heat of fusion. HEATING CURVE This can be obtained by taking temperature after every 30 seconds as heating con tinues. A curve is obtained as shown below.

Fig. 201

The temperature rises considerably (AB) and it remains constant at 800C, the mel ting point (BC), the melting point (BC). Heat supplied is not used to change te mperature but its used to convert solid to liquid at that temperature. When all the solid has melted the temperature of the liquid rises again (CD). Example. A liquid is heated at 1200C and allowed to cool. It starts solidifying after 5m inutes when its temperature is 800C and takes 10 minutes to solidify. Sketch th e cooling curve for the liquid. Solution.

Fig. 202 BOILING Boiling occurs when molecules escape in form of bubbles of vapour from the surfa ce of the liquid.

11.9.4 FACTORS AFFECTING BOILING POINT 1. When an higher f water IMPURITIES. impurity such as salt is added to water, the mixture must be heated to a temperature before it boils. Impurities always raise the boiling point o and therefore cooking place faster.

2. PRESSURE. If the pressure above the water is raised, the water has to be heated to a tempe rature above 1000C before it boils, thus the boiling point of water rises when p ressure above it is raised. If the air pressure above some water in a flask is reduced, the liquid starts to boil at a much lower temperature their usual. Note: Boiling point of water is liable to vary from day to day because the atmos pheric pressure doesnt remain constant. E.g At high attitudes like mountain, boil ing point of water is lowered due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure. Ther efore cooking takes longer. Students Question: You can be asked to explain why cooking takes longer at high attitudes? PRESSURE COOKER

Fig. 203 A pressure cooker is a strong aluminum or steel container. The lid which prevent s the steam from escaping has a safety value. As the water inside is being heat ed, steam pressure inside increases, causing the boiling temperature (point) to rise (up to 1200C). The result is that food is cooked faster thus saving time a nd the cost of fuel. Should the steam pressure build up so much, the safety value is lifted up, allow ing some of the steam to escape. A pressure cooker is best used at high attitud es E.g Mountains where atmospheric pressure is low. EVAPORATION This is the change of a liquid to vapour without even reaching its boiling point . FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION. Increase in temperature: When the temperature of a liquid increases, the energy of the molecules also inc reases and thus rate of evaporation also increases. Surface area: Evaporation is rapid if the area of free surface of liquid is increased. i.e as surface area increases, the area from which the liquid molecules can escape incr eases thus evaporation increasing. Wind:

When air moves over a liquid surface, it carries away molecules escaping from th e liquid and reduces their chances of returning to it. Thats why wet clothes dry faster on a windy day. Nature of liquid : Different liquids evaporate at different rates. Volatile liquids have low boilin g points and can change from liquid to vapour quite easily at low temperatures. Such liquids include Methylated spirits and Ether. These evaporate faster than o ther types of liquids. Differences between Boiling and Evaporation. Boiling Evaporation

occurs at one particular Temperature called boiling point Occurs at any temperature Takes place throughout the volume of liquid and bubbles of gas are formed in all parts of it Takes place at the surface only and no bubbles are formed The temperature remains Constant. During evaporation, the temperature Table 13. falls.

Kinetic Theory Explanation of Cooling by Evaporation The molecules which escape from the surface of liquids are those with greater ki netic energy and higher velocities. This shows that, as evaporation continues th e molecules which remain in the liquid are those with very low kinetic energy an d so its temperature is lowered since temperature is proportional to kinetic ene rgy. This explains the cooling of a liquid due to evaporation. Question. Explain why a liquid cools after evaporation.

Experiment to demonstrate Cooling by Evaporation using Ether.

Fig. 204

A beaker is placed on top of a little water on a wooden block and some liquid Et her then poured into the beaker. Bubbling of air though Ether speeds up evapora tion. Ether evaporates quickly absorbing latent heat of vaporization from water under a beaker. Because water cant get heat from the wood which is a bad conducto r of heat it gets so COLD that it finally freezes to ice i.e. the beaker gets st uck to the wooden block with a thin layer of ice formed between them. Exercise. (i) (ii) State what is observed after along time in the experiment above. Explain your observation.

VAPOUR PRESSURE Some of the molecules of a liquid escape from the surface when such liquid absor

bs heat energy. Those molecules accumulate above the liquid and are in random m otion like molecules of a gas. They hence form a VAPOUR which creates a pressure . Vapour pressure: is the pressure exerted by the vapour above the liquid. Saturated Vapour: is one which is in contact or dynamic equilibrium with i ts own liquid. For a saturated vapour, the number of molecules leaving the Liquid (rate of evaporation) equals the number of molecules entering the liquid (rate of condensation) A saturated Vapour Pressure (S.V.P) : is the pressure exerted by a vapour in contact with its own liquid. Unsaturated Vapour: is one which is NOT in contact or dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid. The pressure exerted by a vapour not in contact with its own liquid is referred too as Unsaturated Vapour Pressure Effect of Temperature on Saturated Vapours When a saturated vapour is heated, it can be observed that the S.V.P increases a s temperature increases but saturated vapour does not obey gas laws (Pressure la w P T, Boyles law P 1/v and Charles law V T) because its mass is not fixed. Unsaturated vapour obeys gas laws because it has a fixed mass. Graphs

Fig. 205

Fig. 206

Differences between saturated vapours and unsaturated vapour. Saturated vapour Unsaturated vapour

- Is in contact with its own liquid - Is NOT in contact with its own liquid - Doesnt obey gas laws because its mass is not fixed. - Obeys gas laws because it has a fixed mass. Table 14. 11.9.5 REFRIGERATOR

Fig. 207 Cooling effect in a refrigerator is produced by evaporation of a volatile liquid called Freon. The liquid Freon evaporates rapidly in the pipe in the freezing compartment as more and more of its vapour is removed by the electric pump. As t he liquid evaporates, it takes the necessary latent heat of vapourisation from i nside the refrigerator and the liquid internal energy. Consequently (as a resul t) the liquid cools. The vapour which has been pumped off passes into the condenser which is in Zig Z ag form at the back of the refrigerator were its compressed by the pump and cond enses back to liquid. The latent heat at the back of the refrigerator is releas ed (given off) though the cooling fins. Heat is removed by conduction into the cooling fins and hence by convection and radiation to the surroundings. In this way heat energy removed from inside the r efrigerator is given off at the back hence warming. Liquid is passed back into the evaporation coil round the freezing box from the condensed coil. In this way a continuous collection of liquid and vapour is set up. The rate of evaporation and degree of cooling is controlled by a thermostat whic h switches on and off. The principle of a refrigerator is cooling by evaporation . CYCLE

Fig. 208

Whats i) ii) iii)

the use of Electric pump Condenser Cooling fins in a domestic refrigerator ?

Electric Pump. - It removes the vapour formed in the freezer - It forces the vapour into the condenser Condenser Its where the vapour is compressed and liquefies giving out latent heat of vaporization. Cooling fins Lets Revise Give out latent heat of vaporization to the surrounding air.

Where necessary assume the following; Specific heat capacity of water Specific heat capacity of copper K-1 Specific Latent Heat of fusion of water Specific heat capacity of ice Specific Latent Heat of vaporization of water 1. a)

= = =

4200Jkg-1K-1 = 400Jkg-1

4200Jkg-1 = 2100Jkg-1K-1 2.26 106Jkg-1

Explain why there is no change in temperature at boiling point even though heat is being supplied.

Answer: Heat supplied is used to overcome intermolecular forces holding the molecules of liquid together hence moving further apart. b) The specific latent heat of steam is 2000J/g and the S.h.c of water is 4 .2J/gk when 2g of steam at 1000C condenses to water at 400C, calculate the heat given up. Answer: 4504J 2. (a) (b) (c) Define latent heat of fusion. Briefly describe an experiment to show the effect of pressure on the melting point of a Substance. A block of pure ice at 150C was heated in a beaker and its temperature monitored with a thermometer until the water finally boils. (i) Sketch a graph of variation of temperature with time for (ii) the graph in (c) (i) above. (d) (e) 3. If the mass of ice melted was 80g. Calculate the total amount of heat required to raise the temperature of water to 1000C. State one application of latent heat of vaporization. the above process Using kinetic theory of matter, explain the features of

Describe how a refrigerator works.

4. (a) A calorimeter of mass 35.0g and specific heat capacity 840Jkg-1k-1 contains 143.0g of water at 70C. Dry steam at 1000C is bubbled throu gh the water in the calorimeter until the temperature of the water rises to 290C . If the masses of steam which condenses is 5.6g, (i) Calculate the heat gained by the water and calorimeter. (ii) Obtain an expression for the heat lost by the steam in condensing at 100 0C and in cooling to 290C. (iii) Find the specific latent heat of vaporization of water. (b) Explain in terms of molecules, what is meant by a saturated vapour

5. (a) Describe with aid of a labeled diagram an experiment to show the effect of increase in pressure on the melting point of ice. (b) (i) The fundamental interval of mercury in glass is 180mm. Find the temperature in degrees Celsius when the mercury thread is 55.2mm long. (ii) State two physical properties which change with temperature. 6. (i) By kinetic theory, explain the following; Cooling by evaporation.

(ii) Why the temperature of a gas contained in a cylinder increases when it i s compressed.