The Evolution of Optical Fibre Communication Systems

Chapter 1
The Evolution of Optical Fibre Communication Systems
1.1
Introduction
The demand for high-capacity long-haul telecommunication systems is increasing at a steady rate, and is expected to accelerate in the next decade [1]. At the same time, communication networks which cover long distances and serve large areas with a large information capacity are also in increasing demand [2]. To satisfy the requirements on long distances, the communication channel must have a very low loss. On the other hand, a large information capacity can only be achieved with a wide system bandwidth which can support a high data bit rate (> Gbit/s) [3]. Reducing the loss whilst increasing the bandwidth of the communication channels is therefore essential for future telecommunications systems. Of the many dierent types of communication channels available, optical bres have proved to be the most promising [4, 5]. The rst advantage of an optical bre is its low attenuation. Typical values of attenuation factor in Modied Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD) optical bres are plotted against wavelength of the electromagnetic carrier in Fig. 1.1 [6]. At present, optical bres with loss coecients of less than 0.25 dB/km around emission wavelengths of 1.55 m are available [7]. This remarkable progress in bre manufacturing technology has led to wide applications of long distance optical bre communications in recent years. Furthermore, optical bres can also transmit signals over a wide bandwidth because the electromagnetic carrier in optical bres has a frequency in the optical frequency region ( 1014 Hz). Hence, optical bres can also carry many baseband channels, each with a bandwidth of the order of GHz using wavelength division
1
THE PRINCIPLES OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER DIODES AND AMPLIFIERS - Analysis and Transmission Line Laser Modelling Imperial College Press http://www.worldscibooks.com/engineering/p275.html
The Principles of Semiconductor Laser Diodes and Ampliers
10
5.0
2.0
Loss (dB/km )
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1 0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
wavelength (m)
Fig. 1.1. Attenuation coeecient of MCVD optical bres as a function of emission wavelength.
multiplexing (WDM) [8, 9]. For these reasons, optical bre communication systems have attracted a lot of attention in recent years, and much research has been carried out to optimise their performance. Figures 1.2(a) to (d), respectively, show the properties of various elements used in optical bre communication systems, namely, the main materials and wavelengths used for dierent light sources, optical detectors, and optical ampliers where there have been rapid recent advances. With semiconductor optical ampliers, by changing the crystal composition the wavelength band (i.e. ampliable waveband) can be selected as required from short to long wavelengths (see Fig. 1.2(c)). Furthermore, if a travelling wave device is used, broad band operation over 10 THz or so is possible. Rare-earth-doped optical bre ampliers, on the other hand, have an ampliable waveband which is essentially determined by the dopant material,
(LIGHT SOURCE)
Test example exists
GaAlAs
InGaAsP InGaAs
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wavelength (m)
(a)
(PHOTODETECTOR)
1.0
Si
InGaAsP
Ge
InGaAs
0.6
0.2
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength (m)
(b)
(OPTICAL AMPLIFIER)
(i) Semiconductor optical amplifier Test example exists
GaAlAs
I nGaAsP
(c)
(ii) Rare-earth doped optical fibre amplifier
EDFA NDFA
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wavelength (m)
(d) Fig. 1.2. Wavebands of components used in optical bre communication systems. (after [28]).
IN PU T SIG N AL
PH O TO D IO D E O PTIC AL FIBR E
RL
LASER D IO D E
D ETEC TED SIG N AL
Fig. 1.3. Conguration for an optical bre communication system employing direct detection.
and in the 1.55 m band this is limited to erbium. Erbium doping is therefore of great practical value, since it allows fabrication of a bre amplier suitable for operation at 1.55 m, which is the waveband of lowest loss in silica optical bres. A typical conguration for an optical bre communication system is shown in Fig. 1.3. The optical bre acts as a low loss, wide bandwidth transmission channel. A light source is required to emit light signals, which are modulated by the signal data. To enhance the performance of the system, a spectrally pure light source is required. Advances in semiconductor laser technology, especially after the invention of double heterostructures (DH), resulted in stable, ecient, small-sized and compact semiconductor laser diodes (SLDs) [1012]. Using such coherent light sources increases the bandwidth of the signal which can be transmitted in a simple intensity modulated (IM) system [13]. Other modulation methods, such as phaseshift keying (PSK) and frequency-shift keying (FSK), can also be used [4, 14]. These can be achieved either by directly modulating the injection current to the SLD or by using an external electro or acousto-optic modulator [11, 15]. The modulated light signals can be detected in two ways. A direct detection system as shown in Fig. 1.3 employs a single photo-detector [13, 16] which acts as a square law detector, as in envelope detection in conventional communication systems [3]. Although such detection schemes have the inherent advantage of simplicity, the sensitivity of the receiver is limited [17]. In order to detect data transmitted across the optical bre with a
O PTIC AL FIBR E PO LAR ISATIO N M AIN TAIN IN G FIBR E

M O D U LATO R
O PTIC AL R EPEATER
M ASTER LASER D IO D E
IN PU T SIG N AL PH O TO D ETEC TO R
D EM O D U LATIO N C IR C U ITS
BEAM SPLITTER
O U TPU T SIG N AL
LO C AL LASER O SC ILLATO R
AFC C IR C U IT
Fig. 1.4.
Conguration for a coherent heterodyne optical bre communication system.
higher bit-rate, the signal-to-noise ratio at the input to the receiver must be made as high as possible. In a system without repeaters, this will limit the maximum transmission span of the system [1]. An alternative detection method is to use coherent detection [4, 18] as shown in Fig. 1.4. By mixing the signal with a local oscillator at the input to the detector, it can be shown that a higher sensitivity can be achieved if the receiver is designed properly [5]. The principle is similar to that in a heterodyne radio [3]. In this system, one can easily, detect WDM transmission by tuning the local oscillator wavelength, as in a heterodyne radio system. In practice, however, because of the nite spectral width of the master and/or local oscillators which are usually SLDs, the limited tunability in SLDs and the extreme sensitivity of the receiver to the states of polarisation of the light signal will severely limit the performance of such complicated receivers [4]. Some of the recent eld trials employing coherent detection are shown in Table 1.1 [5, 1923]. Although coherent detection theoretically seems to oer a better performance for optical communications over direct detection, receivers employing this technique are very much at the research stage and their performance has yet to be improved [5]. On the other hand, many existing practical optical communication systems employ direct detection with intensity modulation. In order to use them for transmission of data with a higher data rate in the future, it is more economical if one can simply improve the input signal-to-noise ratio of the optical receiver instead of replacing or upgrading
The Principles of Semiconductor Laser Diodes and Ampliers Table 1.1. Recent coherent optical heterodyne transmission eld experiments. Transmission Speed 565 Mb/s 565 Mb/s 1.7 Gb/s 622 Mb/s 620 Mb/s 2.5 Gb/s 32 1.244 Gb/s 4 Gb/s Up to 5 Gb/s 26 GHz 60 GHz Modulation Scheme FSK DPSK FSK FSK, DPSK DPSK FSK CP-FSK CP-FSK CP-FSK 64QAM Route Year
Laboratory
KDD BTRL AT & T BTRL BTRL NTT Japan BTRL Denmark U.S.A. Japan
Submarine Cable Cambridge-Bedford Roaring Creek-Sunbury Edinburgh-Newcastle U.K.-Guernsey Matsuyama-Ohita-Kure 121 km SMF 100 km SMF In Lab Receiver In Lab
1988 1988 1989 1989 1989 1990 1991 1991 1993 1995 2001
existing components in the systems like using new optical bres or replacing the entire receiver using coherent detection with a new modulation scheme. In addition, the problem of retrieving WDM signals using direct detection has been overcome by using tunable optical lters, which are cheaper than tunable SLDs at the input of the receiver [1]. Hence, it appears that, if the input signal-to-noise ratio of the receivers can be improved, existing direct detection systems with intensity modulation can be used for transmissions with an even higher data rate. The weak signal at the receiver in many optical communication systems arises because of the accumulation of losses along the optical bres [1]. Although the loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km for optical bres operating around 1.55 m, for a long transmission span this can build up to a signicant loss, which will degrade signal power and hence the overall system performance [24]. Two ways of improving the signal-to-noise ratio of an optical receiver are possible. One can either boost the optical signal power along the transmission path using in-line repeaters [25], or boost the optical signal power at the input of the receiver by a pre-amplier [26]. For many applications, both methods must be used to improve the system performance. In-line repeaters can be constructed using electronic circuits, which consist of photodetectors, electronic circuits for demodulation of the signals, amplication circuits for loss compensation, and laser diode driving circuits for regeneration. These conventional electronic repeaters are known commonly as regenerative repeaters. With them, the signal-tonoise ratio at the input of the receiver can indeed be improved. However,
since the specication and subsequent design and conguration of this type of regenerator depends heavily on the modulation format, data bit-rate, multiplexing scheme and, in the case of optical networks, the number of branches emerging from a node, they are uneconomical because of their poor exibility [27]. To solve the exibility problem for in-line repeaters and to provide a pre-amplier for optical receivers, one must be able to amplify light signals directly. Direct optical amplication avoids regeneration circuits in the in-line repeaters, so they can be used for any modulation format of the signal [28] and provides a maximum exibility for applications in systems [27]. Repeaters employing such techniques are commonly known as nonregenerative repeaters, and the devices which perform such tasks are called optical ampliers, or quantum ampliers [29]. These optical ampliers are usually called laser ampliers because stimulated emissions are involved in the amplication process, which is also responsible for oscillations in lasers. These optical ampliers can also be used as pre-ampliers to receivers to enhance their sensitivities further [30]. Improvement in system performance by using optical ber and laser diode ampliers as in-line repeaters and/or pre-ampliers to optical receivers has been reported in numerous experiments, some of which are tabulated in Tables 1.2 and 1.3 [1, 2249]. The future prospects of long distance optical communication systems thus depend heavily on the availability of low-cost optical ampliers which can compensate for the build-up of losses in optical bre cables over long distances [2, 4]. Two types of optical amplier exist: semiconductor laser ampliers (SLAs) and bre ampliers (FAs). SLAs are essentially laser diodes operating in the linear amplication region below oscillation threshold [28, 551], whereas FAs are optical bres doped with Erbium ions (Er+3 ) to provide optical gain [24]. SLAs have the inherent advantage of compactness and the possibility of integration with other opto-electronic components, whereas FAs have the advantages of easy and ecient coupling with optical bres. The design and analysis of both these types of optical ampliers are therefore crucial for future development in optical bre communication systems. In this book, the principles and applications of semiconductor laser ampliers in optical communications will be explored. In Chapter 2, the fundamentals and important performance characteristics of optical ampliers will be outlined. An introduction to optical amplication in semiconductor lasers will be described in Chapter 3. A formal treatment of the analysis of semiconductor laser ampliers will be given in Chapters 4
The Principles of Semiconductor Laser Diodes and Ampliers Recent transmission experiments with erbium doped bre ampliers
Table 1.2. (EDFAs). Year
Laboratory
Bit Rate (Gbit/s) 1.8 0.565 1.2 20 11 12 1.2 2.5 2.5 10 20 2.4 10 10 16 2.5 2.5 32 10
Distance (km) 212 267 260 100 904 2223 104 106 500 309 309 309 1420 374 640
Comments
1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1989 1990 1991 1991 1991 1992 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997
NTT BTRL KDD NTT Bell Core Fujitsu KDD NTT BTRL NTT NTT NTT NTT BELL BELL BELL BELL
1998 2000 2000
Alcatel KDD BELL
32 10 50 10.66 100 10 (25 GHz spacing)
500 4000 400
Booster + pre-amplier used DPSK system Two ampliers used Soliton transmission Two ampliers used 12 ampliers used 25 ampliers used Recirculating loop Soliton transmission, 12 ampliers used Soliton transmission 4 Repeaters + pre-amplier 4 repeaters + pre-amplier EDFA + Dispersion Compensation 14 ampliers 1 local EDFA + 1 remotelypumped EDFA + pre-amplier 9 Gain-attened broadband EDFA with 35 nm Bandwidth (Total Gain 140 dB and total gain ununiformity 4.9 dB between 32 channels spaced by 100 GHz) 4 EDFA + pre-amplier (with 125 km amplier spacing) EDFA + low-dispersion slope ber (40 km span) 4 EDFA + 4 Raman Amplier
to 6, where the waveguiding properties, and the basic performance characteristics such as gain, gain saturation and noise will be studied. A new technique for analysing SLAs using an equivalent circuit model will also be introduced. Implications for system performance will also be discussed. In Chapter 7, the accuracy and limitations of this model will be investigated by comparing theoretical predictions with the results of experimental measurements on actual devices. In Chapter 8 we introduce a new
The Evolution of Optical Fibre Communication Systems Table 1.3. Year Recent transmission experiments with semiconductor laser ampliers. Bit Rate (Gbit/s) 0.14 1 0.4 0.565 2.4 0.14 4 10 10 2 10 40 10 10 40 10 80 10 32 10 8 20 10 (WDM) Distance (km) 206 313 372 400 516 546 40 89 63.5 1406 420 550 434 1500 106 5000 160 160 500 Comments
Laboratory
1986 1988 1988 1988 1989 1989 1991 1993 1994 1995 1997 1996 1997 1998 1998 1999 2000 2000 2000 2001
BTRL AT & T AT & T Bell Core BTRL KDD KDD Japan PPT PTT BT
Germany Germany Germany Germany Germany USA AT & T BELL
2 ampliers used 4 ampliers used 4 ampliers + FSK 20 Channels transmission 5 ampliers + DPSK 10 ampliers used 10 ampliers used 2 SOA preamplied receiver receiver with bandwidth of 40 nm 2 SOA preamplied receiver 2 SOA preamplied receiver 2 mm-long SOA for dispersion compensation 38 km interval 34 km interval SOA for dispersion compensation + 3 EDFA 38 km interval SOA for dispersion compensation 25 km interval 4 SOA (40 km interval) + 1 EDFA 4 SOA (40 km interval) 50 km interval
semiconductor laser diode amplier structure. Chapter 9 deals with amplication characteristics of pico-second Gaussian pulses in various amplier structures. Chapter 10 studies the sub-pico-second gain dynamic in a highly index-guided tapered-waveguide laser diode amplier. In Chapter 11 we introduce a novel approximate analytical expression for saturation intensity of tapered travelling-wave semiconductor laser amplier structures. Wavelength conversion using cross-gain modulation in linear taperedwaveguide semiconductor laser ampliers is studied in Chapter 12. The main theme of the work presented in Chapters 13 to 17 is microwave circuit principles applied to semiconductor laser modelling. The advantages and additional insight provided by circuit models that have been used for analytical analysis of laser diodes have long been acknowledged.
10
In these chapters, we concentrate on the derivation, implementation, and application of numerical circuit-based models of semiconductor laser devices. In Chapter 13 rst, a short historical background and the relevant physics behind the semiconductor laser will be given. Chapter 14 introduces the transmission-line matrix (TLM) method that provides the basic microwave circuit concepts used to construct the time-domain semiconductor laser model known as the transmission-line laser model (TLLM). We then proceed to compare two categories of equivalent circuit models, i.e. lumped-element and distributed-element, of the semiconductor laser in Chapter 15. In the same chapter, a comprehensive laser diode transmitter model is developed for microwave optoelectronic simulation. The microwave optoelectronic model is based on the transmission-line modelling technique, which allows propagation of optical waves as well as lumped electrical circuit elements to be simulated. In Chapter 16, the transmission-line modelling technique is applied to a new time-domain model of the tapered waveguide semiconductor laser amplier, useful for investigating short pulse generation and amplication when nite internal reectivity is present. The new dynamic model is based on the strongly index-guided laser structure, and quasi-adiabatic propagation is assumed. Chapter 17 demonstrates the usefulness of the microwave circuit modelling techniques that have been presented in this thesis through a design study of a novel mode-locked laser device. The novel device is a multisegment monolithically integrated laser employing distributed Bragg gratings and a tapered waveguide amplier for high power ultrashort pulse generation. Finally, Chapter 18 is devoted to some concluding remarks suggestions and comments.
References
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[6] M. J. Adams, An Introduction to Optical Waveguides (John Wiley and Sons, 1981). [7] T. Miya, Y. Teramuna, Y. Hosuka and T. Miyashita, Ultimate lowloss single mode bre at 1.55 m, Electronics Letters, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 106108, 1979. [8] E. Dietrich et al., Semiconductor laser optical ampliers for multichannel coherent optical transmission, J. Lightwave Technology, Vol. 7, No. 12, pp. 19411955, 1989. [9] W. I. Way, C. Zah and T. P. Lee, Application of travelling-wave laser ampliers in subcarrier multiplexed lightwave systems, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 534545, 1989. [10] G. H. B. Thompson, Physics of Semiconductor Laser Devices (New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1980). [11] A. Yariv, Optical Electronics, 3rd Edition (Holt-Saunders, 1985). [12] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Long-wavelength Semiconductor Lasers (New York, Van-Nostrad Reinhold, 1986). [13] J. M. Senior, Optical Fibre Communications: Principle and Practice, 2nd Edition (Prentice-Hall, 1992). [14] D. J. Maylon and W. A. Stallard, 565Mbit/s FSK direct detection system operating with four cascaded photonic ampliers, Electronics Letters, Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 495497, 1989. [15] A. Yariv and P. Yeh, Optical Waves in Crystals (John Wiley and Sons, 1984). [16] P. E. Green and R. Ramaswami, Direct detection lightwave systems: Why pay more?, IEEE LCS Magazine, Vol 1, No. 4, pp. 3649, 1990. [17] H. Kressel, Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communications, 2nd Edition (Springer-Verlag, 1982). [18] T. Okoshi, Ultimate performance of heterodyne/coherent optical bre communication, IEEE J. Lightwave Technology, Vol. LT-4, No. 10, pp. 15561562, 1986. [19] H. Tsushima et al., 1.244 Gbit/s 32 channel 121 km transmission experiment using shelf-mounted continuous-phase FSK optical heterodyne system, Electron. Lett., Vol. 27, No. 25, pp. 23362337, Dec. 1991. [20] M. A. R. Violas, D. J. T. Heatley, X. Y. Gu, D. A. Cleland and W. A. Stallard, Heterodyne detection at 4 Gbit/s using a simple pin-HEMT receiver, Electron. Lett., Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 5961, Jan. 1991. [21] R. J. S. Pedersen et al., Heterodyne detection of CPFSK signals with and without wavelength conversion up to 5Gb/s, IEEE Photonic Technol. Lett., Vol. 5, No. 8, pp. 944946, August 1993. [22] H. C. Liu et al., Optical heterodyne detection and microwave rectication up to 26 GHz using quantum well infrared photodetectors, IEEE Electron Device Lett., Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 253255, June 1995. [23] Y. Shoji, M. Nagatsuka, K. Hamaguchi and H. Ogawa, 60 GHz band 64QAM/OFDM terrestrial digital broadcasting signal transmission by using millimeter-wave self-heterodyne system, IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 218227, Sept. 2001. [24] N. Nakagawa and S. Shimada, Optical ampliers in future optical communication systems, IEEE LCS Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 5762, 1990.
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[25] S. D. Personick, Applications for quantum ampliers in simple digital optical communication systems, Bell Sys. Tech. J., Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 117133, 1973. [26] A. J. Arnaud, Enhancement of optical receiver sensitivity by amplication of the carrier, IEEE J. Quantum Electron., Vol. QE-4, No. 11, pp. 893899, 1968. [27] H. Nakagawa, K. Aida, K. Aoyama and K. Hohkawa, Optical amplication in trunk transmission networks, IEEE LTS Magazine, Vol. 3, pp. 1926, Feb. 1992. [28] G. Eisenstein, Semiconductor optical ampliers, IEEE Circuits and Devices Magazine, pp. 2530, July 1989. [29] Y. Yamamoto and T. Mukai, Fundamental of optical ampliers, Opt. Quantum Electronics, Vol. QE-21, pp. S1S14, 1989. [30] Y. Yamamoto and H. Tsuchiya, Optical receiver sensitivity improvement by a semiconductor laser amplier, Electronics Letters, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 233235, 1980. [31] H. Nakano, S. Tsuji, S. Sasaki, K. Uomi and K. Yamashita, 10 Gb/s, 4-channel wavelength division multiplexing ber transmission using semiconductor optical amplier modules, IEEE/OSA Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 612, April 1993. [32] H. Gnauck, R. M. Jopson and R. A Derosier, 10 Gb/s 360-km transmission over dispersive ber using midsystem spectral inversion, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 663666, June 1993. [33] H. de Waardt, L. F. Tlemeijer, and B. H. Verbeek, 89 km 10 Gbit/s 1310 nm repeaterless transmission experiments using direct laser modulation and two SL-MQW laser preampliers with low polarization sensitivity, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 645647, May 1994. [34] A. R. Chraplyvy et al., 1420-km transmission of sixteen 2.5 Gb/s channels using silica-ber-based EDFA repeaters, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 6, No. 11, pp. 13711373, Nov. 1994. [35] H. de Waardt, L. F. Tierneijer and B. H. Verbeek, 2 10 Gbit/s WDM 1310-nm optical transmission over 63.5-km standard single-mode ber using optical preampliers, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 104107, Jan. 1995. [36] P. B. Hansen et al., 374 km transmission in a 2.5 Gb/s repeaterless system employing a remotely pumped erbium-doped ber amplier, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 588590, May 1995. [37] A. Shipulin et al., 10 Gbit/s signal transmission over 550 km in standard bre at 1300 nm using semiconductor optical ampliers, Electronics Letters, Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 507509, March 1997. [38] D. D. Marcenac et al., 40 Gbit/s transmission over 406 km of NDSF using mid-span spectral inversion by fourwave-mixing in a 2 mm long semiconductor optical amplier, Electronics Letters, Vol. 33, No. 10, pp. 879880, May 1997. [39] Y. Sun et al., Transnussion of 32 WDM 10 Gb/s channels over 640 km using broad-band, gain-attened erbium-doped silica ber ampliers, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 9, No. 12, pp. 16521654, Dec. 1997.
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[40] G. Onishchukov, V. Lokhnygin, A. ShiPulin and P. Riedel, 10 Gbit/s transmission over 1500 km with semiconductor optical ampliers, Electronics Letters, Vol. 34, No. 16, pp. 15971598, August 1998. [41] S. Bigo et al., 320-Gb/s (32 10 Gb/s WDM) Transmission over 500 km of conventional single-mode ber with 125 km amplier spacing, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 10, No. 7, pp. 10451097, July 1998. [42] U. Feiste et al., 40 Gbit/s transmission over 434 km standard bre using polarisation independent mid-span spectral inversion, Electronics Letters, Vol. 34, No. 21, pp. 20442045, Oct. 1998. [43] U. Feiste et al., 80-uu/s Transmission over 106-km standard-ber using optical-phase conjugation in a sagnac-interferometer, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 11, No. 8, pp. 10631065, August 1999. [44] L. H. Spiekman et al., Transmission of 8 DWDM channels at 20 over 160 km of standard ber using a cascade of semiconductor optical ampliers, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 717719, June 2000. [45] L. H. Spiekman, A. H. GnaUCk, J. M. Wiescnfeld and L. D. Gaett, DWDM transmission of thirty two 10 Gbit/s channels through 160 krn link using semiconductor optical ampliers, Electronics Letters, Vol. 36, No. 12, pp. 1046, June 2000. [46] Kaoru Imai et al., 500 Gb/s (50 10.66 Gb/s) WDM transmission over 4000 km using broad-band EDFAs and low dispersion slope ber, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 12, No. 7, pp. 909911, July 2000. [47] Z. Bakonyi, G. Onishchukov, C. Kn, A Ges and F. Lederer, 10 Gbit/s RZ transmission over 5000 krn with gain-clamped semiconductor optical ampliers and saturable absorbers, Electronics Letters, Vol. 36, No. 21, pp. 17901791, Oct. 2000. [48] A. K. Srivastava et al., Ultradense WDM transmission in L-band, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 12, No. 11, pp. 15701572, Nov. 2000. [49] H. K. Kim, S. Chandrasekhar, A. Srivastava, C. A. Burrus and L. Buhl, 10 Gbit/s based WDM signal trans over 500 km of NZDSF using semiconductor optical amplier as the in-line amplier, Electronics Letters, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 185187, Feb. 2001. [50] Y. Mukai, Y. Yamamoto and T. Kimura, Optical amplication by semiconductor lasers, Semiconductor and semimetals, Vol. 22, Part E, pp. 265319, Academic Press, 1985. [51] S. Shimada and H. Ishio, Optical Ampliers and their Applications (John Wiley and Sons, 1994), p. 3.

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Chapter 1