Training material

2007 NHK-CTI

Digital Engineering Training material of NHK-CTI

2007.7.24
NHK Communications Training Institute
Hideo Tsuji [email protected]

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Table of contents Training material of NHK-CTI

• Overview of Digital System

• Binary and Hexadecimal Notation
• A/D Conversion
– Sampling
– Quantization
• Source Coding
• D/A Conversion

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 Training material
2007 NHK-CTI

Overview of digital
Training material of NHK-CTI

system

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

What is “Digital” ? Training material of NHK-CTI

• Definition of “analog” in a dictionary

– of, relating to, or being a mechanism in which
data is represented by continuously variable
physical quantities
• Definition of “digital” in a dictionary
– of, relating to, or using calculation by
numerical methods or by discrete units
– of or relating to data in the form of numerical
digits

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

“Analog” and “Digital” Training material of NHK-CTI

• Analog
– Represents a level or a
state with continuously

level
variable physical
quantities time

• Digital
– Represents a level or a 0 1 0 1 1 0

level
state with discrete
numerical units
time

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Analog clock v.s. Digital clock Training material of NHK-CTI

• Analog Clock • Digital Clock

– Hands turn continuously – Digits change
– Always shows actual every minutes
time – Both ’12:34.00’ and
’12:34.59’ turn into ’12:34’
(Quantization error)
Represented Time

analog

digital

quantization error

Actual Time
12:34.00 12:35.00 6
 Training material of NHK-CTI

Why “Digital”? Training material of NHK-CTI

~ Advantage of digital system

• Easy processing with computers
– Digital equipment is much smaller and energy-saving than
analog equipment
– Fusion of broadcast and communication
• Easy integration(multiplexing) of several media
– Able to deal with audio/video/data in the same way
• Efficient data compression
– Bandwidth requirement for ONE analog TV program and
THREE digital TV programs are equivalent
• Error-proof performance
– Never degrade with duplication or relaying
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Disadvantage of digital system Training material of NHK-CTI

• Minor trouble may cause absolute failure

– Analog system: noise increases gradually
– Digital system: no influence with low error rate (owe to error
correction), but suddenly fails absolutely at certain point
• Increase of delay
– Example: delay of HDTV satellite broadcasting

Analog… 0.3 second (roundtrip time to the satellite)

Digital… 1.0 second (roundtrip + encode/decode delay)
• Easy to create pirated copy
– How can we protect copyrighted material?

Copy management system: copyright holders can define the
generation of duplication (none, child only, no limit…)

Watermark: implant invisible identification

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Overview of digital system Training material of NHK-CTI

Sender (broadcaster)

A/D Source
Modulation
Conversion Coding

Channel

Receiver (audience)

D/A De-
Decoding
Conversion modulation

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Multi--media multiplexing
Multi
Training material of NHK-CTI

Video

A/D Source
Modulation
Conversion Coding

Multiplexing
A/D Source
Conversion Coding
Audio

Source
Data Coding

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 Training material
2007 NHK-CTI

Binary and Training material of NHK-CTI

Hexadecimal
Notation
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal Training material of NHK-CTI

Hexa-
• Binary number Decimal Binary
decimal
0 0 0
– Computers can distinguish 1 1 1
only two states; high and 2 10 2
3 11 3
low voltage 4 100 4
5 101 5
• Hexadecimal number 6 110 6
7 111 7
– Integrate every 4 digits of a 8 1000 8
binary number to shorten 9 1001 9
10 1010 A
the length 11 1011 B
(easy to understand for us) 12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
16 10000 10
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Convert decimal into binary Training material of NHK-CTI

• What is (1,234)d in • What is (567)d in

binary number? binary number?
2)1,234 2)567
2)617 …0 2)283 …1
2)308 …1 2)141 …1
2)154 …0 2)70 …1
2)77 …0 2)35 …0
2)38 …1 2)17 …1
2)19 …0 2)8 …1
2)9 …1 2)4 …0
2)4 …1 2)2 …0
2)2 …0 1
1 …0
(10011010010)b (100110111)b
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Convert binary into decimal Training material of NHK-CTI

• What is (10011010010)b in decimal number?

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
210+ 29+ 28+ 27+ 26+ 25+ 24+ 23+ 22+ 21+ 20
=1,024+128+64+16+2 = (1,234)d

• What is (1000101011)b in decimal number?

1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
29 + 25 + 23 + 21 + 20
=512+32+8+2+1 = (555)d

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Convert decimal into hexadecimal Training material of NHK-CTI

• What is (1,234)d in • What is (573)d in

hexadecimal number? hexadecimal number?
– (1,234)d 16)573
= (10011010010)b 16)35 …13=D
– 100 1101 0010 2 …3
4 D 2
(23D)h
(4D2)h
• Another solution
16)1,234
16)77 …2
4 …13 (4D2)h

(Note that (13)d=(D)h)

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Convert hexadecimal into decimal Training material of NHK-CTI

• What is (4D2)h in decimal number?

4 x 162 +D x 161+2 x 160
= 4x256+13x16+2x1 = (1,234)d

• What is (1ABC)h in decimal number?

1x163+Ax162+B x161+Cx160
= 1x4,096 +10x256 +11x16+12x1= (6,844)d

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 Training material
2007 NHK-CTI

Analog to Digital
Training material of NHK-CTI

Conversion

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) Training material of NHK-CTI

• Video and audio are ANALOG signal

Convert them to DIGITAL signal

A/D Source
Modulation
Conversion Coding

Sampling
Quantization

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2007 NHK-CTI

Sampling Training material of NHK-CTI

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

What is sampling? Training material of NHK-CTI

• Measure the level of input analog signal

at every certain temporal (or spatial) intervals

Switch on/off periodically

input signal series of samples

level

level

time (or position) time (or position)

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Sampling interval and sampling frequency

Training material of NHK-CTI

level
• Pick out samples from a input signal
continuous signal at every
temporal interval Ts
– Sampling interval Ts time

level
– Sampling frequency fs Ts
sampling pulse
 fs=1/Ts
• Amplitude of samples is time
analog value  PAM

level
series of samples
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

time

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How much is the better sampling frequency?

Training material of NHK-CTI

• High sampling freq.

level • Low sampling freq.

level
time time
D/A conversion D/A conversion
level

level
time time
– Able to reproduce – Impossible to restore original
original waveform input signal
– Increase the number of
samples 22
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Effect of sampling frequency for images

Training material of NHK-CTI

• Resolution is equivalent to sampling freq.

– Sampling freq.: No. of samples per unit time
– Resolution: No. of samples per unit length

x4 resolution
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Sampling theorem (Nyquist theorem) Training material of NHK-CTI

• To reproduce original waveform from a series of

samples, sampling frequency fs must be at least
TWICE as much as the highest frequency fh of input
analog signal
– Sampling theorem: fs ≥ 2fh (2fh: Nyquist freq.)

input signal:
2kHz sine wave

Sampling point

Sampling frequency: 4kHz

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Aliasing Training material of NHK-CTI

• If the sampling frequency is less than 2fh,

distortion will appear when these samples
are D/A converted
– Reproduced waveform is lower frequency than
original signal
level

:6kHz
time :2kHz

Sampling freq.: 4kHz

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Why aliasing occurs? Training material of NHK-CTI

Mathematical analysis
• Temporal waveform: • Frequency waveform:
∞ ∞
x (t ) = ∫ X ( f ) exp( j 2πft ) df X ( f ) = ∫ x( t ) exp( − j 2πft )dt
−∞ −∞
level

level
time fh frequency

x(t) and X(f) are convertible each other

 x(t)  X(f): Fourier Transformation
 x(t)  X(f): Inverted Fourier Transformation
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Frequency waveform of samples Training material of NHK-CTI

• Temporal Waveform • Frequency Waveform

level
X(f) fh : highest frequency
level

x(t): input signal

of input signal
fh
frequency
time

level
level

y(t): sampling pulse Y(f) fs : sampling frequency

Ts (fs=1/Ts)

time
level
fs 2fs frequency
level

z(t): series of samples Z(f)

time frequency 27
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Nyquist frequency and aliasing Training material of NHK-CTI

• fs > 2fh • fs < 2fh

fs fs
level

level
fh 2fh frequency fh 2fh frequency

level
level

Original waveform is Original waveform is NOT

reproducible with LPF reproducible because of
aliasing

frequency frequency
fh fh
fs/2 fs/2

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of aliasing distortion Training material of NHK-CTI

Original image Image with aliasing distortion

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Avoid aliasing Training material of NHK-CTI

• Low Pass Filter (LPF) can limit the highest frequency

of input analog signal

A/D Source
LPF Conversion Coding
level

level
frequency frequency

– Sampling frequency is usually higher than Nyquist

frequency

Compact Disk (fh=20kHz)  fs=44.1kHz

Telephone (fh=3.6kHz)  fs=8kHz
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Summary: Sampling Training material of NHK-CTI

• Measure the level of input analog signal

at every certain temporal (or spatial) intervals

• If sampling frequency is not high enough, the

original signal is not reproducible because of
aliasing

• Sampling theorem: To avoid aliasing,

sampling frequency must be at least twice as
much as the higher frequency of input signal

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2007 NHK-CTI

Quantization Training material of NHK-CTI

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

What is quantization? Training material of NHK-CTI

• PAM signal is not digital

– Temporally (or spatially) quantized
– Level of the signal is still analog quantity
• Approximate the signal level to a quantized value 
PCM (Pulse Coded Modulation)

level PAM level PCM

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
time (or position) time (or position)
7 7 6 3 2 2 4 5 4 ...
111 111 110 011 010 010 100 101 100 …
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Quantization error
Training material of NHK-CTI

• Difference between the analog signal and the digital

representation
• A quantization error causes quantization noise when
the signal is D/A converted

PAM level PCM D/A converted

level
level

time time time

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

How much is the better quantization level?

Training material of NHK-CTI

• 4-bit quantization • 2-bit quantization

(16 levels: 0~15) (4 levels: 0~3)
level

level
time time
14 15 12 5 3 4 8 9 7 ... 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2...
1110 1111 1100 0101 0011 0100 1000 1001 0111... 11 11 11 01 01 01 10 10 10...

– Less quantization error – More quantization

– More amount of data error
– Less amount of data
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Effect of quantization level Training material of NHK-CTI

• 4-bit (16 levels)

• Contouring appears in roughly
quantized pictures
• Size of picture data is proportional to
the quantization level
(only if no compression applied)
• 8-bit (256 levels)

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Effect of quantization level Training material of NHK-CTI

• 6-bit quantization • 24-bit quantization

– R/G/B 2-bit each – R/G/B 8-bit each
– 64 levels – 16,777,216 levels

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How to relieve the effect of quantization error

Training material of NHK-CTI

• Non-linear quantization
• Scale factor
• Dithering

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Non--linear quantization
Non
Training material of NHK-CTI

• Linear quantization
level • Non-linear quantization

level
– Quantization error is larger
in low level signals – Solution of an affection of
quantization error

6.5”7” … 8%

High level signal

1.5”2” … 33%
 Coarse quantization
(Quantity of error is same,
but ratio or error is different)
Low level signal
 Fine quantization

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Quantization with scale factor Training material of NHK-CTI

• Quantization of consecutive low level samples

level
Scale factor

time time
– High quantization error – Quantize signals based on
– Waste of higher bits maximum level in certain
interval
– Need to transmit scale
factor value

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Dithering
Training material of NHK-CTI

• Add a random (or certain patterned) noise to

input signal before quantization
– Without dithering
level

level

level
time time time
– With dithering
Sampling Quantize
level

level

level
time time time
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of dithering Training material of NHK-CTI

• Without dithering • With dithering

– Represent pseudo
– Contouring appears
gradations
at quantizing thresholds

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of dithering Training material of NHK-CTI

• Convert to 64 colors • Convert to 64 colors

without dithering with dithering

without dithering original with dithering 43

 Training material of NHK-CTI

Summary: Quantization
Training material of NHK-CTI

• Convert analog signal quantity into quantized

value (convert PAM to PCM)

• Increasing the quantization level will reduce

quantization error, but increase the amount of
data

• Non-linear quantization and scale factor may

improve low level signals suffering
quantization error
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 Training material
2007 NHK-CTI

Source Coding Training material of NHK-CTI

(or Encoding)

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

What is Coding? Training material of NHK-CTI

• Process the sequence of binary data (PCM

data)

A/D Source
Modulation
Conversion Coding

Data compression

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 Training material
2007 NHK-CTI

Data compression
Training material of NHK-CTI

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

What is data compression? Training material of NHK-CTI

• Eliminate redundancy of the data

• What is redundancy? (example of a video)
– Spatial redundancy

Neighbor pixels are similar
– Temporal redundancy

Neighbor frames are similar
– Psychological redundancy

Details are not significant
– Statistical redundancy

Data have certain trends

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

How huge is a data without compression?

Training material of NHK-CTI

• Example of 60 minutes HDTV-quality video

– A picture with 1,920x1,080 pixels, 8 bit quantized
for each color (RGB)

1,920 x 1,080 x (8+8+8) = 49,766,400 bits (50Mbits)
– Video with 30 frames per second

49,766,400 x 30 = 1,492,992,000 bits/sec. (1.5Gbps)
– If this video continues for 60 minutes…

1,492,992,000 x 3,600 = 5,374,771,200,000 bits
(5.3Tb ≈ 670GByte)

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Categories of compression techniques

Training material of NHK-CTI

Run-length Coding
Entropy Encoding Huffman Coding
Arithmetic Coding
DPCM
Prediction
DM
Source Coding FFT
Transformation
DCT
Vector Quantization
JPEG
MPEG
Hybrid Coding
H.261
DVI RTV, DVI PLV

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Reversible compression and Training material of NHK-CTI

Non--reversible compression
Non
• Reversible compression
(loss-less compression)
– Decoded data is the same as original
– Applied for computer, medical data
• Non-reversible compression
(lossy compression)
– Decoded data is not the same as original
– Compression ratio is better than reversible
compression
– Applied for audio and video
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of reversible compression Training material of NHK-CTI

• Run-length Encoding (RLE)

– 000ppppppXXXXaaa 3(0), 6(p), 4(X), 3(a) Ratio:16/8
– Easy to implement
– Do not fit for data alternating 0 and 1 frequently
• Huffman coding
– Assign shorter words for frequently appearing patterns
– Efficient if the trend of appearing pattern is well-known
• Arithmetic coding
– Adaptively assign words according to the statistics of object
data

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of Huffman coding Training material of NHK-CTI

Symbol Probability Word

A 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 1
1
B 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 1 1.00 011
0.30
C 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0 1 010
0
0.50
D 0.09 0.09 0.09 1 001
0
E 0.08 0.08 1 0.20 0.20 0001
1 0.11 0 00001
F 0.02
0.03 0
G 0.01 0 00000

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of Huffman coding Training material of NHK-CTI

• Original data
AABACEAAACABGAAADBCACAF DEDABAA

• Fixed length code A

001
B
010
C
011
D
100
E
101
F
110
G
111

001001010001011
011101
101001001001011001010 111 001001001100010011001011001110100101100001010001001 90bits

110111010000111101010110000011100101101010101000010010001001101111 66bits

• Huffman code 1
A B
011
C
010
D
001
E
0001
F
00001 00000
G

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Coding in Facsimiles Training material of NHK-CTI

• Scan pixels horizontally and compress data with run

length coding and modified Huffman coding
– Terminating
1100 11 1000 11 code –0101111011
192196 Make
010111
whites
white up code
+ pixels
1011
4 whites
(For more than 64 pixels in a row)

white black white black

1 000111 010 64 11011 0000001111
2 0111 11 128 10010 000011001000
3 1000 10 192 010111 000011001001
4 1011 011 256 0110111 000001011011
5 1100 0011
6 1110 0010 1728 010011011 0000001100101

62 00110011 000001100110
Example

63 10100 000001100111 Continuous 196 pixels of white
0 00110101 0000110111 192 whites + 4 whites
word is “0101111011”
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Audio compression considering audibility

Training material of NHK-CTI

Perceptual coding
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• Aural masking effect
– the presence of a strong audio signal makes a temporal
or spectral neighborhood of weaker audio signals
imperceptible

Threshold of audibility
 Signals are inaudible if its level is lower than certain
threshold Aural masking
Threshold of audibility
level (dB)

 Discard inaudible data to

compress
1k 10k 20k
frequency (Hz)
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Summary: Data compression Training material of NHK-CTI

• Eliminate redundancy of data to reduce the

size of a data
• Two category of compression:
– Reversible compression

Restorable
– Non-reversible compression

Higher compression ratio

Non-restorable, but difference is insignificant
because of human audio/visual characteristics

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2007 NHK-CTI

Digital to Analog
Training material of NHK-CTI

Conversion

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC) Training material of NHK-CTI

• Output signal of audio/video must be analog

 Convert digital to analog

D/A De-
Conversion
Decoding modulation

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Comparison of DAC and ADC Training material of NHK-CTI

PAM level PCM

Quantization error
level
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
time time

A/D 7 7 6 3 2 2 4 5 4 ...
conversion
not same! 111 111 110 011 010 010 100 101 100 …

D/A
conversion 7 7 6 3 2 2 4 5 4 ...
level PCM
level

7
6

= 5
4
3
2
1
0
time time 60
 Training material of NHK-CTI

Convert PCM to analog signal Training material of NHK-CTI

• Analog signal will be obtained filtering a PCM

signal with a low pass filter
– Cutoff frequency of the LPF should be as same as
LPF for A/D converter
level

level
Ts 2Ts time Ts 2Ts time
LPF
level

freq. 61
 Training material of NHK-CTI

LPF (interpolation) Training material of NHK-CTI

• Principal of interpolation
– When the pulse signal passes through LPF, it becomes a
sampling function (sinc function)
– Assumed that cutoff frequency of LPF is same as the
sampling frequency, it is theoretically completely
restorable （However, ideal LPF cannot be produced)

1 1
T=1/2f
‐T
0 time ‐2T 0 T 2T time
sinc = sin(x)/x
1 LPF
0 frequency
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

LPF (interpolation)
Training material of NHK-CTI

• Interpolation
– Interpolate by passing the PAM signal through
LPF and reproduce the original shape of waves
– Ideal LPF cannot be produced, therefore the
interpolation error is inevitable
PAM signal Analog signal

0 T 2T 3T 4T time 0 T 2T 3T 4T time

1 LPF

0 frequency
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Summary: D/A Conversion Training material of NHK-CTI

• Convert PCM to analog signal using LPF

• Reproduced waveform is not same as the

original signal
– Quantization error in A/D conversion
– Distortion of filtered signal in D/A conversion

ideal filter actual filter

level

level

freq. freq.
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2007 NHK-CTI

Informative Training material of NHK-CTI

reference

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Type of pulse code conversion Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of linear quantization

Output Output
3
2
1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
0 Input Input
-1
-2
-3

Mid tread type Mid riser type

No output in a small level A small signal is not suppressed

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of quantization Training material of NHK-CTI

1.5

0.5
V

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time [sec]
2-bit midriser
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Quantization noise Training material of NHK-CTI

1.5

Quantization
1
error
0.5
V

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time [sec]
2-bit midriser
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Linear quantization of sine wave Training material of NHK-CTI

Level

∆V
approximated by stairs

∆V

The difference between true value and quantized value

becomes like a saw-toothed wave
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Quantization noise Training material of NHK-CTI

• Quantization error becomes quantization noise

• It is thought that the sample value can take the given value
within one quantization step (equal probability), therefore
quantization noise is treated as variance,
∆V / 2
Nq = 1 2
x dx = ∆V
2

∆V – ∆V / 2 12
V 2 V2
Signal power is S =( ) =
2 2 8
V 2 /8 3 V2 3 2b
S / Nq = = = 2
∆V / 12 2 ∆V
2 2
2

V2
Where number of quantization step: 2 = 2b

∆V 2
Therefore 6dB is improved by increasing one bit of b
S / N (dB ) = 10 log(3 / 2 * 22b ) = 6b + 1.8

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Non--linear quantization (µ-

Non (µ-low) Training material of NHK-CTI

QUANTIZER CHARACTERISTIC
1 log ( µ x + 1 )
y = sign( x )
e

0.8
log ( µ + 1 )
e

0.6 Where、x is normalized input

0.4 0≤ x ≤1
: output
y is quantized
OUTPUT

0.2
− 1( x < 0)

0
255 sign( x) =  0 ( x = 0)
 1( x > 0)
-0.2 128 
32
-0.4 ITU standard :µ=255
(Japan, USA)
-0.6

-0.8
In Europe: A-Low
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
INPUT
G.711 A-LAW/µ-LAW(8 bits/sample)
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Compression and extension of signal Training material of NHK-CTI

• Even if a small signal level, compression and

extension is performed to maintain S/N ratio.

Output Output

0 0
Input Input

Compression Extension

Transmission side Reception side

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Secret to reduce bit error Training material of NHK-CTI

Error! Transmitting signal Received signal（Wave is distorted）

Voltage
1.75
1.25
0.75
0.25
-0.25
-0.75
-1.25
-1.75
T
1.75V = 000 1.75V = 100
1.25V = 001 1.25V = 101
0.75V = 010 Two bits or 0.75V = 111 This allocation
0.25V = 011 three bits 0.25V = 110 allows error stay
-0.25V = 100 error occurs -0.25V = 010 only one bit
-0.75V = 101 by the noise -0.75V = 011
-1.25V = 110 -1.25V = 001
-1.75V = 111 -1.75V = 000
Changing the relation of data and the voltage makes bit error minimum 73
 Training material of NHK-CTI

Type of code Training material of NHK-CTI

Example of binary code: 8 steps quantization

Quantization level Natural Gray Reflected
0 000 000 000

1 001 001 001

2 010 011 010

3 011 010 011

4 100 110 111

5 101 111 110

6 110 101 101

7 111 100 100

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Symbol allocation Training material of NHK-CTI

10 Q 00
Q

0100 0101 0001 0000

I 3

11 10 0110 0111 0011 0010

1
Q -3 -1 1 3
I
QPSK 011
-1
001
010 1110 1111 1011 1010

000 1100 1101 1001 1000

100 I -3

101 110 16 QAM

111
8PSK
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Type of pulse code Training material of NHK-CTI

 Video/audio signal can be express by the change in

voltage by a/d conversion
NRZ +1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

（Uni-polar）
） 0
+1
NRZ
0
（Bi-polar）
） -1
+1
NRZI 0
RZ +1
（Uni-polar）
） 0
+1
RZ
0
（Bi-polar）
） -1
+1
Manchester 0
-1
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Secret of digital transmission

(limitation of frequency band) Training material of NHK-CTI

• When one symbol is transmitted by a rectangular pulse, the frequency

element is shown in figure below. Since the high frequency element
infinitely remains, and it is not possible to use in a severe band limiting
channel
• If the pulse is rolled off, the high frequency element decreases, however,
interfering between symbols occurs (the error occurs in decoding the
symbol)
• Required both frequency band-limitation and no interference between
symbols

Fourier transformation Higher frequency element remains

f(t) (It might influence other signals)
1.5
1.25 Fourier transformation F(f)
1
1
0.75
0.75
0.5
0.5
0.25 0.25

-1 -0.5 0.5 t 1 -10 -5 5 10

One pulse f
After Fourier transformation of one pulse 77
 Training material of NHK-CTI

Nyquist pulse Training material of NHK-CTI

f(t) Every T cycle amplitude

1 becomes zero
1.5 F(f) Inverse Fourier transformation
1.25 0.75
1
0.5
…..
0.75
0.5 0.25
0.25
t
-1 -0.5 0.5 1
f -10 -5 5 10
-W/2 W/2
T=1/W
Signal continues from the infinite past to
Frequency characteristic the infinite future ("Sampling function" in
of band-limited signal the sampling theorem. )

When each pulse is overlapped, the 1

Nyquist pulse is convenient because
every T cycle amplitude becomes 0, 0.75
although it has the disadvantage that
0.5
the vibration of around the main pulse
lasts long. 0.25

-10 -5 5 10
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Nyquist pulse Training material of NHK-CTI

 (1 + a)
 0 , f > W F: Nyquist function
2
 1 1 W (1 + a ) (1 − a)
F ( f ) =  (1 − sin( π ( f − ))), W> f > W a: Roll off rate
 2 aW 2 2 2
1, (1 − a )
f > W
 2
The Nyquist pulse becomes zero every T cycle, and has the feature with a small
amplitude in the part of the tail of the vibration. The occupied frequency band
becomes (1+a) W. When a roll off rate (a) is small, although the amplitude in the
part of the tail becomes large, the occupied frequency band narrows. When a roll off
rate (a) is large, although the amplitude in the part of the tail is small, the occupied
frequency band extends. Usually it is used 0.1.. ..<.. a<0.8.

Occupied
F(f) bandwidth F(f) F(f) F(f)
1 1 1 1

0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
f f f f
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5

a = 0.1 a = 0.3 a = 0.5 a = 0.8 79

 Training material of NHK-CTI

IFT of Nyquist pulse Training material of NHK-CTI

1
1
0.75
0.75
0.5 0.5
0.25 0.25

-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

a=0.0 a=0.1

Waveform of Nyquist pulse

1
1 1
0.8
0.75 0.8
0.6
0.6
0.5 0.4
0.4
0.25 0.2
0.2

-10 -5 5 10
-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

a=0.5 a=0.8
a=0.3
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Frequency masking Training material of NHK-CTI

SPL Sound Pressure Level (in dB)

60 C (masker)
A (threshold in quiet)
B (masking threshold)
40 D (masked sound)

20

0
0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20
Frequency(kHz)

A Normal threshold of hearing

B Modified threshold due to tone C
D Band of noise rendered inaudible by the presence of tone C
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Temporal masking Training material of NHK-CTI

SPL
(in db)
Masker on

Pre-masking
Post-masking
Simultaneous
Masking

Time

～20ms ～200ms ～150ms

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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Scrambler Training material of NHK-CTI

 Even if data 1 and data 0 is consecutive in NRZ code, it

is possible to regenerate clock easily due to scrambler

Scrambler/Descrambler block diagram
Exclusive Or (Modulo 2)

Scrambler
Pulse sequence

Transmitter side Shift register

To Channel

Descrambler
From channel pulse sequence

Reception side
Same as original pulse sequence
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 Training material of NHK-CTI

Maximal--length sequences code generator

Maximal
Training material of NHK-CTI

• Maximal-length sequences
– Longest cyclic code generated by using shift register and
feedback

The most random code can be generated (period:2n -1）

n: number of shift register

Scrambled output
Input data
D D D
Clock

84