AS Edexcel Workbook

GCE
Moles, Formulae and Equations Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry (9080) Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry (Nuffield) (9086)
Issue 3 October 2004
Workbook for GCE students
Moles, Formulae and Equations Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry (9080) Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry (Nuffield) (9086)
GCE
London Qualifications is one of the leading examining and awarding bodies in the UK and throughout the world. It incorporates all the qualifications previously awarded under the Edexcel and BTEC brand. We provide a wide range of qualifications including general (academic), vocational, occupational and specific programmes for employers. Through a network of UK and overseas offices, our centres receive the support they need to help them deliver their education and training programmes to learners. For further information please call Customer Services on 0870 240 9800, or visit our website at www.edexcel.org.uk
Authorised by Jim Dobson Prepared by Sarah Harrison Publications code UA008883 All the material in this publication is copyright London Qualifications Limited 2004
Introduction
This workbook has been developed from an earlier version offering support to students in transition from GCSE Science (Double Award) and the GCE Advanced Subsidiary. The aim of the booklet is to help students to practise their skills in the areas of formulae, equations and simple mole equations. The booklet gives examples for students to work through to help build their confidence. There are some sections involving multi-step calculations. Edexcel acknowledges the help and support received from teachers in updating this latest edition. It replaces previous versions issued in January 1998 and August 2000.
Contents
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4
Atoms
Exercise 1 Calculation of Molar Mass of compounds
1
5
Chemical formulae
Exercise 2 Writing formulae from names
9
13
Naming of compounds
Exercise 3 Names from formulae
19
23
The mole
Exercise 4a Calculation of the number of moles of material in a given mass of that material Exercise 4b Calculation of the mass of material in a given number of moles of that material Exercise 4c Calculation of the volume of a given number of moles of a gas Exercise 4d Calculation of the number of moles of gas in a given volume of that gas Exercise 4e Calculation of the mass of a given volume of gas Exercise 4f Calculation of the volume of a given mass of gas Exercise 4g Calculation of the Relative Molecular Mass of a gas from mass and volume data for the gas
27
33 37 41 43 45 47 49
Section 5 Section 6
Using the idea of moles to find formulae

Exercise 5 Calculation of formulae from experimental data
51
57
Chemical equations; equations in words; writing formulae; balancing the equation

Exercise 6a Balancing equations Exercise 6b Whats wrong here? Exercise 6c Writing equations in symbols from equations in words
63
65 69 71
Section 7
How equations are found by experiment

Exercise 7 Writing equations from experimental data
73
77
Section 8
Amounts of Substances
Exercise 8 Calculations of amounts of products/reactants based on equations
79
83
Section 9 Section 10
Reactions involving gases

Exercise 9 Calculations based on equations involving only gases
87
89
Ions and ionic equations; structure of ionic compounds

Exercise 10 Ionic equations
93
95
Section 11
Calculations involving chemicals in solution

Exercise 11a Calculations based on concentrations in solution Exercise 11b Simple volumetric calculations
97
105 109
Section 12 Answers
Data The periodic table
113 115
Section 1
Atoms
All matter is made of particles. At one time, it was thought that the tiniest particle was the atom; the word comes from the Greek word meaning indivisible. We now know that atoms can be split and that there are smaller particles than atoms, the socalled sub-atomic particles, electrons, protons and neutrons. You will need to know something about these particles which make up the different kinds of atoms. However, you must understand that chemistry is all about rearrangements of atoms that do not themselves change. Atoms are very small. The hydrogen atom, the smallest and lightest of all atoms, has a diameter of about 108 mm. 1 g of hydrogen atoms contains about 6 x 1023 atoms. It is very difficult to see an individual atom and to find its mass. An atom is the smallest, electrically neutral, particle of an element that can take part in a chemical change. A molecule is the smallest, electrically neutral, particle of an element or compound that can exist on its own. An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, which carries an electric charge. You need to know these definitions by heart, but you also need to be able to recognise the formulae of atoms and molecules when you see them. Li, O, Cl, C are all formulae which represent atoms. Some of these can exist on their own, but not all of them. Oxygen, for example, always exists as oxygen molecules, O2, which contain two atoms, unless it is combined with something else. Water contains only one atom of oxygen but here it is combined with two hydrogen atoms. Make sure that you really understand these ideas: a single oxygen atom, O, cannot exist on its own a single oxygen atom can exist when it is combined with something else, but then it is part of a molecule an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms, O2 a few elements exist as single atoms: for these elements, an atom is the same as a molecule.
UA008883 Workbook for GCE students Moles, Formulae and Equations Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry (9080) Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry (Nuffield) (9086) Issue 3 October 2004
Structure of the atom

The atom is composed of electrons, neutrons and protons. You have to remember the relative mass of, and the electric charge on, each. Particle Proton Electron Neutron Relative mass (Carbon -12 scale) 1 1/1840 1 Relative charge (on scale electron charge = -1 unit) +1 1 0
The atom is mostly empty space. It has a solid core or nucleus, the centre that contains the protons and neutrons. The electrons circulate round the nucleus in specific orbits or shells. We can picture the hydrogen atom - the simplest of all atoms with one electron, and one proton in the nucleus - by considering a pea placed in the centre of a football pitch, to represent the nucleus with its proton. On this scale the electron will revolve in a circular orbit round the goal posts. Between the electron and the nucleus is empty space. Atoms are the particles whose symbols are found in the periodic table given in all your examination papers and also on page 113 of this book. You can see there are only about 100 of them. The middle part of the atom, the nucleus, contains one or more protons. It is the number of protons that make the atom what it is. An atom with one proton is always a hydrogen atom; one with two protons is a helium atom and so on. There are more substances in the world than the 100 or so different kinds of atom. The other substances are made by combining atoms in various ways to make molecules. When a chemical reaction takes place the atoms are rearranged to make different molecules but no atoms can be made or destroyed. To show this you have to be able to find a method of counting the atoms that take part in a reaction and its products. The mass of an individual atom is very small and it is much more convenient to measure atomic masses as relative masses. The definition of relative atomic mass Ar is: The mass of a single atom on a scale on which the mass of an atom of carbon 12 has a mass of 12 atomic mass units. The relative atomic mass does not have units. The definition of Relative Molecular Mass Mr (also referred to as Molar Mass) is The mass of a single molecule on a scale on which the mass of an atom of carbon 12 has a mass of 12 atomic mass units. Relative Molecular Mass of a molecule is calculated by adding together the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the chemical formulae. Relative formula mass: in many ways this is more accurate than Relative Molecular Mass. Many salts, even in the solid state, exist as ions rather than molecules. Although the formula of sodium chloride is normally given as NaCl, it is not a simple molecule but a giant lattice and it is more accurately written as (Na+Cl)n. Since this compound does not have molecules, it cannot have relative molecular mass. However, the principle is the same: add the relative atomic masses of sodium (23) and chlorine (35.5) to give 58.5, the relative formula mass of NaCl. Remember: relative atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass have no units. 2
Examples: Calculation of Molar Mass from Relative Atomic Mass data Before you start any of these questions make sure you read the Section 4 of this booklet (The mole on page 27). When you carry out experiments you will weigh chemicals in grams. Molar mass has the same numerical value as the Relative Molecular Mass; it is calculated by adding together the relative atomic masses of the elements in the molecule. The total is expressed in units of grams per mol or g mol-1. Example 1 Calculate the Molar Mass of sulphuric acid H2SO4 This molecule contains 2 atoms of hydrogen each of mass 1 1 atom of sulphur of mass 32 4 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 Example 2 Calculate the Molar Mass of lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2 Care! This molecule contains TWO nitrate groups 1 atom of lead of mass 207 2 atoms of nitrogen of mass 14 6 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 Example 3 Calculate the Molar Mass of CuSO4.5H2O Care! This molecule has 5 molecules of water attached to each molecule of copper sulphate. Many students make the mistake of thinking that there are 10 hydrogens and only 1 oxygen. In CuSO4 1 atom of copper of mass 63.5 1 atom of sulphur of mass 32 4 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 In 5H2O 5 x 2 atoms of hydrogen of mass 1 5 x 1 atoms of oxygen of mass 16 = 1 x 63.5 = 1 x 32 = 4 x 16 = 10 x 1 = 5 x 16 Total mass Calculations of this type are generally written as follows CuSO4.5H2O = [ 63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) + 5{(2x1) + 16} ] = 249.5 g mol1 = 63.5 g mol1 = 32 g mol1 = 64 g mol1 = 10 g mol1 = 80 g mol1 = 249.5 g mol1 = 1 x 207 = 2 x 14 = 6 x 16 Total mass = 207 g mol1 = 28 g mol1 = 96 g mol1 = 331 g mol1 = 2x 1 = 1 x 32 = 4 x 16 Total mass = 2 g mol1 = 32 g mol1 = 64 g mol1 = 98 g mol1
Exercise 1
Calculation of the Molar Mass of compounds
Calculate the Molar Mass of the following. You will find data concerning Relative Atomic Masses on the periodic table (on page 113). When you have finished this set of calculations keep the answers for reference. You will find them useful in some of the other questions in this workbook.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
H2O CO2 NH3 C2H5OH C2H4 SO2 SO3 HBr H2SO4 HNO3 NaCl NaNO3 Na2CO3 NaOH Na2SO4 KMnO4 K2CrO4 KHCO3 KI CsNO3 CaCl2
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 6
Ca(NO3)2 Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 BaCl2 AlCl3 Al(NO3)3 Al2(SO4)3 FeSO4 FeCl2 FeCl3 Fe2(SO4)3 PbO PbO2 Pb3O4 Pb(NO3)2 PbCl2 PbSO4 CuCl CuCl2 CuSO4 ZnCl2 AgNO3 NH4Cl (NH4)2SO4 NH4VO3 KClO3 KIO3
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
NaClO NaNO2 CuSO4.5H2O FeSO4.7H2O (NH4)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O Na2S2O3.5H2O (COOH)2.2H2O MgSO4.7H2O Cu(NH3)4SO4.2H2O CH3CO2H CH3COCH3 C6H5CO2H
Section 2
Chemical formulae
A chemical formula is a useful shorthand method for describing the atoms in a chemical: sometimes you will see the formula used instead of the name, but you should not do this if you are asked for a name. The chemical formula of an element or compound tells you: Which elements it contains: eg FeSO4 contains iron, sulphur and oxygen How many atoms of each kind are in each molecule: eg H2SO4 contains two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen in each molecule How the atoms are arranged: eg C2H5OH contains a group of atoms known as the ethyl group, -C2H5, and a hydroxyl group, -OH The masses of the various elements in a compound: eg 18 g of water, H2O, contains 2 g of hydrogen atoms and 16 g of oxygen since the relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 (x 2 because there two hydrogen atoms) and that of oxygen is 16.
You should not learn large numbers of chemical formulae by heart. However, it is useful to know a few of them and when you do you should be able to work out the rest. The table on page 10 shows the names, formulae and valency of the more common elements and some groups of atoms, called radicals, that you will study and you should refer to it when necessary. Although its best to learn formulae by using the valency of the common parts, it is sometimes useful to be able to work out the formula of a compound. This set of rules helps you to do this using information in the table. You can think of valency as the combining power and use it to show the simplest ratio in which the atoms of the elements and radicals combine together in the formula. The following rules can now be applied: Write down the symbols of the elements and radicals given in the chemical name of the compound Now write down the valency of each element or radical under the corresponding symbols for the element or radical Now cross them over as shown in the example on page 10 The valency shows the simplest combining ratio and may be cancelled down but only the valency can be simplified in this way If an element has more than one valency, the name of the compound will indicate which valency is to be used.
Here are a few examples: Sodium Sulphate NaSO4

=
Na2SO4
Calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca(HCO3) = 2 1 Ca(HCO3)2
Note: Eg
A bracket must be placed around the radical if it is multiplied by 2 or more and composed of more than one element. MgBr2 no bracket required Ca(OH)2 bracket essential as CaOH2 is incorrect.
Often you can cancel the numbers on the two formulae: Ca2(CO3)2 =CaCO3 However, you should not do this for organic compounds: C2H4 has two atoms of carbon and four of hydrogen so it cannot be cancelled down to CH2.
Copper(I) oxide means use copper valency 1, ie Cu2O: lead(II) nitrate means use lead valency 2, ie Pb(NO3)2
The periodic table can help you to find the valency of an element and hence the formula of its compounds. Although you can use the table above to work out the formulae of many compounds it is important to realise that all formulae were originally found by experiment. On page 11 you will find a table of the more common elements and groups that you may have met at GCSE. Also included are a few that you will meet in the first few weeks of your Advanced course or are mentioned in some of the calculations in this booklet. These are in italics.
10
Symbols and Valences of Common Elements and Radicals

ELEMENTS Symbol Aluminium Barium Bromine Calcium Carbon Chlorine Cobalt Copper Hydrogen Iodine Iron Lead Magnesium Manganese Mercury Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Potassium Silicon Silver Sodium Sulphur Al Ba Br Ca C Cl Co Cu H I Fe Pb Mg Mn Hg N O P K Si Ag Na S Valency 3 2 1 2 4 1 2 1&2 1 1 2&3 2&4 2 2&4 1&2 3&5 2 3&5 1 4 1 1 2,4,6 Chlorate(I) Chlorate(V) Vanadate(V) Manganate(VII) Chromate(VI) Dichromate(VI) ClO ClO3 VO3 MnO4 CrO4 Cr2O7 1 1 1 1 2 2 Ammonium Carbonate Chloride Hydrogen-carbonate Hydrogen-sulphate Hydroxide Nitrate Nitrite Sulphate Sulphite RADICALS Symbol NH4 CO3 Cl HCO3 HSO3 OH NO3 NO2 SO4 SO3 Valency 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
11
12
Exercise 2
Writing formulae from names
Use the data in the table on page 11 to write the formulae of the following. Before you start this exercise, make sure you have read Section 3 (Naming of compounds on page 19) of this booklet. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sodium Chloride Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Carbonate Sodium Sulphate Sodium Phosphate Potassium Chloride Potassium Bromide Potassium Iodide Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate Potassium Nitrite Magnesium Chloride Magnesium Nitrate Magnesium Hydroxide Magnesium Oxide Magnesium Carbonate
13
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Calcium Oxide Calcium Chloride Calcium Sulphate Calcium Carbonate Barium Chloride Barium Sulphate Aluminium Chloride Aluminium Oxide Aluminium Hydroxide Aluminium Sulphate Copper(II) Sulphate Copper(II) Oxide Copper(II) Chloride Copper(II) Nitrate Copper(I) Oxide Copper(I) Chloride Zinc Nitrate Zinc Carbonate
14
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
Zinc Oxide Silver Chloride Silver Bromide Silver Iodide Silver Nitrate Silver Oxide Lead(II) Nitrate Lead(II) Carbonate Lead(II) Oxide Lead(IV) Oxide Lead(II) Chloride Lead(IV) Chloride Lead(II) Sulphide Tin(II) Chloride Tin(IV) Chloride Iron(II) Sulphate Iron(II) Chloride Iron(III) Sulphate Iron(III) Chloride
15
53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Iron(III) Hydroxide Iron(II) Hydroxide Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Carbonate Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate Ammonium Phosphate Phosphorus Trichloride Phosphorus Pentachloride Phosphorus Trioxide Phosphorus Pentoxide Hydrogen Phosphate (Phosphoric Acid) Hydrogen Sulphate (Sulphuric Acid) Hydrogen Nitrate (Nitric Acid) Hydrogen Chloride (Hydrochloric Acid) Carbon Tetrachloride Silicon Tetrachloride
16
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Silicon Dioxide Sulphur Dioxide Sulphur Trioxide Hydrogen Sulphide Chlorine(I) Oxide Nitrogen Dioxide Nitrogen Monoxide Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide Hydrogen Hydroxide
17
18
Section 3
Naming of compounds
At Advanced Level you will meet many compounds that are new to you; a lot of these will be organic compounds. In this section, we will be looking at the naming of compounds that you may already have met at GCSE level. Many of these compounds are named using simple rules. However, there are some that have trivial names not fixed by the rules. It is important that you learn the names and formulae of these compounds. Later in the course, you will learn the rules for naming most of the organic compounds you will meet.
Naming inorganic compounds

The name must show which elements are present and, where confusion is possible, the valency of the elements concerned. 1 You need to remember that if there are only two elements present then the name will end in -ide Na2O CaO is is Sodium Oxide Calcium Oxide
Thus, oxides contain an element and oxygen eg
Chlorides contain an element and chlorine eg MgCl2 AlCl3 is is Magnesium Chloride Aluminium Chloride
Bromides and Iodides have an element and either bromine or iodine eg KBr ZnI is is Potassium Bromide Zinc Iodide
Hydrides contain an element and hydrogen and Nitrides an element and nitrogen. eg LiH Mg3N2 is is Lithium Hydride Magnesium Nitride
Other elements also form these types of compounds and the name always ends in -ide. The exceptions to this are hydroxides that have the -OH group and cyanides, which have the -CN group. eg NaOH Ca(OH)2 KCN is is is Sodium Hydroxide Calcium Hydroxide Potassium Cyanide
19
If the elements concerned have more than one valency this may need to be shown. Thus as iron has valency 2 and 3, the name Iron Chloride would not tell you which of the two possible compounds FeCl2 or FeCl3 is being considered. In this case the valency of the iron is indicated by the use of a Roman II or III in brackets after the name of the metal. In this case Iron(II) Chloride for FeCl2 or Iron(III) Chloride for FeCl3. PbCl2 PbCl4 Fe(OH)2 Mn(OH)2 is is is is Lead(II) Chloride Lead(IV) Chloride Iron(II) Hydroxide Manganese(II) Hydroxide
eg
3 eg
For compounds containing two non-metal atoms the actual number of atoms of the element present are stated. CO CO2 SO2 SO3 PCl3 PCl5 is is is is is is Carbon Monoxide where mon- means one Carbon Dioxide where di- means two Sulphur Dioxide. This could be called Sulphur(IV) Oxide Sulphur Trioxide. This could be called Sulphur(VI) Oxide Phosphorus Trichloride. This could be called Phosphorus(III) Chloride Phosphorus Pentachloride. This could be called Phosphorus(V) Chloride CCl4 SiCl4 is is Carbon Tetrachloride and Silicon Tetrachloride.
Where a compound contains a metal, a non-metal and oxygen it has a name ending in -ate or -ite. You need to remember the names and formulae of the groups listed on page 11. To cover the ideas we will look at the following groups Carbonate Sulphate Nitrate -CO3 -SO4 -NO3
Thus a compound of sodium, carbon and oxygen would be Na2CO3 and would be called Sodium Carbonate. eg NaNO3 Mg(NO3)2 Fe2(SO4)3 FeSO4 is is is is Sodium Nitrate Magnesium Nitrate Iron(III) Sulphate Iron(II) Sulphate
20
Because most non-metals can have more than one valency they can also produce more than one acid upon which these groups are based. Thus sulphur can form sulphates and sulphites. The ending -ite is used when an element forms more than one such compound. In all cases the -ite is used for the compound with the lower number of oxygens atoms. Sulphate can also be referred to as sulphate(VI) and sulphite can also be referred to as sulphate(IV). In the case of nitrogen with oxygen the compounds would be nitrate and nitrite or nitrate(V) and nitrate(III).
In summary:
Common name Sulphate Sulphite Nitrate Nitrite Chlorate Hypochlorite
Systematic name Sulphate(VI) Sulphate(IV) Nitrate(V) Nitrate(III) Chlorate(V) Chlorate(I)
Formulae -SO4 -SO3 -NO3 -NO2 -ClO3 -ClO
Great care needs to be taken when using these systematic names, as they are called, because the properties of the two groups of compounds will be very different. In some cases the use of the wrong compound in a reaction could cause considerable danger. For this reason you should always read the label on a bottle or jar and make sure it corresponds exactly to what you should be using. Other elements can form compounds involving oxygen in this way. These include Chlorate(V), Chromate(VI), Manganate(VII) and Phosphate(V). eg KNO2 Na2SO3 K2CrO4 KMnO4 KClO3 6 is is is is is Potassium Nitrite or Potassium Nitrate(III) Sodium Sulphite or Sodium Sulphate(IV) Potassium Chromate(VI) Potassium Manganate(VII) Potassium Chlorate(V)
When a compound is considered it is usual to put the metal down first both in the name and the formula. The exceptions to this rule are in organic compounds where the name has the metal first but the formula has the metal at the end. CH3COONa is Sodium Ethanoate
eg
21
The elements nitrogen and hydrogen can join together to form a group called the ammonium group. This must not be confused with the compound ammonia, but more of that later. This ammonium group has the formula NH4+ and sits in the place generally taken by a metal in the formula. NH4Cl (NH4)2SO4 NH4ClO3 is is is Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Sulphate Ammonium Chlorate(V)
eg
There are a small number of simple molecules that do not follow the above rules. You will need to learn their names and formulae. They include: Water which is H2O Sulphuric Acid which is H2SO4 Nitric Acid which is HNO3 Hydrochloric Acid which is HCl Ammonia which is NH3 Methane which is CH4
Organic compounds have their own set of rules for naming but you will need to learn some of the basic rules. The names are generally based on the names of the simple hydrocarbons. These follow a simple pattern after the first four: CH4 is C2H6 is C3H8 is C4H10 is Methane Ethane Propane Butane
After butane the names are based on the prefix for the number of carbons C5-pent, C6 - hex and so on. Thus organic compounds with 2 carbons will either start with Eth- or have -eth- in their name. eg C2H4 C2H5OH CH3COOH C2H5Cl is is is is Ethene Ethanol Ethanoic Acid Chloroethane
22
Exercise 3
Names from formulae
Use the notes in this section, the data in the table on page 11 and the copy of the periodic table on page 113 to write the names of the following. Before you start this exercise make sure you have read Section 2 of this booklet (Chemical formulae on page 9). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 H2O CO2 NH3 O2 H2 SO2 SO3 HCl HI HF CH4 H2S HBr H2SO4 HNO3 NaCl NaNO3 Na2CO3 NaOH Na2SO4 CaCl2 Ca(NO3)2 Ca(OH)2 23
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 24
CaSO4 BaCl2 AlCl3 Al(NO3)3 Al2(SO4)3 FeSO4 FeCl2 FeCl3 Fe2(SO4)3 PbO PbO2 Pb(NO3)2 PbCl2 PbSO4 Cu(NO3)2 CuCl CuCl2 CuSO4 ZnCl2 AgNO3 NH4Cl (NH4)2SO4 NH4VO3 (V is Vanadium) KClO3 KIO3 NaClO NaNO2
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
C2H6 C4H10 C8H18 (NH4)2CO3 KMnO4 K2CrO4 KHCO3 KI Co(NO3)2 KAt
25
26
Section 4
The mole
When chemists measure how much of a particular chemical reacts they measure the amount in grams; or they measure the volume of a gas. However, chemists find it convenient to use a unit called a mole. You need to know several definitions of a mole and be able to use them. The mole is the amount of substance, which contains the same number of particles (atoms, ions, molecules, formulae or electrons) as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon -12 This number is known as the Avogadro constant, L, and is equal to 6.02 x 1023 mol1 The molar mass of a substance is the mass, in grams, of one mole The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole at room temperature and atmospheric pressure (r.t.p). It is equal to 24 dm3 at r.t.p Avogadros Law states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of moles or molecules. If the volume is 24 dm3, at room temperature and pressure, this number, once again, is the Avogadro constant.
When you talk about moles, you must always state whether you are dealing with atoms, molecules, ions, formulae etc. To avoid any ambiguity it is best to show this as a formula.
27
Example calculations involving the use of moles These calculations form the basis of many of the calculations you will meet at A level. Example 1 Calculation of the number of moles of material in a given mass of that material a Calculate the number of moles of oxygen atoms in 64 g of oxygen atoms. You need the mass of one mole of oxygen atoms. This is the Relative Atomic Mass in grams; in this case it is 16 g mol1.
number of moles of atoms =
mass in grams molar mass of atoms
number of moles of oxygen =

=
64 g of oxygen atoms molar mass of oxygen of 16 g mol 1

4 moles of oxygen atoms
Calculate the number of moles of chlorine molecules in 142 g of chlorine gas.
number of moles of atoms =
mass in grams molar mass of atoms
The first stage of this calculation is to calculate the molar mass of Chlorine molecules. Molar mass of Cl2 = 2 x 35.5 = 71 g mol1
number of moles of chlorine =

=
142 g of chlorine gas molar mass of chlorine of 71 g mol 1

2 moles of chlorine molecules
28
Calculate the number of moles of CuSO4.5H2O in 100 g of the solid. The Relative Molecular Mass of CuSO4.5H2O = [63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) + 5{(2x1) + 16}] = 249.5 g mol1
number of moles of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O =

= Example 2
100 g of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O molecular mass of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O of 249.5 g mol 1

0.4008 moles of CuSO4.5H2O molecules
Calculation of the mass of material in a given number of moles of that material The mass of a given number of moles a = the mass of 1 mole x the number of moles of material concerned
Calculate the mass of 3 moles of sulphur dioxide SO2 1 mole of sulphur dioxide has a mass = 32 + (2x16) = 64 g mol1 3 moles of SO2 = 3 x 64 = 192 g
What is the mass of 0.05 moles of Na2S2O3.5H2O ? 1 mole of Na2S2O3.5H2O = [(23 x 2) + (32 x 2) + (16 x 3)] + 5[(2 x 1) +16] = 248 g mol1 0.05 moles of Na2S2O3.5H2O = 0.05 x 248 = 12.4 g
29
Example 3 Calculation of the volume of a given number of moles of a gas All you need to remember is that 1 mole of any gas has a volume of 24 dm3 (24000 cm3) at room temperature and pressure. The volume of a given number of moles of gas = number of moles x 24000 cm3
What is the volume of 2 mol of carbon dioxide? Remember you do not need to work out the molar mass to do this calculation as it does not matter what gas it is. 2 moles of carbon dioxide = 2 x 24000 cm3 = 48000 cm3 = 48 dm3
What is the volume of 0.0056 moles of chlorine molecules? Volume of 0.0056 moles of chlorine = 0.0056 x 24000 cm3 = 134.4 cm3
Example 4 Calculation of the number of moles of gas in a given volume of that gas
number of moles of gas =
volume of gas in cm 3 24 000 cm 3
Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen molecules in 240 cm3 of the gas.
240 cm 3 number of moles = = 0.010 moles 24 000 cm 3
How many moles of a gas are there in 1000 cm3 of the gas?
1000 cm 3 number of moles of gas = = 0.0147 moles 24 000 cm 3
30
Example 5 Calculation of the volume of a given mass of gas This calculation require you to apply the skills covered in the previous examples Calculate the volume of 10 g of hydrogen gas. This is a two-stage calculation a) you need to calculate how many moles of hydrogen gas are present, and b) you need to convert this to a volume.
number of moles of hydrogen (H 2 ) =

=
10 g of hydrogen (H 2 ) molecular mass of hydrogen (H 2 ) of 2 g mol 1

5 moles
5 moles of hydrogen = 5 x 24000 cm3 = 120000 cm3 = 120 dm3 Example 6 Calculation of the mass of a given volume of gas This calculation require you to apply the skills covered in the previous examples Calculate the mass of 1000 cm3 of carbon dioxide Again this is a two-stage calculation a) you need to calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide and then b) convert this to a mass.
number of moles of CO 2 =
=
1000 cm 3 of CO 2 volume of 1 mole of CO 2 of 24 000 cm 3

0.0147 moles
0.0147 moles of carbon dioxide = 0.0147 x 44 g = 1.833 g
31
Example 7 Calculation of the molar mass of a gas from mass and volume data for the gas Calculations of this type require you to find the mass of 1 mole of the gas, ie 24 000 cm3. This is the molar mass of the gas. eg Calculate the Relative Molecular Mass of a gas for which 100 cm3 of the gas at room temperature and pressure, have a mass of 0.0667 g 100 cm3 of the gas has a mass of 0.0667 g
0.0667 g 24 000 cm 3 24 000 cm of the gas must have a mass of = 100 cm 3

3
= 16 g The molar mass of the gas is 16 g mol1
32
Exercise 4a
Calculation of the number of moles of material in a given mass of that material
In this set of calculations all the examples chosen are from the list of compounds whose molar mass you calculated in exercise 1. In each case calculate the number of moles of the material in the mass stated. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 9.00 g of H2O 88.0 g of CO2 1.70 g of NH3 230 g of C2H5OH 560 g of C2H4 0.640 g of SO2 80.0 g of SO3 18.0 g of HBr 0.0960 g of H2SO4 3.15 g of HNO3 19.3 g of NaCl 21.25 g of NaNO3 2.25 g of Na2CO3 0.800 g of NaOH 17.75 g of Na2SO4
33
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
3.16 g of KMnO4 32.33 g of K2CrO4 100 g of KHCO3 7.63 g of KI 3.90 g of CsNO3 0.111 g of CaCl2 41.0 g of Ca(NO3)2 1.48 g of Ca(OH)2 3.40 g of CaSO4 41.6 g of BaCl2 14.95 g of CuSO4 13.64 g of ZnCl2 1.435 g of AgNO3 13.76 g of NH4Cl 13.76 g of (NH4)2SO4 23.4 g of NH4VO3 10.0 g of KClO3 10.7 g of KIO3 100 g of NaClO
34
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
1.70 g of NaNO2 50.9 g of CuSO4.5H2O 19.6 g of FeSO4.7H2O 9.64 g of (NH4)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O 12.4 g of Na2S2O3.5H2O 32.0 g of (COOH)2.2H2O 3.075 g of MgSO4.7H2O 40.0 g of Cu(NH3)4SO4.2H2O 6.00 g of CH3CO2H 3.10 g of CH3COCH3 0.530 g of C6H5CO2H 4.79 g of AlCl3 56.75 g of Al(NO3)3 8.35 g of Al2(SO4)3 3.8 g of FeSO4 200 g of FeCl2
35
36
Exercise 4b
Calculation of the mass of material in a given number of moles of the material
In each case calculate the mass in grams of the material in the number of moles stated. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 2 moles of H2O 3 moles of CO2 2.8 moles of NH3 0.50 moles of C2H5OH 1.2 moles of C2H4 0.64 moles of SO2 3 moles of SO3 1 mole of HBr 0.012 moles of H2SO4 0.15 moles of HNO3 0.45 moles of NaCl 0.70 moles of NaNO3 0.11 moles of Na2CO3 2.0 moles of NaOH 0.90 moles of Na2SO4 0.050 moles of KMnO4
37
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
0.18 moles of K2CrO4 0.90 moles of KHCO3 1.5 moles moles of KI 0.12 moles of CsNO3 0.11 moles of CaCl2 4.1 moles of Ca(NO3)2 0.0040 moles of Ca(OH)2 0.10 moles of CaSO4 0.21 moles of BaCl2 0.10 moles of CuSO4 0.56 moles of ZnCl2 0.059 moles of AgNO3 0.333 moles of NH4Cl 1.1 moles of (NH4)2SO4 0.025 moles of NH4VO3 0.10 moles of KClO3 0.10 moles of KIO3 10 moles of NaClO 0.0010 moles of NaNO2
38
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
0.20 moles of CuSO4.5H2O 0.10 moles of FeSO4.7H2O 0.0050 moles of (NH4)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O 0.040 moles of Na2S2O3.5H2O 2.4 moles of (COOH)2.2H2O 3.075 moles of MgSO4.7H2O 0.15 moles of Cu(NH3)4SO4.2H2O 0.17 moles of CH3CO2H 0.20 moles of CH3COCH3 0.080 moles of C6H5CO2H 0.0333 moles of AlCl3 0.045 moles of Al(NO3)3 0.12 moles of Al2(SO4)3 2.0 moles of FeSO4 11 moles of FeCl2
39
40
Exercise 4c
Calculation of the volume of a given number of moles of a gas
In each case calculate the volume of the number of moles of gas stated. (Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mole of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 mole of CO2 0.1 moles of NH3 0.5 moles of C2H4 2 moles of SO2 0.12 moles of SO3 3.4 moles of HBr 0.11 moles of Cl2 0.0040 moles of CH4 10 moles of H2 0.45 moles of O2 0.0056 moles of C2H6 0.0090 moles of C3H8 0.040 moles of C2H2 0.123 moles of NO 0.0023 moles of HCl
41
16 17 18 19 20
8.0 moles of HBr 0.000010 moles of HI 6.0 moles of NO2 0.0076 moles of F2 3.0 moles of N2
42
Exercise 4d
Calculation of the number of moles of gas in a given volume of that gas
In each case calculate the volume of the number of moles of gas stated. (Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 200 cm3 of CO2 500 cm3 of NH3 1000 cm3 of C2H4 2000 cm3 of SO2 234 cm3 of SO3 226 cm3 of HBr 256 cm3 of Cl2 200 cm3 of CH4 2000 cm3 of H2 2400 cm3 of O2 700 cm3 of C2H6 5600 cm3 of C3H8 2200 cm3 of C2H2 210 cm3 of NO 800 cm3 of HCl
43
16 17 18 19 20
80 cm3 of HBr 2 cm3 of HI 20 000 cm3 of NO2 420 cm3 of F2 900 cm3 of N2
44
Exercise 4e
Calculation of the mass of a given volume of gas
Calculate the mass of the volume of gases stated below. (Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 200 cm3 of CO2 500 cm3 of NH3 1000 cm3 of C2H4 2000 cm3 of SO2 234 cm3 of SO3 226 cm3 of HBr 256 cm3 of Cl2 200 cm3 of CH4 2000 cm3 of H2 2400 cm3 of O2 700 cm3 of C2H6 5600 cm3 of C3H8 2200 cm3 of C2H2 210 cm3 of NO 800 cm3 of HCl
45
16 17 18 19 20
80 cm3 of HBr 2 cm3 of HI 20 000 cm3 of NO2 420 cm3 of F2 900 cm3 of N2
46
Exercise 4f
Calculation of the volume of a given mass of gas
In each case calculate the volume on cm3 of the mass of gas given. (Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 2 g of CO2 5 g of NH3 10 g of C2H4 20 g of SO2 2.34 g of SO3 2.26 g of HBr 10 g of Cl2 20 g of CH4 200 g of H2 240 g of O2 70 g of C2H6 56 g of C3H8 22 g of C2H2 20 g of NO 8 g of HCl
47
16 17 18 19 20
8 g of HBr 2 g of HI 23 g of NO2 42 g of F2 90 g of N2
48
Exercise 4g
Calculation of the Relative Molecular Mass of a gas from mass and volume data for the gas
In each case you are given the mass of a certain volume of an unknown gas. From each set of data calculate the Relative Molecular Mass of the gas. (Assume that all volumes are measured at room temperature and pressure and that 1 mol of gas has a volume of 24 000 cm3 under these conditions). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0.373 g of gas occupy 56 cm3 0.747 g of gas occupy 280 cm3 0.467 g of gas occupy 140 cm3 0.296 g of gas occupy 100 cm3 0.0833 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3 0.175 g of gas occupy 150 cm3 0.375 g of gas occupy 300 cm3 0.218 g of gas occupy 90 cm3 0.267 g of gas occupy 200 cm3 1.63 g of gas occupy 1400 cm3 0.397 g of gas occupy 280 cm3 0.198 g of gas occupy 280 cm3 0.0602 g of gas occupy 38 cm3 0.0513 g of gas occupy 44 cm3
49
15 16 17 18 19 20
0.0513 g of gas occupy 28 cm3 1.33 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3 8.79 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3 0.0760 g of gas occupy 50 cm3 0.338 g of gas occupy 100 cm3 0.667 g of gas occupy 125 cm3
50
Section 5
Using the idea of moles to find formulae
You can find the formula of copper(II) oxide by passing a stream of hydrogen over a known mass of copper oxide and weighing the copper formed.
Boat containing copper oxide
Dry hydrogen
HEAT
A known mass of copper(II) oxide is used. A stream of hydrogen from a cylinder is passed over the copper until all the air has been swept out of the apparatus. It is heated to constant mass (until two consecutive mass determinations at the end of the experiment are same) in a stream of dry hydrogen. The mass of the copper is finally determined.
Note: Excess hydrogen must not be ignited until it has been tested (by collection in a test tube) to make sure that all the air has been expelled from the apparatus. If the hydrogen in the test tube burns quietly, without a squeaky pop, then it is safe to ignite it at the end of the tube. The combustion tube is tilted to prevent the condensed steam from running back on to the hot part of the tube. When the reduction process is complete, ie after heating to constant mass, the tube is allowed to cool with hydrogen still being passed over the remaining copper. This is to prevent the copper from being oxidized to copper(II) oxide.
The working on the next page shows you how to calculate the results: Typical results Mass of copper (II) oxide Mass of copper Mass of oxygen = 5g = 4g = 1g
51
by relative atomic mass (r.a.m) Moles of copper atoms Moles of oxygen atoms
by smallest
Ratio of atoms
4 = 0.0625 64
0.0625 =1 0.0625
1 = 0.0625 16
0.0625 =1 0.0625
Therefore, the simplest (or empirical) formula is CuO. The apparatus may be modified to determine the formula of water. Anhydrous calcium chloride tubes are connected to the end of the combustion tube and the excess hydrogen then ignited at the end of these tubes. Anhydrous calcium chloride absorbs water; the mass of the tubes is determined at the beginning and end of the experiment. The increase in mass of the calcium chloride tubes is equal to the mass of water produced. Typical results Mass of water = 1.125 g Mass of oxygen (from previous results) = 1.000 g Mass of hydrogen = 0.125 g
by r.a.m Moles of hydrogen atoms Moles of oxygen atoms
by smallest
Ratio of atoms
0.125 = 0.125 1
0.125 =2 0.0625
1 = 0.0625 16
0.0625 =1 0.0625
Since the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1 the simplest (or empirical) formula is H2O. In examination calculations of this type the data is often presented not as mass, but as percentage composition of the elements concerned. In these cases the calculation is carried out in an identical fashion as percentage composition is really the mass of the element in 100 g of the compound.
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Example 1 Sodium burns in excess oxygen to give a yellow solid oxide that contains 58.97% of sodium. What is the empirical formula of the oxide? N.B. This is an oxide of sodium. It must contain only Na and O. Since the percentage of Na is 58.97 that of O must be 100 58.97 = 41.03%
by r.a.m Moles of sodium atoms
by smallest
Ratio of atoms
58.97 = 2.564 23 41.03 = 2.564 16
2.564 =1 2.564 2.564 =1 2.564
Moles of oxygen atoms
Therefore the empirical formula is NaO. The result of the above calculation does not seem to lead to a recognisable compound of sodium. This is because the method used only gives the simplest ratio of the elements - but see below. Consider the following series of organic compounds: C2H4 ethene, C3H6 propene, C4H8 butene, C5 H10 pentene. These all have the same empirical formula C H2. To find the Molecular Formula for a compound it is necessary to know the Relative Molecular Mass (Mr). Molecular Formula Mass = Empirical Formula Mass x a whole number (n) In the example above the oxide has an Mr = 78 g mol1. Thus Molecular Formula Mass = 78 Empirical Formula Mass = (Na + O) = 23 + 16 = 39 78 = 39 x n n = 2 The Molecular Formula becomes (NaO)2 or Na2O2
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Example 2 A compound P contains 73.47% carbon and 10.20% hydrogen by mass, the remainder being oxygen. It is found from other sources that P has a Relative Molecular Mass of 98 g mol-1. Calculate the molecular formula of P. NB It is not necessary to put in all the details when you carry out a calculation of this type. The following is adequate. C 73.47 H 10.20 O (100 73.47 10.20) = 16.33
By r.a.m
73.47 12
= 6.1225
10.20 1
= 10.20
16.33 16
= 1.020
By smallest Ratio of atoms
6.1255 1.020
6
10.20 1.020
10
1.020 1.020
1
Therefore the empirical formula is C6H10O. To find molecular formula: Molecular Formula Mass = 98 = n = Empirical Formula Mass x whole number (n) [(6x12) + (10x1) + 16] x n = 98 x n 1
The molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula C6H10O.
54
A warning In calculations of this type at GCE Advanced level you may meet compounds that are different yet have very similar percentage composition of their elements. When you carry out a calculation of this type you should never round up the figures until you get right to the end. For example NH4OH and NH2OH have very similar composition and if you round up the data from one you may well get the other. If you are told the Relative Molecular Mass and your Empirical Formula Mass is not a simple multiple of this you are advised to check your calculation. Example 3 Calculate the empirical formula of a compound with the following percentage composition: C 39.13%; O 52.17%; H 8.700% C By r.a.m O H
39.13 12
= 3.26
52.17 16
= 3.25 1
8.700 1
= 8.70 2.66
Divide by smallest
It is clear at this stage that dividing by the smallest has not resulted in a simple ratio. You must not round up or down at this stage. You must look at the numbers and see if there is some factor that you could multiply each number by to get each one to a whole number. In this case if you multiply each by 3 you will get: C 3 O 3 H 8
Thus C3H8O3 is the empirical formulae not C1H2.66O1 You need to watch carefully for this, the factors will generally be clear and will be 2 or 3. What you must not do is round 1.33 to 1 or 1.5 to 2.
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Calculations involving the moles of water of crystallization In calculations of this type you need to treat the water as a molecule and divide by the Relative Molecular Mass. Example 4 24.6 grams of a hydrated salt of MgSO4 . xH2O, gives 12.0 g of anhydrous MgSO4 on heating. What is the value of x ? Your first job is to find the mass of water driven off . Mass of water evolved = 24.6 12.0 = 12.6 g MgSO4 12.0 Divide by Mr H2O 12.6
12.0 120
= 0.100
12.6 18
= 0.700 7
Ratio of Atoms
Giving a formula of MgSO4.7H2O
56
Exercise 5
Calculation of a formula from experimental data
In Section a. calculate the empirical formula of the compound from the data given. This may be as percentage composition or as the masses of materials found in an experiment. For Section b. you are given the data for analysis plus the Relative Molecular Mass of the compound, in these cases you are to find the empirical formula and thence the molecular formula. Section c. is more difficult, the data is presented in a different fashion but the calculation of the empirical formula/ molecular formula is essentially the same.
Section a
1 Ca 40%; C 12%; O 48%
Na 32.4%; S 22.5%; O 45.1%
Na 29.1%; S 40.5%; O 30.4%
Pb 92.8%; O 7.20%
Pb 90.66%; O 9.34%
H 3.66%; P 37.8%; O 58.5%
H 2.44%; S 39.0%; O 58.5%
C 75%; H 25%
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C 81.81%; H 18.18%
10
H 5.88% ; O 94.12%
11
H 5%; N 35%; O 60%
12
Fe 20.14%; S 11.51%; O 63.31%; H 5.04%
58
Section b
13 A hydrocarbon with a Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) of 28 g mol1 has the following composition: Carbon 85.7%; Hydrogen 14.3%. Calculate its molecular formula.
14
A hydrocarbon with a Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) of 42 g mol1 has the following composition: Carbon 85.7%; Hydrogen 14.3%. Calculate its molecular formula.
15
P 10.88%; I 89.12%. Mr = 570 g mol1
16
N 12.28%; H 3.51%; S 28.07%; O 56.14%. Mr = 228 g mol1
17
P 43.66%; O 56.34%. Mr = 284 g mol1
18
C 40%; H 6.67%; O 53.3%. Mr = 60 g mol1
19
Analysis of a compound with a Mr = 58 g mol1 shows that 4.8 g of carbon are joined with 1.0 g of hydrogen. What is the molecular formula of the compound?
20
3.36 g of iron join with 1.44 g of oxygen in an oxide of iron that has a Mr = 160 g mol1 What is the molecular formula of the oxide?
21
A sample of an acid with a Mr = 194 g mol1 has 0.5 g of hydrogen joined to 16 g of sulphur and 32 g of oxygen. What is the molecular formula of the acid?
22
Analysis of a hydrocarbon showed that 7.8 g of the hydrocarbon contained 0.6 g of hydrogen and that the Mr = 78 g mol1. What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?
59
60
Section c
23 22.3 g of an oxide of lead produced 20.7 g of metallic lead on reduction with hydrogen. Calculate the empirical formula of the oxide concerned.
24
When 1.17 g of potassium is heated in oxygen 2.13 g of an oxide is produced. In the case of this oxide the empirical and molecular formulae are the same. What is the molecular formula of the oxide produced? A hydrocarbon containing 92.3% of carbon has a Relative Molecular Mass of 26 g mol1. What is the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon?
25
26
When 1.335 g of a chloride of aluminium is added to excess silver nitrate solution 4.305 g of silver chloride is produced. Calculate the empirical formula of the chloride of aluminium. Hint; you will need to work out how much chlorine there is in 4.305 g of AgCl. This will be the amount of chlorine in the initial 1.335 g of the aluminium chloride.
27
16 g of a hydrocarbon burn in excess oxygen to produce 44 g of carbon dioxide. What is the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon. Hint; you will need to work out what mass of carbon is contained in 44 g of CO2. This is the mass of C in 16 g of the hydrocarbon.
28
When an oxide of carbon containing 57.1% oxygen is burnt in air the percentage of oxygen joined to the carbon increases to 72.7%. Show that this data is consistent with the combustion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. When 14.97 g of hydrated copper(II) sulphate is heated it produces 9.60 g of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate. What is the formula of the hydrated salt?
29
30
When the chloride of phosphorus containing 85.1% chlorine is heated a second chloride containing 77.5% chlorine is produced. Find the formulae of the chlorides and suggest what the other product of the heating might be.
61
62
Section 6
Chemical equations
Chemical equations do much more than tell you what reacts with what in a chemical reaction. They tell you how many of each type of molecule is needed and are produced and so they also tell you what masses of the reactants are needed to produce a given mass of products. Often you will learn equations that have been given to you. However, if you are to interpret equations correctly you must learn to write them for yourself.
Equations in words
Before you can begin to write an equation, you must know what the reacting chemicals are and what is produced in the reaction. You can then write them down as a word equation. For instance, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to give water, or, as a word equation: Hydrogen + Oxygen
Water
Writing formulae
When you have written the equation in words you can write the formula for each of the substances involved; you may know them or you may have to look them up. In our example: Hydrogen is represented as H2 ; Oxygen is represented as O2; and Water is H2O. So we get: H2 + O2
H2O
However this will not do as a full equation as you will discover if you read on!
Balancing the equation

One of the most important things you must understand in chemistry is that atoms are rearranged in chemical reactions: they are never produced from nowhere and they do not simply disappear. This means that in chemical equation you must have the same number of atoms of each kind on the left-hand side of the equation as on the right. Sometimes you need to start with two or more molecules of one of the reactants and you may end up with more than one molecule of one of the products. Let us look at two very simple examples: Carbon C + + Oxygen O2 Carbon dioxide CO2
63
It so happens that carbon dioxide has one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen in one molecule: carbon is written as C (one atom) and oxygen molecules have two atoms each: written as O2. This equation does not need balancing because the number of atoms of carbon is the same on the left as on the right (1) and the number of atoms oxygen is also the same (2) ie it is already balanced. Now let us try one that does not work out: Magnesium + Oxygen
Magnesium oxide
Magnesium is written as Mg (one atom just like carbon) and oxygen is, of course, O2, but magnesium oxide has just one atom of oxygen per molecule and is therefore written as MgO. So we might write: Mg + O2
MgO
The magnesium balances, one atom on the left and one on the right, but the oxygen does not as there are two atoms on the left-hand side of the equation and only one on the right hand side. You cannot change the formulae of the reactants or products. Each formula of magnesium oxide has only one atom of oxygen: each molecule of oxygen has two atoms of oxygen, so you can make two formulae of magnesium oxide for each molecule of oxygen. So we get: Mg + O2
2MgO
Even now the equation does not balance, because we need two atoms of magnesium to make two formulae of MgO, and the final equation is: 2Mg + O2
2MgO
Sometimes, you will need to show in the equation whether the chemicals are solid, liquid or gas. You do this by putting in state symbols: (aq) for aqueous solution, (g) for gas, (1) for liquid and (s) for solid or precipitate: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
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Exercise 6a
Balancing equations
Balance the following equations. To get you started _ indicates the first six questions where numbers need to be inserted to achieve the balance. In one or two difficult examples some of the numbers have been added. You will not need to change these. Also remember all the formulae are correct!
_ H2
O2
_ H2O
BaCl2
_ NaOH
Ba(OH)2
_ NaCl
H2SO4
_ KOH
_ K2SO4
H2O
K2CO3
_ HCl
_KCl
H2O
CO2
CaCO3
_HNO3
Ca(NO3)2
H2O
CO2
Ca
_H2O
Ca(OH)2
H2
Pb(NO3)2
NaI
PbI2
NaNO3
Al2(SO4)3
NaOH
Al(OH)3
Na2SO4
Al(OH)3
NaOH
NaAlO2
H2O
10
Pb(NO3)2
PbO
NO2
O2 65
11
FeSO4
Fe2O3
SO2
SO3
12
NH4NO3
N2O
H2O
13
NaNO3
NaNO2
O2
14
CH4
O2
CO2
H2O
15
C4H10
O2
CO2
H2O
16
PCl3
H2O
H3PO3
HCl
17
8HNO3
3Cu
Cu(NO3)2
NO
H2O
18
4HNO3
Cu
Cu(NO3)2
NO2
H2O
19
H3PO4
NaOH
NaH2PO4
H2O
20
H3PO4
NaOH
Na3PO4
H2O
21
H3PO4
NaOH
Na2HPO4
H2O
22
6NaOH
Cl2
NaClO3
NaCl
H2O
66
23
N2
H2
NH3
24
NaBr
H2SO4
Na2SO4
HBr
25
HBr
H2SO4
H2O
SO2
Br2
26
C2H5OH
PCl3
C2H5Cl
H3PO3
27
Fe3O4
+ H2
Fe
H2O
28
Fe2O3
+ CO
Fe
CO2
29
C2H5OH
+ CH3CO2H
CH3CO2C2H5
H2O
30
2KMnO4
+ HCl
MnCl2
Cl2
8H2O
KCl
67
68
Exercise 6b
Whats wrong here?
The following equations have one or more mistakes. These may be in a formula, in the balancing, in the state symbols or even in the chemistry. Your job is to identify the error and then write a correct equation. 1 Na(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H(g)
PbNO3(aq)
NaCl(aq)
PbCl(s)
NaNO3(aq)
CaOH2(aq)
2HCl(aq)
CaCl2(aq)
2H2O(l)
C2H4(g)
2O2(g)
2CO2(g)
2H2(g)
MgSO4(aq)
2NaOH
Ca(OH)2(s)
Na2SO4(aq)
Cu(NO3)2(s)
CuO(s)
2NO(g)
O3(g)
Cu(s)
H2SO4(aq)
CuSO4(aq)
H2(g)
AlCl2(s)
2KOH(aq)
Al(OH)2(s)
2KCl(aq)
NaCO3(s)
2HCl(aq)
NaCl2(aq)
CO2(g)
H2O(l)
10
2AgNO3(aq)
MgCl2(aq)
Mg(NO3)2(s)
2AgCl(aq)
69
70
Exercise 6c
Writing equations in symbols from equations in words
In the following examples you will need to convert the names of the materials into formulae and then balance the resulting equation. In some cases more than one experiment is described. In these cases you will need to write more than one equation.
Zinc metal reacts with copper sulphate solution to produce solid copper metal and zinc sulphate solution.
Solid calcium hydroxide reacts with solid ammonium chloride on heating to produce solid calcium chloride, steam and ammonia gas.
When lead(II) nitrate is heated in a dry tube lead(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen are produced.
Silicon tetrachloride reacts with water to produce solid silicon dioxide and hydrogen chloride gas.
When a solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate is heated a precipitate of calcium carbonate is produced together with carbon dioxide gas and more water.
When octane (C8H18) vapour is burnt with excess air in a car engine carbon dioxide and water vapour are produced.
All the halogens, apart from fluorine, react with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution to produce a solution of the sodium halide (NaX) the sodium halate (NaXO3) and water.
The elements of Group 1 of the periodic table all react with water to produce a solution of the hydroxide of the metal and hydrogen gas. The last two examples in this section will need a lot of thought as they involve changes in the valency of the elements concerned. Before you start to balance the equations check with your teacher that you have the formulae correct.
71
Tin(II) chloride solution reacts with mercury(II) chloride solution to produce a precipitate of mercury(I) chloride and a solution of tin(IV) chloride. This precipitate of mercury(I) chloride then reacts with further tin(II) chloride solution to produce liquid mercury and more tin(IV) chloride solution.
Concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with solid potassium iodide to produce solid potassium hydrogen sulphate, iodine vapour, water and hydrogen sulphide gas.
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Section 7
How equations are found by experiment
Although equations are often printed in books for you to learn, you must remember that they have all been found originally by someone doing experiments to measure how much of each chemical reacted and how much of each product was formed. Below are set out some of the methods you could use: Direct mass determinations, eg the reaction of magnesium with oxygen
A known mass of magnesium is heated in a crucible to constant mass and hence the mass of magnesium oxide is found. Supposing 0.12 g of magnesium produce 0.20 g of magnesium oxide. By subtraction, the mass of oxygen combined with the magnesium is 0.080 g. Each of these masses is then converted to moles and it is found that every 2 moles of magnesium react with one mole oxygen molecules and produce two moles of magnesium oxide: hence 2Mg + O2
2MgO
Reacting volumes in solution: usually you have to calculate concentrations of acids or alkalis by reaction with the appropriate standard solution and use the chemical equation for the reaction
However, you can calculate the ratio of reacting moles from experimental data, in order to construct the equation. To do this you use solutions, both of whose concentrations you know. You then do a titration in the usual way and use the volumes used in the titration to find the number of moles of each reagent which react. These are then used in the equation straight away, just as in the magnesium oxide example above. Measurement of gas volumes: the molar volume of a gas is taken as 24 dm3 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure (r.t.p.)
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Examples 1 In an experiment a solution containing 3.31 g of lead(II) nitrate reacts with a solution containing 1.17 g of sodium chloride to produce 2.78 g of lead(II) chloride solid and leave a solution that contains 1.70 g of sodium nitrate. What is the equation for the reaction? In this type of question you are required to calculate the ratio of the reacting moles and then use these to write the equation. Pb(NO3)2 Mr = 331 NaCl Mr = 58.5 PbCl2 Mr = 278 NaNO3 Mr = 85
3.31 g of Pb(NO3)2 1.17 g of NaCl 2.78 g of PbCl2 1.70 g of NaNO3
= (3.31/331) mol = (1.17/58.5) mol = (2.78/278) mol = (1.70/85) mol
= 0.010 mol = 0.020 mol = 0.010 mol = 0.020 mol
ie
0.01 mol of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 0.02 mol of NaCl to give 0.01 mol of PbCl2 and 0.02 mol of NaNO3 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 2 mol of NaCl to give 1 mol of PbCl2 and 2 mol of NaNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl PbCl2 + 2NaNO3
It is not necessary to write all of this out each time.
When 5.175 g of lead are heated at 300oC the lead reacts with the oxygen in the air to produce 5.708 g of an oxide of lead. This is the only product. What is the equation for this reaction? In a question of this type you seem to be short of information but in fact you know the mass of oxygen reacting. Remember this is oxygen molecules that are reacting not oxygen atoms.
Mass of oxygen used is 5.708 5.175 g = 0.533 g Moles of lead reacting Moles of oxygen reacting = (5.175/207) mol = (0.533/32) mol = 0.025 mol = 0.0167 mol
0.025 mol of Pb react with 0.0167 mol of O2 to give product 1.5 mol of Pb react with 1 mol of O2 to give product 3 mol of Pb react with 2 mol of O2 to give product 3Pb + 2O2 Pb3O4
You do not have the information to write the full equation but as you know there is only one product and this has 3 lead atoms and 4 oxygen you can suggest a formula.
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25 cm3 of 2M sulphuric acid solution react with 50 cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium sulphate and water. Construct the equation for this reaction. You will need to look at the start of chapter 11 before you can follow this question. 25 cm3 of 2M H2SO4 contain (25 x 2/1000) mol of H2SO4 = 0.050 mol 50 cm3 of 2M NaOH contain (50 x 2/1000) mol of NaOH = 0.10 mol 0.05 mol of H2SO4 react with 0.10 mol of NaOH to give Na2SO4 plus H2O 1 mol of H2SO4 react with 2 mol of NaOH to give Na2SO4 plus H2O H2SO4 + 2NaOH
Na2SO4
2H2O
2 cm3 of nitrogen gas react completely with 6 cm3 of hydrogen gas to produce 4cm3 of ammonia gas. Use the data to write the equation for this reaction. 2 cm3 of nitrogen 6 cm3 of hydrogen 4 cm3 of ammonia ratios are = (2/24000) mol = (6/24000) mol = (4/24000) mol = 8.33 x 10-5 mol = 2.50 x 10-4 mol = 1.67 x 10-4 mol =1 =3 =2 2NH3
(8.33 x 10-5/8.33 x 10-5) of nitrogen (2.50 x 10 /8.33 x 10 ) of hydrogen (1.67 x 10-4/8.33 x 10-5) of ammonia
-4 -5
N2
3H2
1 g of CaCO3 reacts with 10 cm3 of 2M HNO3 to produce 1.64 g of Ca(NO3)2, 240 cm3 of CO2 and water. In practice the acid will be in water and it is almost impossible to measure the amount of water produced by the reaction. 1/ 100 mol of CaCO3 + + + (10x2)/1000 mol of HNO3 0.02 mol of HNO3 2HNO3
1.64/164 mol of Ca(NO3)2 0.01 mol of Ca(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2
+ 240/24000 mol + H2O of CO2 + + 0.01 mol of CO2 CO2 + H2O + H2O
0.01 mol of CaCO3 CaCO3
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76
Exercise 7
Writing chemical equations from experimental data
Use the data below to write the equations for the reactions listed. In some cases you may not be able to calculate the moles of all the materials involved. In these cases you should indicate that you have balanced this part yourself. In examples involving gases you should assume 1 Mole of gas occupies 24 000 cm3 at room temperature and pressure. 1 In an experiment a solution containing 6.675 g of aluminium chloride reacted with a solution containing 25.50 g of silver nitrate. 21.52 g of silver chloride was produced together with a solution of 10.65 g of aluminium nitrate, Al(NO3)3. What is the equation for the reaction taking place?
100 cm3 of a solution of potassium chromate(VI), containing 97.05 g dm3, reacts with 50 cm3 of a solution, containing 331 g dm3 of lead nitrate, to produce 16.15 g of a precipitate of lead(II) chromate and 150 cm3 of a solution of potassium nitrate, which gives 10.1 g of solid when the water is evaporated off from the solution. Write the equation for the reaction.
1.133 g of silver nitrate was heated in an open tube. The silver residue weighed 0.720 g. During the reaction 0.307 g of nitrogen dioxide was also produced. The rest of the mass loss was due to oxygen. Use the data to write the equation for the reaction.
In a titration using methyl orange as an indicator 25.0 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide reacted with 25.0 cm3 of 0.1 M phosphoric acid, H3PO4, solution. If the experiment is repeated using phenolphthalein in place of the methyl orange as the indicator the volume of the sodium hydroxide used to cause the indicator to change colour is 50.0 cm3.
Use the data to calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide that reacts with one mole of phosphoric acid in each case Suggest the formula of the salt produced in each case
ii
iii Write the equations iv What volume of the alkali would be needed to produce the salt Na3PO4?
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50 cm3 of a solution of citric acid, Mr = 192, containing 19.2 g dm3 reacted with 50 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide containing 12 g dm3. Citric acid can be represented by the formula HxA, where x represents the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule. Use the data above to calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide that react with one mole of citric acid and hence find the value of x.
When 12.475 g of hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4.xH2O, was heated 7.980 g of anhydrous salt were produced. Use the data to find the value of x and hence write the equation for the reaction.
When 20 cm3 ammonia gas is passed over a catalyst with excess oxygen 20 cm3 of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and 30 cm3 of water vapour are produced. Use this data to write the equation for the reaction.
10 cm3 of a hydrocarbon CaHb reacted with 50 cm3 of oxygen gas to produce 30 cm3 of carbon dioxide and 40 cm3 of water vapour. Use the data to calculate to reacting moles in the equation and suggest value for a and b.
When 8.4 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate are heated 5.30 g of solid residue are produced 1200 cm3 of carbon dioxide are produced and 0.900 g of water are evolved. Show that this data is consistent with the following equation. 2NaHCO3
Na2CO3
CO2
H2O
10 When 13.9 g of FeSO4.xH2O is heated 4 g of solid iron (III) oxide is produced together with the loss of 1.6 g of sulphur dioxide and 2.0 g of sulphur trioxide. The rest of the mass loss being due to the water of crystallization being lost. Use the data to write the full equation for the action of heat.
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Section 8
Amounts of substances
Equations can also tell you how much of a chemical is reacting or is produced. The equation in Section 7 tells us that 2 moles of (solid) magnesium atoms react with 1 mole of (gaseous) oxygen molecules to produce 2 moles of (solid) magnesium oxide molecules. We know that the relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24, and that of oxygen is 16, (see periodic table on page 113). And from the equation we balanced in Section 6 we can suggest that 48 g of magnesium react with 32 g of oxygen (because an oxygen molecule contains two atoms) to give 80 g of magnesium oxide. Since we know the ratio of reacting masses (or volumes in the case of gases) we can calculate any reacting quantities based on the equation. Example 1 a What mass of magnesium oxide would be produced from 16 g of magnesium in the reaction between magnesium and oxygen? i Write the full balanced equation 2Mg(s) ii + O2(g)
2MgO(s)
Read the equation in terms of moles 2 moles of magnesium reacts to give 2 moles of magnesium oxide
iii Convert the moles to masses using the Mr values (2 x 24g) of magnesium gives 2 x (24+16) 16 g of magnesium gives = = 80 g of Magnesium oxide 26.7 g of Magnesium oxide
80 16 2 24
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What volume of oxygen would react with 16 g of magnesium in the above reaction? In this case the oxygen is a gas so the volume of each mole is 24000 cm3 at room temperature and pressure and you do not have to worry about the molecular mass of the gas. From the equation: 2 moles of Mg reacts with 1 mole of O2 2 x 24 g of Mg reacts with 1 x 24000 cm3 of O2(g) 16 g of Mg reacts with
1 24 000 cm 3 16 g 2 24 g
8000 cm3 of oxygen
Example 2 What mass of lead(II) sulphate would be produced by the action of excess dilute sulphuric acid on 10 g of lead nitrate dissolved in water ? Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
1 mole of lead nitrate gives 1 mole of lead sulphate 331 g of lead nitrate gives 303 g of lead sulphate 10 g of lead nitrate gives
303 g 10 g of lead sulphate 331g
9.15 g of lead sulphate
Example 3 What is the total volume of gas produced by the action of heat on 1 g of silver nitrate? 2AgNO3(s) 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2 moles of silver nitrate give 2 moles of nitrogen dioxide gas plus 1 mole of oxygen gas = 3 moles of gas 2 x 170 g of silver nitrate give 3 x 24000 cm3 of gas 1 g of silver nitrate gives
3 24 000 cm 3 1 g of gas 2 170 g
= 211.8 cm3 of gas
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Example 4 When excess carbon dioxide is passed into sodium hydroxide solution, sodium carbonate solution is formed. This can be crystallised out as Na2CO3.10H2O . What mass of crystals would be produced from 5 g of sodium hydroxide in excess water. Care. You need the water as moles in the equation. 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) + 9H2O Na2CO3(aq) + 10H2O(l) Na2CO3.10H2O(s)
2 moles of sodium hydroxide give 1 mole of the crystals of sodium carbonate 2 x 40 g of sodium hydroxide give 286 g of crystals 5 g of sodium hydroxide give
286 5 2 40
17.88 g of crystals
Example 5 What mass of ethanoic acid and what mass of ethanol would be needed to produce 100 g of ethyl ethanoate assuming the reaction went to completion? Care! In this question you know how much you want to get and are asked how much you will need to start with. In these cases you must read the equation from the other end ie 1 mole of the ethyl ethanoate is produced from 1 mole of acid and 1 mole of alcohol.
CH3CO2H(l) (12+3+12+32+1) = 60
C2H5OH(l) (24+5+16+1) = 46
CH3CO2C2H5(l) (12+3+12+32+24+5) = 88
H2O(l)
88 g of ethyl ethanoate are produced from 60 g of ethanoic acid and 46 g of ethanol 100 g of ethyl ethanoate are produced from
60 g 100 g 88 g
68.2 g of ethanoic acid
and
46 g 100 g 88 g
52.3 g of ethanoic acid
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82
Exercise 8
Calculations of products/reactants based on equations
In this exercise the equations you need are given in the question, unless they were included in Exercise 6a. 1 What mass of barium sulphate would be produced from 10 g of barium chloride in the following reaction? BaCl2 2 3 + H2SO4
BaSO4
2HCl
What mass of potassium chloride would be produced from 20 g of potassium carbonate? What masses of ethanol and ethanoic acid would need to be reacted together to give 1 g of ethyl ethanoate? What mass of iron(III) oxide would need to be reduced to produce 100 tonnes of iron in a blast furnace? What mass of silver nitrate as a solution in water would need to be added to 5 g of sodium chloride to ensure complete precipitation of the chloride?
AgNO3(aq) 6
NaCl(aq)
AgCl(s)
NaNO3(aq)
A solution of copper sulphate reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to produce a precipitate of copper hydroxide according to the following equation:
CuSO4(aq)
2NaOH(aq)
Cu(OH)2(s)
Na2SO4(aq)
What mass of sodium hydroxide would be needed to convert 15.95 g of copper sulphate to copper hydroxide and what mass of copper hydroxide would be produced? 7 What volume of ammonia gas would be needed to produce 40 g of ammonium nitrate in the following reaction? NH3(g) 8 + HNO3(aq)
NH4NO3(aq)
In the reaction between calcium carbonate and nitric acid what mass of calcium nitrate and what volume of carbon dioxide would be produced from 33.3 g of calcium carbonate?
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What would be the total volume of gas produced by the action of heat on 33.1 g of lead(II) nitrate ? Magnesium reacts with sulphuric acid to produce a solution of magnesium sulphate. If this is allowed to crystallise out the solid produced has the formula MgSO4.7H2O. Write the equation for this reaction and calculate the mass of magnesium sulphate heptahydrate that could be produced from 4 g of magnesium.
10
11
Copper(II) oxide reacts with sulphuric acid to produce copper(II) sulphate. If this is allowed to crystallise the formula of the crystals is CuSO4.5H2O. What mass of copper oxide would be needed to produce 100 g of crystals?
12
Sulphur dioxide can be removed from the waste gases of a power station by passing it through a slurry of calcium hydroxide. The equation for this reaction is:
SO2(g)
Ca(OH)2(aq)
CaSO3(aq)
H2O(l)
What mass of calcium hydroxide would be needed to deal with 1000 dm3 of sulphur dioxide? 13 In a fermentation reaction glucose is converted to alcohol and carbon dioxide according to the following equation: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
What mass of alcohol and what volume of carbon dioxide would be produced from 10 g of glucose? 14 In the following reactions calculate the mass of precipitate formed from 20 g of the metal salt in each case. (i) (ii) (iii) 15 16 ZnSO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) MgSO4(aq) + + + 2NaOH 6NaOH 2NaOH
Zn(OH)2(s) 2 Al(OH)3(s) Mg(OH)2(s)
+ + +
Na2SO4(aq) 3Na2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq)
What volume of hydrogen would be produced by 1 g of calcium in its reaction with water? What mass of magnesium would be needed to produce 100 cm3 of hydrogen?
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17
Chlorine reacts with sodium hydroxide as follows: Cl2(g) + 6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
What mass of sodium chloride and what mass of sodium chlorate(V) be produced from 240 cm3 of chlorine gas?
18
When nitrogen reacts with hydrogen in the Haber Process only 17% of the nitrogen is converted to ammonia. What volume of nitrogen and what volume of hydrogen would be needed to produce 1 tonne of ammonia? (1 tonne = 1 x 106 g) Nitric acid is produced by the following series of reactions: 4NH3 4NO 4NO2 + O2 + + + 5O2 O2 2H2O 4NO 4NO2 4HNO3 + 3H2O
19
What mass of nitric acid would be produced from 17 tonnes of ammonia and what volume of oxygen would be needed in the reaction? 20 Hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium compounds. When heated some of these break down and deposits calcium carbonate as follows: Ca(HCO3)2
CaCO3
H2O
CO2
This builds up as fur on the inside of boilers. It can be removed by reaction with hydrochloric acid. What mass of calcium carbonate would be produced from 10000 dm3 of water containing 0.356 g of calcium hydrogen carbonate per dm3 of water and what volume of 10 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid solution would be needed to remove the solid calcium carbonate from the inside of the boiler?
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86
Section 9
Reactions involving gases
Whenever gases are involved in a reaction you need to remember that they have both mass and volume and that 1 mole of any gas has the same volume, 24 000 cm3, at room temperature and 1 atmosphere pressure as 1 mole of any other gas. (See Section 4 for more details) This means: 2 g of hydrogen, H2, has a volume of 24 000 cm3 32 g of oxygen, O2, has a volume of 24 000 cm3 81 g of hydrogen bromide, HBr, has a volume of 24 000 cm3 The effect of this is to make calculations involving gas volumes much easier than you might expect. Consider the following reaction: 2NO(g) This says: 2 moles of NO(g) react with 1 mole of O2(g) to give 2 moles of NO2(g) (2 x 24 000) cm3 of NO react with (1 x 24 000) cm3 of oxygen to give (2 x 24 000) cm3 of NO2 2 cm3 of NO react with 1 cm3 of oxygen to give 2 cm3 of NO2 ie for gases only the reacting volume ratios are the same as the reacting mole ratios in the equation. + O2(g)
2NO2(g)
Example 1 What volume of sulphur trioxide would be produced by the complete reaction of 100 cm3 of sulphur dioxide with oxygen? What volume of oxygen would be needed to just react with the sulphur dioxide? 2SO2(g) Ratios ie 2 1 100 cm3 + O2(g) 1 50 cm3 2SO3(g) 2 1 100 cm3
Thus 100 cm3 of sulphur dioxide will need 50 cm3 of oxygen and produce 100 cm3 of sulphur dioxide.
87
Example 2 What would be the composition of the final product in Example 1 if 100 cm3 of oxygen had been used rather than 50 cm3? Since 100 cm3 of the sulphur dioxide needs only 50 cm3 of oxygen there must be 50 cm3 of oxygen unused. Thus the final volume is: 100 cm3 of sulphur dioxide plus 50 cm3 of excess oxygen = 150 cm3
Example 3 What volume of ammonia would be produced if 10 cm3 of nitrogen was reacted with 20 cm3 of hydrogen? N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
You need to think before you start this question. The reacting volumes given in the question are not the same as those in the reaction. You must have excess of one of the gases. From the equation: 10 cm3 of nitrogen needs 30 cm3 of hydrogen. You only have 20 cm3 of hydrogen so the nitrogen is in excess. In this case you will need to use the hydrogen volume in the calculation. N2(g) Ratios 1 1/3 1/3 x 20 6.67 cm
3
3H2(g) 3 1 20 20 cm
3
2NH3(g) 2 2/3 2/3 x 20 13.33 cm3
Thus 20 cm3 of hydrogen will react to give 13.33 cm3 of ammonia and there will be 3.33 cm3 of hydrogen left over.
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Exercise 9
Calculations based on equations involving only gases Section a
In Section a. assume that you have 10 cm3 of the first named reactant and then calculate the volumes of all the gases involved in the equation. In these examples the reactions are being carried out at above 100C and you should assume the water is present as a gas and therefore has a volume. 1 CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
C2H4
3O2
2CO2
2H2O
2C2H2
5O2
4CO2
2H2O
2C8H18
25O2
16CO2
18H2O
N2
3H2
2NH3
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90
Section b
In Section b. you are asked to find the total volume of gas produced at room temperature and pressure. You should ignore the volume of water produced as this will have condensed as a liquid. Be careful in some cases, as there is an excess of one of the reactants. 1 What volume of oxygen would be needed to convert 1000 cm3 of nitrogen monoxide, NO, to nitrogen dioxide, NO2? (Assume all volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure.)
In the production of sulphuric acid sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphur trioxide by reaction with the oxygen in the air. What volume of air (assume 20% of the air is oxygen) would be needed to produce 150 cm3 of sulphur trioxide? Assume complete conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
In equation for the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen monoxide is: 4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
What volume of ammonia would be required to produce 2500 cm3 of nitrogen monoxide and what volume of air would be used in the conversion? Again assume that air is 20% oxygen by volume.
What volume of oxygen at room temperature and pressure would be needed to completely burn 1 mole of butane?
What volume of hydrogen at room temperature and pressure would be needed to convert 1 mole of ethene, C2H4, to ethane, C2H6?
What is the final volume of gas produced at room temperature when 10 cm3 of methane is burnt with 30 cm3 of oxygen?
What is the final volume of gas produced at room temperature if 5 cm3 of octane are burnt with 100 cm3 of oxygen?
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In a reaction between methane and oxygen 60 cm3 of methane was burnt with 60 cm3 of oxygen. What is the composition of the gas mixture produced?
What volume of ammonia would be produced if 10 cm3 of nitrogen was reacted with 60 cm3 of hydrogen?
10
What would be the final volume of gas produced in the reaction between 10 cm3 of hydrogen and 10 cm3 of oxygen?
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Section 10
Ions and ionic equations
Ionic theory Many of the chemicals which you will use at GCE Advanced are ionic, that is the chemical bonds which hold the atoms together are ionic bonds. When you melt these compounds the ions are free to move and this gives them some special properties. Often, but not always, these chemicals are soluble in water and when they dissolve the ions separate to produce a solution containing positive and negative ions. A few covalent substances also form ions when they dissolve in water. Some of these are extremely important: hydrogen chloride and sulphuric acid are examples.
Structures of ionic compounds

In your course you will study bonding and structure, but at a of the most important ideas are set out below. Ions are atoms or groups of atoms, which have a positive or negative electric charge. Positive ions are called cations (pronounced cat-ions) and negative ions are called anions (pronounced an-ions). Positive ions attract negative ions all around them and are firmly held in a rigid lattice; this is what makes ionic compounds solids. When an ionic compound is solid it is crystalline, but when it melts or is dissolved in water the ions become free and can move around. Ions have completely different properties from the atoms in them; chlorine is an extremely poisonous gas, but chloride ions are found in sodium chloride, which is essential to human life.
Ionic equations and spectator ions

Many of the chemicals, which you study are ionic, and in these cases it is the ions which react, not the molecules. For instance, copper(II) sulphate is usually written as CuSO4 but it is more often the ion Cu2+ which reacts. When you write an ionic equation you include only the ions which actually take part in the reaction. Let us look at molecular equation and see how it may be converted into an ionic equation. For example, look at the reaction between iron(II) sulphate solution and aqueous sodium hydroxide. FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
In water, the iron (II) sulphate and the sodium hydroxide are in the form of freely moving ions. When the two solutions are mixed together, we see a green precipitate of iron (II) hydroxide solid. Remaining in solution will be a mixture of sodium ions and sulphate ions. Fe2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
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Also when silver nitrate solution reacts with sodium chloride solution the changes do not involve the nitrate ion from the silver nitrate or the sodium ion from the sodium chloride. These are referred to as spectator ions. The equation for this reaction can be written Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) AgCl(s)
This equation represents the reaction between any aqueous solution containing silver ions and any aqueous solution containing chloride ions. This is the equation for the test for a chloride ion in solution. You can work out an ionic equation as follows using the example of the reaction of iron(II) sulphate solution with excess sodium hydroxide solution. 1 Write down the balanced molecular equation FeSO4(aq) 2 + 2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Convert those chemicals that are ions in solution into their ions
Fe2+(aq) + SO42(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe(OH)2(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42(aq) 3 Cross out those ions that appear on both sides of the equation as they have not changed during the reaction. They started in solution and they finished in the solution. To give the ionic equation: Fe2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Check that the atoms and the charges balance.
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Exercise 10
Ionic equations
In questions 15 you are required to balance the equations, in questions 610 you are required to complete the equation and then balance it. For questions 117 you are required to write the full, balanced ionic equation. Questions 1820 involve more complex ions again you are just asked to balance the equation.
Pb2+ (aq)
OH(aq)
Pb(OH)2(s)
Al3+(aq)
OH(aq)
Al(OH)3(s)
Al(OH)3(s)
OH(aq)
AlO22(aq)
H2O(l)
Cl2(g)
OH(aq)
ClO33(aq)
Cl(aq)
H2O(l)
S2O32(aq)
I2(s)
S4O62(aq)
2I(aq)
Cu2+(aq)
OH(aq)
CO32(s)
H+(aq)
Zn(s)
H+(aq)
Zn(s)
Pb2+(aq)
10
H+(aq)
OH(aq)
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11
Write an ionic equation for the reaction of magnesium with sulphuric acid.
12
Write an ionic equation for the reaction of sodium carbonate solution with nitric acid.
13
Write an ionic equation for the reaction of copper oxide with hydrochloric acid.
14
Write an ionic equation for the reaction of barium chloride solution with sodium sulphate solution. Write an ionic equation for the reaction of silver nitrate solution with potassium chloride solution. Write an ionic equation for the reaction of zinc with silver nitrate solution.
15
16
17
Write ionic equations for the reactions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid. Write ionic equations for the reactions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with nitric acid. Write ionic equations for the reactions of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with sulphuric acid. What do you notice about the answers to questions 17, 18 and 19?
18
19
20
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Section 11
Calculations involving chemicals in solution
These are often referred to as Volumetric Analysis. The name should not worry you, the basis of the calculations is the same as all the rest ie moles and equations. Many reactions take place in solution involving solutions of known concentration. Concentration in solution is generally measured as moles per 1000 cm3 of solution. For example the sodium chloride on the bench may be labelled as 1M NaCl. This means that each 1000 cm3 of the solution contains 1 Mole of NaCl (58.5 g). It does not mean that 58.5 g of NaCl have been added to 1000 cm3 of water. The solution will have been made up by measuring out 58.5 g of the solid, dissolving it in about 500 cm3 of water and then adding water to make the total volume of the mixture up to 1000 cm3. (1 dm3) Concentration in mol dm-3 is called molarity.
molarity =
concentration in grams per 1000 cm 3 M r for the material dissolved
molarity volume (cm 3 ) number of moles of material in a given volume = 1000
mass of material in a given volume of solution =
molarity volume (cm 3 ) M r 1000
In reactions in solution it is often more convenient to use molarity rather than g dm3. There are two ways you can approach calculations involving solutions. The first method (A) detailed below is really a short cut way of using the more detailed method B. Most of the straight forward calculations you will meet at the start of your course and the ones in this booklet can be carried through using method A.
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98
Method A
Consider the following reaction between two solutions aA(aq) + bB(aq) cC(aq) + dD(aq) In this reaction a moles of substance A react with b moles of substance B Let us suppose that Va cm3 of the solution of A react with Vb cm3 of the solution of B. If this is an acid/alkali reaction we could find these volumes out using an indicator.
Number of moles of A in Va cm3 of solution
Va M a 1000 Vb M b 1000
Number of moles of B in Vb cm3 of solution
If we divide equation (i) by equation (ii) we get
Va M a a = Vb M b b
This relationship will hold good for any reaction between two solutions. Examples 1 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
M NaOH VNaOH 2 = M H 2SO 4 VH 2SO 4 1
BaCl2(aq)
H2SO4(aq)
BaSO4(s)
2HCl(aq)
M BaCl2 VBaCl2 M H 2SO 4 VH 2SO 4
1 1
MnO4-(aq)
+ 5Fe2+(aq)
4
+ 8H+(aq)
4
Mn2+(aq)
+ 5Fe3+(aq)
+ 4H2O(l)
M MnO VMnO M Fe 2 + VFe 2 +
1 5
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Calculation examples 1 What is the molarity of a solution of NaOH which contains 4 g of NaOH in 250 cm3 of solution? Mr NaOH = 40 g mol1 4 g per 250 cm3 = 16 g per 1000 cm3
molarity
16 40
0.040 mol dm-3
This can also be written molarity =
( 4 1000) 1 250 40
0.040 mol dm-3
What mass of KMnO4 would be needed to prepare 250 cm3 of 0.020 mol dm3 KMnO4 solution? (Mr = 158) 1000 cm3 of 0.020 mol dm3 KMnO4 will need 158 x 0.02 g 250 cm3 will need
158 0.02 250 1000
0.79 g
How many moles of H2SO4 will be contained in 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm3 H2SO4? number of moles
0.10 25 1000
0.0025 moles
25 cm3 of 0.10mol dm3 NaOH react with 50 cm3 of a solution of H2SO4. What is the molarity of the H2SO4? 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
M NaOH VNaOH 2 = M H 2SO 4 VH 2SO 4 1
0.1 25 =2 M H 2SO 4 50 0.1 25 2 50
M H 2SO 4 =
0.025 mol dm-3
NB If you are required to calculate the concentration in g dm3 at this stage you need to multiply by the Mr of the material. In this case 98 g mol1 100
What volume of 0.02 mol dm3 KMnO4 solution will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 Iron(II) ammonium sulphate ?
NB in Iron(II) ammonium sulphate only the iron(II) ions react with the manganate(VII) ions MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq)
4
+ 8H+(aq)
4
Mn2+(aq)
+ 5Fe3+(aq)
+ 4H2O(l)
M MnO VMnO M Fe 2 + VFe 2 +
1 5
0.02 VMnO
4
0.1 25
1 5
VMnO =
4
0.1 25 = 25 cm 3 0.02 5
25 cm3 of a solution of 0.05 mol dm3 silver nitrate react with 10 cm3 of a solution of NaCl. What is the concentration of NaCl in g dm3 in the solution? NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
M NaCl VNaCl 1 = M AgNO3 VAgNO3 1
10 M NaCl 1 = 25 0.05 1 M NaCl = 25 0.05 = 0.125 mol dm 3 10
concentration of NaCl = 0.125 mol dm 3 58.5 = 7.31 g dm 3
101
In the reaction between an acid HxA and 0.1 mol dm3 NaOH solution. 25 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 mol dm3 HxA react with 50 cm3 of the 0.1 mol dm3 NaOH. What is the value of x? This is not as difficult as it looks. You need to think what the equation for the reaction would be. HxA(aq) + xNaOH(aq) NaxA (aq) + xH2O(l)
M H x A VH x A M NaOH VNaOH
1 x
25 0.1 1 = 50 0.1 x
x=2
Thus the acid is H2A.
102
Method B
In this method the actual amounts of materials in the volumes involved are calculated rather than the ratios. Example 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm3 NaOH react with 50 cm3 of a solution of H2SO4. What is the molarity of the H2SO4? 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2 mol of NaOH react with 1 mol of H2SO4 In this case you know the concentration of the sodium hydroxide so 1 mol of NaOH reacts with 0.5 mol of H2SO4 always put the reactant you know as 1 mol In this reaction you have used 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm3 NaOH
25 0.10 mol of NaOH 1000
= 2.5 10 3 mol
This will react with 0.5 x 2.5 x 103 moles of H2SO4 = 1.25 x 103 moles of H2SO4 1.25 x 103 moles of H2SO4 will be found in 50 cm3 of the solution In 1000 cm3 of the acid the same solution there will be
1000 (1.25 10 3 ) moles of H 2 SO 4 = 50

= 0.0250 moles
The concentration of the sulphuric acid is 0.025 mol dm3.
103
104
Exercise 11a
Calculations based on concentrations in solution
Calculate the number of moles of the underlined species in the volume of solution stated. 1 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 HCl
50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl
25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 NaOH
50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 KOH
50 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm-3 HNO3
100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 H2SO4
25 cm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3 KMnO4
10
25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 FeSO4
105
Calculate the mass of material in the given volume of solution 11 25 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 HCl
12
50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 NaCl
13
100 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm-3 NH4NO3
14
100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 AgNO3
15
25 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 BaCl2
16
50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 H2SO4
17
20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH
18
50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 K2CrO4
19
25 cm3 of 0.02 mol dm-3 KMnO4
20
25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 Pb(NO3)2
106
What is the concentration in moles dm-3 of the following? 21 3.65 g of HCl in 1000 cm3 of solution
22
3.65 g of HCl in 100 cm3 of solution
23
6.62 g of Pb(NO3)2 in 250 cm3 of solution
24
1.00 g of NaOH in 250 cm3 of solution
25
1.96 g of H2SO4 in 250 cm3 of solution
26
1.58 g of KMnO4 in 250 cm3 of solution
27
25.0 g of Na2S2O3.5H2O in 250 cm3 of solution
28
25.0 g of CuSO4.5H2O in 250 cm3 of solution
29
4.80 g of (COOH)2.2H2O in 250 cm3 of solution
30
10.0 g of FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O in 250 cm3 of solution
31
240 cm3 of NH3(g) dissolved in 1000 cm3 of solution
32
480 cm3 of HCl(g) dissolved in 100 cm3 of solution
33
120 cm3 of SO2(g) dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution
34
24 cm3 of HCl(g) dissolved in 200 cm3 of solution
35
100 cm3 of NH3(g) dissolved in 10 cm3 of solution
107
108
Exercise 11b
Simple volumetric calculations
In this series of calculations you should start by writing the equation for the reaction taking place then generate the molarity/volume ratio. In some cases you will need to calculate the molarity of the solutions before you start the main part of the question. For questions 110 calculate the molarity of the first named solution from the data below.
25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide
reacts with
21.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm3 HCl
25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide
reacts with
17.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 H2SO4
20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid
reacts with
23.6 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 NaOH
20 cm3 of hydrochloric acid
reacts with
20.0 cm3 of a solution of NaOH containing 40 g dm3 of NaOH 15 cm3 of a solution of 0.2 mol dm3 NH4OH 20 cm3 of a solution of 0.05 mol dm3 sulphuric acid 10 cm3 of a 0.02 mol dm3 silver nitrate
25 cm3 of nitric acid
reacts with
25 cm3 of a solution of barium chloride 25 cm3 of a solution of NaCl
reacts with
reacts with
10 cm3 of a solution of AlCl3
reacts with
30 cm3 of 0.01 mol dm-3 silver nitrate
25 cm3 of HxA
reacts with
25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm3 NaOH to give Na2A 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 NaOH to give NaH2 PO4
10
25 cm3 of H3PO4
reacts with
109
11
25 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 mol dm3 NaOH reacts with 50 cm3 of a solution of hydrochloric acid. What is the molarity of the acid?
12
25 cm3 of a solution of 0.2 mol dm3 KOH reacts with 30 cm3 of a solution of nitric acid. What is the concentration of the acid in moles dm3?
13
In a titration 25 cm3 of ammonia solution react with 33.30 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 HCl. What is the concentration of the ammonia solution in g dm3?
14
In the reaction between iron(II) ammonium sulphate and potassium manganate(VII) solution. 25 cm3 of the Fe2+ solution reacted with 24.8 cm3 of 0.020 mol dm3 KMnO4 solution. What is the molarity of the iron(II) ammonium sulphate solution? 10 cm3 of a solution of NaCl react with 15 cm3 of 0.02 mol dm3 silver nitrate solution. What is the concentration of the NaCl solution in g dm3?
15
16
25 cm3 of a solution of an acid HxA containing 0.1 mol dm3 of the acid in each 1000 cm3 of solution reacts with 75 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 mol dm3 NaOH. What is the value of x?
17
25 cm3 of a solution of sodium carbonate react with 10 cm3 of a 0.1 mol dm3 HCl. What is the concentration of the sodium carbonate?
18
What volume of 0.1 mol dm3 HCl will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm3 NaOH?
19
What volume of 0.05 mol dm3 H2SO4 will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm3 NaOH?
20
What volume of 0.02 mol dm3 KMnO4 will be needed to react with 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 FeSO4 solution?
110
The last five questions will require you to use the skills you have learnt in this section, together with those from other sections. 21 What weight of silver chloride will be produced if 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm3 silver nitrate is added to excess sodium chloride solution?
22
What weight of calcium carbonate will dissolve in 100 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm3 HCl?
23
What volume of carbon dioxide will be produced if 100 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm3 HNO3 is added to excess sodium carbonate solution?
24
What weight of magnesium will dissolve in 10 cm3 of 1 mol dm3 HCl and what volume of hydrogen will be produced?
25
What volume of ammonia gas will be produced in the following reaction if 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 sodium hydroxide is boiled with 50 cm3 of 0.4 mol dm3 ammonium chloride solution? (Care: one of these is in excess.) NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
111
112
THE PERIODIC TABLE Group

key
Atomic Number 2 Symbol Name Molar mass in g mol 5 6 7 8
-1
5 6 8
Period He
Helium 4
Section 12
Hydrogen
10
2
Boron Carbon 12 14 15 14 Nitrogen 11 13 16 16
Li Al
Aluminium 27 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 28 Silicon 31 33
Data The periodic table
Lithium
Berylium
Be Si Ge
Germanium 73 50
B P
Phosphorus
C S
Oxygen
Fluorine 19 17
Ne
Neon 20 18
11
12
3 V Cr
Chromium 52 56 44 45 46 47 48 49 59 59 63.5 65.4 42 43 55 70 Manganese Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Iron
Na Mn Tc Rh
Rhodium 103 77 106 78 108 79 112 80 Palladium Silver Cadmium
Mg Fe Ru Pd Pt
Platinum 195 Gold 197
Cl
Sulphur 32 34 Chlorine 35.5 35
Ar
Argon 40 36
Sodium
Magnesium
23
24
19
20
21
22
4
Vanadium 51 41
K Nb
Niobium Ruthenium 101 76 93 73 75 96 74 (99) Molybdenum Technetium
Ca Mo Cd Hg
Mercury 201
Sc Co Ag Au In
Indium 115 81
Ti
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
As
Arsenic 75 51
Se
Selenium 79 52
Br
Bromine 80 53
Kr
Krypton 84 54
Potassium
Calcium
Scandium
Titanium
39
40
45
48
37
38
39
40
5 Ta Os
Osmium 190 192 Iridium
Rb W Ir
Tungsten 184 106 186 Rhenium
Sr Re
Zr
Sn
Tin 119 82
Sb
Antimony 122 83
Te
Tellurium 128 84
I
Iodine 127 85
Xe
Xenon 131 86
Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium
Zirconium
85 55
88 56
89 57
91 72
6
Tantalum 181 105
Cs Unp Unh
Unnilhexium (263) (262)
Ba
La
Hf
Tl
Thallium 204
Pb
Lead 207
Bi
Bismuth 209
Po
Polonium (210)
At
Astatine (210)
Rn
Radon (222)
Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Hafnium
133
137
139
178
87
88
89
Fr
Ra
Ac
Unq
104
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Unnilquadium Unnilpentium
(223)
(226)
(227)
(261)
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
Ce
Neodymium 144 92 93 (147) Promethium dymium 141 91
Cerium
Pr PraseoNp
Neptunium (237) 238
Nd
Pm
Sm
Samarium 150 94
Eu
Europium 152 95
Gd
Gadolinium 157 96
Tb
Terbium 159 97
Dy
163 98
66
67
68
69
70
71
Ho
Holmium 165 99
Er
Erbium 167 100
Tm
Thulium 169 101
Yb
Ytterbium 173 102
Lu
Lutetium 175 103
113
Protactinium (231)
140
90
Thorium
Th
Uranium
Pa
Pu
(242)
Am
(243)
Cm
Curium (247)
Berkelium (245)
Bk
Californium (251)
Cf
Einsteinium (254)
Es
Fermium (253)
Fm
Mendelevium (256)
Md
Nobelium (254)
No
Lawrencium (257)
Lr
232
114
Answers
115
116
Exercise 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 18 44 17 46 28 64 80 81 98 63 58.5 85 106 40 142 158 194 100 166 195 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 11 164 74 136 208 1335 213 342 152 127 162.5 400 223 239 685 331 278 303 99.0 134.5 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 159.5 161.4 170 53.5 132 117.0 122.5 166.0 74.5 69.0 249.5 278 964 248 126 246 2635 60 58 122
117
118
Exercise 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NaCl NaOH Na2CO3 Na2SO4 NO3PO4 KCl KBr KI KHCO3 21 BaSO4 22 AlCl3 23 Al2O3 24 Al(OH)3 25 Al2(SO4)3 26 CuSO4 27 CuO 28 CuCl2 29 Cu(NO3)2 30 Cu2O 31 CuCl 32 Zn(NO3)2 33 ZnCO3 34 ZnO 35 AgCl 36 AgBr 37 AgI 38 AgNO3 39 Ag2O 40 Pb(NO3)2 41 PbCO3 42 PbO 43 PbO2 44 PbCl2 45 PbCl4 46 PbS 47 SnCl2 48 SnCl4 49 FeSO4 50 FeCl2 51 Fe2(SO4)3 52 FeCl3 53 Fe(OH)3 54 Fe(OH)2 55 NH4Cl 56 (NH4)2CO3 57 NH4OH 58 NH4NO3 59 (NH4)2SO4 60 (NH4)3PO4 61 PCl3 62 PCl5 63 P2O3 64 P2O5 65 H3PO4 66 H2SO4 67 HNO3 68 HCl 69 CCl4 70 SiCl4 71 SiO2 72 SO2 73 SO3 74 H2S 75 Cl2O 76 NO2 77 NO 78 CO2 79 CO 80 HOH/H2O
10 KNO2 11 MgCl2 12 Mg(NO3)2 13 Mg(OH)2 14 MgO 15 MgCO3 16 CaO 17 CaCl2 18 CaSO4 19 CaCO3 20 BaCl2
119
120
Exercise 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Water Carbon dioxide Ammonia Oxygen Hydrogen Sulphur dioxide (or IV oxide) Sulphur trioxide (or VI oxide) Hydrogen chloride Hydrogen iodide 31 Iron(III) chloride 32 Iron(III) sulphate 33 Lead(II) oxide 34 Lead(IV) oxide 35 Lead(II) nitrate 36 Lead(II) chloride 37 Lead (II) sulphate 38 Copper(II) nitrate 39 Copper(I) chloride 40 Copper(II) chloride 41 Copper(II) sulphate 42 Zinc chloride 43 Silver nitrate 44 Ammonium chloride 45 Ammonium sulphate 46 Ammonium vanadate(V) 47 Potassium chlorate(V) 48 Potassium iodate 49 Sodium chlorate(I) 50 Sodium nitrite 51 Ethane 52 Butane 53 Octane 54 Ammonium carbonate 55 Potassium manganate(VII) 56 Potassium chromate(VI) 57 Potassium hydrogencarbonate 58 Potassium iodide 59 Cobalt(II) nitrate 60 Potassium astatide
10 Hydrogen fluoride 11 Methane 12 Hydrogen sulphide 13 Hydrogen bromide 14 Sulphuric acid 15 Nitric acid 16 Sodium chloride 17 Sodium nitrate 18 Sodium carbonate 19 Sodium hydroxide 20 Sodium sulphate 21 Calcium chloride 22 Calcium nitrate 23 Calcium hydroxide 24 Calcium sulphate 25 Barium chloride 26 Aluminium chloride 27 Aluminium nitrate 28 Aluminium sulphate 29 Iron(II) sulphate 30 Iron(II)chloride
121
122
Exercise 4a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 0.50 2.0 0.10 5.0 20 0.010 1.0 0.22 0.0010 0.050 0.33 0.25 0.021 0.020 0.125 0.020 0.167 1.0 0.046 0.020 0.0010 0.25 0.02 0.0025 0.20 26 0.10 27 0.10 28 0.0085 29 0.26 30 0.104 31 0.20 32 0.082 33 0.050 34 1.34 35 0.025 36 0.204 37 0.071 38 0.010 39 0.050 40 0.254 41 0.0125 42 0.152 43 0.10 44 0.053 45 0.0043 46 0.036 47 0.266 48 0.024 49 0.025 50 1.574
123
124
Exercise 4b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 20 21 23 24 25 36 g 132 g 47.6 g 23 g 33.6 g 40.96 g 240 g 81 g 1.152 g 9.45 g 26.3 g 59.5 g 11.66 g 80.0 g 7.9 g 34.92 g 90 g 23.4 g 12.2 g 0.296 g 13.6 g 43.68 g 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 14.95 g 76.2 g 10.03 g 17.82 g 145.2 g 2.925 g 12.25 g 21.4 g 745 g 0.069 g 49.9 g 27.8 g 4.82 g 9.92 g 302.4 g 756.5 g 39.53 g 10.2 g 11.6 g 9.76 g 4.34 g 9.59 g 41.0 g 304 g
15 127.8 g
19 249 g
22 672.4 g
50 1397 g
Exercise 4c
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 24000 cm3 2400 cm3 12000 cm3 48000 cm3 2880 cm3 81600 cm3 2640 cm3 96 cm3 240000 cm3 10800 cm3 11 12 13 14 15 17 19 20 134.4 cm3 216 cm3 960 cm3 2952 cm3 55.2 cm3 0.24 cm3 182.4 cm3 72000 cm3
16 192000 cm3 18 144000 cm3
125
126
Exercise 4d
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.0083 mol 0.0208 mol 0.0416 mol 0.0533 mol 0.0098 mol 0.0094 mol 0.0106 mol 0.0033 mol 0.0833 mol 11 0.0292 mol 12 0.2333 mol 13 0.0917 mol 14 0.0088 mol 15 0.0333 mol 16 0.0033 mol 17 0.000080 mol 18 0.8333 mol 19 0.0175 mol 20 0.0375 mol
10 0.10 mol
Exercise 4e
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.367 g 0.354 g 1.166 g 5.333 g 0.78 g 0.763 g 0.757 g 0.233 g 0.167 g 11 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 0.875 g 2.38 g 0.263 g 1.217 g 0.270 g 0.011 g 0.683 g 1.05 g
12 10.27 g
18 38.33 g
10 3.20 g
Exercise 4f
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1091 cm3 7059 cm3 8571 cm3 7500 cm3 702 cm3 670 cm3 3380 cm3 30000 cm3 2400000 cm3 180000 cm3 11 56000 cm3 12 30545 cm3 13 20308 cm3 14 16000 cm3 15 16 17 5260 cm3 2370 cm3 375 cm3
18 12000 cm3 19 26526 cm3 20 77143 cm3
127
128
Exercise 4g
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 160 64 80 71 2.0 28 30 58 32 28 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 34 17 38 28 44 32 36.5 81
17 211
20 128
Exercise 5
Section (a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CaCO3 Na2SO4 Na2S2O3 PbO Pb3O4 H3PO3 H2SO3 CH4 C3H8 4 5 6 7 8 9 N2H4S2O8 P4O10 C2H4O2 - CH3COOH C4H10 Fe2O3 H2S2O8
10 C6H6 Section (c) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PbO KO2 C2H2 AlCl3 CH4 yes CuSO4 5H2O PCl5, PCl3, Cl2
10 HO (giving H2O2) 11 H4N2O3 (NH4NO3) 12 FeSO11H14 (FeSO4 - 7H2O) Section (b) 1 2 3 C2H4 C3H6 P2I4
129
130
Exercise 6a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 2H2 BaCl2 H2SO4 K2CO3 CaCO3 Ca Pb(NO3)2 Al2(SO4)3 Al(OH)3 2Pb(NO3)2 2FeSO4 NH4NO3 2NaNO3 CH4 2C4H10 PCl3 8HNO3 4HNO3 H3PO4 H3PO4 H3PO4 6NaOH N2 2NaBr 2HBr 3C2H5OH Fe3O4 + + + + + + + + + O2 2NaOH 2KOH 2HCl 2HNO3 2H2O 2NaI 6NaOH NaOH 2H2O Ba(OH)2 K2SO4 2KCl Ca(NO3)2 Ca(OH)2 PbI2 2Al(OH)3 NaAlO2 + + + + 4NO2 SO2 2H2O O2 + + + + + + + + + 2H2O 10H2O 3HCl 3NO 2NO2 H2O 3H2O 2H2O 5NaCl + 3H2O + 4H2O + 2H2O + + + + + + + + 2NaCl 2H2O H2O H2O H2 2NaNO3 3Na2SO4 2H2O O2 SO3 + CO2 + CO2
2PbO Fe2O3 N2O 2NaNO2 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 2O2 13O2 3H2O 3Cu Cu NaOH 3NaOH 2NaOH 3Cl2 3H2 H2SO4 H2SO4 PCl3 4H2
CO2 8CO2 H3PO3 3Cu(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2 NaH2PO4 Na3PO4 Na2HPO4 NaClO3 2NH3 Na2SO4 2H2O 3C2H5Cl 3Fe
+ + + +
HBr SO2 H3PO3 4H2O + Br2
131
28 29 30
Fe2O3 C2H5OH 2KMnO4
+ + +
3CO CH3CO2H 16HCl
2Fe CH3CO2C2H5 2KCl
+ +
3CO2 H2O + 8H2O + 5 Cl2
+ 2MnCl2
Exercise 6b
1 Hydrogen is not H but H2, which gives 2Na(s) 2 + 2H2O(aq) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Since the valency of lead is 2 not 1 lead nitrate is not PbNO3 but Pb(NO3)2 and also lead chloride is PbCl2 Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Calcium hydroxide is Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
This does not balance. C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + H2O(l)
5 6
A magnesium compound cannot give a calcium compound! Ozone O3 is not produced by heating a nitrate O2 is. 2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
7 8
This reaction does not take place and so no equation can be written. Aluminium has a valency of 3 not 2 as in this equation. AlCl3(s) + 3KOH(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + 3KCl(aq)
Sodium has a valency of 1 not 2 as in this equation Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
10 Silver chloride is not soluble in water. Thus the AgCl needs a (s) symbol 132
Exercise 6c
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Zn(s) Ca(OH)2(s) 2Pb(NO3)2(s) SiCl4(l) Ca(HCO3)2(aq) 2C8H18(g) 6NaOH(aq) 6NaOH(aq) 6NaOH(aq) 8 2M(s) + + CuSO4(aq) 2NH4Cl(s) Cu(s) CaCl2(s) + 4NO2(g) + ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(g) + O2(g) + HCl(g) + CO2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 5NaCl(aq) + 5NaBr(aq) + 5NaI(aq) + H2(g) + 3H2O(l) + 3H2O(l) + 3H2O(l) + NH3(g)
2PbO(s) + 2H2O(l)
SiO2(s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + + + + + 25O2(g) 3Cl2(g) 3Br2(g) 3I2(g) 2H2O(l)
16CO2(g) NaClO3(aq) NaBrO3(aq) NaIO3(aq) 2MOH(aq)
Where M = Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs 9 10 SnCl2(aq) 9H2SO4 + + 2HgCl2(aq) 8KI 2HgCl (s) 4I2 + H2S + SnCl4(aq) + 8KHSO4 + 4H2O
133
134
Exercise 7
1 2 3 4 AlCl3 K2CrO4 2AgNO3 i) ii) iii) H3PO4 H3PO4 iv) 5 6 x=3 x=5 CuSO4.5H2O 7 8 9 10 4NH3 C3H8 It is FeSO4.7H2O Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3 + 14H2O CuSO4 + + 5O2 5O2 + 5H2O + 6H2O + 4H2O 75 cm3 + + NaOH 2NaOH NaH2PO4 Na2HPO4 + H2O + 2H2O 1 mole 2 moles + + 3AgNO3 Pb(NO3)2 Al(NO3)3 PbCrO4 + 2NO2 + 3AgCl + 2KNO3 + O2
2Ag
4NO 3CO2
135
136
Exercise 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 11.2 g 21.6 g 0.682 g of ethanoic acid and 0.523 g of ethanol 143 tonnes 14.5 g 8.0 g of sodium hydroxide, 9.75 g of copper hydroxide 12000 cm3 54. 7 g of calcium nitrate, 8.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide 6 dm3 total (4.8 dm3 of nitrogen dioxide and 1.2 dm3 of oxygen) Mg + H2SO4 + 7H2O Mg SO4.7H2O + H2 41.0 g 31.9 g 324.3 g 5.11 g of ethanol, 2.67 dm3 of carbon dioxide (i) 12.30 g of zinc hydroxide (ii) 9.12 g of aluminium hydroxide (iii) 9.67 g of magnesium hydroxide 15 16 17 18 19 20 0.600 dm3 0.100 g 2.94 g of sodium chloride, 1.065 g of sodium chlorate(v) 4.15 x 106 dm3 of nitrogen, 12.5 x 106 dm3 of hydrogen 63 tonnes of nitric acid, 4.8 x 107 dm3 of oxygen 2198 g of calcium carbonate, 4.395 dm3 of 10M HCl
137
138
Exercise 9
Section (a) 1 2 3 4 5 20cm3 O2 30cm3 O2 25cm3 O2 125cm3 O2 30cm3 H2 10cm3 CO2 20cm3 CO2 20cm3 CO2 80cm3 CO2 20cm3 NH3 20cm3 H2O (g) 20cm3 H2O (g) 10cm3 H2O (g) 90cm3 H2O (g)
Section (b) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 500cm3 O2 (2NO + O2 2NO2) 375cm3 air (2SO2 + O2 2SO3) 2500cm3 NH3 needed 6.5 x 24000cm3 = 156m3 24000cm3 Final volume = 20cm3 (10cm3 CO2 + 10 cm3 unused O2)
5
/4 x 2500 = 3125cm3 O2 15625cm3 air
Final volume = 77.5cm3 (40cm3 CO2 + 37.5cm3 used O2) This time the CH4 is in excess. We must assume that CO2 is produced (not CO or C)! Final volume = 60 cm3 (30 cm3 CO2 + 30 cm3 CH4)
N2 + 10 cm3
2NH3 20 cm3 + 30 cm3excess 20 cm3 NH3 produced + 30 cm3 excess H2 + + O2 3 5 cm 5 cm3 excess (all excess O2) 2H2O
3H2 30 cm3
10 2 H2 10 cm3
Final volume = 5 cm3
139
140
Exercise 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1720 Pb2+ (aq) Al3+(aq) Al(OH)3(s) Cl2(g) + + + + 2OH (aq) 3OH(aq) OH(aq) Pb(OH)2(s) Al(OH)3(s) AlO2(aq) + + 5Cl(aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2I(aq) 3H2O(l)
6OH(aq) + + + + + + + + + + + + + I2(s)
ClO3(aq)
2S2O32(aq) Cu2+ (aq) CO32(s) Zn(s) Zn(s) H+(aq) Mg(s) CO32(s) CuO(s) Ba2+(aq) Ag+(aq) Zn(s) 20H+(aq)
S4O62(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) H2O(l) Zn2+(aq) Pb(s) H2O(l) Mg2+(aq) H2O(l) Cu2+(aq) BaSO4(s) AgCl(s) Zn2+(aq) H2O(l)
2OH(aq) 2H+(aq) 2H+(aq) Pb2+ (aq) OH (aq) 2H+(aq) 2H+(aq) 2H+(aq) SO42(aq) Cl(aq) 2Ag+(aq) OH(aq)
+ + +
CO2(g) H2(g) Zn2+(aq)
+ + +
H2(g) CO2(g) H2O(l)
2Ag(s)
In every case the reaction is the same
634rp271004LT\PD\A LEVEL TEACHERS HANDBOOK\UA008883 GCE CHEM MOLES WKBK ISS3.DOC.1-150/5
141
142
Exercise 11a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.025 moles 0.025 moles 0.0625 0.005 moles 0.025 moles 0.025 moles 0.0125moles 0.01 moles 0.00125 moles 19 0.079 g 20 0.828 g 21 0.1 mol dm3 22 1.0 mol dm3 23 0.03 mol dm3 24 0.1 mol dm3 25 0.03 mol dm3 26 0.04 mol dm3 27 0.40 mol dm3 28 0.40 mol dm3 29 0.152 mol dm3 30 0.0102 mol dm3 31 0.01 mol dm3 32 0.2 mol dm3 33 0.02 mol dm3 34 0.005 mol dm3 35 0.417 mol dm3
10 0.005 moles 11 0.9125 g 12 1.463 g 13 2 g 14 1.70 g 15 5.2 g 16 0.98 g 17 0.08 g 18 0.97 g
Exercise 11b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.168 mol dm3 0.136 mol dm3 0.118 mol dm3 1.0 mol dm3 0.12 mol dm3 0.040 mol dm3 0.0080 mol dm3 0.010 mol dm
3
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24
3.0 0.02 mol dm3 50 cm3 50 cm3 25 cm3 0.359 g 1.0 g
23 240 cm3 0.12 g Mg 120 cm3 H2 25 480 cm3
0.10 mol dm3
10 0.40 mol dm3 11 0.050 mol dm3 12 0.167 mol dm3 13 2.26 g dm3 14 0.099 mol dm3 15 1.755 g dm3
143
Further copies of this publication are available from Edexcel Publications, Adamsway, Mansfield, Notts, NG18 4FN Telephone 01623 467467 Fax 01623 450481 Email: [email protected] Order Code UA008883 October 2004 For more information on Edexcel and BTEC qualifications please contact Customer Services on 0870 240 9800 or http://enquiries.edexcel.org.uk or visit our website: www.edexcel.org.uk London Qualifications Limited, trading as Edexcel. Registered in England and Wales No. 4496750 Registered Office: One90 High Holborn, London WC1V 7BH

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GCE

Workbook for GCE students

Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4

Using the idea of moles to find formulae

Chemical equations; equations in words; writing formulae; balancing the equation

How equations are found by experiment

Reactions involving gases

Ions and ionic equations; structure of ionic compounds

Calculations involving chemicals in solution

Data The periodic table

Structure of the atom

Here are a few examples: Sodium Sulphate NaSO4

Calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca(HCO3) = 2 1 Ca(HCO3)2

Symbols and Valences of Common Elements and Radicals

Naming inorganic compounds

Thus, oxides contain an element and oxygen eg

Common name Sulphate Sulphite Nitrate Nitrite Chlorate Hypochlorite

Systematic name Sulphate(VI) Sulphate(IV) Nitrate(V) Nitrate(III) Chlorate(V) Chlorate(I)

Formulae -SO4 -SO3 -NO3 -NO2 -ClO3 -ClO

C2H6 C4H10 C8H18 (NH4)2CO3 KMnO4 K2CrO4 KHCO3 KI Co(NO3)2 KAt

number of moles of atoms =

mass in grams molar mass of atoms

number of moles of oxygen =

64 g of oxygen atoms molar mass of oxygen of 16 g mol 1

Calculate the number of moles of chlorine molecules in 142 g of chlorine gas.

number of moles of atoms =

mass in grams molar mass of atoms

number of moles of chlorine =

142 g of chlorine gas molar mass of chlorine of 71 g mol 1

number of moles of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O =

100 g of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O molecular mass of CuSO 4 .5H 2 O of 249.5 g mol 1

number of moles of gas =

volume of gas in cm 3 24 000 cm 3

240 cm 3 number of moles = = 0.010 moles 24 000 cm 3

1000 cm 3 number of moles of gas = = 0.0147 moles 24 000 cm 3

number of moles of hydrogen (H 2 ) =

10 g of hydrogen (H 2 ) molecular mass of hydrogen (H 2 ) of 2 g mol 1

1000 cm 3 of CO 2 volume of 1 mole of CO 2 of 24 000 cm 3

0.0147 moles of carbon dioxide = 0.0147 x 44 g = 1.833 g

0.0667 g 24 000 cm 3 24 000 cm of the gas must have a mass of = 100 cm 3

= 16 g The molar mass of the gas is 16 g mol1

by r.a.m Moles of hydrogen atoms Moles of oxygen atoms

by r.a.m Moles of sodium atoms

58.97 = 2.564 23 41.03 = 2.564 16

2.564 =1 2.564 2.564 =1 2.564

Moles of oxygen atoms

By smallest Ratio of atoms

The molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula C6H10O.

Giving a formula of MgSO4.7H2O

Na 32.4%; S 22.5%; O 45.1%

Na 29.1%; S 40.5%; O 30.4%

H 3.66%; P 37.8%; O 58.5%

H 2.44%; S 39.0%; O 58.5%

H 5%; N 35%; O 60%

Fe 20.14%; S 11.51%; O 63.31%; H 5.04%

P 10.88%; I 89.12%. Mr = 570 g mol1

N 12.28%; H 3.51%; S 28.07%; O 56.14%. Mr = 228 g mol1

P 43.66%; O 56.34%. Mr = 284 g mol1

C 40%; H 6.67%; O 53.3%. Mr = 60 g mol1

Balancing the equation