640-801 640-801 CCNA Sample

Study Guide

CCNA
Demo Version 1

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 640-801 CCNA Sample

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables
Introduction

1. Networking Fundamentals
1.1 The OSI Reference Model
1.1.1 Interaction Between OSI Layers

1.2 TCP/IP and the OSI Reference Model

1.2.1 The TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
1.2.2 TCP/IP Data Encapsulation

1.3 Networks
1.3.1 Network Definitions
1.3.2 Types of Networks
1.3.3 Network Topologies
1.3.4 Network Technologies
1.3.4.1 Ethernet
1.3.4.2 Fast Ethernet
1.3.4.3 Gigabit Ethernet
1.3.4.4 Token Ring
1.3.5 Network Addressing
1.3.6 Bridging
1.3.7 LAN Switching

1.4 The Cisco IOS Software

1.4.1 The Cisco IOS Software Command-Line Interface
1.4.1.1 The CLI Help Features
1.4.1.2 Syslog Messages and the debug Command
1.4.2 Configuring Cisco IOS Software
1.4.2.1 Managing Configuration Files
1.4.2.2 Upgrading Cisco IOS Software
1.4.2.3 The Cisco IOS Software Boot Sequence

1.5 Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)

1.5.1 Root Bridge Election
1.5.2 Root Ports Election
1.5.3 Designated Ports Election
1.5.4 STP States
1.5.5 STP Timers
1.5.6 Optional STP Features
1.5.6.1 EtherChannel
1.5.6.2 PortFast
1.5.6.3 Rapid Spanning Tree (IEEE 802.1w)

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2. Virtual LANs and Trunking

2.1 VLAN Membership

2.2 Extent of VLANs

2.3 VLAN Trunking

2.3.1 Inter-Switch Link (ISL)
2.3.2 802.1Q

2.4 VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP)

2.4.1 VTP Modes
2.4.1.1 Server Mode
2.4.1.2 Client Mode
2.4.1.3 Transparent Mode
2.4.2 VTP Pruning
2.4.3 VTP Configuration
2.4.3.1 Configuring a VTP Management Domain
2.4.3.2 Configuring the VTP Mode
2.4.3.3 Configuring the VTP Version

3. IP Addressing and Subnetting

3.1 IP Addressing
3.1.1 Binary Format
3.1.2 Dotted Decimal Format
3.1.3 IP Address Classes
3.1.4 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) Notation
3.1.5 Variable-Length Subnet Masks

3.2 Subneting

3.3 Summarization
3.3.1 Automatic Summarization
3.3.2 Manual Summarization

3.4 Determining the Network ID using the Logical AND Operation

4. Routing
4.1 Routing Tables
4.1.1 Static Routing
4.1.2 Dynamic Routing
4.1.3 Routing Updates
4.1.4 Verifying Routing Tables

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4.2 Routing Protocols

4.2.1 Distance-Vector Routing
4.2.1.1 Route Poisoning
4.2.1.2 Split Horizon
4.2.1.3 Split Horizon with Poison Reverse
4.2.1.4 Hold-Down Timer
4.2.1.5 Triggered Updates
4.2.2 Link-State Routing
4.2.3 Classful Routing
4.2.4 Classless Routing

4.3 Basic Switching Functions

4.4 Convergence
4.4.1 Distance-Vector Routing Convergence
4.4.1.1 RIP and IGRP Convergence
4.4.1.2 EIGRP Convergence
4.4.2 Link-State Convergence

4.5 Testing and Troubleshooting Routes

4.5.1 The ping Command
4.5.2 The traceroute Command

5. Link-State Protocols
5.1 Building Routing Table on New OSPF-Configured Routers

5.2 Steady-State Operation

5.3 OSPF Areas

5.3.1 OSPF Area Types
5.3.2 Router Responsibilities

5.4 Balanced Hybrid Routing Protocol and EIGRP

5.4.1 EIGRP Loop Avoidance

5.5 Router Configuration

5.5.1 Configuring OSPF
5.5.2 Verifying the OSPF Configuration
5.5.3 Configuring EIGRP
5.5.4 Verifying the EIGRP Configuration

6. Advanced TCP/IP
6.1 Private IP Addressing

6.2 Network Address Translation (NAT)

6.2.1 Variations of NAT

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6.2.1.1 Static NAT

6.2.1.2 Dynamic NAT
6.2.1.3 Overloading NAT with Port Address Translation
(PAT)
6.2.1.4 Translating Overlapping Addresses
6.2.2 Configuring NAT
6.2.2.1 Configuring Static NAT
6.2.2.2 Configuring Dynamic NAT
6.2.2.3 Configuring NAT Overload and PAT

6.3 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

6.4 FTP and TFTP

6.5 MTU and Fragmentation

7. Wide Area Networks (WANs)

7.1 Point-to-Point Leased Lines
7.1.1 Overview
7.1.2 Data-Link Protocols
7.1.3 Configuring HDLC and PPP Configuration

7.2 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

7.2.1 ISDN Channels
7.2.2 ISDN Protocols
7.2.3 ISDN Layers
7.2.3.1 ISDN Layer 1
7.2.3.2 ISDN Layer 2
7.2.3.3 ISDN Layer 3
7.2.4 BRI Function Groups and Reference Points
7.2.5 Encoding and Framing
7.2.6 Dial-on-Demand Routing (DDR)
7.2.7 ISDN Configuration for DDR
7.2.7.1 Configuring Legacy DDR
7.2.7.2 Configuring DDR with Dialer Profiles
7.2.8 Multilink PPP

7.3 Frame Relay

7.3.1 Virtual Circuits
7.3.2 LMI and Encapsulation Types
7.3.3 DLCI Addressing
7.3.4 Frame Relay Configuration
7.3.4.1 Determining the Interface
7.3.4.2 Configuring Frame Relay Encapsulation
7.3.4.3 Configuring Protocol-Specific Parameters
7.3.4.4 Configuring Frame Relay Characteristics
7.3.4.5 Verifying Frame Relay Configuration

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8. IP Access Control List Security

8.1 Standard IP Access Control Lists
8.1.1 Wildcard Masks
8.1.2 Standard IP Access List Configuration

8.2 Extended IP Access Control Lists

8.3 Named IP Access Lists

8.4 Controlling Telnet Access with ACLs

Appendix A: Decimal to Binary Conversion Table

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1.1: The TCP/IP Architectural Model and Protocols

TABLE 1.2: Network Definitions
TABLE 1.3: Coaxial Cable for Ethernet
TABLE 1.4: Twisted-Pair and Fiber Optic Cable for Ethernet
TABLE 1.5: Fast Ethernet Cabling and Distance Limitations
TABLE 1.6: Gigabit Ethernet Cabling and Distance Limitations
TABLE 1.7: The boot system Commands
TABLE 4.1: Parameters for the ping Command
TABLE 4.2: Parameters for the traceroute Command
TABLE 5.1: EIGRP, IGRP and OSPF Compared
TABLE 6.1: The Private IP Address Space defined by RFC 1918
TABLE 6.2: ICMP Messages

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

AAA Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting

ABR Area Border Router
ACF Advanced Communications Function
ACK Acknowledgment bit (in a TCP segment)
ACL Access Control List
ACS Access Control Server
AD Advertised Distance
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API Application Programming Interface
APPC Advanced Program-to-Program Communications
ARAP AppleTalk Remote Access Protocol
ARE All Routes Explorer
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency
ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
AS Autonomous System
ASA Adaptive Security Algorithm
ASBR Autonomous System Boundary Router
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuits
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AUI Attachment Unit Interface
Bc Committed burst (Frame Relay)
B channel Bearer channel ( ISDN)
BDR Backup Designated Router
Be Excess burst (Frame Relay)
BECN Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (Frame Relay)
BGP Border Gateway Protocol
BGP-4 Border Gateway Protocol version 4
BIA Burned-in Address (another name for a MAC address)

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BOD Bandwidth on Demand.

BPDU Bridge Protocol Data Unit
BRF Bridge Relay Function
BRI Basic Rate Interface (ISDN)
BSD Berkeley Standard Distribution (UNIX)
CBT Core Based Trees
CBWFQ Class-Based Weighted Fair Queuing
CCITT Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone
CCO Cisco Connection Online
CDDI Copper Distribution Data Interface
CEF Cisco Express Forwarding
CHAP Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol
CIDR Classless Interdomain Routing
CIR Committed Information Rate. (Frame Relay)
CGMP Cisco Group Management Protocol
CLI Command-Line Interface
CLSC Cisco LAN Switching Configuration
CPE Customer Premises Equipment
CPU Central Processing Unit
CR Carriage Return.
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check (error)
CRF Concentrator Relay Function
CST Common Spanning Tree
CSU Channel Service Unit
DB Data Bus (connector)
DCE Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment
dCEF Distributed Cisco Express Forwarding
DDR Dial-on-Demand Routing
DE Discard Eligible Indicator
DECnet Digital Equipment Corporation Protocols
DES Data Encryption Standard
DHCP Dynamic Host Control Protocol
DLCI Data-Link Connection Identifier
DNIC Data Network Identification Code. (X.121addressing)

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DNS Domain Name System

DoD Department of Defense (US)
DR Designated Router
DRiP Duplicate Ring Protocol
DS Digital Signal
DS0 Digital Signal level 0
DS1 Digital Signal level 1
DS3 Digital Signal level 3
DSL Digital Subscriber Line
DSU Data Service Unit
DTE Data Terminal Equipment
DTP Dynamic Trunking Protocol
DUAL Diffusing Update Algorithm
DVMRP Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol
EBC Ethernet Bundling Controller
EGP Exterior Gateway Protocol
EIA/TIA Electronic Industries Association/Telecommunications Industry Association
EIGRP Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
ESI End-System Identifier
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FCS Frame Check Sequence
FC Feasible Condition (Routing)
FD Feasible Distance (Routing)
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface
FEC Fast EtherChannel
FECN Forward Explicit Congestion Notification
FIB Forwarding Information Base
FIFO First-In, First-Out (Queuing)
FR Frame Relay
FS Feasible Successor (Routing)
FSSRP Fast Simple Server Redundancy Protocol
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GBIC Gigabit Interface Converters
GEC Gigabit EtherChannel

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GSR Gigabit Switch Router

HDLC High-Level Data Link Control
HDSL High data-rate digital subscriber line
HSRP Hot Standby Router Protocol
HSSI High-Speed Serial Interface
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
I/O Input/Output
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
IDN International Data Number
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IGP Interior Gateway Protocol
IGRP Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
ILMI Integrated Local Management Interface
IOS Internetwork Operating System
IP Internet Protocol
IPSec IP Security
IPv6 IP version 6
IPX Internetwork Packet Exchange (Novell)
IRDP ICMP Router Discovery Protocol
IS Information Systems
IS-IS Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISL Inter-Switch Link
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISOC Internet Society
ISP Internet Service Provider
ITU-T International Telecommunication Union–Telecommunication Standardization Sector
kbps kilobits per second (bandwidth)
LAN Local Area Network
LANE LAN Emulation
LAPB Link Access Procedure, Balanced
LAPD Link Access Procedure on the D channel

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LEC LAN Emulation Client

LECS LAN Emulation Configuration Server
LED Light Emitting Diode
LES LAN Emulation Server
LLC Logic Link Control (OSI Layer 2 sublayer)
LLQ Low-Latency Queuing
LMI Local Management Interface
LSA Link-State Advertisement
MAC Media Access Control (OSI Layer 2 sublayer)
MAN Metropolitan-Area Network
MD5 Message Digest Algorithm 5
MLS Multilayer Switching
MLS-RP Multilayer Switching Route Processor
MLS-SE Multilayer Switching Switch Engine
MLSP Multilayer Switching Protocol
MOSPF Multicast Open Shortest Path First
MSAU Multistation Access Unit
MSFC Multilayer Switch Feature Card
MTU Maximum Transmission Unit
NAK Negative Acknowledgment
NAS Network Access Server
NAT Network Address Translation
NBMA Nonbroadcast Multiaccess
NetBEUI NetBIOS Extended User Interface
NetBIOS Network Basic Input/Output System
NFFC NetFlow Feature Card
NMS Network Management System
NNI Network-to-Network Interface
NSAP Network Service Access Point
NVRAM Nonvolatile Random Access Memory
OC Optical Carrier
ODBC Open Database Connectivity
OLE Object Linking and Embedding
OSI Open Systems Interconnection (Model)

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OSPF Open Shortest Path First

OTDR Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
OUI Organizationally Unique Identifier
PAgP Port Aggregation Protocol
PAP Password Authentication Protocol
PAT Port Address Translation
PDN Public Data Network
PDU Protocol Data Unit (i.e., a data packet)
PIM Protocol Independent Multicast
PIM SM Protocol Independent Multicast Sparse Mode
PIMDM Protocol Independent Multicast Mode
PIX Private Internet Exchange (Cisco Firewall)
PNNI Private Network-to-Network Interface
POP Point of Presence
POTS Plain Old Telephone Service
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol
PQ Priority Queuing
PRI Primary Rate Interface (ISDN)
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PTT Poste, Telephone, Telegramme
PVC Permanent Virtual Circuit (ATM)
PVST Per-VLAN Spanning Tree
PVST+ Per-VLAN Spanning Tree Plus
QoS Quality of Service
RADIUS Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
RAS Remote Access Service
RIF Routing Information Field
RIP Routing Information Protocol
RJ Registered Jack (connector)
RMON Embedded Remote Monitoring
RP Rendezvous Point
RPF Reverse Path Forwarding
RSFC Route Switch Feature Card
RSM Route Switch Module

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RSP Route Switch Processor

RSTP Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol
RTP Reliable Transport Protocol
RTO Retransmission Timeout
SA Source Address
SAID Security Association Identifier
SAP Service Access Point; also Service Advertising Protocol (Novell)
SAPI Service Access Point Identifier
SAR Segmentation and Reassembly
SDLC Synchronous Data Link Control (SNA)
SIA Stuck in Active (EIGRP)
SIN Ships-in-the-Night (Routing)
SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol
SMDS Switched Multimegabit Data Service
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNA Systems Network Architecture (IBM)
SNAP SubNetwork Access Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SOF Start of Frame
SOHO Small Office, Home Office
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
SONET/SDH Synchronous Optical Network/Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SPAN Switched Port Analyzer
SPF Shortest Path First
SPID Service Profile Identifier
SPP Sequenced Packet Protocol (Vines)
SPX Sequenced Packet Exchange (Novell)
SQL Structured Query Language
SRAM Static Random Access Memeory
SRB Source-Route Bridge
SRT Source-Route Transparent (Bridging)
SRTT Smooth Round-Trip Timer (EIGRP)
SS7 Signaling System 7
SSAP Source service access point (LLC)

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SSE Silicon Switching Engine.

SSP Silicon Switch Processor
SSRP Simple Server Redundancy Protocol
STA Spanning-Tree Algorithm
STP Spanning-Tree Protocol; also Shielded Twisted-Pair (cable)
SVC Switched Virtual Circuit (ATM)
SYN Synchronize (TCP segment)
TA Terminal Adapter (ISDN)
TAC Technical Assistance Center (Cisco)
TACACS Terminal Access Controller Access Control System
TCI Tag Control Information
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TCN Topology Change Notification
TDM Time-Division Multiplexing
TDR Time Domain Reflectometers
TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TIA Telecommunications Industry Association
TLV Type-Length-Value
ToS Type of Service
TPID Tag Protocol Identifier
TrBRF Token Ring Bridge Relay Function
TrCRF Token Ring Concentrator Relay Function
TTL Time-To-Live
UDP User Datagram Protocol
UNC Universal Naming Convention or Uniform Naming Convention
UNI User-Network Interface
URL Uniform Resource Locator
UTC Coordinated Universal Time (same as Greenwich Mean Time)
UTL Utilization
UTP Unshielded Twisted-Pair (cable)
VBR Variable Bit Rate
VC Virtual Circuit (ATM)
VID VLAN Identifier

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VIP Versatile Interface Processor

VLAN Virtual Local Aare Network
VLSM Variable-Length Subnet Mask
VMPS VLAN Membership Policy Server
VPN Virtual Private Network
VTP VLAN Trunking Protocol
vty Virtual terminal line
WAIS Wide Area Information Server
WAN Wide Area Network
WFQ Weighted Fair Queuing
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WWW World Wide Web
XNS Xerox Network Systems
XOR Exclusive-OR
XOT X.25 over TCP
ZIP Zone Information Protocol (AppleTalk)

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ICND 2.1 and INTRO

Exam Code: 640-801

Certifications:

Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) Core

Prerequisites:
None

About This Study Guide

This Study Guide is based on the current pool of exam questions for the Cisco CCNA 640-801 composite
exam. As such it provides all the information required to pass the 640-801 exam and is organized around the
specific skills that are tested in that exam. Thus, the information contained in this Study Guide is specific to
the 640-801 exam and does not represent a complete reference work on the subject of Interconnecting Cisco
Networking Devices. Topics covered in this Study Guide includes: Designing or Modifying a simple Local
Area Network (LAN) using Cisco Products; Designing an IP Addressing Scheme; Selecting Appropriate
Routing Protocols; Designing a simple Internetwork using Cisco products; Developing an Access List to
Meet User Specifications; Choosing Wide Area Network (WAN) Services; Managing System Image and
Device Configuration Files Performing an Initial Configuration on a Switch; Configuring Routing Protocols;
Configuring IP Addresses, Subnet Masks, and Gateway Addresses on Routers and Hosts; Configuring a
Router for Additional Administrative Functionality; Configuring a Switch with Virtual LANs (VLANs) and
Inter-switch Communication; Implementing a LAN; Customizing a Switch Configuration; Implementing
Access Lists; Implementing Simple WAN Protocols; Utilizing the OSI Reference Model as a Guide for
Systematic Network Troubleshooting; Performing LAN and VLAN Troubleshooting; Troubleshooting
Routing Protocols; Troubleshooting IP Addressing and Host Configuration; Troubleshooting a Device as
Part of a Working Network; Troubleshooting an Access List; Performing Simple WAN Troubleshooting;
Understanding Network Communications based on Layered Models; Understanding the Components of
Network Devices; Understanding the Spanning Tree Process; Evaluating the Characteristics of LAN
Environments; Evaluating the TCP/IP Communication Process and its Associated Protocols; Evaluating the
Characteristics of Routing Protocols; Evaluating Rules for Packet Control; and Evaluating Key
Characteristics of WANs.

Intended Audience
This Study Guide is targeted specifically at people who wish to take the Cisco CCNA 640-801 Composite
exam. This information in this Study Guide is specific to the exam. It is not a complete reference work.
Although our Study Guides are aimed at new comers to the world of IT, the concepts dealt with in this Study
Guide are complex. Knowledge of CompTIA's A+ and Network+ courses would be advantageous.

Note: Because the 640-801 exam is a composite of the 640-811 and 640-821
exams, there is a fair amount of overlap between this Study Guide and the

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 640-801 CCNA Sample

640-811 and 640-821 Study Guides. However, this Study Guide does not
combine the 640-811 and 640-821 Study Guides but addresses the 640-801
exam specifically. As such, we would not advise using this Study Guide for
the 640-811 exam and/or the 640-821 exam.

How To Use This Study Guide

To benefit from this Study Guide we recommend that you:
• Study each chapter carefully until you fully understand the information. This will require regular and
disciplined work. Where possible, attempt to implement the information in a lab setup.
• Be sure that you have studied and understand the entire Study Guide before you take the exam.

Note: Remember to pay special attention to these note boxes as they contain
important additional information that is specific to the exam.

Good luck!

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 640-801 CCNA Sample

1. Networking Fundamentals
1.1 The OSI Reference Model
The OSI is the Open System Interconnection reference model for communications. As illustrated in Figure
1.1, the OSI reference model consists of seven layers, each of which can have several sublayers. The upper
layers of the OSI reference model define functions focused on the application, while the lower three layers
define functions focused on end-to-end delivery of the data.
• The Application Layer (Layer 7) refers to communications services to applications and is the interface
between the network and the application. Examples include: Telnet, HTTP, FTP, Internet browsers, NFS,
SMTP gateways, SNMP, X.400 mail, and FTAM.
• The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) defining data formats,
such as ASCII text, EBCDIC text, binary, BCD, and JPEG.
Encryption also is defined as a presentation layer service.
Examples include: JPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT,
encryption, MPEG, and MIDI.
• The Session Layer (Layer 5) defines how to start, control,
and end communication sessions. This includes the control
and management of multiple bidirectional messages so that
the application can be notified if only some of a series of
messages are completed. This allows the presentation layer to
have a seamless view of an incoming stream of data. The
presentation layer can be presented with data if all flows
occur in some cases. Examples include: RPC, SQL, NFS,
NetBios names, AppleTalk ASP, and DECnet SCP
• The Transport Layer (Layer 4) defines several functions, FIGURE 1.1: The OSI Reference Model
including the choice of protocols. The most important Layer 4 functions are error recovery and flow
control. The transport layer may provide for retransmission, i.e., error recovery, and may use flow
control to prevent unnecessary congestion by attempting to send data at a rate that the network can
accommodate, or it might not, depending on the choice of protocols. Multiplexing of incoming data for
different flows to applications on the same host is also performed. Reordering of the incoming data
stream when packets arrive out of order is included. Examples include: TCP, UDP, and SPX.
• The Network Layer (Layer 3) defines end-to-end delivery of packets and defines logical addressing to
accomplish this. It also defines how routing works and how routes are learned; and how to fragment a
packet into smaller packets to accommodate media with smaller maximum transmission unit sizes.
Examples include: IP, IPX, AppleTalk DDP, and ICMP. Both IP and IPX define logical addressing,
routing, the learning of routing information, and end-to-end delivery rules. The IP and IPX protocols
most closely match the OSI network layer (Layer 3) and are called Layer 3 protocols because their
functions most closely match OSI’s Layer 3.
• The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) is concerned with getting data across one particular link or medium.
The data link protocols define delivery across an individual link. These protocols are necessarily
concerned with the type of media in use. Examples include: IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay,
PPP, FDDI, ATM, and IEEE 802.5/802.2.
• The Physical Layer (Layer 1) deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
Connectors, pins, use of pins, electrical currents, encoding, and light modulation are all part of different

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physical layer specifications. Examples includes: EIA/TIA-232, V.35, EIA/TIA-449, V.24, RJ-45,
Ethernet, 802.3, 802.5, FDDI, NRZI, NRZ, and B8ZS.

The upper layers of the OSI reference model, i.e., the Application Layer (Layer 7), the Presentation Layer
(Layer 6), and the Session Layer (Layer 5), define functions focused on the application. The lower four
layers, i.e., the Transport Layer (Layer 4), the Network Layer (Layer 3), the Data Link Layer (Layer 2), and
the Physical Layer (Layer 1), define functions focused on end-to-end delivery of the data. As a Cisco
Certified Network Associate, you will deal mainly with the lower layers, particularly the data link layer
(Layer 2) upon which switching is based, and the network layer (Layer 3) upon which routing is based.

1.1.1 Interaction Between OSI Layers

When a host receives a data transmission from another host on the network, that data is processed at each of
the OSI layers to the next higher layer, in order to render the data transmission useful to the end-user. To
facilitate this processing, headers and trailers are created by the sending host’s software or hardware, that are
placed before or after the data given to the next higher layer. Thus, each layer has a header and trailer,
typically in each data packet that comprises the data flow. The sequence of processing at each OSI layer, i.e.,
the processing between adjacent OSUI layers, is as follows:
• The Physical Layer (Layer 1) ensures bit synchronization and places the received binary pattern into a
buffer. It notifies the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) that a frame has been received after decoding the
incoming signal into a bit stream. Thus, Layer 1 provides delivery of a stream of bits across the medium.
• The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) examines the frame check sequence (FCS) in the trailer to determine
whether errors occurred in transmission, providing error detection. If an error has occurred, the frame is
discarded. The current host examines data link address is examined to determine if the data is addressed
to it or whether to process the data further. If the data is addressed to the host, the data between the Layer
2 header and trailer is handed over to the Network Layer (Layer 3) software. Thus, the data link layer
delivers data across the link.
• The Network Layer (Layer 3) examines the destination address. If the address is the current host’s
address, processing continues and the data after the Layer 3 header is handed over to the Transport Layer
(Layer 4) software. Thus, Layer 3 provides end-to-end delivery.
• If error recovery was an option chosen for the Transport Layer (Layer 4), the counters identifying this
piece of data are encoded in the Layer 4 header along with acknowledgment information, which is called
error recovery. After error recovery and reordering of the incoming data, the data is given to the
Session Layer (Layer 5).
• The Session Layer (Layer 5) ensures that a series of messages is completed. The Layer 5 header
includes fields signifying sequence of the packet in the data stream, indicating the position of the data
packet in the flow. After the session layer ensures that all flows are completed, it passes the data after the
Layer 5 header to the Presentation Layer (Layer 6) software.
• The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) defines and manipulates the data format of the data transmission. It
converts the data to the proper format specified in the Layer 6 header. Typically, this header is included
only for initialization flows, not with every data packet being transmitted. After the data formats have
been converted, the data after the Layer 6 header is passed to the Application Layer (Layer 7) software.
• The Application Layer (Layer 7) processes the final header and examines the end-user data. This header
signifies agreement to operating parameters by the applications on the two hosts. The headers are used to

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signal the values for all parameters; therefore, the header typically is sent and received at application
initialization time only.

In addition to processing between adjacent OSI layers, the various layers must also interact with the same
layer on another computer to successfully implement its functions. To interact with the same layer on
another computer, each layer defines additional data bits in the header and, in some cases, trailer that is
created by the sending host’s software or hardware. The layer on the receiving host interprets the headers
and trailers created by the corresponding layer on the sending host to determine how that layer’s processing
is being defined, and how to interact within that framework.

1.2 TCP/IP and the OSI Reference Model

As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the TCP/IP model consists of four layers, each of which can have several
sublayers. These layers correlate roughly to layers in the OSI
reference model and define similar functions. Some of the TCP/IP
layers correspond directly with layers in the OSI reference model
while other span several OSI layers. The four TCP/IP layers are:

Etc.

Note: Full product has 97 pages.

FIGURE 1.2: OSI, TCP/IP and NetWare

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